developing critical thinking in the classroom

The Will to Teach

Critical Thinking in the Classroom: A Guide for Teachers

In the ever-evolving landscape of education, teaching students the skill of critical thinking has become a priority. This powerful tool empowers students to evaluate information, make reasoned judgments, and approach problems from a fresh perspective. In this article, we’ll explore the significance of critical thinking and provide effective strategies to nurture this skill in your students.

Why is Fostering Critical Thinking Important?

Strategies to cultivate critical thinking, real-world example, concluding thoughts.

Critical thinking is a key skill that goes far beyond the four walls of a classroom. It equips students to better understand and interact with the world around them. Here are some reasons why fostering critical thinking is important:

• Making Informed Decisions:  Critical thinking enables students to evaluate the pros and cons of a situation, helping them make informed and rational decisions.
• Developing Analytical Skills:  Critical thinking involves analyzing information from different angles, which enhances analytical skills.
• Promoting Independence:  Critical thinking fosters independence by encouraging students to form their own opinions based on their analysis, rather than relying on others.

Creating an environment that encourages critical thinking can be accomplished in various ways. Here are some effective strategies:

• Socratic Questioning:  This method involves asking thought-provoking questions that encourage students to think deeply about a topic. For example, instead of asking, “What is the capital of France?” you might ask, “Why do you think Paris became the capital of France?”
• Debates and Discussions:  Debates and open-ended discussions allow students to explore different viewpoints and challenge their own beliefs. For example, a debate on a current event can engage students in critical analysis of the situation.
• Teaching Metacognition:  Teaching students to think about their own thinking can enhance their critical thinking skills. This can be achieved through activities such as reflective writing or journaling.
• Problem-Solving Activities:  As with developing problem-solving skills , activities that require students to find solutions to complex problems can also foster critical thinking.

As a school leader, I’ve seen the transformative power of critical thinking. During a school competition, I observed a team of students tasked with proposing a solution to reduce our school’s environmental impact. Instead of jumping to obvious solutions, they critically evaluated multiple options, considering the feasibility, cost, and potential impact of each. They ultimately proposed a comprehensive plan that involved water conservation, waste reduction, and energy efficiency measures. This demonstrated their ability to critically analyze a problem and develop an effective solution.

Critical thinking is an essential skill for students in the 21st century. It equips them to understand and navigate the world in a thoughtful and informed manner. As a teacher, incorporating strategies to foster critical thinking in your classroom can make a lasting impact on your students’ educational journey and life beyond school.

1. What is critical thinking? Critical thinking is the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment.

2. Why is critical thinking important for students? Critical thinking helps students make informed decisions, develop analytical skills, and promotes independence.

3. What are some strategies to cultivate critical thinking in students? Strategies can include Socratic questioning, debates and discussions, teaching metacognition, and problem-solving activities.

4. How can I assess my students’ critical thinking skills? You can assess critical thinking skills through essays, presentations, discussions, and problem-solving tasks that require thoughtful analysis.

5. Can critical thinking be taught? Yes, critical thinking can be taught and nurtured through specific teaching strategies and a supportive learning environment.

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Classroom Q&A

With larry ferlazzo.

In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

Integrating Critical Thinking Into the Classroom

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(This is the second post in a three-part series. You can see Part One here .)

The new question-of-the-week is:

What is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom?

Part One ‘s guests were Dara Laws Savage, Patrick Brown, Meg Riordan, Ph.D., and Dr. PJ Caposey. Dara, Patrick, and Meg were also guests on my 10-minute BAM! Radio Show . You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

Today, Dr. Kulvarn Atwal, Elena Quagliarello, Dr. Donna Wilson, and Diane Dahl share their recommendations.

‘Learning Conversations’

Dr. Kulvarn Atwal is currently the executive head teacher of two large primary schools in the London borough of Redbridge. Dr. Atwal is the author of The Thinking School: Developing a Dynamic Learning Community , published by John Catt Educational. Follow him on Twitter @Thinkingschool2 :

In many classrooms I visit, students’ primary focus is on what they are expected to do and how it will be measured. It seems that we are becoming successful at producing students who are able to jump through hoops and pass tests. But are we producing children that are positive about teaching and learning and can think critically and creatively? Consider your classroom environment and the extent to which you employ strategies that develop students’ critical-thinking skills and their self-esteem as learners.

Development of self-esteem

One of the most significant factors that impacts students’ engagement and achievement in learning in your classroom is their self-esteem. In this context, self-esteem can be viewed to be the difference between how they perceive themselves as a learner (perceived self) and what they consider to be the ideal learner (ideal self). This ideal self may reflect the child that is associated or seen to be the smartest in the class. Your aim must be to raise students’ self-esteem. To do this, you have to demonstrate that effort, not ability, leads to success. Your language and interactions in the classroom, therefore, have to be aspirational—that if children persist with something, they will achieve.

Use of evaluative praise

Ensure that when you are praising students, you are making explicit links to a child’s critical thinking and/or development. This will enable them to build their understanding of what factors are supporting them in their learning. For example, often when we give feedback to students, we may simply say, “Well done” or “Good answer.” However, are the students actually aware of what they did well or what was good about their answer? Make sure you make explicit what the student has done well and where that links to prior learning. How do you value students’ critical thinking—do you praise their thinking and demonstrate how it helps them improve their learning?

Learning conversations to encourage deeper thinking

We often feel as teachers that we have to provide feedback to every students’ response, but this can limit children’s thinking. Encourage students in your class to engage in learning conversations with each other. Give as many opportunities as possible to students to build on the responses of others. Facilitate chains of dialogue by inviting students to give feedback to each other. The teacher’s role is, therefore, to facilitate this dialogue and select each individual student to give feedback to others. It may also mean that you do not always need to respond at all to a student’s answer.

Teacher modelling own thinking

We cannot expect students to develop critical-thinking skills if we aren’t modeling those thinking skills for them. Share your creativity, imagination, and thinking skills with the students and you will nurture creative, imaginative critical thinkers. Model the language you want students to learn and think about. Share what you feel about the learning activities your students are participating in as well as the thinking you are engaging in. Your own thinking and learning will add to the discussions in the classroom and encourage students to share their own thinking.

Metacognitive questioning

Consider the extent to which your questioning encourages students to think about their thinking, and therefore, learn about learning! Through asking metacognitive questions, you will enable your students to have a better understanding of the learning process, as well as their own self-reflections as learners. Example questions may include:

• Why did you choose to do it that way?
• When you find something tricky, what helps you?
• How do you know when you have really learned something?

‘Adventures of Discovery’

Elena Quagliarello is the senior editor of education for Scholastic News , a current events magazine for students in grades 3–6. She graduated from Rutgers University, where she studied English and earned her master’s degree in elementary education. She is a certified K–12 teacher and previously taught middle school English/language arts for five years:

Critical thinking blasts through the surface level of a topic. It reaches beyond the who and the what and launches students on a learning journey that ultimately unlocks a deeper level of understanding. Teaching students how to think critically helps them turn information into knowledge and knowledge into wisdom. In the classroom, critical thinking teaches students how to ask and answer the questions needed to read the world. Whether it’s a story, news article, photo, video, advertisement, or another form of media, students can use the following critical-thinking strategies to dig beyond the surface and uncover a wealth of knowledge.

A Layered Learning Approach

Begin by having students read a story, article, or analyze a piece of media. Then have them excavate and explore its various layers of meaning. First, ask students to think about the literal meaning of what they just read. For example, if students read an article about the desegregation of public schools during the 1950s, they should be able to answer questions such as: Who was involved? What happened? Where did it happen? Which details are important? This is the first layer of critical thinking: reading comprehension. Do students understand the passage at its most basic level?

Ask the Tough Questions

The next layer delves deeper and starts to uncover the author’s purpose and craft. Teach students to ask the tough questions: What information is included? What or who is left out? How does word choice influence the reader? What perspective is represented? What values or people are marginalized? These questions force students to critically analyze the choices behind the final product. In today’s age of fast-paced, easily accessible information, it is essential to teach students how to critically examine the information they consume. The goal is to equip students with the mindset to ask these questions on their own.

Strike Gold

The deepest layer of critical thinking comes from having students take a step back to think about the big picture. This level of thinking is no longer focused on the text itself but rather its real-world implications. Students explore questions such as: Why does this matter? What lesson have I learned? How can this lesson be applied to other situations? Students truly engage in critical thinking when they are able to reflect on their thinking and apply their knowledge to a new situation. This step has the power to transform knowledge into wisdom.

Adventures of Discovery

There are vast ways to spark critical thinking in the classroom. Here are a few other ideas:

• Critical Expressionism: In this expanded response to reading from a critical stance, students are encouraged to respond through forms of artistic interpretations, dramatizations, singing, sketching, designing projects, or other multimodal responses. For example, students might read an article and then create a podcast about it or read a story and then act it out.
• Transmediations: This activity requires students to take an article or story and transform it into something new. For example, they might turn a news article into a cartoon or turn a story into a poem. Alternatively, students may rewrite a story by changing some of its elements, such as the setting or time period.
• Words Into Action: In this type of activity, students are encouraged to take action and bring about change. Students might read an article about endangered orangutans and the effects of habitat loss caused by deforestation and be inspired to check the labels on products for palm oil. They might then write a letter asking companies how they make sure the palm oil they use doesn’t hurt rain forests.
• Socratic Seminars: In this student-led discussion strategy, students pose thought-provoking questions to each other about a topic. They listen closely to each other’s comments and think critically about different perspectives.
• Classroom Debates: Aside from sparking a lively conversation, classroom debates naturally embed critical-thinking skills by asking students to formulate and support their own opinions and consider and respond to opposing viewpoints.

Critical thinking has the power to launch students on unforgettable learning experiences while helping them develop new habits of thought, reflection, and inquiry. Developing these skills prepares students to examine issues of power and promote transformative change in the world around them.

‘Quote Analysis’

Dr. Donna Wilson is a psychologist and the author of 20 books, including Developing Growth Mindsets , Teaching Students to Drive Their Brains , and Five Big Ideas for Effective Teaching (2 nd Edition). She is an international speaker who has worked in Asia, the Middle East, Australia, Europe, Jamaica, and throughout the U.S. and Canada. Dr. Wilson can be reached at [email protected] ; visit her website at www.brainsmart.org .

Diane Dahl has been a teacher for 13 years, having taught grades 2-4 throughout her career. Mrs. Dahl currently teaches 3rd and 4th grade GT-ELAR/SS in Lovejoy ISD in Fairview, Texas. Follow her on Twitter at @DahlD, and visit her website at www.fortheloveofteaching.net :

A growing body of research over the past several decades indicates that teaching students how to be better thinkers is a great way to support them to be more successful at school and beyond. In the book, Teaching Students to Drive Their Brains , Dr. Wilson shares research and many motivational strategies, activities, and lesson ideas that assist students to think at higher levels. Five key strategies from the book are as follows:

• Facilitate conversation about why it is important to think critically at school and in other contexts of life. Ideally, every student will have a contribution to make to the discussion over time.
• Begin teaching thinking skills early in the school year and as a daily part of class.
• As this instruction begins, introduce students to the concept of brain plasticity and how their brilliant brains change during thinking and learning. This can be highly motivational for students who do not yet believe they are good thinkers!
• Explicitly teach students how to use the thinking skills.
• Facilitate student understanding of how the thinking skills they are learning relate to their lives at school and in other contexts.

Below are two lessons that support critical thinking, which can be defined as the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment.

Mrs. Dahl prepares her 3rd and 4th grade classes for a year of critical thinking using quote analysis .

During Native American studies, her 4 th grade analyzes a Tuscarora quote: “Man has responsibility, not power.” Since students already know how the Native Americans’ land had been stolen, it doesn’t take much for them to make the logical leaps. Critical-thought prompts take their thinking even deeper, especially at the beginning of the year when many need scaffolding. Some prompts include:

• … from the point of view of the Native Americans?
• … from the point of view of the settlers?
• How do you think your life might change over time as a result?
• Can you relate this quote to anything else in history?

Analyzing a topic from occupational points of view is an incredibly powerful critical-thinking tool. After learning about the Mexican-American War, Mrs. Dahl’s students worked in groups to choose an occupation with which to analyze the war. The chosen occupations were: anthropologist, mathematician, historian, archaeologist, cartographer, and economist. Then each individual within each group chose a different critical-thinking skill to focus on. Finally, they worked together to decide how their occupation would view the war using each skill.

For example, here is what each student in the economist group wrote:

• When U.S.A. invaded Mexico for land and won, Mexico ended up losing income from the settlements of Jose de Escandon. The U.S.A. thought that they were gaining possible tradable land, while Mexico thought that they were losing precious land and resources.
• Whenever Texas joined the states, their GDP skyrocketed. Then they went to war and spent money on supplies. When the war was resolving, Texas sold some of their land to New Mexico for $10 million. This allowed Texas to pay off their debt to the U.S., improving their relationship.
• A detail that converged into the Mexican-American War was that Mexico and the U.S. disagreed on the Texas border. With the resulting treaty, Texas ended up gaining more land and economic resources.
• Texas gained land from Mexico since both countries disagreed on borders. Texas sold land to New Mexico, which made Texas more economically structured and allowed them to pay off their debt.

This was the first time that students had ever used the occupations technique. Mrs. Dahl was astonished at how many times the kids used these critical skills in other areas moving forward.

Thanks to Dr. Auwal, Elena, Dr. Wilson, and Diane for their contributions!

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected] . When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

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Strategies to Increase Critical Thinking Skills in students

Teach Better Team October 2, 2019 Blog , Engage Better , Lesson Plan Better , Personalize Student Learning Better

In This Post:

• The importance of helping students increase critical thinking skills.
• Ways to promote the essential skills needed to analyze and evaluate.
• Strategies to incorporate critical thinking into your instruction.

We ask our teachers to be “future-ready” or say that we are teaching “for jobs that don’t exist yet.” These are powerful statements. At the same time, they give teachers the impression that we have to drastically change what we are doing .

So how do we plan education for an unknown job market or unknown needs?

My answer: We can’t predict the jobs, but whatever they are, students will need to think critically to do them. So, our job is to teach our students HOW to think, not WHAT to think.

Helping Students Become Critical Thinkers

My answer is rooted in the call to empower our students to be critical thinkers. I believe that to be critical thinkers, educators need to provide students with the strategies they need. And we need to ask more than just surface-level questions.

Questions to students must motivate them to dig up background knowledge. They should inspire them to make connections to real-world scenarios. These make the learning more memorable and meaningful.

Critical thinking is a general term. I believe this term means that students effectively identify, analyze, and evaluate content or skills. In this process, they (the students) will discover and present convincing reasons in support of their answers or thinking.

You can look up critical thinking and get many definitions like this one from Wikipedia: “ Critical thinking consists of a mental process of analyzing or evaluating information, particularly statements or propositions that people have offered as true. ”

Essential Skills for Critical Thinking

In my current role as director of curriculum and instruction, I work to promote the use of 21st-century tools and, more importantly, thinking skills. Some essential skills that are the basis for critical thinking are:

• Communication and Information skills
• Thinking and Problem-Solving skills
• Interpersonal and Self- Directional skills
• Collaboration skills

These four bullets are skills students are going to need in any field and in all levels of education. Hence my answer to the question. We need to teach our students to think critically and for themselves.

One of the goals of education is to prepare students to learn through discovery . Providing opportunities to practice being critical thinkers will assist students in analyzing others’ thinking and examining the logic of others.

Understanding others is an essential skill in collaboration and in everyday life. Critical thinking will allow students to do more than just memorize knowledge.

Ask Questions

So how do we do this? One recommendation is for educators to work in-depth questioning strategies into a lesson launch.

Ask thoughtful questions to allow for answers with sound reasoning. Then, word conversations and communication to shape students’ thinking. Quick answers often result in very few words and no eye contact, which are skills we don’t want to promote.

When you are asking students questions and they provide a solution, try some of these to promote further thinking:

• Could you elaborate further on that point?
• Will you express that point in another way?
• Can you give me an illustration?
• Would you give me an example?
• Will you you provide more details?
• Could you be more specific?
• Do we need to consider another point of view?
• Is there another way to look at this question?

Utilizing critical thinking skills could be seen as a change in the paradigm of teaching and learning. Engagement in education will enhance the collaboration among teachers and students. It will also provide a way for students to succeed even if the school system had to start over.

[scroll down to keep reading]

Promoting critical thinking into all aspects of instruction.

Engagement, application, and collaboration are skills that withstand the test of time. I also promote the integration of critical thinking into every aspect of instruction.

In my experience, I’ve found a few ways to make this happen.

Begin lessons/units with a probing question: It shouldn’t be a question you can answer with a ‘yes’ or a ‘no.’ These questions should inspire discovery learning and problem-solving.

Encourage Creativity: I have seen teachers prepare projects before they give it to their students many times. For example, designing snowmen or other “creative” projects. By doing the design work or by cutting all the circles out beforehand, it removes creativity options.

It may help the classroom run more smoothly if every child’s material is already cut out, but then every student’s project looks the same. Students don’t have to think on their own or problem solve.

Not having everything “glue ready” in advance is a good thing. Instead, give students all the supplies needed to create a snowman, and let them do it on their own.

Giving independence will allow students to become critical thinkers because they will have to create their own product with the supplies you give them. This might be an elementary example, but it’s one we can relate to any grade level or project.

Try not to jump to help too fast – let the students work through a productive struggle .

Build in opportunities for students to find connections in learning.  Encouraging students to make connections to a real-life situation and identify patterns is a great way to practice their critical thinking skills. The use of real-world scenarios will increase rigor, relevance, and critical thinking.

A few other techniques to encourage critical thinking are:

• Use analogies
• Promote interaction among students
• Ask open-ended questions
• Allow reflection time
• Use real-life problems
• Allow for thinking practice

Critical thinking prepares students to think for themselves for the rest of their lives. I also believe critical thinkers are less likely to go along with the crowd because they think for themselves.

About Matthew X. Joseph, Ed.D.

Dr. Matthew X. Joseph has been a school and district leader in many capacities in public education over his 25 years in the field. Experiences such as the Director of Digital Learning and Innovation in Milford Public Schools (MA), elementary school principal in Natick, MA and Attleboro, MA, classroom teacher, and district professional development specialist have provided Matt incredible insights on how to best support teaching and learning. This experience has led to nationally publishing articles and opportunities to speak at multiple state and national events. He is the author of Power of Us: Creating Collaborative Schools and co-author of Modern Mentoring , Reimagining Teacher Mentorship (Due out, fall 2019). His master’s degree is in special education and his Ed.D. in Educational Leadership from Boston College.

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A Critical Thinking Framework for Elementary Students

Guiding young students to engage in critical thinking fosters their ability to create and engage with knowledge.

Critical thinking is using analysis and evaluation to make a judgment. Analysis, evaluation, and judgment are not discrete skills; rather, they emerge from the accumulation of knowledge. The accumulation of knowledge does not mean students sit at desks mindlessly reciting memorized information, like in 19th century grammar schools. Our goal is not for learners to regurgitate facts by rote without demonstrating their understanding of the connections, structures, and deeper ideas embedded in the content they are learning. To foster critical thinking in school, especially for our youngest learners, we need a pedagogy that centers knowledge and also honors the ability of children to engage with knowledge.

This chapter outlines the Critical Thinking Framework: five instructional approaches educators can incorporate into their instruction to nurture deeper thinking. These approaches can also guide intellectual preparation protocols and unit unpackings to prepare rigorous, engaging instruction for elementary students. Some of these approaches, such as reason with evidence, will seem similar to other “contentless” programs professing to teach critical thinking skills. But others, such as say it in your own words or look for structure, are targeted at ensuring learners soundly understand content so that they can engage in complex thinking. You will likely notice that every single one of these approaches requires students to talk—to themselves, to a partner, or to the whole class. Dialogue, specifically in the context of teacher-led discussions, is essential for students to analyze, evaluate, and judge (i.e., do critical thinking ). 

The Critical Thinking Framework

Say it in your own words : Students articulate ideas in their own words. They use unique phrasing and do not parrot the explanations of others. When learning new material, students who pause to explain concepts in their own words (to themselves or others) demonstrate an overall better understanding than students who do not (Nokes-Malach et al., 2013). However, it’s not enough for us to pause frequently and ask students to explain, especially if they are only being asked to repeat procedures. Explanations should be effortful and require students to make connections to prior knowledge and concepts as well as to revise misconceptions (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015).

Break it down : Students break down the components, steps, or smaller ideas within a bigger idea or procedure. In addition to expressing concepts in their own words, students should look at new concepts in terms of parts and wholes. For instance, when learning a new type of problem or task, students can explain the steps another student took to arrive at their answer, which promotes an understanding that transfers to other tasks with a similar underlying structure. Asking students to explain the components and rationale behind procedural steps can also lead to more flexible problem solving overall (Rittle-Johnson, 2006). By breaking down ideas into component parts, students are also better equipped to monitor the soundness of their own understanding as well as to see similar patterns (i.e., regularity) among differing tasks. For example, in writing, lessons can help students see how varying subordinating conjunction phrases at the start of sentences can support the flow and readability of a paragraph. In math, a solution can be broken down into smaller steps.

Look for structure : Students look beyond shallow surface characteristics to see deep structures and underlying principles. Learners struggle to see regularity in similar problems that have small differences (Reed et al., 1985). Even when students are taught how to complete one kind of task, they struggle to transfer their understanding to a new task where some of the superficial characteristics have been changed. This is because students, especially students who are novices in a domain, tend to emphasize the surface structure of a task rather than deep structure (Chi & Van Lehn, 2012).

By prompting students to notice deep structures—such as the characteristics of a genre or the needs of animals—rather than surface structures, teachers foster the development of comprehensive schemata in students’ long-term memories, which they are more likely to then apply to novel situations. Teachers should monitor for student understanding of deep structures across several tasks and examples.

Notice gaps or inconsistencies in ideas : Students ask questions about gaps and inconsistencies in material, arguments, and their own thinking . When students engage in explanations of material, they are more likely to notice when they misunderstand material or to detect a conflict with their prior knowledge (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015). In a classroom, analyzing conflicting ideas and interpretations allows students to revise misconceptions and refine mental models. Noticing gaps and inconsistencies in information also helps students to evaluate the persuasiveness of arguments and to ask relevant questions.

Reason with evidence : Students construct arguments with evidence and evaluate the evidence in others’ reasoning. Reasoning with evidence matters in every subject, but what counts for evidence in a mathematical proof differs from what is required in an English essay. Students should learn the rules and conventions for evidence across a wide range of disciplines in school. The habits of looking for and weighing evidence also intersect with some of the other critical thinking approaches discussed above. Noticing regularity in reasoning and structure helps learners find evidence efficiently, while attending to gaps and inconsistencies in information encourages caution before reaching hasty conclusions.

Countering Two Critiques

Some readers may be wondering how the Critical Thinking Framework differs from other general skills curricula. The framework differs in that it demands application in the context of students’ content knowledge, rather than in isolation. It is a pedagogical tool to help students make sense of the content they are learning. Students should never sit through a lesson where they are told to “say things in their own words” when there is nothing to say anything about. While a contentless lesson could help on the margins, it will not be as relevant or transferable. Specific content matters. A checklist of “critical thinking skills” cannot replace deep subject knowledge. The framework should not be blindly applied to all subjects without context because results will look quite different in an ELA or science class.

Other readers may be thinking about high-stakes tests: how does the Critical Thinking Framework fit in with an overwhelming emphasis on assessments aligned to national or state standards? This is a valid concern and an important point to address. For teachers, schools, and districts locked into an accountability system that values performance on state tests but does not communicate content expectations beyond general standards, the arguments I make may seem beside the point. Sure, knowledge matters, but the curriculum demands that students know how to quickly identify the main idea of a paragraph, even if they don’t have any background knowledge about the topic of the paragraph.

It is crucial that elementary practitioners be connected to both evolving research on learning and the limiting realities we teach within. Unfortunately, I can provide no easy answers beyond saying that teaching is a balancing act. The tension, while real and relevant to teachers’ daily lives, should not cloud our vision for what children need from their school experiences.

I also argue it is easier to incorporate the demands of our current standardized testing environment into a curriculum rich with history, science, art, geography, languages, and novels than the reverse. The Critical Thinking Framework presents ways to approach all kinds of knowledge in a way that presses students toward deeper processing of the content they are learning. If we can raise the bar for student work and thinking in our classrooms, the question of how students perform on standardized tests will become secondary to helping them achieve much loftier and important goals. The choice of whether to emphasize excellent curriculum or high-stakes tests, insofar as it is a choice at all, should never be existential or a zero-sum game.

From Critical Thinking in the Elementary Classroom: Engaging Young Minds with Meaningful Content (pp. 25–29) by Erin Shadowens, Arlington, VA: ASCD. Copyright © 2023 by ASCD. All rights reserved.

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How To Promote Critical Thinking In Your Classroom

Promoting Thinking

November 25, 2006, by The Critical Thinking Co. Staff

Modeling of critical thinking skills by instructors is crucial for teaching critical thinking successfully. By making your own thought processes explicit in class - explaining your reasoning, evaluating evidence for a claim, probing the credibility of a source, or even describing what has puzzled or confused you - you provide a powerful example to students, particularly if you invite them to join in; e.g., "Can you see where we're headed with this?" "I can't think of other explanations; can you?" "This idea/principle struck me as difficult or confusing at first, but here's how I figured it out." You can encourage students to emulate this by using them in demonstrations, asking them to "think out loud" in order for classmates to observe how they reason through a problem.

Develop the habit of asking questions that require students to think critically, and tell students that you really expect them to give answers! In particular, Socratic questioning encourages students to develop and clarify their thinking: e.g., "Would your answer hold in all cases?" "How would you respond to a counter-example or counter-argument?" "Explain how you arrived at that answer?"

This is another skill that students can learn from your example, and can use in working with each other. Providing regular opportunities for pair or small group discussions after major points or demonstrations during lectures is also important: this allows students to process the new material, connect it to previously learned topics, and practice asking questions that promote further critical thinking. Obviously, conveying genuine respect for student input is essential. Communicating the message that you value and support student contributions and efforts to think critically increases confidence, and motivates students to continue building their thinking skills. An essential component of this process is the creation of a climate where students feel comfortable with exploring the process of reasoning through a problem without being "punished" for getting the wrong answer.

Researchers have found consistently that interaction among students, in the form of well-structured group discussions plays a central role in stimulating critical thinking. Discussing course material and its applications allows students to formulate and test hypotheses, practice asking thought-provoking questions, hear other perspectives, analyze claims, evaluate evidence, and explain and justify their reasoning. As they become more sophisticated and fluent in thinking critically, students can observe and critique each others' reasoning skills.

Promoting Critical Thinking in the Classroom: Strategies and Activities

ritical thinking is a valuable skill that empowers students to analyze information, think deeply, and make reasoned judgments. By promoting critical thinking in the classroom, educators can foster intellectual curiosity, enhance problem-solving abilities, and prepare students for success in an ever-evolving world. This article explores effective strategies and engaging activities to promote critical thinking among students.

1. Ask Thought-Provoking Questions

Encourage critical thinking by asking open-ended and thought-provoking questions that stimulate students' analytical thinking. For example, in a history class, instead of asking "When did World War II start?" you could ask "What were the underlying causes of World War II and how did they contribute to its outbreak?" This prompts students to go beyond simple factual recall and encourages them to analyze historical events, evaluate multiple factors, and develop a deeper understanding of the topic. Instead of seeking one correct answer, focus on guiding students to explore different perspectives, evaluate evidence, and justify their reasoning. Engage students in discussions that require them to analyze, compare, and synthesize information.

2. Provide Real-World Examples

Connect classroom learning to real-world applications by providing relevant examples and case studies. By presenting authentic scenarios, students can apply critical thinking skills to analyze and solve complex problems. Encourage students to think critically about the implications of their decisions and consider the broader impact of their choices.

3. Foster Collaboration and Debate

Promote collaborative learning environments where students can engage in respectful debates and discussions. Encourage students to express diverse opinions, support their arguments with evidence, and listen actively to others' viewpoints. Through collaborative activities, students can learn to evaluate different perspectives, challenge assumptions, and develop their critical thinking skills.

4. Encourage Reflection and Metacognition

Provide opportunities for students to reflect on their thinking processes and metacognition. Ask students to evaluate their own problem-solving strategies, analyze their decision-making processes, and assess the effectiveness of their critical thinking skills. By promoting self-awareness and reflection, students can enhance their critical thinking abilities and become more independent learners.

5. Incorporate Problem-Based Learning

Integrate problem-based learning activities that require students to apply critical thinking skills to solve complex problems. For example, in a science class, present a real-world scenario where students need to design an experiment to test the effectiveness of different fertilizers on plant growth. This activity prompts students to analyze information about fertilizers, evaluate different options, and develop a well-reasoned experimental design. By engaging in hands-on problem-solving experiences like this, students can develop their critical thinking abilities while also building their content knowledge.

Promoting critical thinking in the classroom is essential for developing students' analytical skills, problem-solving abilities, and intellectual curiosity. By incorporating strategies such as asking thought-provoking questions, providing real-world examples, fostering collaboration and debate, encouraging reflection and metacognition, and incorporating problem-based learning, educators can create an environment that nurtures critical thinking skills. By equipping students with this valuable skill set, we empower them to navigate complex challenges and become lifelong learners.

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Critical Thinking Skills in the Classroom and Beyond

Teaching Strategies

Becoming a critical thinker isn’t an unreachable goal. As Arthur Aufderheide, the Mummy Doctor, once said, “All knowledge is connected to all other knowledge. The fun is in making the connections.”

What does that have to do with critical thinking? Everything! Critical thinking is taking our natural curiosity and making meaningful connections. We solve problems daily, and critical thinking plays an essential role in the process. Observing, analyzing, and maybe even failing as we process solutions to life’s everyday puzzles is necessary. Critical thinking isn’t about acting on your beliefs. It extends to reasoning, communication, reflection, and action.

With roots dating back to the mid-late 20th century , the term "critical thinking" has evolved through the years. It takes discipline to critically think because it requires questioning, open-mindedness, and problem-solving skills . Developing critical thinking skills in students is vital to success in all content areas and extracurricular activities.

What does critical thinking look like in the classroom?

Critical thinking in the classroom looks like examining and brainstorming. It’s a fearlessness to analyze, test, and even reject ideas. It’s metacognition , which is simply thinking about thinking. Critical thinking happens when teachers ask thought-provoking questions and resist the urge to generate ideas for students.

What can teachers do to foster critical thinking?

• Ask questions without one specific answer to find.
• Allow students to explain their thinking with pictures, numbers, or words.
• Support the productive struggle .
• Brainstorm as a whole class so that students hear the thoughts of others.
• Compare and contrast! Get students to recognize and understand different sides to one issue.
• Make connections to prior knowledge.
• Encourage students to dig deeper by considering and analyzing alternatives to their first reactions and answers.
• Have students explain why they chose to do tasks in certain ways.
• Share helpful processes to try when things seem tricky. Invite students to give their tips.
• Provide opportunities for students to gather and evaluate information .
• Don’t stop when an assignment is over. Take valuable time for reflection.

Critical thinking beyond the classroom

Critical thinking is one skill that transfers from the classroom to the real world. It’s also necessary for success in academic and professional careers . Every single one of us has to ask purposeful questions and communicate our thoughts effectively. Critical thinking is more than that! It improves decision-making and objective reasoning. It allows us to move beyond emotional reactions to analysis, conclusions, and positive and negative consequences. True critical thinking also involves reflection to see the cause and effect of our decisions.

Critical thinking is one skill that transfers from the classroom to the real world.

Helping your students develop critical thinking skills benefits the whole child. A lot is going on in their worlds. Understanding how to think through decisions is a crucial skill. Set your students up for success with plenty of opportunities for critical thinking in your classroom!

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Critical Thinking: Facilitating and Assessing the 21st Century Skills in Education

So many times we hear our students say, “Why am I learning this?”

I believe that Critical Thinking is the spark that begins the process of authentic learning. Before going further, we must first develop an idea of what learning is… and what learning is not.  So many times we hear our students say, “Why am I learning this?” The reason they ask is because they have not really experienced the full spectrum of learning, and because of this are actually not learning to a full rewarding  extent! We might say they are being exposed to surface learning and not authentic (real) learning. The act of authentic learning is actually an exciting and engaging concept. It allows students to see real meaning and begin to construct their own knowledge.  Critical Thinking is core to learning. It is rewarding, engaging, and life long. Without critical thinking students are left to a universe of concepts and memorization.  Yes… over twelve years of mediocrity! When educators employ critical thinking in their classrooms, a whole new world of understanding is opened up.   What are some reasons to facilitate critical thinking with our students? Let me begin:

Ten Reasons For Student Critical Thinking in the classroom

• Allows for necessary inquiry that makes learning exciting
• Provides a method to go beyond memorization to promote understanding.
• Allows students to visualize thoughts, concepts, theories, models & possibilities.
• Promotes curriculum standards, trans-disciplinary ideas & real world connections.
• Encourages a classroom culture of collaboration that promotes deeper thinking.
• Builds skills of problem solving, making implications, & determining consequences.
• Facilitates goal setting, promotion of process, and perseverance to achieve.
• Teaches self reflection and critique, and the ability to listen to others’ thoughts.
• Encourages point of view  while developing persuasive skills.
• Guides interpretation while developing a skill to infer and draw conclusions.

I am excited by the spark that critical thinking ignites to support real and authentic learning in the classroom. I often wonder how much time students spend in the process of critical thinking in the classroom. I ask you to reflect on your typical school day. Are your students spending time in area of surface learning , or are they plunging into the engaging culture of deeper (real) learning?  At the same time … how are you assessing your students? So many times as educators, we are bound by the standards, and we forget the importance of promoting that critical thinking process that makes our standards come alive with understanding. A culture of critical thinking is not automatic, though with intentional planning  it can become a reality. Like the other 21st century skills, it must be built and continuously facilitated. Let’s take a look at how, we as educators, can do this.

Ten Ways to Facilitate Student Critical Thinking in the Classroom and School

• Design Critical Thinking Activities.  (This might include mind mapping, making thinking visible, Socratic discussions, meta-cognitive mind stretches, Build an inquiry wall with students and talk about the process of thinking”
• Provide time for students to collaborate.  (Collaboration can be the button that starts critical thinking. It provides group thinking that builds on the standards. Have students work together while solving multi-step and higher order thinking problems. Sometimes this might mean slow down to increase the learning.)
• Provide students with a Critical Thinking rubric.  (Have them look at the rubric before a critical thinking activity, and once again when they are finished)
• Make assessment of Critical Thinking an ongoing effort.  (While the teacher can assess, have students assess themselves. Self assessment can be powerful)
• Concentrate on specific indicators in a rubric.  (There are various indicators such as; provides inquiry, answers questions, builds an argument etc. Concentrate on just one indicator while doing a lesson. There can even be an exit ticket reflection)
• Integrate the idea of Critical Thinking in any lesson.  ( Do not teach this skill in isolation. How does is work with a lesson, stem activity, project built, etc. What does Critical Thinking look like in the online or blended environment? Think of online discussions.)
• Post a Critical Thinking Poster in the room.  (This poster could be a copy of a rubric or even a list of “I Can Statements”. Point it out before a critical thinking activity.
• Make Critical Thinking part of your formative  and summative assessment.   (Move around the room, talk to groups and students, stop the whole group to make adjustments.)
• Point out Critical Thinking found in the content standards.  (Be aware that content standards often have words like; infer, debate, conclude, solve, prioritize, compare and contrast, hypothesize, and research. Critical Thinking has always been part of the standards. Show your students Bloom’s Taxonomy and post in the room. Where are they in their learning?
• Plan for a school wide emphasis.  (A culture that builds Critical Thinking is usually bigger then one classroom. Develop school-wide vocabulary, posters, and initiatives.)

I keep talking about the idea of surface learning and deeper learning. This can best be seen in  Bloom’s Taxonomy. Often we start with Remembering.  This might be essential in providing students the map to the further areas of Bloom’s. Of course, we then find the idea of Understanding. This is where I believe critical thinking begins. Sometimes we need to critically think in order to understand. In fact, you might be this doing right now. I believe that too much time might be spent in Remembering, which is why students get a false idea of what learning really is. As we look at the rest of Bloom’s ( Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create) we can see the deeper learning take place. and even steps toward the transfer and internalization of the learning. Some educators even tip Bloom’s upside down, stating that the Creating at the top will build an understanding. This must be done with careful facilitation and intentional scaffold to make sure there is some surface learning. After-all, Critical Thinking will need this to build on.

I have been mentioning rubrics and assessment tools through out this post. To me, these are essential in building that culture of critical thinking in the classroom. I want to provide you with some great resources that will give your some powerful tools to assess the skill of Critical Thinking.  Keep in mind that students can also self assess and journal using prompts from a Critical Thinking Rubric.

Seven Resources to Help with Assessment and Facilitation of Critical Thinking

• Habits of Mind  – I think this is an awesome place to help teachers facilitate and assess critical thinking and more. Check out the  free resources page  which even has some wonderful posters. One of my favorites is the rubrics found on this  research page . Decide on spending some time because there are a lot of great resources.
• PBLWorks  – The number one place for PBL in the world is at PBLWorks. You may know it as the BUCK Institute or BIE. I am fortunate to be part of their National Faculty which is probably why I rank it as number one. I encourage you to visit their site for everything PBL.  This link brings you to the resource area where you will discover some amazing  rubrics to facilitate Critical Thinking. You will find rubrics for grade bands K-2, 3-5, and 6-12. This really is a great place to start. You will need to sign up to be a member of PBLWorks. This is a wonderful idea, after-all it is free!
• Microsoft Innovative Learning  – This   website  contains some powerful rubrics for assessing the 21st Century skills. The link will bring you to a PDF file with Critical Thinking rubrics you can use tomorrow for any grade level. Check out this  two page document  defining the 4 C’s and a  movie  giving you even more of an explanation.
• New Tech School  – This amazing PBL group of schools provide some wonderful Learning Rubrics in their free area.  Here you will find an interesting collection of rubrics that assesses student learning in multiple areas. These are sure to get you off and started.
• Foundation for Critical Thinking  –  Check out this  amazing page  to help give you descriptors.
• Project Zero  – While it is not necessarily assessment based, you will find some powerful  routines for making thinking visible . As you conduct these types of activities you will find yourself doing some wonderful formative assessment of critical thinking.
• Education Week  – Take a look at this resource that provides some great reasoning and some interesting links that provide a glimpse of critical thinking in the classroom.

Critical Thinking “I Can Statements”

As you can see, I believe that Critical Thinking is key to PBL, STEM, and Deeper Learning. It improves Communication and Collaboration, while promoting Creativity.  I believe every student should have these following “I Can Statements” as part of their learning experience. Feel free to copy and use in your classroom. Perhaps this is a great starting place as you promote collaborative and powerful learning culture!

• I can not only answer questions, but can also think of new questions to ask 
• I can take time to see what I am thinking to promote even better understanding 
• I can attempt to see other peoples’ thinking while explaining my own 
• I can look at a problem and determine needed steps to find a solution 
• I can use proper collaboration skills to work with others productively to build solutions 
• I can set a goal, design a plan, and persevere to accomplish the goal. 
• I can map out strategies and processes that shows the action involved in a task. 
• I can define and show my understanding of a concept, model, theory, or process. 
• I can take time to reflect and productively critique my work and the work of others 
• I can understand, observe, draw inferences, hypothesize and see implications.

cross-posted at  21centuryedtech.wordpress.com

Michael Gorman oversees one-to-one laptop programs and digital professional development for Southwest Allen County Schools near Fort Wayne, Indiana. He is a consultant for Discovery Education, ISTE, My Big Campus, and November Learning and is on the National Faculty for The Buck Institute for Education. His awards include district Teacher of the Year, Indiana STEM Educator of the Year and Microsoft’s 365 Global Education Hero. Read more at  21centuryedtech.wordpress.com .

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Critical thinking for teachers and students

What Do We Mean by the Term ‘Critical Thinking?’

Firstly, there is no single, commonly agreed definition of the term ‘critical thinking’.

However, most commonly as teachers, we use it to refer to what are known as the higher-order thinking skills.

These higher-order thinking skills are skills that require us to think in a deeper, more complex manner.

If you are familiar with Bloom’s taxonomy, think of the upper levels of the hierarchy – analyze, evaluate, create. We could also add infer to this list of critical thinking skills.

Put simply, critical thinking requires the student to engage in an objective analysis of a topic and evaluate the available information in order to form a judgment.

Critical thinking demands a systematic approach to evaluating new information. It encourages us to question and reflect on our own knowledge and how we arrive at the opinions we have and make the decisions we make.

THERE ARE NO FORMAL CRITICAL THINKING STANDARDS, BUT THESE ATTRIBUTES OUTLINED BY MONASH UNIVERSITY CAPTURE THE ESSENCE OF WHAT STUDENTS AND TEACHERS SHOULD ASPIRE TO IN THE CLASSROOM.

  Why Is Critical Thinking Important?

Our students need to be able to think critically to make rational decisions on what to believe or what course of action to take.

An inability to think critically can leave students vulnerable to muddied thinking and the possibility of believing in unsound ideas.

Critical thinking helps students to filter the wheat from the chaff, intellectually speaking.

Developing strong critical thinking skills helps students to eliminate dubious data to leave only the strongest, most reliable information.

At its core, critical thinking is about having good reasons for our beliefs. It helps us to navigate through bias (our own and that of others) to avoid manipulation or becoming enslaved by our feelings. These are essential skills in an age of overwhelming information.

Helping our students to develop their critical thinking skills not only inoculates them against embracing flawed ideas, but these skills are also some of the most in-demand by employers and this looks set to continue to be so well into the future.

This is due to the ever-increasing pace of technological change. It is impossible to accurately predict the specific requirements of many future jobs. One thing is for sure though, so-called soft skills such as critical thinking will ensure students will be able to adapt to whatever shapes the workplace of the future will take.

Teaching Critical Thinking 

There are any number of ways to introduce critical thinking into the classroom, either as discrete activities or interwoven into lessons with other stated objectives. However, it is helpful to students to take the time to teach a variety of strategies to help them think critically about the ideas they encounter which will help them form their own opinions.

An opinion based on critical thinking does not rely on gut feeling, but rather on rational reasoning which often requires some form of initial research.

Let’s start by taking a look at some ways you can encourage critical thinking in your classroom, especially in the research process.

THIS IS AN EXCELLENT GUIDE TO TEACHING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS

A complete guide to teaching Critical Thinking

This 180 page e-book is an excellent resource for teachers looking to implement critical thinking in the classroom.

It is packed full of great content whether you are just starting out, or looking to go further.

It makes relevant connections to technology, STEM, and critical and creative thinking.

Teaching Strategies: A Step-by-Step Approach to Critical Thinking

The following process is a useful template for teaching students. When embarking on their research, this template provides a step-by-step process that they can use to structure their investigations.

1. Format the Question

In the age of the Internet, access to information is no longer the major hurdle facing the inquisitive student investigator. If anything, the real problem now is knowing how to appropriately sift through the almost inexhaustible amount of information out there.

The key to this filtration process is the formulation of the research question. How the question is composed and formatted will inform exactly what information the student is looking for and what information can be discarded.

The type of question formatted here will depend on the purpose of the research. For example, is the question intended to establish knowledge? Then, it may well be a straightforward What type question, for example, What are the consequences of a diet high in processed sugars?

If the question is geared more towards the use of that information or knowledge, then the question may be more of a Why type question, for example, Why do some commentators claim that a diet high in processed sugars is the greatest threat facing public health?

One extremely useful tool to assist in formatting questions that make demands on student critical thinking abilities is to employ Bloom’s taxonomy.

2. Gather the Information

Once the question has been clearly defined, then the process of gathering the information begins. Students should frequently refer back to their research questions to ensure they are maintaining their focus.  

As they gather information concerning their question, reference to their initial question will help them to determine the relevance of the information in front of them. They can then weigh up whether or not the information helps move them further toward answering their initial research question.

3. Apply the Information  

The ability to think critically about information is of no use unless the understanding gained can be applied in the real world.

The most practical application of this skill is seen when it is used to inform decision-making. When faced with making a decision, encourage students to reflect on the concepts at work in regard to the choice they face.

They must look at what assumptions exist and explore whether their interpretation of the issue is a logically sound one. To do this effectively, they will also need to consider the effects of that decision.

4. Consider the Implications

“The road to hell is paved with good intentions.”

As the old proverb suggests, our well-intended decisions can sometimes lead to unforeseen negative consequences. When considering paths of action, we need to encourage our students to reflect deeply on all possible outcomes of those actions: short, medium, and long-term.

Unintended consequences are outcomes that are unforeseen and can often undo much of the good of the original decision.

There are many fascinating examples of this phenomenon that are easily found online and can be interesting to share with the students.

One such example was uncovered by the economist Sam Peltzman. He found that when mandatory seat-belt legislation was passed in some of the US states the number of fatalities of drivers did go down as a result. However, he also found that this was offset by an increase in fatalities among pedestrians and cyclists as drivers felt safer wearing seat belts and many drove faster as a result.

5. Explore Other Points of View

This is the final testing ground of an opinion that has been forged in the fires of critical thinking. Though students will have been exposed to competing ideas earlier in the research stage, they should now take the time to measure their matured opinions against these other points of view.

Exploring alternative viewpoints helps us to evaluate our own choices and avoid stagnating in our own biases and innate preferences. Doing this helps us to make the most informed decisions possible.

Now that we’ve had a look at a step-by-step approach to critical thinking, let’s take a look at some creative ways to help students exercise those critical thinking muscles in the classroom. Getting critical doesn’t have to be boring!

Critical Thinking Games and Activities

The Barometer: Find Out Where You Stand

When considering where we stand on issues, it’s important to realise that things don’t always have to be a zero-sum game.  Things don’t have to be all or nothing.  Students need to learn that opinions can be nuanced and that often there exists a spectrum of opinions on any given issue.

In this activity, give the students a controversial issue to consider. Assign the extremes on the issue to opposite ends of the classroom and instruct students to arrange themselves along a continuum based on how strongly they feel about the issue.

They’ll likely need to engage in some free-flowing conversation to figure this out and setting a time limit will help ensure this discussion doesn’t go on endlessly.

Draw an Analogy: Making Lateral Links

This game encourages students to think creatively and indirectly about an idea or a subject and it can be used in practically any context. It encourages students to make comparisons between seemingly unconnected things by analyzing both for any underlying concepts that may link them together somehow – no matter how tenuously!

Start by asking your students a creative question based on the topic or idea you are exploring together in the classroom. The format of these questions should closely follow a similar pattern to the following examples:

●      How is raising a child like building a house?

●      Why is an egg like a hunk of marble?

●      How is a bookshelf like a lunchbox?

The more inventive the elements in each question are, the more challenging it will be for the students to make links between the two of them.

This game can generate some interesting responses and is easy to differentiate for students of all ages. Younger students may enjoy a simpler question format such as ‘ Smell is to nose as sight is to… ’ where the links between the elements are much more obvious.

For older students, remember too that when devising the questions the links between the different elements do not have to be obvious. Indeed, as far as you’re concerned they do not even have to exist. That’s for the students to explore and create.

Build Critical Thinking Skills with Brain Teasers

Brain teasers are great fun and an enjoyable way to fill a few minutes of class time, but they also provide great exercise for students’ critical thinking abilities. Though they are often based on unlikely premises, the skills acquired in solving them can have real-world applications.

Let’s take an example to see how this works. Ask your students the following teaser – you might want to set a time limit and have them write their answers down to put some added pressure on:

A rooster sits on a barn and is facing west. The wind is blowing eastward at a speed of 15 kilometers per hour. The rooster lays an egg. Which cardinal direction does the egg roll?  

The answer is, of course, that there is no egg. Roosters are male and therefore can’t lay eggs.

One of the reasons why so many will get this simple teaser wrong is that despite knowing that a rooster is a male chicken, they overlook it due to the casualness with which it’s thrown into the teaser.  

The other reason is the misdirection caused by the quite meticulous detail provided. Students are likely to pay too much attention to the details such as the speed of the wind, its direction, and the direction of the rooster is facing.

All these irrelevant details distract the students from the fact that the only information required to solve this teaser is provided by the 2nd word of the riddle.

There are numerous brain teasers freely available on the Internet. Weaving them into your lessons gives students opportunities to sharpen their critical thinking skills by sorting relevant from irrelevant details and encouraging students to analyze closely the relevant details provided.

Build the Habit and Become a Critical Thinker

In this article, we have taken a look at some concrete ways to practice critical thinking skills in the classroom. However, becoming a critical thinker is much more about developing consistent critical thinking habits in our approach to ideas and opinions.

To help your students develop these habits, be sure to encourage intellectual curiosity in the classroom. Ask students to examine their own assumptions and evaluate these in light of opposing opinions and available evidence.

Create opportunities in your lessons to explore advertisements and even political statements together. Fight the urge to impart your own beliefs and biases in favor of allowing students to determine the credibility of the sources themselves. Encourage them to draw their own conclusions.

Consistently insist that your students provide evidence to support their conclusions when they express opinions in classroom discussions.

In time, the habit of critical thinking will inform how your students approach any new information that they come across. This will leave them better able to think clearly and systematically and better able to express themselves coherently too.

Create opportunities in your lessons to explore advertisements and even political statements together. Fight the urge to impart your own beliefs and biases in favor of allowing students to determine the credibility of the sources themselves. Encourage them to draw their conclusions.

Fostering Future Thinkers: 10 Dynamic Strategies for Cultivating Critical Thinking in the Classroom

• Socratic Questioning: Encourage students to engage in thoughtful discussions by employing Socratic questioning. This method involves asking open-ended questions that prompt deeper exploration of concepts, helping students develop analytical and reasoning skills.
• Real-World Problem-Solving: Integrate real-world problems into the curriculum, allowing students to apply critical thinking skills to authentic situations. This hands-on approach fosters practical problem-solving abilities and encourages creativity.
• Debate and Discussion: Organize debates and class discussions to expose students to diverse perspectives. This not only enhances their critical thinking but also teaches them how to construct persuasive arguments and consider alternative viewpoints.
• Case Studies: Utilize case studies from various fields to present complex scenarios. This challenges students to analyze information, identify key issues, and propose effective solutions, fostering critical thinking within specific contexts.
• Critical Reading and Writing: Emphasize critical reading and writing skills. Encourage students to analyze texts, identify main arguments, evaluate evidence, and express their thoughts coherently in writing. This enhances both analytical and communication skills.
• Concept Mapping: Introduce concept mapping as a visual tool to help students organize thoughts and relationships between ideas. This technique enhances their ability to see the bigger picture and understand the interconnectedness of concepts.
• Problem-Based Learning (PBL): Implement problem-based learning approaches, where students work collaboratively to solve complex problems. This method promotes critical thinking, teamwork, and the application of knowledge to real-world situations.
• Cognitive Dissonance Activities: Engage students in activities that provoke cognitive dissonance, challenging their existing beliefs or assumptions. This discomfort encourages critical examination and reflection, leading to intellectual growth.
• Metacognition Development: Foster metacognition by prompting students to reflect on their thinking processes. Encourage them to analyze how they approach problems, make decisions, and solve challenges, promoting self-awareness and self-correction.
• Role-Playing Scenarios: Create role-playing scenarios that require students to step into different perspectives or roles. This immersive approach encourages empathy, perspective-taking, and the ability to analyze situations from multiple viewpoints, enhancing overall critical thinking skills.

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Developing critical thinking skills in the classroom

April 29, 2021

Critical thinking skills in the classroom: A teacher's guide to developing higher-order thinking and student reasoning.

Main, P (2021, April 29). Developing critical thinking skills in the classroom. Retrieved from https://www.structural-learning.com/post/what-is-critical-thinking

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is important in every aspect of our lives. It helps us make decisions, solve problems , and learn new information. But how do we develop these skills in school?

In order to become a well-rounded person who has developed critical thinking skills, students must first understand the importance of developing these skills. This means teaching students how to analyze data, evaluate arguments, and draw conclusions from evidence.

This article will help teachers teach critical thinking skills in the class room. We'll look at how to teach critical thinking skills using examples from history, science, math, literature, and art.

Critical thinking has been defined and re-defined by many teachers over the years and it's one of those essential abilities we want our students to develop. However, looking at the breakdown of the term as the two words that comprise it provides a simple, yet accurate definition.

The Critical Thinking process involves the use of the mind to incorporate prior experience and basic knowledge about a subject matter in order to reach conclusions. Critical thinking has a few definitions. In this article we are focused on what critical thinking looks like in the classroom.

We are interested in how we can make more logical and accurate thinking a classroom habit that every school can adopt. To examine the topic of critical thinking we have to look beyond the purely philosophical perspective and explore the latest cognitive science . For example, we now know the importance that knowledge plays in developing critical thinking, you can't have one without the other. Expert thinking is a domain specific skill and the subject disciplines act as a catalyst for enhancing this life long skill. We also know the importance of retrieval practice in developing higher order thinking.

Low stakes quizzing is not just rote learning, it plays an important part in freeing up our working memory to do more of the creative work. If we no longer have to strain to remember the facts and figures, our mental capacities can be put to work in more creative ways . Within the article we will also put forward some ideas about how to promote critical and creative thinking across your school.

Logical reasoning is one of the three main components of critical thinking. This component requires students to think critically about a problem and then apply logic to solve it. Students must understand the difference between logical and illogical arguments and recognize when someone is using logical fallacies.

Why critical thinking is important

Critical thinking is a process that is often viewed as a more intense version of just plain old thinking. In education, critical thinking is a disciplined process that has stuck around for a while now – but how is this coveted skill really different from just plain old thinking? Frankly, sometimes, it's not. The two terms can be used interchangeably, and often are.

Consider a teacher who is urging a student “think harder” or “think differently”. What the teacher is actually saying is: “think critically in order to reach a more complex solution”. We are not always conscious of the multitude of cognitive actions at our disposal, the Universal Thinking Framework addresses this issue by providing child-friendly explanations of the various ways in which we can think.

These can be chained together to create a logical inquiry that any student can follow. The idea being that over time, children begin to develop critical thinking dispositions that cause reflective thinking and advance the mental process. Increasing our repertoire of cognitive actions improves a students decision making process as they are simply more aware of the directions their learning could move in.

We have divided the various types of thinking using these key questions:

• How do I get started?
• How should I organise my ideas?
• How do I know this?
• How can I communicate my understanding?
• What can I do with my new knowledge and understanding?

All of the sections provide teachers with a systematic approach to encourage reflective thinking . The questions that are posed to the learner are designed to break down a complex process into basic skills. These thinking skills, over time can be mastered and understood. Having the different types of thinking available to both educators and students means that logical thinking can be achieved more readily and can eventually become an attitude of mind. The mental actions are accompanied by critical thinking questions . Teachers can use critical thinking questions to promote rational thinking. 

Reflective thinking is employed when a solution is needed, or in school when there is a connection that needs to be drawn between two or more concepts. Therefore, critical thinking is, in essence, the thought processes that result from disapproval of the solutions and connections that already exist, or a lack thereof.

Mental skills or learning behaviours?

School leaders love to see and hear teachers incorporating the idea of crosscutting concepts into their daily instruction. That is, concepts and skills can be used and developed in more than one subject matter, and therefore more than one class. I don't think I have ever had an administrator who has not asked me how I plan to collaborate with my colleagues in order to make instruction more meaningful and applicable to my students' lives.

Upon further consideration of this popular interview question, there should really only ever be one acceptable response to such a question – “I will make it a priority to routinely engage my students in the practice of critical thinking so that they can grow that skill and use it in other classes as well as outside of the school” … or something along those lines.

It remains true that practice leads to confidence and increased ability. Therefore, as students learn what the process of thinking critically feels like for them, they will be able to replicate that feeling by replicating their actions in other classes. When critical thinking is used as a part of the daily routine, it becomes less scary to use that skill when faced with a problem, regardless of the subject matter .

Critical thinking is, therefore, a crosscutting concept to be planned for and incorporated into a teacher's daily lesson plans as well as the scope and sequence of a course. If you want a practical way of integrating critical thinking into your lessons, our mental modelling approach using the building block method might be a good place to start. The playful approach encourages children to organise their ideas and in doing so, engage in critical reasoning.

Principles of critical thinking

Despite its value in all subjects , one uncertainty that educators run into is the idea of what Daniel T. Willingham (2019) calls transfer. That is, whether or not the ability to think critically in one subject or in relation to one problem will automatically lead to similar abilities in other subjects or problems. As Willingham (2019) explains, the research on this idea is not necessarily all in agreement. Consequently, educators are faced with a task that seems to be in flux and altogether unanswered. While frustrating, this is not necessarily a new ask for educators.

Some scholars claim that the ability to think critically in one subject will naturally transfer to all other subjects , which is why it is so inherently valuable as a skill. Others argue that this is not the case, and that is why it is crucial to intentionally teach students how to think critically in all situations and across all subjects. With this quality still largely disagreed upon, it is difficult to know how best to proceed when attempting to teach and develop critical thinking skills.

Do students ever possess a true foundation of critical thinking skills and abilities, or do they regress back to a point of utter confusion with the introduction to each new problem? How can educators make these skills stick for their students ? What do students need to understand in order to be able approach problems from a critical thinking perspective regardless of the discipline or subject matter? How can we train students to recycle prior experience and previous solutions when faced with new problems?

Assessing students analytical thinking

Critical thinking is a high-level goal that educators everywhere strive toward for their students. Many “teacher moves” exist solely to work toward this purpose. However, repeatedly asking higher-order thinking questions in class and on tests, is merely the method that best demonstrates that the skill of thinking critically has already been developed. That is to say that just asking these types of questions as often as possible is not a sufficient method for the true development of this skill.

When we ask higher-order thinking questions in class or on assessments , we are ultimately trying to analyze whether or not students have that ability; or to what level they have mastered that ability. However, it stands to reason that the only way to develop this skill cannot be to simply ask more of these types of questions more often, since this is just the method of measurement. So, the question now becomes - what are the steps that lead up to a student being able to successfully encounter and respond to these higher-order thinking questions that show their ability to think critically? The answer is actually quite simple– continue to teach and prioritize critical thinking skills in every possible situation, regardless of how many times it has been reviewed.

What about critical thinking dispositions ? It has been argued that this ability is not a distinct cognitive skill but a set of critical thinking dispositions or habits of mind. Ron Ritchart talks through the argument here.

If your school is interested in implementing more critical thinking in your classrooms, you might want to start by sharing some key ideas with your staff. Our professional development approach gives staff access to the principles that underpinned critical thinking. We can help educators measure the impact of the interventions in the classroom.

How can we develop reasoning skills?

Notice that in the answer above, the onus is placed on the educator rather than the student. There is not necessarily a numbered universal list of steps to take when given a critical thinking problem that we can give to students as a road map and post as an anchor chart in the classroom. Quite the opposite, educators are charged with the vague task of teaching students how to access prior knowledge and experience and apply it in a way that will benefit them.

Ultimately, if students can manipulate their understanding and experience into a process and application that works for the task or question at hand, they are able to think critically . However, the ability to think critically in one situation does not predict with any real degree of certainty the same ability in a novel situation, especially one that seems more challenging to a student.

One characteristic that tends to make students believe that one situation is more difficult than another is subject matter. Students are not able to generalize solutions that they have already thought through because the subject matter is so different. Willingham (2019) refers to this as the surface structure of a problem and gives the example of an inability to derive the solution for a medical problem even though it is essentially the same as the solution to military/tactical problem that the group had just worked through.

However, since the surface structure of these problems seems so different, participants were not able to transfer the reasoning behind the solution to the tactical problem to the medical problem.Teachers see this difficulty with students all the time across subjects, which means that the real task for teachers to tackle is teaching students how to recognize the deep structure of a problem.

According to Willingham (2019), strong critical thinkers claim that they are able to recognize the deep structure of problems presented to them in their field of expertise, but not necessarily in other fields. This is both comforting and disconcerting for teachers. It is comforting because it shows that it is normal for it to be a challenge for students to be able to transfer critical thinking skills from one problem to another. However, it is disconcerting because it seems nearly impossible for teachers to be able to overcome this barrier if experts still encounter this barrier regularly.

All things considered, the seemingly realistic approach to the task of developing critical thinking skills in students through consistent practice seems to have a few clearly actionable approaches that are also memorable due to the alliteration they produce: collaboration , comparison and content knowledge. This form of knowledge is certainly important in everyday life. 

Collaborative problem solving skills

Collaboration is the act of working with another person or other people in order to achieve a common goal or solve a common problem. In as many ways as possible, teachers should incorporate collaboration into their lessons. Initially, it may seem as though this practice takes away from the development of independent critical thinking since weaker thinkers can lean on stronger thinkers or just more dominant personalities. However, since subject-matter experts are easily able to identify the deep structure of problems within their area of expertise, it stands to reason that pairing experts together who excel in different areas and presenting them with a complex problem will yield the best results.

Of course, in any given group of students, there may not be identifiable “experts”, however, the idea is that the different perspectives and experiences that students bring with them will intuitively lead them to a problem from different angles . This type of natural exposure to different approaches serves to model for students how it is possible to think differently about a similar problem. With continued modelling and wider exposure, students will gradually learn to intentionally incorporate different ways of thinking and to continue to seek out differing perspectives when searching for a solution to a problem.

Logical thinking and careful thinking are often cited as being ways of thinking critically. The Cornell Critical Thinking Test and Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal both claim to be able to measure critical reasoning and critical thinking ability. 

Comparisons and critical thinking

While telling students what the deep structure of a problem is might seem fairly simple, the fact is that telling does not equate to teaching, nor does it always result in learning, especially when a skill is involved . Therefore, one way to begin to lead students to be able to identify and extract the deep structure of a problem is to have them compare.

When asked to compare two (or more) problems with contrasting surface structures, students are forced to look harder for the similarities. While this may be met with resistance and frustration at first, when coupled with the practice of modelling these types of comparisons, students will begin to understand that there are similarities to be found after all, and how those comparisons can help lead to a practical and applicable solution.

Academic Arguments

Identification, construction , and evaluation of arguments are crucial parts of critical thinking.

People often use the term "argument" to refer to a quarrel between people in everyday life. To a logician or critical thinker, an argument is not a statement, it is a collection of statements , with one being the conclusion and the rest being premise or assumption.

The way students attain in subjects is by reading the views of the academic writing of others. The way students achieve in a formal exam setting is by writing the academic argument of their own. So without academic argument writing we cannot learn, or teach, or persuade. One way of promoting argumentation is by teaching students to create argument maps . This practical approach of developing an analysis of arguments means that students can visualise the main points in an easy-to-understand format. 

Domain Knowledge and critical thinking

Sometimes, educators tend to avoid questions and practice activities that can be labelled as “ basic recall ” because they are said to be low in rigour. However, when attempting to develop critical thinking skills , it should be noted that domain knowledge expertise is achieved through extensive knowledge of the foundational aspects and facts of a topic. Willingham (2019) explains that effective critical thinking about a problem often comes from a place of confidence in the subject matter, which is born from extensive knowledge about it.

Being able to see alternative viewpoints, argument with evidence (and spot bad arguments) and avoid faulty reasoning can become habits of mind that are nurtured throughout a students career. Additionally, sometimes a complex solution is merely the sum of many smaller and more routine solutions. There is value in teaching and focusing on content in school , as it breeds experts. When paired with the challenge of critical thinking in order to solve real-world problems, new interest can also be bred for a subject that students may previously have seen little use for.

Five tips for improving critical thinking in your classroom

Critical thinking abilities are essential skills for students to develop. Here are five tips for improving critical thinking skills in your classroom :

1. Teach Students How to Think Critically

Teaching students how to think critically involves helping them understand the difference between facts and opinions. Facts are true statements that can be proven using evidence. Opinions are beliefs based on personal experiences, feelings, values, and preferences.

Students often confuse facts with opinions. For example, “I am going to the store to buy milk.” This statement contains no opinion. It is simply stating a fact. On the other hand, “Milk tastes good.” This statement expresses an opinion.

When teaching students how to think critically, focus on helping them distinguish between facts and opinions. Helping students learn how to think critically will improve their ability to analyze information and solve problems.

2. Encourage Critical Thinking

Encouraging students to think critically means encouraging them to question everything. If you ask students questions such as “Why did you write that?,” “What makes you say that?,” or “How would you prove that?,” you encourage them to think critically.

Asking questions helps students become better thinkers . Questions allow students to explore issues and come up with answers themselves. Asking questions encourages students to think deeply and analytically.

3. Use Real World Examples

Real world examples are helpful for teaching students how to think. Using real world examples allows students to apply concepts to situations outside of school.

For example, if you teach students how to identify logical fallacies, you can show them how to recognize these errors in arguments. Showing students how to identify logical fallacy gives them practice identifying common mistakes made by others.

4. Provide Feedback

Providing feedback is another effective method for teaching students how to improve their critical thinking skills. Giving students positive and constructive criticism improves their performance.

Giving students negative feedback does not improve their performance . Negative feedback may discourage students from trying again. Positive feedback motivates students to continue working toward success.

#5. Model Good Critical Thinking Skills

Modelling good critical thinking skills is one of the most effective methods for teaching students how to become better thinkers. Teaching students how to think critically requires modeling good critical thinking skills.

Good critical thinking skills include asking open-ended questions, analyzing data, evaluating sources, and recognizing logical fallacies.

By showing students how to think critically and model good critical thinking skills, you can help them develop into successful learners.

In a world where artificial intelligence is on the rise and continuously developing, a humanized value such as critical thinking is increasingly important. Reliance on technology makes life simpler in many ways, but simultaneously makes the possession of certain skills and abilities more attractive to potential employers and more beneficial for individuals who possess them.

Critical thinking allows for creativity when problem-solving and promotes independence and confidence. Should technology ever fail, those who are able to think critically in a variety of situations will be the ones who are valued the most.

Willingham, D. T. (2019). How to Teach Critical Thinking. Education: FutureFrontiers.

http://www.danielwillingham.com/uploads/5/0/0/7/5007325/willingham_2019_nsw_critical_thinking2.pdf

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Critical Thinking: A Guide For The Classroom And Beyond

“Clear, critical thinking should be at the heart of every discipline in school and a cultivated habit outside it too.” – Sir Ken Robinson

One of the great responsibilities for educators is to prepare students for the future in a complex and ever-changing world. As society and employment opportunities evolve, there is a greater need to develop 21st-century skills , such as critical thinking .

As an experienced educator, I understand the need to adapt to new challenges and equip students with the tools they need to navigate life beyond the classroom. This has become especially important during these uncertain times of the global pandemic.

The pandemic has placed further pressure on educators to adapt to new ways of working which also requires some critical thinking of their own.

This article will guide you through the fundamentals of Critical Thinking and provide tried and tested methods to use in your classroom and everyday life.

Critical Thinking Quick Guide:

• What is Critical Thinking?

Analytical Thinking vs Critical Thinking

Developing thinking skills, critical thinking in the classroom, critical thinking activities, critical thinking practice, barriers to critical thinking, food for thought, what is critical thinking.

“Critical thinking can be defined in a number of different ways consistent with each other, we should not put a lot of weight on any one definition. Definitions are at best scaffolding for the mind. With this qualification in mind, here is a bit of scaffolding: critical thinking is thinking about your thinking while you’re thinking in order to make your thinking better . ” – Richard Paul, author of Critical Thinking: How to Prepare Students for a Rapidly Changing World.

There is often a misconception that critical thinking is a negative process to disprove something. It would be more constructive to consider it as a means of putting an idea into perspective and seeing the bigger picture.

Critical thinking provides an opportunity to analyze and reflect on ideas. It also enables you to suspend past assumptions and self-doubt.

Analytical Thinking is a linear process which allows you to break down and review complex information. This type of thinking uses reasoning and logic to analyze the information presented, identify patterns and trends, and present facts and evidence.

Critical Thinking includes an element of analytical thinking but goes much further. It’s a more holistic process that results in a judgement of the validity of information using other sources. Critical thinking requires a detailed evaluation of the information. You should check for accuracy, any bias or assumptions, assess the conclusions and whether the evidence supports the conclusion.

Both of these skill sets should be developed to allow greater depth of thinking.

“We cannot solve our problems with the same thinking we used when we created them.” – Albert Einstein

When developing an academic curriculum, educators often refer to Bloom’s taxonomy – a model used to classify learning objectives. Within this model, thinking skills are categorized into lower and higher order thinking skills:

Lower order thinking skills – knowledge, comprehension and application Higher order thinking skills – analysis, synthesis and evaluation

The higher order thinking skills that students need for critical thinking can be assessed using a number of criteria:

• Use of information
• Questioning abilities
• Aptitude for communication and collaboration
• Ability to keep an open mind
• Ability to draw conclusions
• Self-awareness

Whilst this is not an exhaustive list, it is a good starting point for identifying learning outcomes and developing specific skills.

There are many tools that students can use to support their learning, such as interactive resources, social media and discussion groups to share thoughts and opinions. Connecting to others and the world around us can also help us to develop a greater understanding of ourselves.

“It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.” – Aristotle

“ How do you know that? ”

These two simple questions formed the basis of many interactions with students in my classroom, regardless of age or subject matter. When a student gave an answer to a question, I would ask one of these questions to encourage them to elaborate on their response. My students knew that I didn’t just want an answer but for them to demonstrate how they had arrived at the answer; I was interested in their critical thinking skills. Students would then consider if there were other ways to arrive at the same conclusion or whether there were alternative answers. They were also encouraged to ask their own questions to probe deeper into their thinking.

This simple resource can help students reflect and question their own thinking and ultimately develop their independent thinking skills for future learning.

Whilst this is just one anecdotal example to enhance critical thinking, there are many effective activities that you can use in the classroom with your students.

Continuum Line: Give students a key statement and a continuum line with ‘Always’ at one end and ‘Never’ at the other end. Students should determine where they would place themselves on the line and provide reasoning for their decisions. This task generates discussion and debate around the key statement. Some students may decide to change their position of the line throughout the course of the debate but persuasion is not the aim here. The purpose of the task is to elicit a range of viewpoints around the statement to support critical thinking.

Silent Debate: Set a number of written statements on large pieces of paper around the classroom. Students are then asked whether they agree or disagree with the statement. They should add their reasoning and also be encouraged to add to the ideas of others. This alternative to the traditional oral debate encourages everyone to contribute at the same time and promotes collaboration. It can be particularly effective for quieter class members.

Fact or Opinion?: Ask students to identify the facts and opinions within authentic articles or editorials. Encourage them to analyze the language and explain how they can distinguish the evidence from their beliefs.

All of these activities can be easily adapted from the classroom to online platforms such as Trello or Zoom breakouts rooms.

Check out this Critical Thinking Workbook for more examples.

“Everything we hear is an opinion, not a fact; everything we see is a perspective, not the truth.” – Marcus Aurelius.

In critical thinking, it is important not to willfully accept the all information presented. Question assumptions and ideas to determine whether or not you are seeing the bigger picture. ‘Fake News’ is a prime example of this.

Try these tips to hone your skills:

• Identify inconsistencies, errors, and omissions
• Find and understand links between ideas
• Develop systematic ways of solving problems
• Recognize problems before building any arguments
• Foster your curiosity – is there something else that hasn’t been explored?

A Closed Mind Everyone has opinions and their own perspective on some issues. If your bias is so strong that you are unwilling to consider any other perspectives, this leads to closed-mindedness. Your bias may be based on research outcomes that you consider unlikely to change. But critical thinkers know that even the basis of some knowledge can change over time. Check your assumptions to apply critical thinking.

Misunderstanding The Truth Or Facts We may occasionally accept beliefs presumed to be true but have little evidence to justify them. To demonstrate critical thinking, it’s crucial to distinguish facts from beliefs and to dig deeper by evaluating the "facts" and how much evidence there is to validate them.

Trusting Your Instincts When you trust your gut instincts, this is largely based on sensing or feeling. Using intuitive judgment is actually the last thing you should do if you want to demonstrate critical thinking, as you are less likely to question your assumptions or bias.

Lack Of Knowledge This barrier could be two-fold. Firstly, you may lack the knowledge and understanding of the higher-order skills required for critical thinking. Secondly, you may lack knowledge of the topic you need to evaluate. Recognizing this lack of understanding and carrying out research to close the knowledge gap will help to reduce the barrier.

Lack Of Effort Recognizing that critical thinking is not necessarily over-thinking is significant to removing this barrier. Even if you have developed the necessary skills, it is important to have the willingness to engage in the process of critical thinking.

Overcoming these barriers will help you to:

• Reinforce your problem-solving skills
• Boost your creativity
• Encourage curiosity
• Foster independence
• Develop your range of skills
• Provide you with a skill for life

Have you been evaluating the information presented in this guide?

Did you find yourself challenging or agreeing with points that have been raised?

Have you considered alternative ideas or new ways of thinking?

Are you think differently after reading this article?

If the answer is YES , you are already on the path to Critical Thinking!

Join us for more discussions at Aristotle’s Café .

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10 Innovative Strategies for Promoting Critical Thinking in the Classroom

Are you looking for innovative ways to promote critical thinking skills in your classroom? As an educator, you know the importance of developing strong critical thinking skills in your students. In today’s complex and ever-changing world, critical thinking is a vital skill that can make the difference between success and failure.

Critical Thinking Lessons and Activities

Now you may be wondering how to promote critical thinking in the classroom or how to develop critical thinking skills in the students. Well, to help you out, we’ve put together 10 surprising strategies to promote critical thinking skills in your classroom, complete with real-world examples and actionable strategies.

Strategies for Promoting Critical Thinking in the Classroom

These strategies are designed to promote active learning, inquiry-based learning, and Bloom’s Taxonomy levels of analysis, evaluation, and interpretation. Here they are:

1. Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning is an effective way to promote critical thinking skills in your classroom. By encouraging your students to work together to solve complex problems, you can help them develop skills in analysis, evaluation, and interpretation.

For example, you could divide your students into small groups and give them a problem to solve. Each group can then present their solution to the class and the class can evaluate and critique each solution. This not only encourages critical thinking, but it also promotes teamwork and communication skills.

If you are looking for examples of critical thinking in the classroom, then read our article 11 activities that promote critical thinking skills in the classroom .

2. Questioning

Asking open-ended questions is another effective way to promote critical thinking skills in your classroom. Open-ended questions encourage your students to think deeply about a topic and consider different perspectives.

Read our article: 10 Best Educational Games for Kids That will Shape Their Future

For example, if you’re teaching a lesson on climate change, you could ask your students questions such as “What are the causes of climate change?” and “What are the potential consequences of climate change?” These questions encourage your students to analyze information and think critically about the topic.

3. Active Listening

Encouraging active listening is another way to promote critical thinking skills in your classroom. When students actively listen to each other, they consider different perspectives and analyze information more deeply.

Think Like a Detective – A Kid’s Guide to Critical Thinking

For example, you could ask your students to work in pairs and have each student share their opinion on a topic. The other student must actively listen and ask follow-up questions to better understand their partner’s perspective. This activity promotes critical thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and interpretation.

4. Case Studies

Using case studies is another effective way to promote critical thinking skills in your classroom. Case studies allow your students to apply critical thinking skills to real-world situations.

For example, if you’re teaching a lesson on business ethics , you could present a case study on a company that faced an ethical dilemma. Your students can then analyze the case study and identify potential solutions. This activity promotes critical thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and interpretation.

Organizing debates is another effective way to promote critical thinking skills in your classroom. Debates encourage your students to analyze and evaluate different viewpoints on a topic.

For example, if you’re teaching a lesson on gun control, you could organize a debate where half of the class argues for gun control and the other half argues against it. This activity promotes critical thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and interpretation.

Read our article: Engaging STEM Activities for Elementary, Middle and High School Students

6. Mind Mapping

Using mind mapping is another effective way to promote critical thinking skills in your classroom. Mind mapping allows your students to organize and analyze complex information.

For example, if you’re teaching a lesson on the solar system, you could have your students create a mind map of the different planets and their characteristics. This activity promotes critical thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and interpretation.

7. Gamification

Using game-based learning is another effective way to promote critical thinking skills in your classroom. Game-based learning engages your students and promotes critical thinking skills such as problem-solving, analysis, and evaluation.

For example, you could use an online game that requires your students to solve math problems. This activity promotes critical thinking skills such as problem-solving, analysis, and evaluation.

8. Problem-Based Learning

Using problem-based learning is another effective way to promote critical thinking skills in your classroom. Problem-based learning requires your students to solve real-world problems using critical thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and interpretation.

For example, you could present your students with a real-world problem, such as designing a sustainable community. Your students can then work in groups to research and propose solutions to the problem. This activity promotes critical thinking skills such as problem-solving, analysis, evaluation, and interpretation.

9. Reflection

Encouraging reflection is another way to promote critical thinking skills in your classroom. When students reflect on their learning experiences, they can identify areas where they need to improve and develop critical thinking skills.

For example, you could have your students keep a learning journal where they reflect on their learning experiences and identify areas where they need to improve. This activity promotes critical thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and interpretation.

10. Real-World Applications

Using real-world applications is another effective way to promote critical thinking skills in your classroom. When students can see how the skills they are learning can be applied in the real world, they are more motivated to learn and develop critical thinking skills.

For example, if you’re teaching a lesson on fractions, you could show your students how fractions are used in cooking recipes. This activity promotes critical thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and interpretation.

In conclusion, critical thinking skills are essential for success in today’s complex and ever-changing world. As an educator, you can promote critical thinking skills in your classroom by using these 10 surprising ways. Collaborative learning, questioning, active listening, case studies, debates, mind mapping, gamification, problem-based learning, reflection, and real-world applications are all effective ways to promote critical thinking skills. By incorporating these strategies into your teaching, you can help your students develop the critical thinking skills they need to succeed in the 21st century.

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• Grades 6-12
• School Leaders

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5 Critical Thinking Activities That Get Students Up and Moving

More movement means better learning.

It’s easy to resort to having kids be seated during most of the school day. But learning can (and should) be an active process. Incorporating movement into your instruction has incredible benefits—from deepening student understanding to improving concentration to enhancing performance. Check out these critical thinking activities, adapted from Critical Thinking in the Classroom , a book with over 100 practical tools and strategies for teaching critical thinking in K-12 classrooms.

Four Corners

In this activity, students move to a corner of the classroom based on their responses to a question with four answer choices. Once they’ve moved, they can break into smaller groups to explain their choices. Call on students to share to the entire group. If students are persuaded to a different answer, they can switch corners and further discuss. 

Question ideas:

• Which president was most influential: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, or Abraham Lincoln?
• Is Holden Caulfield a hero: Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, or Strongly Disagree?

Gallery Walk

This strategy encourages students to move around the classroom in groups to respond to questions, documents, images, or situations posted on chart paper. Each group gets a different colored marker to record their responses and a set amount of time at each station. When groups move, they can add their own ideas and/or respond to what prior groups have written.

Gallery ideas:

• Political cartoons

Stations are a great way to chunk instruction and present information to the class without a “sit and get.” Group desks around the room or create centers, each with a different concept and task. There should be enough stations for three to five students to work for a set time before rotating.

Station ideas:

• Types of rocks
• Story elements
• Literary genres

Silent Sticky-Note Storm

In this brainstorming activity, students gather in groups of three to five. Each group has a piece of chart paper with a question at the top and a stack of sticky notes. Working in silence, students record as many ideas or answers as possible, one answer per sticky note. When time is up, they post the sticky notes on the paper and then silently categorize them.

• How can you exercise your First Amendment rights?
• What are all the ways you can divide a square into eighths?

Mingle, Pair, Share

Take your Think, Pair, Share to the next level. Instead of having students turn and talk, invite them to stand and interact. Play music while they’re moving around the classroom. When the music stops, each student finds a partner. Pose a question and invite students to silently think about their answer. Then, partners take turns sharing their thoughts.

• How do organisms modify their environments?
• What is the theme of Romeo and Juliet ?

Looking for more critical thinking activities and ideas?

Critical Thinking in the Classroom is a practitioner’s guide that shares the why and the how for building critical thinking skills in K-12 classrooms. It includes over 100 practical tools and strategies that you can try in your classroom tomorrow!

Get Your Copy of Critical Thinking in the Classroom

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CURRICULUM, INSTRUCTION, AND PEDAGOGY article

Teaching dynamics to enhance critical thinking and knowledge socialization in the mathematics classroom.

• 1 Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico
• 2 Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile

Building the future of education together means that, as educators, we need to promote innovation and educational strategies in our classroom to foster the development of skills such as critical thinking and argumentation. Moreover, we should encourage using technology as an efficient and effective tool to solve complex problems. Mathematics is a cornerstone in the education of engineering students. However, students’ mathematic classroom experiences have only presented them with a rigid and pure side to the discipline. Active learning strategies foster the development of competencies such as critical thinking and argumentation while generating knowledge socialization and learning democratization. The active learning dynamics were conducted in first-year undergraduate calculus course for engineering and are based on collaborative learning, model-eliciting activities, and the use of technology. Students reported that being actively involved and interacting with classmates and tools made them enjoy the class, broaden their view of mathematics, and connect with contexts from other disciplines. Moreover, these dynamics favor different types of formative assessment for students, self- and peer-assessment, and for teachers about the students learning and the design of the activity. Based on educational research, the design of the dynamics is innovative in the combination of implementations used to potentiate the benefits of a student-centered learning environment and the socialization of knowledge.

1 Introduction

The issue of teaching and learning sciences has been studied for a long time, and there is a consensus on the advantages of active learning ( Noreen et al., 2023 ; Vale and Barbosa, 2023 ). The research conducted by Hake (1998) establishes some of these advantages. Hake argues that regardless of the level of knowledge with which students enter a course, learning is greater when they are exposed to active learning strategies than when taught solely in a traditional manner. Meltzer and Thornton (2012) identify that specific ideas that students have can be elucidated through active learning, as it provides an opportunity for cognitive reconfigurations or the acquisition of new knowledge by grappling with known problems or concepts and extending them to other less familiar topics, thereby promoting a more comprehensive understanding.

Contemporary university students exhibit distinct characteristics compared to those of previous decades. The growing impact of technology has altered access to knowledge and learning spaces and has evolved their forms. This requires teachers to reflect on what, to whom, how, when, why, and for what purpose they teach. While it is true that all these questions need to be addressed collectively, this work will focus on how to teach calculus to first-year engineering students.

The shared dynamics are closely linked to the available technology in the classroom where the implementation occurred ( Zavala et al., 2013 ). The physical layout of the classroom facilitates this implementation but is not exclusive to such an environment. That is, these dynamics can be adapted for other spaces. This work is aimed at mathematics teachers but may also interest physics teachers interested in bridging the gap between mathematics and physics, incorporating technology in the classroom, and exploring new active learning dynamics.

2 Pedagogical frameworks

The goal is to share a didactic proposal of strategies and dynamics that foster active learning of mathematics through the socialization of knowledge. The selected strategies presented here are based on the fundamental principles of collaborative learning and teamwork ( Roschelle, 1992 ; Johnson and Johnson, 1997 ; Van den Bossche et al., 2006 ; Wester, 2021 ) and model-eliciting activities and modeling ( Aliprantis and Carmona, 2003 ; Lesh and Doerr, 2003 ; Lesh and Caylor, 2007 ; Stohlmann, 2013 ).

Collaborative learning serves as the foundation for the structure of collaborative groups (base, formal, and informal), establishing collaboration as the culture in the classroom. Students work in their groups from the beginning of the semester, attempting to maintain the same base groups to create spaces for interaction, build a trusting atmosphere, and encourage idea exchanges. The richness of knowledge socialization lies in interactions. Therefore, this work is grounded in team learning theories, understood as developing, modifying, and reinforcing mental models through group interactions ( Mohammed and Dumville, 2001 ; Hansen, 2022 ; Nieminen et al., 2022 ; Noreen et al., 2023 ). Roschelle (1992) argues that interactions provide students with the means to construct increasingly sophisticated approaches. Thus, systematic teamwork encourages interactions and approaches to construct more robust understandings ( Wester, 2021 ).

This document’s didactic strategies and dynamics are based on collaborative learning as a platform for active learning ( Chan and Clarke, 2017 ; Noreen et al., 2023 ; Vale and Barbosa, 2023 ). For this work, collaborative learning is understood as the performance of actions through working groups with a common goal, namely, constructing knowledge among all members through meaning negotiation ( Slavin, 1987 , 1990 ; Díaz-Barriga and Hernández, 2002 ; Hansen, 2022 ; Lugosi and Uribe, 2022 ). Johnson and Johnson (1997) identify five fundamental elements of collaborative learning: positive interdependence, individual responsibility, social skills, face-to-face interaction, and group processing. In particular, positive interdependence and individual responsibility play a prominent role in achieving the group’s common goal. Social skills such as empathetic listening, respect for ideas, oral and written communication, and the integration of all team members need to be practiced to achieve synergy in the group. In this sense, group processing provides a space for reflection that facilitates identifying strengths and weaknesses (individual and group) to ensure that the entire group advances collectively.

Modeling plays a crucial role in the proposed dynamics, addressed from two main perspectives: “model-eliciting activities” (MEA) and mathematical modeling. MEAs aim to elucidate both cognitive and mathematical models of students, allowing for a deeper understanding of posed phenomena or situations ( Lesh and Doerr, 2003 ; Ärlebäck et al., 2013 ; Vargas Alejo et al., 2018 ; Rusliah et al., 2021 ). Mathematical modeling, on the other hand, involves the process of abstracting the real situation to its mathematical representation and vice versa, interpreting mathematical results in the context of the studied situation ( Blum and Borromeo-Ferri, 2009 ; Harris et al., 2015 ; Aziz and Irwan, 2020 ; Brady et al., 2020 ).

In the design of modeling activities, the theory of representations and visualization is incorporated ( Duval, 2006 , 2014 ; Asmuss and Budkina, 2019 ). Duval argues that the quantity and quality of semiotic representations a student has about a mathematical object reflects the robustness of their understanding of that object. Visualization is conceived as the process of effectively using or producing graphic or geometric representations to facilitate mathematical discovery or understanding, acknowledging the non-trivial nature of this act ( Zimmerman and Cunningham, 1991 ; Presmeg, 2014 ).

3 Learning environment and pedagogical format

The dynamics presented were implemented in a first-year calculus course at a non-profit private university in Mexico. The institution where they were applied is recognized to offer top international entrepreneurship undergraduate programs, and to look “for the best global students; those with exceptional talent, entrepreneurial spirit, and high leadership potential” ( The Princeton Review, 2024 ). Under the institution’s vision and educational model (Tecnologico de Monterrey, 2019 ), mathematics is viewed as (a) a logically structured conceptual system, (b) a symbolic language, and (c) a problem-solving tool that considers the socialization of knowledge. This perspective informs the design of dynamics grounded in collaborative work and extends their reach by combining dynamics with activity design. The educational innovation lies in the structure of the dynamics, which is facilitated by the physical layout of the classroom. The pedagogical innovation shifts from traditional teaching (teacher-centered) to active learning (student-centered). This innovation is in learning environments since it generates active classrooms with flexible furniture and integrated technology and enhances student engagement and collaboration ( Díaz-Barriga and Hernández, 2002 ; Zavala et al., 2013 ).

The content corresponds to a first-year differential calculus course for engineers. The teaching strategies and dynamic designs help students to understand, apply, and value the concepts and procedures of calculus and to develop their critical thinking, problem solving, communication and collaboration competences. It is desired that students learn to see mathematical concepts and procedures as useful tools to solve problems and understand phenomena in which a quantity is changing. Moreover, this course fosters the use of technology to promote and facilitate understanding (specialized software and graphing calculators) to provide students with a broader, dynamic, and varied view of mathematics.

The classroom design and setting favor student-centered learning and transforms the classroom into a laboratory for experimenting and analyzing data ( Zavala et al., 2013 ). The classroom features eight circular tables, four projection screens, a demonstration table, a desk for the professor (see Figure 1 ), and several large whiteboards on three sides of the room. The size of the tables allows seating for three groups of three students each (9 students per table). The screens are positioned so that projections are visible anywhere in the room. This classroom design minimizes the teacher’s exposition time, as the teacher is not positioned at the front of the room. The professor’s role is crucial in both activity design and implementation.

Figure 1 . (A) Innovative design of the classroom. (B) Students working collaboratively.

Since the entire course semester is designed to foster collaboration, during the first week of classes students are assigned to a group and a table (base groups) based on a diagnostic test and number of women per group or table, to avoid having a single woman per table. The base groups became the formal groups, but there were also informal groups for specific activities. The three implementations presented in this essay were carried out once per month in sessions of 120 min each. However, there were a variety of individual/collaborative, with and without technology activities during the entire semester. The author presents these three activities as examples of the dynamics that occurred in the class.

The results presented in this manuscript correspond to 30 first-year engineering students enrolled in an honors calculus course taught in English. The following describes the three interventions in chronological order.

3.1 Model-eliciting activity

Students work in formal collaborative groups. Each table accommodates three groups of three students each. Each group is given a different modeling problem, but all problems are solved using the same mathematical model. From the beginning of the semester, teams at each table were identified by colors, and different exercises from the same worksheet were often assigned to each group. Therefore, it is not a source of distraction for students that their peers next to them are working on a different problem.

The three implemented modeling activities evoke the linear model but are situated in different contexts. One deals with the significant changes in cell phone plans and presents the case of a recent graduate, José, who seeks support in selecting the most suitable cell phone plan (cost vs. airtime). The second activity is about expert footprint trackers and presents the case of a mayor who wants to reward a person for their good deeds, having only a shoe print as information (height vs. shoe print). The mayor seeks help identifying this person ( Stohlmann, 2013 ; Garfield et al., 2024 ). The third activity narrates the planning of a track and field event and presents the case of a coach who wants to design an exercise program for a treadmill using the analysis of calorie burn rates per minute relative to walking speed for different treadmill incline angles ( Garfield et al., 2024 ; SGMM, 2024 ). Groups work freely with the option to use any materials or tools (computers, calculators, internet, notes, books, sheets, rulers, colors, markers, etc.).

An important characteristic of modeling activities is the documentation of the solution. Each group writes a formal letter explaining their reasoning and presenting their mathematical solution ( Lesh and Doerr, 2003 ; Brady et al., 2020 ). Groups present their solutions to the entire class, and students are encouraged to ask their peers about the models they built and the strategies they employed. Since they have different problems, the discussion focuses on the structure of the models, emphasizing the main characteristics intended for students to understand and identify in different contexts. Another characteristic of these activities is that the teacher serves as a monitor, avoids responding with value judgments, and replies with questions to students’ inquiries (Socratic method). These characteristics promote reflection and self-direction in students ( Aziz and Irwan, 2020 ; Jaiswal et al., 2021 ; Nieminen et al., 2022 ).

These modeling activities, known as thought-revealing activities, elucidate students’ thought models ( Lesh and Doerr, 2003 ). A characteristic of these activities is that the contexts they address captivate students and often bring information or conditions from their own experiences to the problem, simulating what we commonly do in decision-making in our daily lives. For instance, in the case of José, students working on this problem mentioned other conditions they believed would be useful for José in his selection, such as the duration of his plan, types of calls (local or national, landlines or cell phones, call durations, etc.). This is a first general level of revealing thought, elucidating the connections students have with the context. Another characteristic is the aim for students to model the problem situations to be solved. This represents a second level of revealing thought, specifically related to the mathematical content.

Due to their nature, thought-revealing activities serve as a reference for addressing other topics in class. These activities can be used to introduce or extend a topic. The richness lies in the solutions and connections that can be made by using them as a reference for other problems or activities. From the design of the activities, the goal is to enable various strategies for resolution and obtain different answers. In this type of exercise, the numerical result is not the primary focus; instead, the emphasis is on the analysis performed (problem-solving process) and the argumentation made (knowledge socialization and documentation).

The modeling activities described above were used as the conclusion of the first topic. This was planned because the three modeling activities implemented had in common that they could be represented with a linear function, the initial topic of the course in which the activity was implemented. The ideas covered during the first-course topic include solving linear equations, solving systems of linear equations, constructing and reading the graph of the line, parallel and perpendicular lines, the structure of the linear function f(x) = mx + b, graphical effects of the parameters of the linear function, interpretation, and application of the linear model in different contexts.

In the second topic studied in the course, the quadratic model, a modeling activity, was also implemented and used as the conclusion of the topic. In this case, all groups solved the same problem, an adaptation in Spanish of the “Historic Hotel” problem ( Aliprantis and Carmona, 2003 ; Dominguez, 2013 ). The implementation details are not included in this paper; only some observations about this implementation are discussed in the Results and Discussion sections.

3.2 “Solve & Share” dynamic

Due to its structure, this dynamic is called “Solve & Share.” Students solve a problem in pairs, share it with a student from another pair, and then return to share what they have learned with their initial partner. In this way, each student has contact with three problems to recognize specific and general strategies for formulation and solution. It is like the think-pair-share learning model ( Tanujaya and Mumu, 2019 ) in that students work in pairs to discuss the solution to the problem allowing them to communicate and argue their ideas. Then, each student shares their solution with another student and listens to the solution strategy to a similar problem ( Irma et al., 2020 ). Finally, there is another sharing step back with the same initial pair to present what the other student commented on their solution. It is different to think-pair-share in that the initial thinking stage occurs in pairs, not individually. Also, the sharing part only occurs within pairs, the table discussion or whole class discussion occurs at the end of the activity to recapitulate ideas and strategies in solving the posed problems.

The didactic objective of the activity applied with the “Solve & Share” dynamic was to review problem-solving for optimization, also known as maximum and minimum problems. These problems are challenging for students due to the transition required between the verbal problem and the formulation of the functions that model it mathematically. Once the functions are obtained, the formal procedure is the same for all optimization problems: (1) obtain the derivative of the variable of interest concerning the reference variable, (2) set the derivative to zero, (3) analyze if the zeros of the first derivative correspond to a critical point, (4) determine the ordinate of the optimization point, and (5) provide an interpretation of the obtained result. Even knowing these steps, students still face difficulties with the required rules of differentiation and the algebra to simplify the derivative, solve the resulting equation, and evaluate, and interpret the results.

This dynamic, based on collaborative learning and the socialization of knowledge, favors each student’s ability to solve and explain a problem. Moreover, it enables them to listen to and explain another problem’s solution. In this activity, informal collaborative groups of two students were formed. Eight students were arranged per table and grouped into four pairs. Each pair was given a worksheet to guide them in the activity and had to answer as they progressed. At each table, two pairs worked with laptops, and the other two worked with graphic calculators. Pairs with the same technology sat diametrically opposite each other (see Figure 2 ). If the number of students in the room was odd, measures could be taken to accommodate the group of three students and still fulfill the activity objective.

Figure 2 . Representation of the physical arrangement of groups at each table during the second and third stages of the “Solve & Share” activity.

This activity is structured in three stages. In the first stage, teams are given an optimization problem (maxima and minima) to work on, and they have 20 min to solve it. Each team works on a different problem, resulting in four optimization problems per table. This is the only stage where the assigned technological tool (laptop or graphing calculator) is used. In the second stage, each team member meets with a partner from the adjacent pair to exchange ideas and solutions for the problems they worked on (see Figure 2 ). Each student has 2 min to share with their partner the problem situation to be optimized, the strategy for solving it, and the interpretation of their results. This is regulated by an alarm that sounds after 2 min. The sound used is that of an oriental cymbal, which is soft, harmonious, and serves the purpose of announcing without disturbing. Students are accustomed to this time regulation as the teacher frequently marks the work time.

Although the groups worked on different problems and even used different technologies, the essence of the problems is the same—the structure of the solution and analysis are common for all the problems provided. These differences and similarities encourage students to abstract the problem and its solution to share it with their peers. In the third stage of the activity, students return to their informal group to exchange what they have learned (see Figure 2 ). Again, each student has 2 min to share the problem and solution just explained to them. In the second and third stages, technological tools are no longer used; only ideas are shared.

In the first-year university mathematics course where this dynamic was implemented, it was used as the closing activity for the third month. This planning was intentional, as the four optimization activities implemented all involved polynomial functions, and both the derivatives of polynomial functions and the solution of such equations had already been studied. Emphasis was placed on interpreting the results considering the context in which they were worked, as mathematical solutions sometimes yield nonsensical results given the contextual conditions. For example, solving a quadratic equation might yield a negative solution, which is mathematically correct. Still, if the variable represents areas, this result lacks physical meaning since area is an absolute dimension, and negative areas do not exist. With this “Solve & Share” activity, the aim is to expose students to various optimization problems, and by explaining these problems to each other, they abstract the most prominent characteristics of optimization problem-solving. In this way, students are exposed to three optimization problems in a short amount of time. Furthermore, students recognize the structure of the problem-solving strategy, which is valuable across various fields of knowledge. To conclude the activity, students write a reflection on what they learned and investigate a real-life situation that requires applying what they learned.

3.3 “Three ring circus” dynamic

This dynamic involves one-third of the group working in triads with calculators (each student with their calculator, interacting with their peers), another third working in pairs with a laptop, and the remaining third working individually with paper and pencil (sharing ideas with their peers). The group is divided into three stations. Students switch stations every 25 min, allowing each student to work at all three stations during the class session. The time is marked three times at each station: (1) five minutes before the station rotation, (2) one minute before the rotation, and (3) at the moment of the rotation to the next station. This allows students to manage their time to complete the activity at each station ( Figure 3 ).

Figure 3 . Example of three activities on definite integral for students to solve in each station: (A) using a computer, (B) using a graphing calculator, and (C) using paper and pencil.

The classroom where this dynamic was implemented has a system that allows all laptops to connect to the main computer and another system that connects all calculators to the teacher’s computer. This facilitates the teacher in monitoring each team and collecting student files at the end of the activity before the station rotation.

This time, the concept of the definite integral of a function was reviewed at all three stations. At the computer station, students worked with accumulated change through a numerical method (applying the Euler method in a spreadsheet). They verified the graphical representation of this numerical calculation using software (any available), compared it with the exact calculation of cumulative change (such as Wolfram Alpha) to compute the definite integral, and finally reflected on an interpretation of the three obtained results. At the computer station, students worked in pairs, promoting peer interaction.

In the calculator station, the conceptual aspect of the graphical interpretation (area under the curve) and formulation of the associated definite integral are observed. The calculator file presents a series of dynamic graphs in which students are asked to represent the given integral and calculate it using technology. In the paper and pencil station (or portable whiteboards), the procedural and application aspects of integral calculus are practiced, particularly the application of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

The teacher designs the activities to ensure that the working time at each station (calculator, computer, paper, and pencil) is similar and establishes the same working time with each tool to coordinate station changes. Groups rotate from station to station, allowing each student to work with all three tools, thus reviewing and revisiting concepts and procedures across different representations. In this dynamic, students work in informal groups at the computer station and in their formal groups at the calculator and paper and pencil stations. The variety of context and situations the students solve promotes conceptual connections within mathematics, as well as interdisciplinary applications of calculus concepts ( Harris et al., 2015 ; Armenta and Dominguez, 2024 ). As a conclusion to the activity, a review laboratory is appropriate.

To assess the results of the implementation of the various strategies and dynamics presented above, various data collection methods are used depending on the activity being evaluated.

4.1 Modeling activity

During the first implementation of this type of dynamics, three different modeling activities that required the same mathematical concepts were simultaneously worked on. Evidence includes the resolution documents from each team, the formal letter in which they argue and explain their resolution, and video recordings of the oral presentation of their approach. During the oral presentations, the teacher encouraged groups that had not solved the presented modeling activity to ask questions about the methodology and interpretation of the results, fostering relationships between different proposed approaches. Modeling activities promote knowledge socialization at the team and group levels.

The second time a modeling activity was implemented in the classroom, all teams solved the same situation. This activity evoked the quadratic model in its different representations (tabular, algebraic, and graphical), and two options for the dependent variable could be selected. When solving the activity, it was necessary to identify the vertex of the parabola (maximum of the function), so teams resorted to different methods (arithmetic, algebraic, and calculus-based). The variety of representations, the selection of the dependent variable, and the optimization method allowed teams to present different approaches and propose various solutions ( Dominguez, 2013 ). Comparing the two types of modeling activities (different problems per table and the same problem per table) revealed that both types were enriching and met the objectives of summarizing and linking mathematical concepts and procedures, as well as socializing knowledge ( Noreen et al., 2023 ). Team and group interactions promoted model development, modification, and reinforcement ( Wester, 2021 ). Furthermore, these activities encouraged students to recognize that problems can have more than one correct answer and more than one way to be solved, and above all, to appreciate what their peers can propose and argue. The implementation of modeling activities occurred in each of the mathematics main ideas: linear model, quadratic model, exponential model, and applications of derivatives and integrals, among others. This continuing practice at different moments of the learning sequence intends to develop in the students a reflective practice, sharing and contrasting ways to approach problems.

4.2 “Solve & Share” dynamic

In this dynamic, the design or selection of the problems that each group will solve is crucial. Problems should be selected, adapted, or designed to require (a) the same solution time, (b) collaborative work, (c) the same didactic objective, and (d) different tools. In this way, the activity is facilitated, motivation to collaborate and share is promoted, and the abstraction of the solution structure is achieved. During the activity, the teacher’s role is to monitor all the group’s progress, address technological doubts, and indicate when each activity stage begins. This ensures that all groups move forward simultaneously and are ready to collaborate and share. Similar to modeling activities and the think-pair-share learning model, this dynamic empowers students by encouraging abstraction, argumentation, and knowledge socialization ( Tanujaya and Mumu, 2019 ; Irma et al., 2020 ).

In this dynamic, the interaction between students is crucial when solving the assigned problem (stage one) and when sharing solution strategies with their peers (stage two and stage three). Since the time they have to share their solutions is short (2 min per student), they must be able to abstract the main solution ideas and structure them for explanation. Software such as Geogebra, or any available tools (computer, calculator, tablets, mobile devices, etc.) can be selected according to the accessibility, familiarity, and objective of the lesson. For lesson ideas and activities, there are a variety of websites that offer math resources under a Creative Commons license.

4.3 “Three ring circus” dynamic

It is suggested that this dynamic be implemented towards the end of the period, serving as a review of concepts and procedures approaching evaluation. It allows for a dynamic, collaborative review of topics using various approaches to a single mathematical idea or concept. Like the “Solve & Share” dynamic, the design of the problems for each station to solve is crucial. Problems should be selected, adapted, or designed to require (a) the same solution time, (b) collaborative work, and (c) the use of different tools. Unlike the previous dynamic, the same didactic objective is not necessary. In the example presented above, the cumulative change concept was worked on. Still, for another course, this dynamic was implemented in the last week of classes as a general course review. Therefore, different concepts and topics were addressed.

The intention is to work with different representations (verbal, tabular, algebraic, graphic), approach the concept (or concepts) from various perspectives and contexts, and review resolution procedures to encourage students to establish more connections between representations, concepts, and procedures. Using different stations provides the opportunity to approach the same concept from different perspectives, whether it’s a theme in all three stations or a general review of all topics to be evaluated. Due to the dynamism and variety of activities, students remain focused, leading to increased participation and motivation to learn.

5 Discussion

To address homework questions and share class comments, a group was set up on a social network where all students and the teacher had accounts. At the end of the activities, a group processing activity consisted of sharing their opinion on learning, the dynamic, and any other thoughts students would like to share. This was a common practice (since the first week), so students felt free to comment knowing that a positive or negative critique does not influence their grades. Here are some of the positive comments that students shared through that space at the end of the classes in which the dynamics described above were implemented.

• Everyone shared their results, and we saw what to improve and those things.

• The fact that we had to think more.

• I liked the reaction when everyone participated. It was a bit frustrating, but fun.

• I learned to work better with my team, and the activity made us think more.

• It was a very good activity and I liked working in a team, and we used our knowledge to answer it.

• It makes us think critically about different points of view on how to solve problems, and everyone could participate in class.

• It was a great challenge and showed that problems can be solved through different perspectives.

• It keeps us active, with no time to get distracted.

• It helps us review for the evaluation.

Positive comments highlight the richness of collaborative work and the inclusion of all students. In the case of the modeling activity, students perceived it as a different activity where there was no correct numerical answer, and there was more than one way to solve the problem. These are precisely some of the characteristics highlighted in the literature on modeling activities ( Aliprantis and Carmona, 2003 ; Dominguez, 2013 ). In the “Solve & Share” dynamic, most students were able to identify the optimization procedure from the analysis of the first derivative, making the task easier for them once they had discussed the problems. The most mentioned positive comment by students about the ‘Circus with Three Rings’ dynamic was that the station changes kept them focused, and the solved problems helped them prepare for the evaluation.

Students were also asked to comment on aspects they did not like about the dynamics. Here are some of their responses shared at different times during the semester:

• It took the whole class to solve the problem (modeling activity).

• I feel unsure; I do not really know if our answers are correct or not.

• I’m not used to not getting a concrete answer.

• The level of some activities was a bit high.

• I do not like group activities in a math class…, I prefer individual activities.

• Not being able to solve it, not knowing the correct answer.

• Lack of time.

Regarding negative aspects of modeling activities, the feeling of uncertainty stands out due to there being more than one way to solve the problem or a perception that these problems are different from textbook exercises, problems they are unfamiliar with. However, this aspect of uncertainty is not necessarily negative but rather an element that can be leveraged in a class by emphasizing that these activities are solved with strategies more like those they will face in real-life problems. When solving these problems, students need to establish initial considerations (assumptions), which occur in solving real-world problems. The anxiety caused by not reaching a common answer is something that we must teach our students. Particularly in the sciences, exercises tend to have a single correct numerical answer, while these activities may have different numerical answers depending on the constraints and considerations each team establishes.

In the “Solve & Share” activity, students mention that the most challenging part is explaining a problem that you did not solve but was explained. Interestingly, students express this issue, as it can be related to the ability to abstract, a skill sought to be strengthened in students. Regarding the Circus with Three Rings activities, managing time to finish the problems and change stations was the greatest difficulty. This indicates that it is necessary to review the extent of the activities, streamline station changes, and place more emphasis on time management.

These dynamics promote the active participation of all students, creating synergy in an atmosphere of respect and idea exchange toward a common goal, as evidenced by student comments ( Van den Bossche et al., 2006 ; Jaiswal et al., 2021 ). Teamwork is carried out systematically and continuously favors the socialization of knowledge and appreciation for each other’s contributions ( Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992 ; Castillo et al., 2022 ; Noreen et al., 2023 ), as evidenced by the fact that they often meet outside of class to continue collaborating. On the other hand, in line with the work in class, periodic assessments also included a portion of teamwork accompanied by self- and peer evaluations.

The strategies and dynamics presented here have been implemented in first-year university mathematics courses and are easily adaptable to other courses or levels. The intention is to share and discuss how changes in elements and actors (students, teachers, the vision of mathematics, learning spaces, etc.) have transformed and led us to reflect on other ways to support the significant challenge of learning. The physical layout of the classroom facilitated the implementation of these dynamics but is not exclusive to that type of space. These dynamics can be adapted to other classroom layouts.

Finally, we have noticed that more than academic achievement, what positively changed was students’ attitudes toward problem-solving, better ways to discuss and argue ideas, and social skills to collaborate. For further research, it will be interesting to assess how long those skills and positive attitudes toward math last and if students better connect the math ideas learned with concepts from other disciplines (especially in physics).

6 Final remarks

The presented dynamics promote formative assessment. They clarify learning intentions and success criteria, encourage interactions that elucidate student understanding, provide timely feedback enabling students to progress, and position students as active agents in their own learning ( Ní Fhloinn and Carr, 2017 ; Rakoczy et al., 2019 ). In conclusion, these dynamics offer timely information to the teacher and students about three crucial processes in teaching and learning: (a) establishing where students are in their learning, (b) determining where they are heading, and (c) figuring out what needs to be done to guide them to the desired destination ( Black and Wiliam, 1998 ).

Some advantages of these dynamics include (a) active participation of all students in the class, (b) development of competencies such as argumentation, collaborative work, and abstract thinking, (c) use of technology to facilitate learning, and (d) formative assessment for students, self- and peer-assessment, and for teachers about the students learning and the design of the activity ( Boström and Palm, 2023 ). The design of the problems to be solved and the structure of the implemented dynamics promote iterative cycles of posing, reviewing, and refining by students, fostering reflection and the exchange of ideas. Moreover, the activities can promote connections within mathematics and interdisciplinary connections (depending on the context of the situation), strengthening students’ understanding of key concepts.

Data availability statement

The datasets presented in this article are not readily available because they are course resources. Requests to access the datasets should be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by the Comité Institucional de Ética en la Investigación, Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (protocol code EHE-2023-09). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

AD: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This publication is supported by project ID # I035 - IFE005 - C1-T3 - E of the Challenge-Based Research Funding Program 2022 by Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to acknowledge the financial support of Writing Lab, Institute for the Future of Education, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico, in the production of this work.

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: active learning, engineering education, mathematics, critical thinking, use of technology, socialization of knowledge, higher education, educational innovation

Citation: Dominguez A (2024) Teaching dynamics to enhance critical thinking and knowledge socialization in the mathematics classroom. Front. Educ . 9:1388720. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2024.1388720

Received: 20 February 2024; Accepted: 09 July 2024; Published: 07 August 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Dominguez. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Angeles Dominguez, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Home > Graduate Research and Creative Practice > Culminating Experience Projects > 456

Culminating Experience Projects

The importance of critical thinking skills in secondary classrooms.

Clinton T. Sterkenburg , Grand Valley State University Follow

Date Approved

Graduate degree type, degree name.

Education-Instruction and Curriculum: Secondary Education (M.Ed.)

Degree Program

College of Education

First Advisor

Sherie Klee

Academic Year

According to research, many students lack effective critical thinking skills. The ability to think critically is crucial for individuals to be successful and responsible. Many students have difficulties understanding this important skill and especially lack the ability to initiate and apply the process. Although a difficult task, educators have the responsibility to teach critical skills to students and to discern when certain instructional methods or activities are not helping students. Each student is different, and their needs must be considered, this correlates with how they learn and process information. Research has shown that traditional teaching methods that require students to regurgitate information do not prove helpful in teaching students to apply and understand the critical thinking process. Therefore, effective teachers expand upon traditional teaching methods and differentiate instructional and activity design for imparting critical thinking skills to students. This project presents some of the possible reasons students have difficulties thinking critically and provides examples of instructional and lesson design methods that are proven to help students understand critical thinking. The goal of this project is to provide a guide for secondary teachers to address the lack of critical thinking skills in many students. The ability to think critically will greatly benefit students and help them become productive members of society.

ScholarWorks Citation

Sterkenburg, Clinton T., "The Importance of Critical Thinking Skills in Secondary Classrooms" (2024). Culminating Experience Projects . 456. https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/gradprojects/456

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• DOI: 10.3389/feduc.2024.1388720
• Corpus ID: 271780689

Teaching dynamics to enhance critical thinking and knowledge socialization in the mathematics classroom

• Angeles Dominguez
• Published in Frontiers in Education 7 August 2024
• Mathematics, Education, Engineering

41 References

Unveiling interdisciplinary horizons: students’ experiences in a first-year calculus course, active learning strategies for an effective mathematics teaching and learning, the effect of a formative assessment practice on student achievement in mathematics, student attitudes in an innovative active learning approach in calculus, learning through explaining and engaging with others’ mathematical ideas, supporting student reflective practices through modelling-based learning assignments, what affordances do open-ended real-life tasks offer for sharing student agency in collaborative problem-solving, students’ agency, creative reasoning, and collaboration in mathematical problem solving, mathematical problem-solving skills on relation and function through model-eliciting activities (meas), students’ possibilities to learn from group discussions integrated in whole-class teaching in mathematics, related papers.

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AI EduPathways

Harvard AI Pedagogy Project: Safe and Effective Use of Personality Bots in the Classroom

Controversial bots can be used in ways that protect and encourage critical thinking while developing ai literacy.

My classroom journey with AI began with a personality bot, so I was thrilled when my AI activity “Interviewing a Fictional Character” was accepted into the Harvard AI Pedagogy Project.

For those who are unaware, the project brings together submissions from educators all over the world that are designed to integrate AI tools into the classroom experience in ways that are responsible and effective.

I would highly recommend checking it out as there are many top-quality assignment ideas and an AI Guide that is useful for beginners.

You can view the nuts and bolts of the project at the link in the first paragraph, but I thought I’d highlight a few aspects of the activity as a “Companion Resource” that will allow you to implement the assignment in a nuanced and effective manner.

The General Structure

The assignment utilizes three necessary steps for engaging in a way that both protects and stretches your student’s critical thinking and analysis skills.

Generating thoughtful, open-ended interview questions that take into account the personality, history, or relevant background information of the fictional or historical figure.

Interview the bot with a teacher-generated rubric for the interaction - reviewed as a class beforehand. Students will share the chat with the teacher afterwards for assessment against such a rubric. The guidelines should be tailored to the circumstances, personality, and background of the figure or character. 

Tailoring Example 1: If my students were interviewing Aristotle, my rubric would ask students to engage in a philosophical debate, demonstrate an understanding of logic and Aristotelian philosophy, and showcase argumentation skills learned during the unit. 

Talioring Example 2: If they are interviewing Napoleon Bonaparte, I would ask them to press the General on key decisions he made in his various military engagements, show an understanding of the relevant trigger points in Napoleon’s personal life, and/or engage in a productive way that deepens the user’s understanding of the unanswered questions that surround his mercurial personality and story.

Tailoring Example 3: For Holden Caulfield, I had my students focus on active listening and empathy , since he is depressed and suicidal.

Teacher evaluates and assesses the chats against the rubric. 

Students complete a writing assignment where they evaluate the effectiveness of the bot in mimicking the character. They can also evaluate the effectiveness of the bot in furthering their understanding of the character.

Privacy and Safety

Character.ai is not compliant with FERPA rules. But, SchoolAI is and allows you to create your own bot, much like a CustomGPT. This might sound daunting, but the process is entirely language-based. You can upload a summary of the book or of a set of historical articles pertaining to your figure. You can write in key points of emphasis in the back-end and provide specific instructions in an effort to ensure that the bot interacts in the way that will complement your instruction.

SchoolAI has also generated their own fictional and historical figures, but the company and many other EdTech personalities will steer you to use the bot as a “deliverer of content.” This is the wrong way to think about these bots, since they produce inaccuracies and misleading statements.

Instead, think of the inaccuracies and misleading statements as a feature, not a bug. The bots are not perfect, and that’s the point.

The mistakes that the bot makes can and should be ferreted out by your student and/or included in the final analysis piece. If the bot mimics the character perfectly, the student should be able to prove it based on the information they learned earlier in the unit. This requires critical thinking, argumentation, comparing and contrasting, and many more skills. Put differently, the “untrustworthiness” of character bots is what makes them such a fertile ground for student thinking and analysis.

Further Considerations

Each situation is different, as are your students. In that vein, here are a couple of companion considerations to take into account as you design your assessment:

Timing: Is this occurring at the beginning, middle, or end of the unit? I would recommend using this assignment after your students have studied the figure. But it may be possible to execute it earlier in a unit, with additional considerations.

Beginning: If students engage with the bot before knowing the character, the main activity could be generating a set of predictions. The students can also utilize broad-based questions provided by the teacher or generate their own and create a character profile based on the information provided. This is not just a creative writing or literature skill, but also a metacognitive and analytical thinking skill. However, there are some notable obstacles here, not least of which is the fact the bot might reveal everything about the person’s life — fictional or otherwise — thus frontrunning or spoiling your plans for the unit. Or, it can produce inaccuracies that are difficult to extract from your student’s mind later in the unit.

Middle: In the middle of the unit, students will have some but not all information about the figure or character. In this place, students can critically review the bot to some extent in combination with a set of predictions about how the story “ends.” This is also tricky for a number of reasons, not least of which because the bot may give away the ending. However, critically reviewing information based on what you already know about a “person” in combination with the imaginative practice of making predictions can, potentially, be an effective assignment.

End: In my opinion, the cleanest route is to have them analyze the bot after they have already studied the character. This creates a robust opportunity for analysis, not only of the bot itself but of the character from the book or history against the transcript of the mimicking robot, since they have the information already in tow.

Combo: If the beginning/middle approach makes you uneasy, you might consider combining conversations from the beginning and end of unit. A comparison of transcripts might yield some fascinating revelations about the efficacy and nature of these personality bots, thus developing AI Literacy in conjunction with the delivery of content and character understandings.

Questioning Skills: Do your students know how to ask good questions? If not, you may have to run through a few practice rounds before putting the bot in front of them.

Journalistic Thinking: This activity is an interview, which means your student should put on their Reporter or Biographer Hat. During the question-writing portion, encourage your students to toss their bland questions into the bin. We want to push (and pull) the character to be revealing, interesting, and dynamic.

Analysis Essay: When you students analyze the bot post-conversation, it is important to recognize that every student will have a different experience, even with the same LLM. As a result, their final analysis pieces will all be different. This creates a great opportunity to evaluate their argumentation skills, as there is no one right answer. It also makes grading significantly more interesting.

Reach out for more information or guidance. I’m happy to share. 

Happy hunting as you start the school year!

AI EduPathways is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support my work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.

P.S.: Harvard made a few edits of which I do not approve, including the idea that students should use the voice chat feature. This is not a deal-breaker, but I personally would lean away from this aspect for now.

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Cultivating Critical Thinking in the Classroom

In a speech in 1948 (found in The Lost Tools of Learning booklet), Dorothy L. Sayers claims that our culture is letting “our young men and women go out unarmed, in a day when armour [sic] was never so necessary. By teaching them all to read, we have left them at the mercy of the printed word. By the invention of the film and the radio, we have made certain that no aversion to reading shall secure them from the incessant battery of words, words, words.”

If students were unarmed in 1948, they are nearly undressed today. In this information age, students have information coming at them from everywhere—social media, TV, ads, public signage, bumper stickers, church, school, and right in their pockets via the internet on smartphones, watches, and tablets. With all this knowledge, they are more susceptible than ever to propaganda, misinformation, and indoctrination from the world than ever before. They need teachers to help them understand that knowledge is not the same as learning.

Teachers “arm” their students by teaching them how to think critically from a truly biblical worldview. Here are some ways to do this:

1. Give them a solid foundation.

Students don’t know how to think until they know what to think about. They can’t critically examine the claims of evolution if they haven’t been taught the truth of creation, corruption, and the global catastrophic flood in Genesis. They can’t analyze classic literature if they haven’t been taught the history, philosophies, and biographies of the authors and time periods.

2. Ask open-ended questions.

Students in middle and high school need to encounter challenging, open-ended questions, such as:

• What does it mean to love God with all your heart, mind, and strength?
• How does Charlotte Brontë use the themes of light and darkness in Jane Eyre ?
• How did the Enlightenment influence the American Revolutionary War?

Students can engage these questions as homework assignments, essays, or class discussions as the teacher moderates and asks further questions to guide them.

3. Encourage students to ask questions.

The older students become, the less they like to raise their hands and ask questions. Consider an assignment that requires them to ask three questions about the topic and submit them for a grade or extra credit.

4. Inspire creativity.

Creativity is problem-solving and curiosity by other names. Students must ask themselves questions to successfully accomplish a task, project, or craft.

• What colors do I mix to make the color of this brick?
• What pitch or harmony do I need for my musical composition to sound suspenseful?
• How can I end this short story without being trite?
• What material would make this sculpture look more realistic and be more durable?
• What would happen if I dropped an apple and a rubber ball each into water versus gravel?

5. Promote independent decision-making.

Students should be tasked with making independent decisions, such as:

• Which topic they choose for an essay
• Which sport they participate in this year
• Which electives or after-school program they want to opt into

Giving students the opportunity to make decisions for themselves allows them to find what they enjoy so they can fail at it. Once they’ve failed, they can figure out how to succeed. They gain a positive sense of cause-and-effect and are forced, in a healthy setting, to take ownership of their decisions and accept the consequences—good or bad.

6. Prompt them to challenge the premise.

Students are being indoctrinated at every turn. If teachers aren’t careful, they might make students feel indoctrinated by school and church too. Help them learn to be true apologists by first giving them knowledge and truth and then helping them wrestle with it.

• How do I know God’s Word is true?
• Is presuppositional thinking an act of faith?
• Could God have used evolution to create the world?
• Is evolution a valid and scientific theory?

As students learn how to assess information and put it in context, they strengthen their faith, understanding, discernment, and wisdom to critically face the world ahead. Teachers shouldn’t fear the hard, open-ended questions when their feet are firmly planted on God’s Word. It’s their job to help guide students, through skillful questions, to the authority of God’s Word.

Answers in Genesis is an apologetics ministry , dedicated to helping Christians defend their faith and proclaim the good news of Jesus Christ .

• Customer Service 800.778.3390
• © 2024 Answers in Genesis

How to cite ChatGPT

Use discount code STYLEBLOG15 for 15% off APA Style print products with free shipping in the United States.

We, the APA Style team, are not robots. We can all pass a CAPTCHA test , and we know our roles in a Turing test . And, like so many nonrobot human beings this year, we’ve spent a fair amount of time reading, learning, and thinking about issues related to large language models, artificial intelligence (AI), AI-generated text, and specifically ChatGPT . We’ve also been gathering opinions and feedback about the use and citation of ChatGPT. Thank you to everyone who has contributed and shared ideas, opinions, research, and feedback.

In this post, I discuss situations where students and researchers use ChatGPT to create text and to facilitate their research, not to write the full text of their paper or manuscript. We know instructors have differing opinions about how or even whether students should use ChatGPT, and we’ll be continuing to collect feedback about instructor and student questions. As always, defer to instructor guidelines when writing student papers. For more about guidelines and policies about student and author use of ChatGPT, see the last section of this post.

Quoting or reproducing the text created by ChatGPT in your paper

If you’ve used ChatGPT or other AI tools in your research, describe how you used the tool in your Method section or in a comparable section of your paper. For literature reviews or other types of essays or response or reaction papers, you might describe how you used the tool in your introduction. In your text, provide the prompt you used and then any portion of the relevant text that was generated in response.

Unfortunately, the results of a ChatGPT “chat” are not retrievable by other readers, and although nonretrievable data or quotations in APA Style papers are usually cited as personal communications , with ChatGPT-generated text there is no person communicating. Quoting ChatGPT’s text from a chat session is therefore more like sharing an algorithm’s output; thus, credit the author of the algorithm with a reference list entry and the corresponding in-text citation.

When prompted with “Is the left brain right brain divide real or a metaphor?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that although the two brain hemispheres are somewhat specialized, “the notation that people can be characterized as ‘left-brained’ or ‘right-brained’ is considered to be an oversimplification and a popular myth” (OpenAI, 2023).

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

You may also put the full text of long responses from ChatGPT in an appendix of your paper or in online supplemental materials, so readers have access to the exact text that was generated. It is particularly important to document the exact text created because ChatGPT will generate a unique response in each chat session, even if given the same prompt. If you create appendices or supplemental materials, remember that each should be called out at least once in the body of your APA Style paper.

When given a follow-up prompt of “What is a more accurate representation?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that “different brain regions work together to support various cognitive processes” and “the functional specialization of different regions can change in response to experience and environmental factors” (OpenAI, 2023; see Appendix A for the full transcript).

Creating a reference to ChatGPT or other AI models and software

The in-text citations and references above are adapted from the reference template for software in Section 10.10 of the Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2020, Chapter 10). Although here we focus on ChatGPT, because these guidelines are based on the software template, they can be adapted to note the use of other large language models (e.g., Bard), algorithms, and similar software.

The reference and in-text citations for ChatGPT are formatted as follows:

• Parenthetical citation: (OpenAI, 2023)
• Narrative citation: OpenAI (2023)

Let’s break that reference down and look at the four elements (author, date, title, and source):

Author: The author of the model is OpenAI.

Date: The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.

Title: The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.

The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.

Bracketed text is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.

Source: When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).

Other questions about citing ChatGPT

You may have noticed the confidence with which ChatGPT described the ideas of brain lateralization and how the brain operates, without citing any sources. I asked for a list of sources to support those claims and ChatGPT provided five references—four of which I was able to find online. The fifth does not seem to be a real article; the digital object identifier given for that reference belongs to a different article, and I was not able to find any article with the authors, date, title, and source details that ChatGPT provided. Authors using ChatGPT or similar AI tools for research should consider making this scrutiny of the primary sources a standard process. If the sources are real, accurate, and relevant, it may be better to read those original sources to learn from that research and paraphrase or quote from those articles, as applicable, than to use the model’s interpretation of them.

We’ve also received a number of other questions about ChatGPT. Should students be allowed to use it? What guidelines should instructors create for students using AI? Does using AI-generated text constitute plagiarism? Should authors who use ChatGPT credit ChatGPT or OpenAI in their byline? What are the copyright implications ?

On these questions, researchers, editors, instructors, and others are actively debating and creating parameters and guidelines. Many of you have sent us feedback, and we encourage you to continue to do so in the comments below. We will also study the policies and procedures being established by instructors, publishers, and academic institutions, with a goal of creating guidelines that reflect the many real-world applications of AI-generated text.

For questions about manuscript byline credit, plagiarism, and related ChatGPT and AI topics, the APA Style team is seeking the recommendations of APA Journals editors. APA Style guidelines based on those recommendations will be posted on this blog and on the APA Style site later this year.

Update: APA Journals has published policies on the use of generative AI in scholarly materials .

We, the APA Style team humans, appreciate your patience as we navigate these unique challenges and new ways of thinking about how authors, researchers, and students learn, write, and work with new technologies.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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