are small zooplankton found in freshwater inland lakes and are thought to switch their mode of reproduction from asexual to sexual in response to extreme temperatures (Mitchell 1999). Lakes containing have an average summer surface temperature of 20°C (Harper 1995) but may increase by more than 15% when expose to warm water effluent from power plants, paper mills, and chemical industry (Baker et al. 2000). Could an increase in lake temperature caused by industrial thermal pollution affect the survivorship and reproduction of ?
The sex of is mediated by the environment rather than genetics. Under optimal environmental conditions, populations consist of asexually reproducing females. When the environment shifts may be queued to reproduce sexually resulting in the production of male offspring and females carrying haploid eggs in sacs called ephippia (Mitchell 1999).
The purpose of this laboratory study is to examine the effects of increased water temperature on survivorship and reproduction. This study will help us characterize the magnitude of environmental change required to induce the onset of the sexual life cycle in . Because are known to be a sensitive environmental indicator species (Baker et al. 2000) and share similar structural and physiological features with many aquatic species, they serve as a good model for examining the effects of increasing water temperature on reproduction in a variety of aquatic invertebrates.
We hypothesized that populations reared in water temperatures ranging from 24-26 °C would have lower survivorship, higher male/female ratio among the offspring, and more female offspring carrying ephippia as compared with grown in water temperatures of 20-22°C. To test this hypothesis we reared populations in tanks containing water at either 24 +/- 2°C or 20 +/- 2°C. Over 10 days, we monitored survivorship, determined the sex of the offspring, and counted the number of female offspring containing ephippia.
Comments:
Background information
· Opening paragraph provides good focus immediately. The study organism, gender switching response, and temperature influence are mentioned in the first sentence. Although it does a good job documenting average lake water temperature and changes due to industrial run-off, it fails to make an argument that the 15% increase in lake temperature could be considered “extreme” temperature change.
· The study question is nicely embedded within relevant, well-cited background information. Alternatively, it could be stated as the first sentence in the introduction, or after all background information has been discussed before the hypothesis.
Rationale
· Good. Well-defined purpose for study; to examine the degree of environmental change necessary to induce the Daphnia sexual life
cycle.
How will introductions be evaluated? The following is part of the rubric we will be using to evaluate your papers.
0 = inadequate (C, D or F) | 1 = adequate (BC) | 2 = good (B) | 3 = very good (AB) | 4 = excellent (A) | |
Introduction BIG PICTURE: Did the Intro convey why experiment was performed and what it was designed to test?
| Introduction provides little to no relevant information. (This often results in a hypothesis that “comes out of nowhere.”) | Many key components are very weak or missing; those stated are unclear and/or are not stated concisely. Weak/missing components make it difficult to follow the rest of the paper. e.g., background information is not focused on a specific question and minimal biological rationale is presented such that hypothesis isn’t entirely logical
| Covers most key components but could be done much more logically, clearly, and/or concisely. e.g., biological rationale not fully developed but still supports hypothesis. Remaining components are done reasonably well, though there is still room for improvement. | Concisely & clearly covers all but one key component (w/ exception of rationale; see left) clearly covers all key components but could be a little more concise and/or clear. e.g., has done a reasonably nice job with the Intro but fails to state the approach OR has done a nice job with Intro but has also included some irrelevant background information
| Clearly, concisely, & logically presents all key components: relevant & correctly cited background information, question, biological rationale, hypothesis, approach. |
Writing a scientific paper.
Citing sources in the introduction, "introduction checklist" from: how to write a good scientific paper. chris a. mack. spie. 2018..
This is where you describe briefly and clearly why you are writing the paper. The introduction supplies sufficient background information for the reader to understand and evaluate the experiment you did. It also supplies a rationale for the study.
It is important to cite sources in the introduction section of your paper as evidence of the claims you are making. There are ways of citing sources in the text so that the reader can find the full reference in the literature cited section at the end of the paper, yet the flow of the reading is not badly interrupted. Below are some example of how this can be done: "Smith (1983) found that N-fixing plants could be infected by several different species of Rhizobium." "Walnut trees are known to be allelopathic (Smith 1949, Bond et al. 1955, Jones and Green 1963)." "Although the presence of Rhizobium normally increases the growth of legumes (Nguyen 1987), the opposite effect has been observed (Washington 1999)." Note that articles by one or two authors are always cited in the text using their last names. However, if there are more than two authors, the last name of the 1st author is given followed by the abbreviation et al. which is Latin for "and others".
From: https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/imrad-reports-introductions
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How to write an introduction for a research paper? Eventually (and with practice) all writers will develop their own strategy for writing the perfect introduction for a research paper. Once you are comfortable with writing, you will probably find your own, but coming up with a good strategy can be tough for beginning writers.
Your opening paragraphs, phrases for introducing thesis statements, research paper introduction examples, using the introduction to map out your research paper.
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The first page of your research paper should draw the reader into the text. It is the paper’s most important page and, alas, often the worst written. There are two culprits here and effective ways to cope with both of them.
First, the writer is usually straining too hard to say something terribly BIG and IMPORTANT about the thesis topic. The goal is worthy, but the aim is unrealistically high. The result is often a muddle of vague platitudes rather than a crisp, compelling introduction to the thesis. Want a familiar example? Listen to most graduation speakers. Their goal couldn’t be loftier: to say what education means and to tell an entire football stadium how to live the rest of their lives. The results are usually an avalanche of clichés and sodden prose.
The second culprit is bad timing. The opening and concluding paragraphs are usually written late in the game, after the rest of the thesis is finished and polished. There’s nothing wrong with writing these sections last. It’s usually the right approach since you need to know exactly what you are saying in the substantive middle sections of the thesis before you can introduce them effectively or draw together your findings. But having waited to write the opening and closing sections, you need to review and edit them several times to catch up. Otherwise, you’ll putting the most jagged prose in the most tender spots. Edit and polish your opening paragraphs with extra care. They should draw readers into the paper.
After you’ve done some extra polishing, I suggest a simple test for the introductory section. As an experiment, chop off the first few paragraphs. Let the paper begin on, say, paragraph 2 or even page 2. If you don’t lose much, or actually gain in clarity and pace, then you’ve got a problem.
There are two solutions. One is to start at this new spot, further into the text. After all, that’s where you finally gain traction on your subject. That works best in some cases, and we occasionally suggest it. The alternative, of course, is to write a new opening that doesn’t flop around, saying nothing.
What makes a good opening? Actually, they come in several flavors. One is an intriguing story about your topic. Another is a brief, compelling quote. When you run across them during your reading, set them aside for later use. Don’t be deterred from using them because they “don’t seem academic enough.” They’re fine as long as the rest of the paper doesn’t sound like you did your research in People magazine. The third, and most common, way to begin is by stating your main questions, followed by a brief comment about why they matter.
Whichever opening you choose, it should engage your readers and coax them to continue. Having done that, you should give them a general overview of the project—the main issues you will cover, the material you will use, and your thesis statement (that is, your basic approach to the topic). Finally, at the end of the introductory section, give your readers a brief road map, showing how the paper will unfold. How you do that depends on your topic but here are some general suggestions for phrase choice that may help:
Quotes, anecdotes, questions, examples, and broad statements—all of them can used successfully to write an introduction for a research paper. It’s instructive to see them in action, in the hands of skilled academic writers.
Let’s begin with David M. Kennedy’s superb history, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . Kennedy begins each chapter with a quote, followed by his text. The quote above chapter 1 shows President Hoover speaking in 1928 about America’s golden future. The text below it begins with the stock market collapse of 1929. It is a riveting account of just how wrong Hoover was. The text about the Depression is stronger because it contrasts so starkly with the optimistic quotation.
“We in America today are nearer the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land.”—Herbert Hoover, August 11, 1928 Like an earthquake, the stock market crash of October 1929 cracked startlingly across the United States, the herald of a crisis that was to shake the American way of life to its foundations. The events of the ensuing decade opened a fissure across the landscape of American history no less gaping than that opened by the volley on Lexington Common in April 1775 or by the bombardment of Sumter on another April four score and six years later. The ratcheting ticker machines in the autumn of 1929 did not merely record avalanching stock prices. In time they came also to symbolize the end of an era. (David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 10)
Kennedy has exciting, wrenching material to work with. John Mueller faces the exact opposite problem. In Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War , he is trying to explain why Great Powers have suddenly stopped fighting each other. For centuries they made war on each other with devastating regularity, killing millions in the process. But now, Mueller thinks, they have not just paused; they have stopped permanently. He is literally trying to explain why “nothing is happening now.” That may be an exciting topic intellectually, it may have great practical significance, but “nothing happened” is not a very promising subject for an exciting opening paragraph. Mueller manages to make it exciting and, at the same time, shows why it matters so much. Here’s his opening, aptly entitled “History’s Greatest Nonevent”:
On May 15, 1984, the major countries of the developed world had managed to remain at peace with each other for the longest continuous stretch of time since the days of the Roman Empire. If a significant battle in a war had been fought on that day, the press would have bristled with it. As usual, however, a landmark crossing in the history of peace caused no stir: the most prominent story in the New York Times that day concerned the saga of a manicurist, a machinist, and a cleaning woman who had just won a big Lotto contest. This book seeks to develop an explanation for what is probably the greatest nonevent in human history. (John Mueller, Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War . New York: Basic Books, 1989, p. 3)
In the space of a few sentences, Mueller sets up his puzzle and reveals its profound human significance. At the same time, he shows just how easy it is to miss this milestone in the buzz of daily events. Notice how concretely he does that. He doesn’t just say that the New York Times ignored this record setting peace. He offers telling details about what they covered instead: “a manicurist, a machinist, and a cleaning woman who had just won a big Lotto contest.” Likewise, David Kennedy immediately entangles us in concrete events: the stunning stock market crash of 1929. These are powerful openings that capture readers’ interests, establish puzzles, and launch narratives.
Sociologist James Coleman begins in a completely different way, by posing the basic questions he will study. His ambitious book, Foundations of Social Theory , develops a comprehensive theory of social life, so it is entirely appropriate for him to begin with some major questions. But he could just as easily have begun with a compelling story or anecdote. He includes many of them elsewhere in his book. His choice for the opening, though, is to state his major themes plainly and frame them as a paradox. Sociologists, he says, are interested in aggregate behavior—how people act in groups, organizations, or large numbers—yet they mostly examine individuals:
A central problem in social science is that of accounting for the function of some kind of social system. Yet in most social research, observations are not made on the system as a whole, but on some part of it. In fact, the natural unit of observation is the individual person… This has led to a widening gap between theory and research… (James S. Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990, pp. 1–2)
After expanding on this point, Coleman explains that he will not try to remedy the problem by looking solely at groups or aggregate-level data. That’s a false solution, he says, because aggregates don’t act; individuals do. So the real problem is to show the links between individual actions and aggregate outcomes, between the micro and the macro.
The major problem for explanations of system behavior based on actions and orientations at a level below that of the system [in this case, on individual-level actions] is that of moving from the lower level to the system level. This has been called the micro-to-macro problem, and it is pervasive throughout the social sciences. (Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory , p. 6)
Explaining how to deal with this “micro-to-macro problem” is the central issue of Coleman’s book, and he announces it at the beginning.
Coleman’s theory-driven opening stands at the opposite end of the spectrum from engaging stories or anecdotes, which are designed to lure the reader into the narrative and ease the path to a more analytic treatment later in the text. Take, for example, the opening sentences of Robert L. Herbert’s sweeping study Impressionism: Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society : “When Henry Tuckerman came to Paris in 1867, one of the thousands of Americans attracted there by the huge international exposition, he was bowled over by the extraordinary changes since his previous visit twenty years before.” (Robert L. Herbert, Impressionism: Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988, p. 1.) Herbert fills in the evocative details to set the stage for his analysis of the emerging Impressionist art movement and its connection to Parisian society and leisure in this period.
David Bromwich writes about Wordsworth, a poet so familiar to students of English literature that it is hard to see him afresh, before his great achievements, when he was just a young outsider starting to write. To draw us into Wordsworth’s early work, Bromwich wants us to set aside our entrenched images of the famous mature poet and see him as he was in the 1790s, as a beginning writer on the margins of society. He accomplishes this ambitious task in the opening sentences of Disowned by Memory: Wordsworth’s Poetry of the 1790s :
Wordsworth turned to poetry after the revolution to remind himself that he was still a human being. It was a curious solution, to a difficulty many would not have felt. The whole interest of his predicament is that he did feel it. Yet Wordsworth is now so established an eminence—his name so firmly fixed with readers as a moralist of self-trust emanating from complete self-security—that it may seem perverse to imagine him as a criminal seeking expiation. Still, that is a picture we get from The Borderers and, at a longer distance, from “Tintern Abbey.” (David Bromwich, Disowned by Memory: Wordsworth’s Poetry of the 1790s . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998, p. 1)
That’s a wonderful opening! Look at how much Bromwich accomplishes in just a few words. He not only prepares the way for analyzing Wordsworth’s early poetry; he juxtaposes the anguished young man who wrote it to the self-confident, distinguished figure he became—the eminent man we can’t help remembering as we read his early poetry.
Let us highlight a couple of other points in this passage because they illustrate some intelligent writing choices. First, look at the odd comma in this sentence: “It was a curious solution, to a difficulty many would not have felt.” Any standard grammar book would say that comma is wrong and should be omitted. Why did Bromwich insert it? Because he’s a fine writer, thinking of his sentence rhythm and the point he wants to make. The comma does exactly what it should. It makes us pause, breaking the sentence into two parts, each with an interesting point. One is that Wordsworth felt a difficulty others would not have; the other is that he solved it in a distinctive way. It would be easy for readers to glide over this double message, so Bromwich has inserted a speed bump to slow us down. Most of the time, you should follow grammatical rules, like those about commas, but you should bend them when it serves a good purpose. That’s what the writer does here.
The second small point is the phrase “after the revolution” in the first sentence: “Wordsworth turned to poetry after the revolution to remind himself that he was still a human being.” Why doesn’t Bromwich say “after the French Revolution”? Because he has judged his book’s audience. He is writing for specialists who already know which revolution is reverberating through English life in the 1790s. It is the French Revolution, not the earlier loss of the American colonies. If Bromwich were writing for a much broader audience—say, the New York Times Book Review—he would probably insert the extra word to avoid confusion.
The message “Know your audience” applies to all writers. Don’t talk down to them by assuming they can’t get dressed in the morning. Don’t strut around showing off your book learnin’ by tossing in arcane facts and esoteric language for its own sake. Neither will win over readers.
Bromwich, Herbert, and Coleman open their works in different ways, but their choices work well for their different texts. Your task is to decide what kind of opening will work best for yours. Don’t let that happen by default, by grabbing the first idea you happen upon. Consider a couple of different ways of opening your thesis and then choose the one you prefer. Give yourself some options, think them over, then make an informed choice.
Whether you begin with a story, puzzle, or broad statement, the next part of the introduction should pose your main questions and establish your argument. This is your thesis statement—your viewpoint along with the supporting reasons and evidence. It should be articulated plainly so readers understand full well what your paper is about and what it will argue.
After that, give your readers a road map of what’s to come. That’s normally done at the end of the introductory section (or, in a book, at the end of the introductory chapter). Here’s John J. Mearsheimer presenting such a road map in The Tragedy of Great Power Politics . He not only tells us the order of upcoming chapters, he explains why he’s chosen that order and which chapters are most important:
The Plan of the Book The rest of the chapters in this book are concerned mainly with answering the six big questions about power which I identified earlier. Chapter 2, which is probably the most important chapter in the book, lays out my theory of why states compete for power and why they pursue hegemony. In Chapters 3 and 4, I define power and explain how to measure it. I do this in order to lay the groundwork for testing my theory… (John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics . New York: W. W. Norton, 2001, p. 27)
As this excerpt makes clear, Mearsheimer has already laid out his “six big questions” in the introduction. Now he’s showing us the path ahead, the path to answering those questions.
At the end of the introduction, give your readers a road map of what’s to come. Tell them what the upcoming sections will be and why they are arranged in this particular order.
After having written your introduction it’s time to move to the biggest part: body of a research paper.
Back to How To Write A Research Paper .
Writing an introduction for a research paper is a critical element of your paper, but it can seem challenging to encapsulate enormous amount of information into a concise form. The introduction of your research paper sets the tone for your research and provides the context for your study. In this article, we will guide you through the process of writing an effective introduction that grabs the reader's attention and captures the essence of your research paper.
The introduction acts as a road map for your research paper, guiding the reader through the main ideas and arguments. The purpose of the introduction is to present your research topic to the readers and provide a rationale for why your study is relevant. It helps the reader locate your research and its relevance in the broader field of related scientific explorations. Additionally, the introduction should inform the reader about the objectives and scope of your study, giving them an overview of what to expect in the paper. By including a comprehensive introduction, you establish your credibility as an author and convince the reader that your research is worth their time and attention.
When writing your research paper introduction, there are several key elements you should include to ensure it is comprehensive and informative.
Before diving into writing your introduction, it is essential to prepare adequately. This involves 3 important steps:
By engaging in these preparatory steps, you can ensure that your introduction is well-informed, focused, and sets the stage for a compelling research paper.
Now that you have prepared yourself to tackle the introduction, it's time to structure it effectively. A well-structured introduction will engage the reader from the beginning and provide a logical flow to your research paper.
Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing hook that captivates the reader's interest. This hook serves as a way to make your introduction more engaging and compelling. For example, if you are writing a research paper on the impact of climate change on biodiversity, you could start your introduction with a statistic about the number of species that have gone extinct due to climate change. This will immediately grab the reader's attention and make them realize the urgency and importance of the topic.
Provide a brief overview, which should give the reader a general understanding of the subject matter and its significance. Explain the importance of the topic and its relevance to the field. This will help the reader understand why your research is significant and why they should continue reading. Continuing with the example of climate change and biodiversity, you could explain how climate change is one of the greatest threats to global biodiversity, how it affects ecosystems, and the potential consequences for both wildlife and human populations. By providing this context, you are setting the stage for the rest of your research paper and helping the reader understand the importance of your study.
The thesis statement should directly address your research question and provide a preview of the main arguments or findings discussed in your paper. Make sure your thesis statement is clear, concise, and well-supported by the evidence you will present in your research paper. By presenting a strong and focused thesis statement, you are providing the reader with the information they could anticipate in your research paper. This will help them understand the purpose and scope of your study and will make them more inclined to continue reading.
When crafting an introduction, it is crucial to pay attention to the finer details that can elevate your writing to the next level. By utilizing specific writing techniques, you can captivate your readers and draw them into your research journey.
One of the most important writing techniques to employ in your introduction is the use of clear and concise language. By choosing your words carefully, you can effectively convey your ideas to the reader. It is essential to avoid using jargon or complex terminology that may confuse or alienate your audience. Instead, focus on communicating your research in a straightforward manner to ensure that your introduction is accessible to both experts in your field and those who may be new to the topic. This approach allows you to engage a broader audience and make your research more inclusive.
One way to establish the relevance of your research is by highlighting how it fills a gap in the existing literature. Explain how your study addresses a significant research question that has not been adequately explored. By doing this, you demonstrate that your research is not only unique but also contributes to the broader knowledge in your field. Furthermore, it is important to emphasize the potential impact of your research. Whether it is advancing scientific understanding, informing policy decisions, or improving practical applications, make it clear to the reader how your study can make a difference.
By employing these two writing techniques in your introduction, you can effectively engage your readers. Take your time to craft an introduction that is both informative and captivating, leaving your readers eager to delve deeper into your research.
Once you have written your introduction, it is crucial to revise and polish it to ensure that it effectively sets the stage for your research paper.
Review your introduction for clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Ensure each paragraph introduces a new idea or argument with smooth transitions.
Ensure that your introduction aligns with the overall tone and style of your research paper.
Consider seeking feedback from peers, colleagues, or your instructor. They can provide valuable insights and suggestions for improving your introduction. Be open to constructive criticism and use it to refine your introduction and make it more compelling for the reader.
Writing an introduction for a research paper requires careful thought and planning. By understanding the purpose of the introduction, preparing adequately, structuring effectively, and employing writing techniques, you can create an engaging and informative introduction for your research. Remember to revise and polish your introduction to ensure that it accurately represents the main ideas and arguments in your research paper. With a well-crafted introduction, you will capture the reader's attention and keep them inclined to your paper.
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The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the paper.
Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.
Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:
According to Reyes, there are three overarching goals of a good introduction: 1) ensure that you summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem; 2) explain how your study specifically addresses gaps in the literature, insufficient consideration of the topic, or other deficiency in the literature; and, 3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and implications of your research.
A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraphs of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will lead your readers to think highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach. All introductions should conclude with a brief paragraph that describes the organization of the rest of the paper.
Hirano, Eliana. “Research Article Introductions in English for Specific Purposes: A Comparison between Brazilian, Portuguese, and English.” English for Specific Purposes 28 (October 2009): 240-250; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide. Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education.
I. Structure and Approach
The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:
Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow your analysis to more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your research problem and the rationale for studying it [often written as a series of key questions to be addressed or framed as a hypothesis or set of assumptions to be tested] and, whenever possible, a description of the potential outcomes your study can reveal.
These are general phases associated with writing an introduction: 1. Establish an area to research by:
2. Identify a research niche by:
3. Place your research within the research niche by:
NOTE: It is often useful to review the introduction late in the writing process. This is appropriate because outcomes are unknown until you've completed the study. After you complete writing the body of the paper, go back and review introductory descriptions of the structure of the paper, the method of data gathering, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion. Reviewing and, if necessary, rewriting the introduction ensures that it correctly matches the overall structure of your final paper.
II. Delimitations of the Study
Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your research . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the topic.
Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction. For example, a delimitating statement could read, "Although many factors can be understood to impact the likelihood young people will vote, this study will focus on socioeconomic factors related to the need to work full-time while in school." The point is not to document every possible delimiting factor, but to highlight why previously researched issues related to the topic were not addressed.
Examples of delimitating choices would be:
Review each of these decisions. Not only do you clearly establish what you intend to accomplish in your research, but you should also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria understood as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!
NOTE: Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.
ANOTHER NOTE: Do not view delimitating statements as admitting to an inherent failing or shortcoming in your research. They are an accepted element of academic writing intended to keep the reader focused on the research problem by explicitly defining the conceptual boundaries and scope of your study. It addresses any critical questions in the reader's mind of, "Why the hell didn't the author examine this?"
III. The Narrative Flow
Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :
IV. Engaging the Reader
A research problem in the social sciences can come across as dry and uninteresting to anyone unfamiliar with the topic . Therefore, one of the goals of your introduction is to make readers want to read your paper. Here are several strategies you can use to grab the reader's attention:
NOTE: It is important that you choose only one of the suggested strategies for engaging your readers. This avoids giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance and does not distract from the substance of your study.
Freedman, Leora and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies. Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction. Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 ; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.
Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction
Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific terminology that readers may be unfamiliar with. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source because it doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term or concept may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, use a subject specific dictionary or encyclopedia [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology]. A good database for obtaining definitive definitions of concepts or terms is Credo Reference .
Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper. Florida International University; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.
When Do I Begin?
A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "Where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from history. Therefore, it is important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that illustrates the study's overall importance. For example, a study that investigates coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exports in Africa. If a research problem requires a substantial exploration of the historical context, do this in the literature review section. In your introduction, make note of this as part of the "roadmap" [see below] that you use to describe the organization of your paper.
Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70.
Always End with a Roadmap
The final paragraph or sentences of your introduction should forecast your main arguments and conclusions and provide a brief description of the rest of the paper [the "roadmap"] that let's the reader know where you are going and what to expect. A roadmap is important because it helps the reader place the research problem within the context of their own perspectives about the topic. In addition, concluding your introduction with an explicit roadmap tells the reader that you have a clear understanding of the structural purpose of your paper. In this way, the roadmap acts as a type of promise to yourself and to your readers that you will follow a consistent and coherent approach to addressing the topic of inquiry. Refer to it often to help keep your writing focused and organized.
Cassuto, Leonard. “On the Dissertation: How to Write the Introduction.” The Chronicle of Higher Education , May 28, 2018; Radich, Michael. A Student's Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies . (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Writing n. d.), pp. 35-37.
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We write different types of papers for academic and professional reasons. Research paper is one of the most important papers and it is different from other papers. There are different types of rules for writing a research paper , the first part is the introduction. Through this article, we will try to tell you how to write an introduction for a research paper beautifully.
Before starting to write any papers, especially research papers one should know how to write a research paper introduction. The introduction is intended to guide the reader from a general subject to a specific area of study. It establishes the context of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information on the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of a thesis, question, or research problem, Briefly explaining your rationale, your methodological approach, highlight the potential findings your research may reveal, and describe the remaining structure of the paper.
A well-written introduction is imperative since, essentially, you never get a second chance to form a great first impression. The opening passage of your paper will give your audience their introductory impression, almost the rationale of your contention, your composing style, the general quality of your investigation, and, eventually, the legitimacy of your discoveries and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression on the readers. While a brief, engaging, and well-written introduction will begin your readers off considering profoundly your expository abilities, your writing style, and your research approach.
This is a significant part of how to write an introduction for a research paper. The first task of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it is interesting or important. This is usually done with a strong opening hook.
A hook is a strong opening sentence that conveys relevance to your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a powerful statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will make readers wonder about your topic.
This introduction varies depending on your approach to your writing. In a more argumentative article, you will explore the general context here. In a more empirical paper, this is a great place to review previous research and determine how your research fits together.
The first thing of a research paper introduction is, to briefly describe your broad parts of research, then narrow in on your specific focus. This will help position your research topic within a broader field, making the work accessible to a wider audience than just experts in your field.
A common mistake when writing a research paper introduction is trying to fit everything in at once. Instead, pace yourself and present each piece of information in the most logical order the reader can understand. Typically, this means starting with the big picture and then gradually getting more specific with the details.
For your research paper introduction, you should first present an overview of the topic and then focus on your specific paper. This “funnel” structure naturally includes all the necessary parts of what should be included in a research paper introduction, from context to appropriate or research gaps and finally to relevance.
Papers abandoned because they “do not demonstrate the importance of the topic” or “lack a clear motivation” often miss this point. Say what you want to achieve and why your readers should want to know whether you achieved it or not.
Once you have focused on the specific topic of your research, you should detail the latest and most relevant literature related to your research. Your literature review should be comprehensive but not too long. Remember, you are not writing a review. If you find your introduction is too long or has too many citations, a possible solution is to cite journal articles, rather than cite all of the individual articles that have been summarised in the journal.
Try to avoid lengthy introductions. A good target is between 500 and 1,000 words, although checking the magazine’s guidelines and back issues will provide the clearest guidance.
The introduction is not lengthy or detailed; rather, they are initiating actions. Introductions are best when they get to the point: save the details in the body of the document, where they belong.
The most important point of a research paper introduction is that they are clear and easy to understand. Writing at length can be distracting and even make your point harder to understand, so cut out unnecessary words and try to express things in simple terms that everyone understands. understandable.
Many journals have specific assertions in their author instructions. For example, a maximum of one word may be stated, or instructions may require specific content, such as a supposition statement or a summary of your key findings.
Your introduction may appear first in a research paper, but the general advice is to wait to write it until everything else has been written. This makes it easier for you to summarize your article because at this point you know everything you’re going to say. This also eliminates the urge to include everything in the introduction because you don’t want to forget anything.
Additionally, it is especially helpful to write an introduction after your research paper is finished. The introduction and conclusion of a research paper have similar topics and often reflect the structure of each topic. Writing the conclusion is also generally easier thanks to the pace created by writing the rest of the paper, and the conclusion can guide you in writing the introduction.
Although not always appropriate for formal writing, using a narrative style in the introduction of your research paper can do a lot to engage readers and engage them emotionally. A 2016 study found that in some articles, using narrative strategies improved how often they were cited in other articles. Narrative style involves making the paper more personal to appeal to the reader’s emotions.
However, for more informal research papers and especially essays, this style can make your writing more interesting or at least interesting, perfect for making readers excited right from the beginning of the article.
British scientist John Swales developed a method called the CARS model to “generate a search space” in the introduction. Although intended for scientific papers, this simple three-step structure can be used to outline the introduction to any research paper.
Explain the background of your topic, including previous research. Explain that information is lacking in your topic area or that current research is incomplete.
Explain how your research “fills in” missing information about your topic.
the research findings and providing an overview of the structure of the rest of the paper, although this does not apply to all research papers, especially those Unofficial documents.
1. topic overview.
Start with a general overview of your topic. Refine your outline until you address the specific topic of your article. Next, mention any questions or concerns you have about the case. Note that you will address these in the article.
Your introduction is the perfect place to review other findings about your topic. Includes both old and modern scholars. This general information shows that you are aware of previous research. It also presents previous findings to those who may not have that expertise.
Explain why your topic needs to be discussed now. If possible, connect it to current issues. Additionally, you can point out problems with old theories or reveal gaps in current research. No matter how you do it, a good reason will keep readers interested and demonstrate why they should read the rest of your article.
Tell about your processes to make your writing more trustworthy. Identify your goals and the questions you will answer. Reveal how you conducted the research and describe how you measured the results. Also, explain why you made the important choices.
Your main introduction should end with a thesis statement. This statement summarises the ideas that will run throughout your entire research paper. It must be simple and clear.
It is an adequate idea of how to write an introduction for a research paper.
The introduction usually ends with an overview. Your layout should quickly present what you plan to cover in the following sections. Think of it as a road map, guiding readers to the end of your article.
The purpose of the introduction in a research paper is to guide the reader from a general subject to a specific area of study. It establishes the context of the research by summarizing current understanding, stating the purpose of the work, explaining the rationale and methodological approach, highlighting potential findings, and describing the paper’s structure. It’s considered crucial because it forms the reader’s first impression and sets the tone for the rest of the paper.
Using a hook, such as an interesting fact, a powerful statement, a question, or a brief anecdote, can effectively engage readers in your research paper introduction. A hook captures the reader’s attention and makes them curious about your topic, encouraging them to continue reading.
While there’s no strict word count, a good target for a research paper introduction is between 500 and 1,000 words, although you should check the specific guidelines provided by the journal you’re submitting to. It’s recommended to write the introduction after the rest of the paper has been completed. This way, you have a comprehensive understanding of your research, making it easier to summarize and guide your readers effectively.
These are the important tips and tricks on how to write an introduction for a research paper properly. If you maintain these rules we believe that you will be able to write an excellent introduction in your research paper.
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A research paper is a kind of paper that is different from other papers. Especially a research paper needed for academic life. The main purpose of the research paper is to deliver new knowledge from researchers’ critical thinking. To learn how to write a research paper, you need to know
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I visited a reputable university, where I found that lots of students were excited to learn how to write a research paper. They also want to learn the APA research paper format and outline. Every academic course has an APA research paper outline that is useful for writing research papers.
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However, the introduction is a vital element of your research paper . It helps the reader decide whether your paper is worth their time. As such, it's worth taking your time to get it right.
In this article, we'll tell you everything you need to know about writing an effective introduction for your research paper.
The primary purpose of an introduction is to provide an overview of your paper. This lets readers gauge whether they want to continue reading or not. The introduction should provide a meaningful roadmap of your research to help them make this decision. It should let readers know whether the information they're interested in is likely to be found in the pages that follow.
Aside from providing readers with information about the content of your paper, the introduction also sets the tone. It shows readers the style of language they can expect, which can further help them to decide how far to read.
When you take into account both of these roles that an introduction plays, it becomes clear that crafting an engaging introduction is the best way to get your paper read more widely. First impressions count, and the introduction provides that impression to readers.
While there's no magic formula to determine exactly how long a research paper introduction should be, there are a few guidelines. Some variables that impact the ideal introduction length include:
Field of study
Complexity of the topic
Specific requirements of the course or publication
A commonly recommended length of a research paper introduction is around 10% of the total paper’s length. So, a ten-page paper has a one-page introduction. If the topic is complex, it may require more background to craft a compelling intro. Humanities papers tend to have longer introductions than those of the hard sciences.
The best way to craft an introduction of the right length is to focus on clarity and conciseness. Tell the reader only what is necessary to set up your research. An introduction edited down with this goal in mind should end up at an acceptable length.
A good way to gauge how to create a great introduction is by looking at examples from across your field. The most influential and well-regarded papers should provide some insights into what makes a good introduction.
We can make some general assumptions by looking at common elements of a good introduction, regardless of the field of research.
A common structure is to start with a broad context, and then narrow that down to specific research questions or hypotheses. This creates a funnel that establishes the scope and relevance.
The most effective introductions are careful about the assumptions they make regarding reader knowledge. By clearly defining key terms and concepts instead of assuming the reader is familiar with them, these introductions set a more solid foundation for understanding.
To pull in the reader and make that all-important good first impression, excellent research paper introductions will often incorporate a compelling narrative or some striking fact that grabs the reader's attention.
Finally, good introductions provide clear citations from past research to back up the claims they're making. In the case of argumentative papers or essays (those that take a stance on a topic or issue), a strong thesis statement compels the reader to continue reading.
You can also learn what not to do by looking at other research papers. Many authors have made mistakes you can learn from.
We've talked about the need to be clear and concise. Many introductions fail at this; they're verbose, vague, or otherwise fail to convey the research problem or hypothesis efficiently. This often comes in the form of an overemphasis on background information, which obscures the main research focus.
Ensure your introduction provides the proper emphasis and excitement around your research and its significance. Otherwise, fewer people will want to read more about it.
Let’s take a look at the steps required to craft an introduction that pulls readers in and compels them to learn more about your research.
To capture the reader's interest immediately, begin your introduction with a compelling question, a surprising fact, a provocative quote, or some other mechanism that will hook readers and pull them further into the paper.
As they continue reading, the introduction should contextualize your research within the current field, showing readers its relevance and importance. Clarify any essential terms that will help them better understand what you're saying. This keeps the fundamentals of your research accessible to all readers from all backgrounds.
Including background information in your introduction serves two major purposes:
It helps to clarify the topic for the reader
It establishes the depth of your research
The approach you take when conveying this information depends on the type of paper.
For argumentative papers, you'll want to develop engaging background narratives. These should provide context for the argument you'll be presenting.
For empirical papers, highlighting past research is the key. Often, there will be some questions that weren't answered in those past papers. If your paper is focused on those areas, those papers make ideal candidates for you to discuss and critique in your introduction.
To capture the attention of the reader, you need to explain what research challenges you'll be discussing.
For argumentative papers, this involves articulating why the argument you'll be making is important. What is its relevance to current discussions or problems? What is the potential impact of people accepting or rejecting your argument?
For empirical papers, explain how your research is addressing a gap in existing knowledge. What new insights or contributions will your research bring to your field?
We mentioned earlier that the introduction to a research paper can serve as a roadmap for what's within. We've also frequently discussed the need for clarity. This step addresses both of these.
When writing an argumentative paper, craft a thesis statement with impact. Clearly articulate what your position is and the main points you intend to present. This will map out for the reader exactly what they'll get from reading the rest.
For empirical papers, focus on formulating precise research questions and hypotheses. Directly link them to the gaps or issues you've identified in existing research to show the reader the precise direction your research paper will take.
Continue building a roadmap for your readers by designing a structured outline for the paper. Guide the reader through your research journey, explaining what the different sections will contain and their relationship to one another.
This outline should flow seamlessly as you move from section to section. Creating this outline early can also help guide the creation of the paper itself, resulting in a final product that's better organized. In doing so, you'll craft a paper where each section flows intuitively from the next.
To avoid letting your research question get lost in background information or clarifications, craft your introduction in such a way that the research question resonates throughout. The research question should clearly address a gap in existing knowledge or offer a new perspective on an existing problem.
Tell users your research question explicitly but also remember to frequently come back to it. When providing context or clarification, point out how it relates to the research question. This keeps your focus where it needs to be and prevents the topic of the paper from becoming under-emphasized.
So far, we've talked mostly about what's in the paper and how to convey that information to readers. The opposite is also important. Information that's outside the scope of your paper should be made clear to the reader in the introduction so their expectations for what is to follow are set appropriately.
Similarly, be honest and upfront about the limitations of the study. Any constraints in methodology, data, or how far your findings can be generalized should be fully communicated in the introduction.
The final few lines of the introduction are your last chance to convince people to continue reading the rest of the paper. Here is where you should make it very clear what benefit they'll get from doing so. What topics will be covered? What questions will be answered? Make it clear what they will get for continuing.
By providing a quick recap of the key points contained in the introduction in its final lines and properly setting the stage for what follows in the rest of the paper, you refocus the reader's attention on the topic of your research and guide them to read more.
Following the steps above will give you a compelling introduction that hits on all the key points an introduction should have. Some more tips and tricks can make an introduction even more polished.
As you follow the steps above, keep the following tips in mind.
Like every piece of writing, a research paper should be written for the audience. That is to say, it should match the tone and style that your academic discipline and target audience expect. This is typically a formal and academic tone, though the degree of formality varies by field.
The perfect introduction balances clarity with conciseness. The amount of clarification required for a given topic depends greatly on the target audience. Knowing who will be reading your paper will guide you in determining how much background information is required.
The CARS model is a helpful tool for structuring introductions. This structure has three parts. The beginning of the introduction establishes the general research area. Next, relevant literature is reviewed and critiqued. The final section outlines the purpose of your study as it relates to the previous parts.
The CARS method is one example of a well-funneled introduction. These start broadly and then slowly narrow down to your specific research problem. It provides a nice narrative flow that provides the right information at the right time. If you stray from the CARS model, try to retain this same type of funneling.
People read research papers largely to be informed. But to inform the reader, you have to hold their attention. A narrative style, particularly in the introduction, is a great way to do that. This can be a compelling story, an intriguing question, or a description of a real-world problem.
By writing the introduction after the rest of the paper, you'll have a better idea of what your research entails and how the paper is structured. This prevents the common problem of writing something in the introduction and then forgetting to include it in the paper. It also means anything particularly exciting in the paper isn’t neglected in the intro.
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Microsoft 365 Life Hacks > Writing > How to write an introduction for a research paper
Beginnings are hard. Beginning a research paper is no exception. Many students—and pros—struggle with how to write an introduction for a research paper.
This short guide will describe the purpose of a research paper introduction and how to create a good one.
Introductions to research papers do a lot of work.
It may seem obvious, but introductions are always placed at the beginning of a paper. They guide your reader from a general subject area to the narrow topic that your paper covers. They also explain your paper’s:
Your introduction will cover a lot of ground. However, it will only be half of a page to a few pages long. The length depends on the size of your paper as a whole. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper.
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The introduction to your research paper isn’t just important. It’s critical.
Your readers don’t know what your research paper is about from the title. That’s where your introduction comes in. A good introduction will:
Without a clear introduction, your readers will struggle. They may feel confused when they start reading your paper. They might even give up entirely. Your introduction will ground them and prepare them for the in-depth research to come.
Research paper introductions are always unique. After all, research is original by definition. However, they often contain six essential items. These are:
These six items are emphasized more or less, depending on your field. For example, a physics research paper might emphasize methodology. An English journal article might highlight the overview.
We don’t just want you to learn how to write an introduction for a research paper. We want you to learn how to make it shine.
There are three things you can do that will make it easier to write a great introduction. You can:
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Writing an introduction for a research paper can be one of the hardest parts of the writing process. How do you get started? In this post, we discuss the components of an introduction and explore strategies for writing one successfully.
The introduction to a research paper provides background information or context on the topic. It also includes the thesis statement and signposts that let the reader know what you will cover in the rest of the paper.
Depending on the type of research paper that you’re writing, you may also include a brief state of the field in your introduction. You might also put that in a separate section, called a literature review. Before you tackle writing your introduction, be sure to consult the assignment guidelines for your paper.
An introduction provides an overview of your topic and any background information that your readers need to know in order to understand the context. It generally concludes with an explicit statement of your position on the topic, which is known as your thesis statement.
Many papers begin with a hook: a short anecdote or scenario that draws the reader in and gives a hint of what the paper will cover. A hook allows you to capture your reader’s attention and provides an anchor for the context that you will provide in the bulk of the introduction.
Most of your introduction should be taken up with background information, but this doesn’t mean that you should fill your opening section with overly general statements. Instead, provide key pieces of information (like statistics) that a reader would need to know in order to understand your main argument.
Towards the end of the introduction, you should state your thesis, preferably in the form of "I argue that..." or "This paper argues that..." or a similar phrase. Although it’s called a “thesis statement,” your thesis can be more than one sentence.
Finally, an introduction contains a brief outline or "signposts" of what the rest of the article will cover (also known as forecasting statements). You can use language like, “in what follows,” or “in the rest of the paper,” to signal that you are describing what you’ll do in the remainder of the paper.
1. don’t rely on generalizations.
An introduction is not simply filler. It has a very specific function in a research paper: to provide context that leads up to a thesis statement.
You may be tempted to start your paper with generalizations like, “many people believe that...” or, “in our society...,” or a general dictionary definition, because you’re not sure what kind of context to provide. Instead, use specific facts like statistics or historical anecdotes to open your paper.
Once you’ve provided the appropriate, and specific, background information on your topic, you can move on to stating your thesis. As a rule of thumb, state your thesis as directly as possible. Use phrases like “I argue that..” to indicate that you are laying out your main argument.
A strong introduction includes clear signposts that outline what you will cover in the rest of the paper. You can signal this by using words like, “in what follows,” and by describing the steps that you will take to build your argument.
Some types of research papers require a separate literature review in which you explore what others have written about your topic.
Even if you’re not required to have a formal literature review, you should still include at least a paragraph in which you engage with the scholarly debate on your chosen subject. Be sure to include direct quotes from your sources . You can use BibGuru’s citation generator to create accurate in-text citations for your quotes.
This section can come directly before your thesis statement or directly after it. In the former case, your state of the field will function as additional context for your thesis.
A good introduction provides specific background information on your topic, sets up your thesis statement, and includes signposts for what you’ll cover in the rest of the paper.
An introduction should include context, a thesis statement, and signposts.
Do not include generalizations, apologies for not being an expert, or dictionary definitions in your introduction.
The length of your introduction depends on the overall length of your paper. For instance, an introduction for an 8-10 page paper will likely be anywhere from 1-3 pages.
You can choose to start an introduction with a hook, an important statistic, an historical anecdote, or another specific piece of background information.
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Last Updated: December 6, 2023 Fact Checked
This article was co-authored by Megan Morgan, PhD . Megan Morgan is a Graduate Program Academic Advisor in the School of Public & International Affairs at the University of Georgia. She earned her PhD in English from the University of Georgia in 2015. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,656,435 times.
The introduction to a research paper can be the most challenging part of the paper to write. The length of the introduction will vary depending on the type of research paper you are writing. An introduction should announce your topic, provide context and a rationale for your work, before stating your research questions and hypothesis. Well-written introductions set the tone for the paper, catch the reader's interest, and communicate the hypothesis or thesis statement.
To introduce your research paper, use the first 1-2 sentences to describe your general topic, such as “women in World War I.” Include and define keywords, such as “gender relations,” to show your reader where you’re going. Mention previous research into the topic with a phrase like, “Others have studied…”, then transition into what your contribution will be and why it’s necessary. Finally, state the questions that your paper will address and propose your “answer” to them as your thesis statement. For more information from our English Ph.D. co-author about how to craft a strong hypothesis and thesis, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No
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Reports are usually spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating information about a particular topic and a niche target market. The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies.
Certain events, facts, and other information based on incidents need to be relayed to the people in charge, and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion. These reports should have a clean and structured format to relay information effectively.
Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods .
A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research. It is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research.
The various sections of a research report are:
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Research is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The markets today are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day who may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to make the right decisions at the right time to be relevant in such a market with updated products that suffice customer demands.
The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main components of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market researcher also influences the style of writing reports. Here are seven main components of a productive research report:
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Introduction.
When researching at Kenan-Flagler or pursuing any degree, understanding the landscape of industry and market is crucial for making informed decisions about research, job hunting, and more. Industry and market research involves gathering and analyzing data about market trends, consumer behaviors, and competitive forces to identify opportunities and challenges within a specific sector. This research helps businesses tailor their strategies to meet market demands, anticipate shifts, and maintain a competitive edge. This page is for students to effectively utilize UNC's vast industry repositories and act as a guide through what each database offers.
The resources on this page are databases that will aid business students in market and industry research. These are valuable resources that are either publicly available, or available with a UNC onyen login. UNC has a wealth of specialized databases, industry and market analysis tools, and reports that are difficult to find with basic Google searching or are often very expensive to purchase.
What should i include in a research paper introduction.
The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:
and your problem statement
A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.
The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.
Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .
However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:
Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them.
In general, they should be:
All research questions should be:
A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.
Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.
Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .
Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.
I will compare …
Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:
Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.
They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.
Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .
The main guidelines for formatting a paper in Chicago style are to:
To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .
The main guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style are as follows:
To format a paper in APA Style , follow these guidelines:
No, it’s not appropriate to present new arguments or evidence in the conclusion . While you might be tempted to save a striking argument for last, research papers follow a more formal structure than this.
All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the results and discussion sections if you are following a scientific structure). The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.
The conclusion of a research paper has several key elements you should make sure to include:
Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.
This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .
The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .
A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.
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The introduction serves the purpose of leading the reader from a general subject area to a particular field of research. It establishes the context of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the hypothesis, question, or research problem, briefly explaining your rationale, methodological approach, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and describing the remaining structure of the paper.
Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.
Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:
A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraph of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will start your readers off thinking highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach.
Introductions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.
I. Structure and Approach
The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:
Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow toward the more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your statement of purpose and rationale and, whenever possible, the potential outcomes your study can reveal.
These are general phases associated with writing an introduction:
NOTE: Even though the introduction is the first main section of a research paper, it is often useful to finish the introduction very late in the writing process because the structure of the paper, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion will have been completed and it ensures that your introduction matches the overall structure of your paper.
II. Delimitations of the Study
Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your study . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the research problem.
Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction.
Examples of delimitating choices would be:
Review each of these decisions. You need to not only clearly establish what you intend to accomplish, but to also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria stated as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!
NOTE: Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.
III. The Narrative Flow
Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :
IV. Engaging the Reader
The overarching goal of your introduction is to make your readers want to read your paper. The introduction should grab your reader's attention. Strategies for doing this can be to:
NOTE: Only choose one strategy for engaging your readers; avoid giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance.
Freedman, Leora and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions . University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies . Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction . Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.
Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction
Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific words or phrases with which readers may be unfamiliar. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source. It doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, try to find one that is from subject specific dictionaries or encyclopedias [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology].
Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper . Florida International University; Introductions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.
When Do I Begin?
A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from the history of the issue being investigated. It is, therefore, important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that best informs the reader of study's overall importance. For example, a study about coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exportation in Africa. If a research problem demands a substantial exploration of historical context, do this in the literature review section; note in the introduction as part of your "roadmap" [see below] that you covering this in the literature review.
Always End with a Roadmap
The final paragraph or sentences of your introduction should forecast your main arguments and conclusions and provide a description of the rest of the paper [a "roadmap"] that let's the reader know where you are going and what to expect.
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Introduction.
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Chapter 3. Psychological Science
Amelia Liangzi Shi
Approximate reading time : 12 minutes
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
Once data is collected from the research participants, a set of statistical analyses is conducted to interpret the results. Descriptive statistics organise and summarise some important properties of the data set. Researchers usually describe the central tendency and variability of a data set; this allows them to quickly make some basic interpretations about the results of a large sample of people. They may also use frequency distributions and histograms to visualize the data set. Inferential statistics provide researchers with the tools to make inferences about the meaning of the results, specifically about generalising from the sample they used in their research to the greater population that the sample represents. In experimental studies, researchers run inferential statistics to determine the likelihood that the effect of treatment is due to chance (and thus not meaningful). Generally, psychologists consider differences to be statistically significant if there is less than a five percent chance of observing them if the groups did not actually differ from one another. Stated another way, psychologists want to limit the chances of making false-positive claims to five percent or less.
Let’s work through a hypothetical example to show how descriptive statistics help researchers to understand their data. Let’s assume that we have asked 40 people to report how many hours of moderate-to-intense physical activity they get each week. Let’s begin by constructing a frequency distribution of our hypothetical data that will show quickly and graphically what scores we have obtained.
Hours of exercise | Number of participants |
---|---|
1 | 3 |
2 | 5 |
3 | 8 |
4 | 7 |
5 | 8 |
6 | 7 |
7 | 2 |
8 | 1 |
We can now plot a histogram that will show the frequency (i.e., number of participants) as a function of exercise hours. Note how easy it is to see the shape of the frequency distribution of scores.
Many variables that interest psychologists have distributions where most of the scores are located near the centre of the distribution, the distribution is symmetrical, and it is bell-shaped. A data distribution that is shaped like a bell is known as a normal distribution . Normal distributions are common in human traits, such as intelligence, height, and shoe size. Relatively few people are either extremely high or low scorers, and most people fall somewhere near the middle.
A distribution can be described in terms of its central tendency — that is, the point in the distribution around which the data are centred — and its variability or spread. The arithmetical average, or mean , denoted by the letter M, is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. It is computed by calculating the sum of all the scores of the variable and dividing this sum by the number of participants in the distribution, denoted by the letter N. In the data presented in Figure PS.14, the mean height of the students is 67.12 inches (170.48 cm).
In some cases, however, the data distribution is not symmetrical. This occurs when there are one or more extreme scores, known as outliers , at one end of the distribution. In Figure PS.15, you can see the variable of family income, which includes an outlier at a value of $3,800,000. In this case, the mean is not a good measure of central tendency. It appears from the histogram that the central tendency of the family income variable should be around $70,000. But again, because of the outlier, the mean family income is actually $223,960. The single very extreme income has a disproportionate impact on the mean, resulting in a value that does not well represent the central tendency.
The median is used as an alternative measure of central tendency when distributions are not symmetrical. The median is the score in the centre of the distribution, meaning that 50% of the scores are greater than the median and 50% of the scores are less than the median. In our case, the median household income of $73,000 is a much better indication of central tendency than is the mean household income of $223,960.
A final measure of central tendency, known as the mode , represents the value that occurs most frequently in the distribution. You can see from the histogram that the mode for the family income variable is $93,000; it appears four times.
In addition to summarising the central tendency of a distribution, descriptive statistics convey information about how the scores of the variable are spread around the central tendency. Variability of a data set refers to the extent to which individual data points or values in the set differ from each other or from a central measure, such as the mean or median. In other words, it measures the spread or range of values within the data set. A data set with low variability has data points that are relatively close to each other, while a data set with high variability has data points that are more widely dispersed.
One simple way to measure variability is to find the maximum score (i.e., the largest number in the data set) and the minimum score (i.e., the smallest number in the data set) and to compute the range of the variable as the maximum observed score minus the minimum observed score. In the previous example (Figure PS.14) , the range of height is 72 – 62 = 10.
The standard deviation , or SD , is the most commonly used measure of variability around the mean. Distributions with a larger standard deviation have more spread. Those with small deviations have scores that do not stray very far from the average score. Thus, standard deviation is a good measure of the average deviation from the mean in a set of scores. In the examples above, the SD of height is 2.74, and the SD of family income is 745,337. Standard deviation can be useful to compare the variability across samples. For example, a professor can keep track of student grades over many semesters. If the standard deviations are similar from semester to semester, this indicates that the amount of variability in student performance is fairly constant. A standard deviation that suddenly goes up indicates that there are more students with very low scores, very high scores, or both.
The standard deviation in the normal distribution has some interesting properties. Approximately 68% of the data fall within 1 standard deviation above or below the mean score: 34% fall above the mean, and 34% fall below. In other words, if a variable is normally distributed (e.g., height and IQ), approximately 2/3 of the population are within 1 standard deviation around the mean. Likewise, the 2 standard deviations account for 95% of the population, and the 3 standard deviations include almost everyone (99.73%).
Descriptive statistics are useful in providing an initial way to describe and summarise a data set, but they are limited in informing us how meaningful the data are. The second step in analyzing data requires inferential statistics, such as t -tests. These tests are commonly used to assess the probability that observed results were due to chance. They allow researchers to generalise from the sample they used in their research to the greater population that the sample represents. Effect sizes are commonly used to estimate how large an effect has been obtained.
In the simplest, non-mathematical terms, the t -test is the researcher’s estimate of how likely it is that the observed group differences were statistically significant, as opposed to simply the result of chance. The t -test goes beyond just comparing means and can determine statistical significance even when the differences between experimental conditions are small; conversely, it might not find significance even when differences seem large. This shows the importance of considering inferential statistics like the t -test in evaluating the significance of experimental findings.
Typically, if a t -test shows that a result has a less than 5% probability of being due to chance alone, the result is considered to be real and to generalise to the population. If it shows that the probability of chance causing the outcome is greater than 5%, it is considered to be a non-significant result and, consequently, of little value; non-significant results are more likely to be chance findings and, therefore, should not be generalised to the population. Most researchers use p values to indicate the statistical significance: p < .05 means the probability of being caused by chance is less than 5% and therefore the result is “significant.” Although p values provide information about the presence of an effect, they are of little value for informing how large an effect is. For that, we need some measure of effect size . To learn more about why and how to report effect size, read this article: Using Effect Size—or Why the P Value Is Not Enough (Sullivan & Feinn, 2012).
In summary, statistics are an important tool in helping researchers understand the data that they have collected. Once the statistics have been calculated, the researchers interpret their results. Thus, while statistics are heavily used in the analysis of data, the interpretation of the results requires a researcher’s knowledge, analysis, and expertise.
Figure PS.14. Normal Distribution image description:
Height in inches | Number of students |
---|---|
62 | 2 |
63 | 1 |
64 | 2 |
65 | 1 |
66 | 2 |
67 | 6 |
68 | 4 |
69 | 3 |
70 | 1 |
71 | 1 |
72 | 2 |
[Return to Figure PS.14]
Figure PS.15. Non-symmetrical Distribution image description:
Family income in dollars | Number of families |
---|---|
$44000 | 1 |
$46000 | 1 |
$48000 | 2 |
$49000 | 1 |
$51000 | 1 |
$56000 | 1 |
$57000 | 1 |
$64000 | 1 |
$67000 | 1 |
$68000 | 1 |
$70000 | 1 |
$73000 (Median) | 2 |
$84000 | 1 |
$93000 (Mode) | 4 |
$94000 | 1 |
$107000 | 2 |
$110000 | 1 |
$110000 | 1 |
$3800000 | 1 |
[Return to Figure PS.15]
Figure PS.13. Original image created for this textbook and is under a CC BY-NC-SA license .
Figure PS.14. “Normal Distribution” is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license . The creator has asked that they not receive attribution.
Figure PS.15. “Non-Symmetrical Distribution” is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license . The creator has asked that they not receive attribution.
Figure PS.16. “Low Variability and High Variability” is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license . The creator has asked that they not receive attribution.
Figure PS.17. Empirical Rule by Dan Kernler is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license.
To calculate this time, we used a reading speed of 150 words per minute and then added extra time to account for images and videos. This is just to give you a rough idea of the length of the chapter section. How long it will take you to engage with this chapter will vary greatly depending on all sorts of things (the complexity of the content, your ability to focus, etc).
Interpreting Research Copyright © 2024 by Amelia Liangzi Shi is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
Introduction: Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS), a rare genetic disorder, affects development and behavior, frequently resulting in self-injury, aggression, hyperphagia, oppositional behavior, impulsivity and over-activity causing significant morbidity. Currently, limited therapeutic options are available to manage these neuropsychiatric manifestations. The aim of this clinical trial was to assess the efficacy of guanfacine-extended release (GXR) in reducing aggression and self-injury in individuals with PWS. Trial Design: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial conducted under IRB approval. Methods: Subjects with a diagnosis of PWS, 6-35 years of age, with moderate to severe aggressive and/or self-injurious behavior as determined by the Clinical Global Impression (CGI)-Severity scale, were included in an 8-week double-blind, placebo-controlled, fixed-flexible dose clinical trial of GXR, that was followed by an 8-week open-label extension phase. Validated behavioral instruments and physician assessments measured the efficacy of GXR treatment, its safety and tolerability. Results: GXR was effective in reducing aggression/agitation and hyperactivity/noncompliance as measured by the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC) scales (p=0.03). Overall aberrant behavior scores significantly reduced in the GXR arm. Aggression as measured by the Modified Overt Aggression Scale (MOAS) also showed a significant reduction. Skin-picking lesions as measured by the Self Injury Trauma (SIT) scale decreased in response to GXR. No serious adverse events were experienced by any of the study participants. Fatigue /sedation was the only adverse event significantly associated with GXR. The GXR group demonstrated significant overall clinical improvement as measured by the CGI-Improvement (CGI-I) scale. (p<0.01). Conclusion: Findings of this pragmatic trial strongly support the use of GXR for treatment of aggression, skin picking, and hyperactivity in children, adolescents, and adults with PWS. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier - NCT05657860
I have read the journal's policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: DS has served as a consultant to Soleno Therapeutics, Acadia Pharmaceuticals, Tonix Pharmaceuticals, and Consynance Therapeutics. MS and TJ have no other competing interests to report.
ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT05657860
Author declarations.
I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.
The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Maimonides Medical Center (# 2020-11-03-MMC). Written, IRB-approved informed consent was obtained from each participant's parent or legal guardian, and assent was obtained from each participant, as applicable.
I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.
I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).
I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.
All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files and will be available upon its publication.
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August 21, 2024
By Rick Claypool
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Note: Findings are based on Public Citizen analysis of federal election data provided by OpenSecrets showing all contributions of $5,000 or more by for-profit corporations to super PACs and hybrid PACs between 2010 and June 30, 2024.
Cryptocurrency corporations are spending big to make crypto regulation a top issue for candidates in the 2024 elections.
Crypto-sector corporations – primarily Coinbase and Ripple – have dumped over $119 million in real dollars into the 2024 elections so far, almost entirely into super PACs dedicated to elevating pro-crypto candidates and attacking crypto skeptics (see Table 1).
The primary beneficiary of the corporate crypto cash is Fairshake PAC, a super PAC that has raised $202.9 million . More than half of Fairshake’s funding – $107.9 million, or 53% – came directly from corporations that stand to profit from the PAC’s efforts, mostly Coinbase and Ripple. The rest of the PAC’s funds mostly comes from billionaire crypto executives and venture capitalists, including $44 million from the founders of venture capital firm Andreessen Horowitz, $5 million from the Winklevoss twins, and $1 million from Coinbase CEO Brian Armstrong.
This tsunami of corporate crypto cash is a brazen and unprecedented attempt by for-profit businesses to force their private, pecuniary priorities ahead of the public interest. “Money moves the needle,” Coinbase’s billionaire CEO Brian Armstrong told Axios . “For better or worse, that’s how our system works.”
For Americans hopeful the federal government will prioritize their interest in a stable economy and crack down on Ponzi-like schemes and scams, crypto’s corporate influence corrupting our political process can only be for worse.
Crypto Sector Corporation | Total 2024 Contributions | Recipients | Amount |
---|---|---|---|
Coinbase | $50,499,995 | Fairshake PAC | $45,499,995 |
Protect Progress (Fairshake affiliate) | $1,500,000 | ||
Defend American Jobs (Fairshake affiliate) | $1,500,000 | ||
Senate Leadership Fund (Republican PAC) | $500,000 | ||
Senate Majority PAC (Democratic PAC) | $500,000 | ||
Congressional Leadership Fund (Republican PAC) | $500,000 | ||
House Majority PAC (Democratic PAC) | $500,000 | ||
Ripple | $49,000,000 | Fairshake PAC | $45,000,000 |
Protect Progress (Fairshake affiliate) | $1,500,000 | ||
Defend American Jobs (Fairshake affiliate) | $1,500,000 | ||
Commonwealth Unity Fund (John Deaton super PAC) | $1,000,000 | ||
Jump Crypto | $15,000,000 | Fairshake PAC | $15,000,000 |
Andreessen Horowitz | $1,750,000 | Senate Majority PAC (Democratic PAC) | $750,000 |
Congressional Leadership Fund (Republican PAC) | $500,000 | ||
Senate Leadership Fund (Republican PAC) | $250,000 | ||
House Majority PAC (Democratic PAC) | $250,000 | ||
Payward Inc | $1,000,000 | Fairshake PAC | $1,000,000 |
Circle Internet Financial | $1,000,000 | Fairshake PAC | $1,000,000 |
Paradigm Operations Lp | $1,000,000 | Sentinel Action Fund (conservative crypto PAC) | $500,000 |
Congressional Leadership Fund (Republican PAC) | $250,000 | ||
Senate Majority PAC (Democratic PAC) | $250,000 |
Data Source: OpenSecrets.org
Because of the 2010 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission , corporations can spend as much as they want to tilt elections toward their favored candidates. There are, however, some limits on corporate political spending. Corporations cannot contribute directly to campaigns, but they can contribute unlimited funds to super PACs and other types of outside groups if those groups do not coordinate directly with candidates’ official campaign operations. Longstanding anti-“pay-to-play” laws prohibit corporations that have contracts with the federal government from contributing to electoral campaigns. (Public Citizen joined a complaint filed with the FEC alleging Coinbase’s $25 million contribution to Fairshake and $500,000 contribution to the Congressional Leadership Fund were made in violation of this law, as Coinbase is a federal contractor with the US Marshals service and the contributions were made when the corporation was legally prohibited from doing so.)
The decade after the Citizens United ruling led to a massive surge of contributions from super PACs. Contributions to super PACs were dominated by billionaires, with just 25 wealthy individuals contributing about $1.4 billion, over that period – nearly half of super PAC contributions. Direct corporate contributions totaled just $313 million between 2010 and 2020.
Crypto corporations’ total spending in the past three election cycles – $129 million – already amounts to 15% of all known corporate contributions since 2010, which now total $884 million. Direct corporate election spending at this scale is unprecedented (see Chart 1).
Crypto corporations are already second in total election-related spending, trailing only fossil fuel corporations, which have spent $176 million over the past 14 years, including $73 million from Koch Industries, a notoriously prolific corporate contributor to Americans for Prosperity, a particularly active backer of “Tea Party” Republicans during the Obama administration.
This analysis is by necessity limited only to corporate contributions to super PACs and hybrid PACs, which are disclosed to the Federal Election Commission. A hybrid PAC has one bank account that can make direct expenditures to back candidates, operating with all the limits of a traditional PAC, and a separate bank account that operates as a super PAC, raising and spending unlimited sums from corporations and wealthy donors as long as there is no direct coordination with candidates. Corporations can and do also contribute to Dark Money groups organized as 501(c)(4) nonprofits or 501(c)(6) business groups, which are not required to disclose their backers. A pro-crypto Dark Money group, the Cedar Innovation Foundation , is already running online ads targeting Senators Sherrod Brown (D-Ohio) and Elizabeth Warren (D-Mass.), who are seen as crypto skeptics.
So far, Big Crypto’s big spending strategy appears to be paying off:
It was just two years ago, during the 2022 midterm elections, when FTX CEO (and now-convicted felon) Sam Bankman-Fried personified the cryptocurrency sector’s attempt to use campaign spending to maximize its political influence. Bankman-Fried spent more than $40 million in disclosed contributions, primarily supporting Democrats. After the election, Bankman-Fried claimed he also spent about the same amount backing Republicans , stating in an interview, “all my Republican donations were dark” and estimating he might have been the “second or third biggest” donor to Republicans in the cycle.
Now the even partisan split in both houses of Congress means the crypto sector’s outsized influence in competitive races has the potential to tip control of Congress one way or the other.
If crypto corporations are successful in directly leveraging their financial power into political power, more corporations and business sectors may follow the same playbook.
To be fair, crypto did not invent the corporate political influence strategy of rewarding candidates who agree to do an industry’s bidding while threatening those who resist corporate power. But no industry has ever before has so wholeheartedly embraced raising as much directly from corporations and openly using that political war chest as a looming threat (or reward) to discipline lawmakers toward adopting an industry’s preferred policies.
Crypto sector spokespersons claim to represent a vast voting bloc, but the claim has little credibility. The sector itself offers skewed statistics that exaggerate the number of Americans who dabble in digital money, but a survey by the Federal Reserve finds only about 7% of Americans held or used crypto in 2023.
Crypto has its enthusiasts, to be sure. But if the hype was no more consequential than a handful of hobbyists collecting digital coins the way others might collect postage stamps or baseball cards, there would be little harm in letting crypto fans have their fun.
However, crypto enthusiasts treat cryptocurrencies as speculative assets – a use that is encouraged by crypto corporations and an ecosystem of crypto media. But it is worth emphasizing over and over again that, unlike commodities, corporate securities, or real “fiat” currency that has the backing of the federal government, there is nothing with any intrinsic value underlying crypto. Crypto’s volatility and risk remain extreme.
As the massive fraud perpetrated by Sam Bankman-Fried’s fallen crypto exchange FTX showed, untrustworthy insiders can abuse consumers, using their payments of real cash for personal purposes. It may be understandable why some technology-curious insiders with money to burn might find experimenting with crypto to be worth the risk, but pushing everyday investors with student debts and retirement savings into risky digital assets is a disaster waiting to happen.
Additionally, crypto has been found to be particularly useful for criminal enterprises that exploit the blockchain as an alternative to the regulated financial system, where sophisticated systems are in place for detecting tax evasion, money laundering, ransom payments, and the like.
Both Coinbase and Ripple have been fighting securities fraud charges from the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission.
If a widespread grassroots constituency supporting the crypto political agenda existed, one might expect that Fairshake would be tapping into it and touting in its advertisements that it is fighting for the constituency’s interests. That’s not what Fairshake is doing.
On the contrary, when Fairshake and its affiliates spend money to influence races, either by attacking crypto skeptics or boosting crypto supporters, the ads don’t mention crypto at all. The super PAC spent $10 million on ads against Rep. Katie Porter in California’s Senate primary and $2 million against Rep. Jamaal Bowman in a primary contest in New York. Rather than criticizing candidates for not sufficiently supporting crypto, both attack campaigns smeared the candidates’ using unflattering claims having nothing to do with crypto policy.
Similarly, the $3 million campaign by Defend American Jobs PAC, Fairshake’s affiliate for intervening in Republican primaries, features an ad supporting Gov. Jim Justice for the Senate that makes no mention of cryptocurrency.
The super PAC recently pledged to spend $25 million backing 18 House candidates – nine Democrats and nine Republicans – in the general election. Fairshake also announced that it would spend $18 million on three Senate races . The Senate race spending includes $12 million pledged to back Ohio Republican Bernie Moreno, who been described as a “crypto fan” and “blockchain businessman,” against incumbent Democrat and Senate Banking Chairman Sen. Sherrod Brown, as well as $3 million backing Arizona Democratic Senate candidate Rep. Ruben Gallego and $3 million backing Michigan Democratic Senate candidate Rep. Elisa Slotkin. Gallego and Slotkin both voted in defiance of the Biden administration for the legislation transferring authority over crypto from the SEC to the CFTC.
It will be interesting to see if Fairshake’s pattern of concealing its crypto agenda when attempting to influence voters, even as it makes its policy priorities extremely clear to candidates.
Fairshake spokesman Josh Vlasto, a former chief of staff for New York Gov. Andrew Cuomo and a top aide to Sen. Chuck Schumer (D-N.Y.), said “We’ll have the resources to affect races and the makeup of institutions at every level . And we’ll leverage those assets strategically to maximize their impact in order to build a sustainable, bipartisan crypto and blockchain coalition.”
In Ohio, incumbent Sen. Sherrod Brown (D) is seeking reelection, and in Montana, incumbent Sen. Jon Tester (D) is seeking reelection. Both incumbent Democrats are seen as vulnerable, as both are running in states where Trump’s presidential campaign won in 2020. Fairshake’s Vlasto told the New York Times in March that the super PAC has not decided whether to support or oppose either candidate, though both senators are seen as crypto skeptics. Only in August did Fairshake announce its plans to spend against Brown – and, after Tester’s crypto-friendly vote, has yet to announce further plans for Montana.
The super PAC appears to be adopting a strategy of amassing the biggest political war chest that it can, and to use that war chest itself as an unspecified threat. Fairshake’s lack of clear political affiliation means its spending could be deployed against either Republicans or Democrats. There appears to be an implicit promise the super PAC will stand down in races where both Democrats and Republicans demonstrate willingness to pander to Big Crypto. This Big Crypto threat in many districts combined with targeted deployments has already changed dynamics in races and in Congress. It is akin to a corporate Death Star hovering over elections, poised to annihilate individual candidates in order to instill a discipline – acquiescence to corporate demands – among all candidates.
The crypto sector strategy seems to be: give crypto corporations what they want, or your political career gets it. Or, as former Coinbase CTO Balaji Srinivasan posted on X (formerly Twitter), “Attacking crypto means risking your seat.”
The strategy, however, is not without risk. After Fairshake announced its bipartisan political spending intentions, Republicans accused Fairshake of betrayal for backing Democratic senate candidates in Arizona and Michigan, while Democratic megadonor Ron Conway disavowed Fairshake after the super PAC announced it would back the Republican senate candidate in Ohio. “Because of your selfish hidden agendas it is time for us to separate,” Conway wrote. “This is a wake up call to myself that I have been working too long with people who [do] not share common values and that is unacceptable. … I will I [sic] no longer compromise myself by associating or helping.”
Crypto’s strategy is different from how corporations usually influence elections with their political contributions, and not just in the scale of contributions made.
Typically, disclosed corporate political contributions go to partisan outside groups, usually Republican affiliated (see Table 2). Aside from crypto, the other corporate contributors of 2024 follow this pattern. Republican-backing groups have a nearly four-to-one advantage in corporate funding, with $122.9 million in contributions from corporations going to right-leaning groups with $32.6 million going to groups that support Democrats.
In 2024, half of corporate contributions to Republican-backing groups ($69 million) went to just three groups: the Kochs’ Americans for Prosperity Action ($25.9 million), the Senate Leadership Fund ($22.4 million), and the Congressional Leadership Fund ($20.7 million). Similarly, about a third of corporate contributions toward Democrat-backing groups ($9.6 million) went to two groups dedicated to electing Democrats to the Senate and House, respectively: Senate Majority PAC ($5.8 million) and House Majority PAC ($3.8 million).
The top corporation among the crypto political spenders, Coinbase, is also contributing to partisan PACs in the 2024 cycle. But Coinbase’s strategy of withholding full commitment to either political party again stands out, as the corporation made four $500,000 donations – one to elect Republicans to the Senate, one to elect Democrats to the Senate, one to elect Republicans to the House, and one to elect Democrats to the House.
The vast majority of Coinbase and Ripple’s contributions have gone to the nonpartisan FairShake Super PAC.
Corporation | Contribution | Top Recipient | Political Lean |
---|---|---|---|
Coinbase | $50,499,995 | Fairshake | Non-specified |
Ripple | $48,000,000 | Fairshake | Non-specified |
Koch Industries | $28,250,000 | Americans for Prosperity Action | Republican |
Jump Crypto | $15,000,000 | Fairshake | Non-specified |
Pivotal Ventures (Melinda Gates) | $7,475,000 | Campaign for a Family Friendly Economy PAC | Democratic |
Chevron Corp | $5,975,000 | Senate Leadership Fund | Republican |
RAI Services Co (Reynolds American, a British American Tobacco subsidiary) | $5,500,000 | Make America Great Again Inc | Republican |
Occidental Petroleum | $5,000,000 | Senate Leadership Fund | Republican |
Hillwood Development | $4,900,000 | Senate Leadership Fund and Congressional Leadership Fund | Republican |
Planeta Management LLC (Nicole Shanahan) | $4,500,000 | American Values 2024 | Independent (Robert Kennedy, Jr.) |
The pattern of corporate contributions aside from crypto benefiting partisan groups is even more pronounced when corporate contributions since 2010 are examined (see Table 3).
Since 2010, Republican-backing groups have a four-to-one advantage, with $609.1 million in contributions from corporations going to right-leaning groups while $144.6 million is going to groups that support Democrats.
Over half of the corporate contributions toward Republican-backing groups (310.2 million) went to just four groups: the Senate Leadership Fund ($118.9 million), Congressional Leadership Fund ($93.2 million), Americans for Prosperity Action ($59 million) and Karl Rove’s American Crossroads ($39 million). Similarly, about 40% of the corporate contributions toward Democrat-backing groups ($60.3 million) went to two groups dedicated to electing Democrats to the Senate and House, respectively: Senate Majority PAC ($46.1 million) and House Majority PAC ($14.3 million).
Considering all corporate contributions since 2010 also highlights the magnitude of the crypto sector’s 2024 spending. The sector did not start intervening in elections until 2020, when Sam Bankman-Fried’s Alameda Research contributed $5.2 million to Future Forward, a hybrid PAC that supported the Biden-Harris campaign. Four years later, Coinbase is second only Koch Industries in terms of its spending to influence federal elections.
Corporation | Contributions | Top Recipient | Political Lean |
---|---|---|---|
Koch Industries | $69,335,000 | Americans for Prosperity Action | Republican |
Coinbase | $50,499,995 | Fairshake | Non-specified |
Ripple | $48,500,000 | Fairshake | Non-specified |
Chevron Corp | $28,952,500 | Senate Leadership Fund | Republican |
Amalgamated Bank | $25,739,195 | Senate Majority PAC | Democratic |
Hillwood Development | $19,818,980 | Senate Leadership Fund | Republican |
CV Starr & Co | $16,267,500 | Right to Rise USA | Republican |
RAI Services Co (Reynolds American, a British American Tobacco subsidiary) | $15,107,500 | Senate Leadership Fund | Republican |
Jump Crypto | $15,000,000 | Fairshake | Non-specified |
Occidental Petroleum | $13,610,000 | Senate Leadership Fund | Republican |
Crypto corporations’ total spending in the past three election cycles – $129 million – already amounts to 15% of all known corporate contributions since the Supreme Court’s 2010 ruling in Citizens United , which total $884 million. In terms of corporate money in politics since 2010, the crypto corporations are second only to fossil fuel corporations, which have spent $162 million over the past 14 years, including $73 million from Koch Industries (see Table 4). But crypto corporations made 92% of their record-breaking contributions in 2024 alone – and, of course, may still contribute more.
Sector | Amount | Top Donors |
---|---|---|
Fossil Fuels | $176.1 million | Koch Industries, Chevron, Occidental Petroleum |
Cryptocurrency | $128 million | Coinbase, Ripple, Jump Crypto |
Political / Personal Purpose* | $41.4 million | Specialty Group Inc (William S. Rose), Planeta Management LLC (Nicole Shanahan), Besilu Stables (Benjamin Leon, Jr.) |
Real Estate | $38.5 million | Hillwood Development, Crow Holdings, Klein Financial |
Private Holding Company | $31.1 million | TRT Holdings, Access Industries, Contran Corp |
Finance | $26.3 million | CV Starr & Co. and Starr International USA, Stephens Inc., Allied Wallet |
Finance / Labor | $25.7 million | Amalgamated Bank** |
Tobacco | $23 million | Reynolds American (British American Tobacco subsidiary), Altria Client Servies (Philip Morris affiliate) |
Food and Agriculture | $20.7 million | Mountaire Corp., Weaver Popcorn, Dixie Rice Agricultural Corp. and Southwest Louisiana Land (Harold Simmons) |
Energy | $13.3 million | Alliance Resource Partners, NextEra Energy, Pinnacle West Capital |
*Political / Personal Purpose refers to contributions made by corporate entities that appear to have been created primarily to advance the interests of their individual owners.
** Amalgamated Bank , a union-owned financial institution whose political engagement often differs from that of other financial institutions.
In many cases, contributions by corporations appear to be used as extensions of their wealthy owners’ political activities. This is particularly true of privately held entities and LLCs . An extreme example of this is Planeta Management, which is controlled by Robert F. Kennedy, Jr.’s running mate, Nicole Shanahan, and gave $4 million to American Values 2024, a super PAC backing Kennedy’s presidential campaign. Similarly, Amalgamated Bank’s spending to support Democrats is an expression of the bank’s labor ownership. Republicans, nevertheless, have overwhelmingly benefitted from corporate contributions, having received $609 million in contributions since 2010, or 69% of the total (see Table 5).
Recipient Viewpoint | Amount Received |
---|---|
Backs Republicans | $609.1 million |
Backs Democrats | $144.6 million |
Non-Specified / Independent | $130.8 million |
Total | $884.5 million |
The threat of Big Crypto’s big spending looms large in 2024, especially in contested races such as the Ohio and Montana Senate contests, where incumbent Democrats are defending vulnerable seats that would cost them control of the chamber. The cryptocurrency sector is not the first corporate interest to seek to distort our democracy by converting its financial power into political power, but the magnitude of its corporate spending and its strategy of withholding partisan support is unusual. The strategy has been effective so far. Candidates are clamoring to demonstrate their willingness to pander to crypto corporations, and sitting lawmakers are backing off tough policy stances. It is a clear indication that the Supreme Court’s 2010 ruling in Citizens United is a serious factor in the 2024 elections – and a threat to our democracy.
Despite cryptocurrency marketing claims that digital assets herald a future financial system that promises to be decentralized, efficient, fairer, and more affordable, the Ponzi-like schemes and whipsaw volatility that have characterized the crypto sector have shown these experiments in artificial currency to be of dubious value.
This makes crypto’s influence even more dangerous. Crypto-influenced lawmakers bending over backwards to benefit Big Crypto means weaker protections preventing individual consumers from being defrauded by reckless crypto scams – and softened regulations protecting our financial system from destructive innovations that exploit consumers while enriching insiders.
There’s one other great danger from this trend: With the crypto companies shattering the norm of corporate reticence to make large-scale contributions to affect election outcomes, there’s a grave danger that other corporations will follow suit.
We’ve already had enough of elected officials looking the other way because influential billionaires and Big Businesses told them to. Regulators and lawmakers should be free to carry out their public interest missions without fear of political attacks from corporate interests.
The influence of Big Crypto is more evidence a constitutional amendment is needed to overturn Citizens United – and restore our democracy to one where people call the shots, not corporations.
Making Government Work : Corporate Influence in Government
Protecting Democracy : Money in Politics
Plutocrat politics: how financial sector wealth fuels political ad spending.
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June 3, 2019
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Table of contents. Step 1: Introduce your topic. Step 2: Describe the background. Step 3: Establish your research problem. Step 4: Specify your objective (s) Step 5: Map out your paper. Research paper introduction examples. Frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.
Define your specific research problem and problem statement. Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study. Give an overview of the paper's structure. The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper.
Research paper introduction is the first section of a research paper that provides an overview of the study, its purpose, and the research question (s) or hypothesis (es) being investigated. It typically includes background information about the topic, a review of previous research in the field, and a statement of the research objectives.
Generally speaking, a good research paper introduction includes these parts: 1 Thesis statement. 2 Background context. 3 Niche (research gap) 4 Relevance (how the paper fills that gap) 5 Rationale and motivation. First, a thesis statement is a single sentence that summarizes the main topic of your paper.
Steps to write a research paper introduction. By following the steps below, you can learn how to write an introduction for a research paper that helps readers "shake hands" with your topic. In each step, thinking about the answers to key questions can help you reach your readers. 1. Get your readers' attention
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Dr. Michelle Harris, Dr. Janet Batzli,Biocore. This section provides guidelines on how to construct a solid introduction to a scientific paper including background information, study question, biological rationale, hypothesis, and general approach. If the Introduction is done well, there should be no question in the reader's mind why and on ...
The introduction supplies sufficient background information for the reader to understand and evaluate the experiment you did. It also supplies a rationale for the study. Goals: Present the problem and the proposed solution. Presents nature and scope of the problem investigated. Reviews the pertinent literature to orient the reader.
Develop a thesis statement. Create a research paper outline. Write a first draft of the research paper. Write the introduction. Write a compelling body of text. Write the conclusion. The second draft. The revision process. Research paper checklist.
After you've done some extra polishing, I suggest a simple test for the introductory section. As an experiment, chop off the first few paragraphs. Let the paper begin on, say, paragraph 2 or even page 2. If you don't lose much, or actually gain in clarity and pace, then you've got a problem. There are two solutions.
When writing your research paper introduction, there are several key elements you should include to ensure it is comprehensive and informative. A hook or attention-grabbing statement to capture the reader's interest. It can be a thought-provoking question, a surprising statistic, or a compelling anecdote that relates to your research topic.
The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly ...
Introduce your topic. This is a significant part of how to write an introduction for a research paper. The first task of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it is interesting or important. This is usually done with a strong opening hook. A hook is a strong opening sentence that conveys relevance to your topic.
In general, your introductions should contain the following elements: When you're writing an essay, it's helpful to think about what your reader needs to know in order to follow your argument. Your introduction should include enough information so that readers can understand the context for your thesis. For example, if you are analyzing ...
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Download Article. 1. Announce your research topic. You can start your introduction with a few sentences which announce the topic of your paper and give an indication of the kind of research questions you will be asking. This is a good way to introduce your readers to your topic and pique their interest.
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The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements: A hook to catch the reader's interest. Relevant background on the topic. Details of your research problem. and your problem statement. A thesis statement or research question. Sometimes an overview of the paper. Frequently asked questions: Writing a research paper.
The introduction serves the purpose of leading the reader from a general subject area to a particular field of research. It establishes the context of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the hypothesis, question, or research problem, briefly explaining your rationale ...
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Introduction: Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS), a rare genetic disorder, affects development and behavior, frequently resulting in self-injury, aggression, hyperphagia, oppositional behavior, impulsivity and over-activity causing significant morbidity. Currently, limited therapeutic options are available to manage these neuropsychiatric manifestations. The aim of this clinical trial was to assess ...
Introduction Cryptocurrency corporations are spending big to make crypto regulation a top issue for candidates in the 2024 elections. Crypto-sector corporations - primarily Coinbase and Ripple - have dumped over $119 million in real dollars into the 2024 elections so far, almost entirely into super PACs dedicated to elevating pro-crypto ...