introduction of renewable energy essay

The Understand Energy Learning Hub is a cross-campus effort of the Precourt Institute for Energy .

Introduction to Renewable Energy

Exploring our content.

Fast Facts View our summary of key facts and information. ( Printable PDF, 270 KB )

Before You Watch Our Lecture Maximize your learning experience by reviewing these carefully curated readings we assign to our students.

Our Lecture Watch the Stanford course lecture.

Additional Resources Find out where to explore beyond our site.

Fast Facts About Renewable Energy

Principle Energy Uses: Electricity, Heat Forms of Energy: Kinetic, Thermal, Radiant, Chemical

The term “renewable” encompasses a wide diversity of energy resources with varying economics, technologies, end uses, scales, environmental impacts, availability, and depletability. For example, fully “renewable” resources are not depleted by human use, whereas “semi-renewable” resources must be properly managed to ensure long-term availability. The most renewable type of energy is energy efficiency, which reduces overall consumption while providing the same energy service. Most renewable energy resources have significantly lower environmental and climate impacts than their fossil fuel counterparts.

The data in these Fast Facts do not reflect two important renewable energy resources: traditional biomass, which is widespread but difficult to measure; and energy efficiency, a critical strategy for reducing energy consumption while maintaining the same energy services and quality of life. See the Biomass and Energy Efficiency pages to learn more.

Significance

14% of world 🌎 9% of US 🇺🇸

Electricity Generation

30% of world 🌎 21% of US 🇺🇸

Global Renewable Energy Uses

Electricity 65% Heat 26% Transportation 9%

Global Consumption of Renewable Electricity Change

Increase: ⬆ 33% (2017 to 2022)

Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency measures such as LED light bulbs reduce the need for energy in the first place

Renewable Resources

Wind Solar Ocean

Semi-Renewable Resources

Hydro Geothermal Biomass

Renewable Energy Has Vast Potential to Meet Global Energy Demand

Solar >1,000x global demand Wind ~3x global demand

Share of Global Energy Demand Met by Renewable Resources

Hydropower 7% Wind 3% Solar 2% Biomass <2%  

Share of Global Electricity Generation Met by Renewable Resources

Hydropower 15% Wind 7% Solar 5% Biomass & Geothermal <3%

Global Growth

Hydropower generation increase ⬆6% Wind generation increase ⬆84% Solar generation increase ⬆197% Biofuels consumption increase ⬆23% (2017-2022)

Largest Renewable Energy Producers

China 34% 🇨🇳 US 10% 🇺🇸 of global renewable energy

Highest Penetration of Renewable Energy

Norway 72% 🇳🇴 of the country’s primary energy is renewable

(China is at 16%, the US is at 11%)

Largest Renewable Electricity Producers

China 31% 🇨🇳 US 11% 🇺🇸 of global renewable electricity

Highest Penetration of Renewable Electricity

Albania, Bhutan, CAR, Lesotho, Nepal, & Iceland 100%

Iceland, Ethiopia, Paraguay, DRC, Norway, Costa Rica, Uganda, Namibia, Eswatini, Zambia, Tajikistan, & Sierra Leone > 90% of the country’s primary electricity is renewable

(China is at 31%, the US is at 22%)

Share of US Energy Demand Met by Renewable Resources

Biomass 5% Wind 2% Hydro 1% Solar 1%

Share of US Electricity Generation Met by Renewable Resources

Wind 10% Hydropower 6% Solar 3% Biomass 1%

US States That Produce the Most Renewable Electricity

Texas 21% California 11% of US renewable energy production

US States With Highest Penetration of Renewable Electricity

Vermont >99% South Dakota 84% Washington 76% Idaho 75% of state’s total generation comes from renewable fuels

Renewable Energy Expansion Policies

The Inflation Reduction Act continued tax credits for new renewable energy projects in the US.

Production Tax Credit (PTC)

Tax credit of $0.0275/kWh of electricity produced at qualifying renewable power generation sites

Investment Tax Credit (ITC)

Tax credit of 30% of the cost of a new qualifying renewable power generation site

To read more about the credit qualifications, visit this EPA site .

*LCOE (levelized cost of electricity) - price for which a unit of electricity must be sold for system to break even

Important Factors for Renewable Site Selection

• Resource availability
• Environmental constraints and sensitivities, including cultural and archeological sites
• Transmission infrastructure
• Power plant retirements
• Transmission congestion and prices
• Electricity markets
• Load growth driven by population and industry
• Policy support
• Land rights and permitting
• Competitive and declining costs of wind, solar, and energy storage
• Lower environmental and climate impacts (social costs) than fossil fuels
• Expansion of competitive wholesale electricity markets
• Governmental clean energy and climate targets and policies
• Corporate clean energy targets and procurement of renewable energy
• No fuel cost or fuel price volatility
• Retirements of old and/or expensive coal and nuclear power plants
• Most renewable resources are abundant, undepletable
• Permitting hurdles and NIMBY/BANANA* concerns
• Competition from subsidized fossil fuels and a lack of price for their social cost (e.g., price on carbon)
• Site-specific resources means greater need to transport energy/electricity to demand
• High initial capital expenditure requirements required to access fuel cost/operating savings
• Intermittent resources
• Inconsistent governmental incentives and subsidies
• Managing environmental impacts to the extent that they exist

*NIMBY - not in my backyard; BANANA - build absolutely nothing anywhere near anything

Climate Impact: Low to High

• Solar, wind, geothermal, and ocean have low climate impacts with near-zero emissions; hydro and biomass can have medium to high climate impact
• Hydro: Some locations have greenhouse gas emissions due to decomposing flooded vegetation
• Biomass: Some crops require significant energy inputs, land use change can release carbon dioxide and methane

Environmental Impact: Low to High

• Most renewable energy resources have low environmental impacts, particularly relative to fossil fuels; some, like biomass, can have more significant impacts
• No air pollution with the exception of biomass from certain feedstocks
• Can have land and habitat disruption for biomass production, solar, and hydro
• Potential wildlife impacts from wind turbines (birds and bats)
• Modest environmental impacts during manufacturing, transportation, and end of life

Updated January 2024

Before You Watch Our Lecture on Introduction to Renewable Energy

We assign videos and readings to our Stanford students as pre-work for each lecture to help contextualize the lecture content. We strongly encourage you to review the Essential reading below before watching our lecture on  Introduction to Renewable Energy . Include the Optional and Useful readings based on your interests and available time.

• The Sustainable Energy in America 2024 Factbook (Executive Summary pp. 5-10) . Bloomberg New Energy Finance. 2024. (6 pages) Provides valuable year-over-year data and insights on the American energy transformation.

Optional and Useful

• Renewables 2024 Global Status Report (Global Overview pp. 10-39) . REN21. 2024. (30 pages)  Documents the progress made in the renewable energy sector and highlights the opportunities afforded by a renewable-based economy and society.

Our Lecture on Introduction to Renewable Energy

This is our Stanford University Understand Energy course lecture that introduces renewable energy. We strongly encourage you to watch the full lecture to gain foundational knowledge about renewable energy and important context for learning more about specific renewable energy resources. For a complete learning experience, we also encourage you to review the Essential reading we assign to our students before watching the lecture.

Presented by: Kirsten Stasio , Adjunct Lecturer, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University; CEO, Nevada Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) Recorded on:  May 15, 2024  Duration: 68 minutes

Table of Contents

(Clicking on a timestamp will take you to YouTube.) 00:00 Introduction  02:06 What Does “Renewable” Mean?  15:29 What Role Do Renewables Play in Our Energy Use?  27:12 What Factors Affect Renewable Energy Project Development?

Lecture slides available upon request .

Additional Resources About Renewable Energy

Stanford university.

• Precourt Institute for Energy Renewable Energy , Energy Efficiency
• Stanford Energy Club
• Energy Modeling Forum
• Sustainable Stanford
• Sustainable Finance Initiative
• Mark Jacobson - Renewable energy
• Michael Lepech - Life-cycle analysis
• Leonard Ortolano - Environmental and water resource planning
• Chris Field - Climate change, land use, bioenergy, solar energy
• David Lobell - Climate change, agriculture, biofuels, land use
• Sally Benson - Climate change, energy, carbon capture and storage

Government and International Organizations

• International Energy Agency (IEA) Renewables Renewables 2022 Report .
• National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
• US Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy (EERE)
• US Energy Information Administration (EIA) Renewable Energy Explained
• US Energy Information Administration (EIA) Energy Kids Renewable Energy
• US Energy Information Administration (EIA) Today in Energy Renewables

Other Organizations and Resources

• REN21: Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century
• REN21 Renewables 2023 Global Status Report Renewables in Energy Supply
• BloombergNEF (BNEF)
• Carnegie Institution for Science  Biosphere Sciences and Engineering
• The Solutions Project
• Renewable Energy World
• World of Renewables
• Energy Upgrade California

Next Topic: Energy Efficiency Other Energy Topics to Explore

Fast Facts Sources

• Energy Mix (World 2022): Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Energy Mix (US 2022): US Energy Information Agency (EIA). Total Energy: Energy Overview, Table 1.3 . 
• Electricity Mix (World 2022): Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Electricity Mix (US 2022): US Energy Information Agency (EIA). Total Energy: Electricity, Table 7.2a.  
• Global Solar Use (2022): REN21. Renewables 2023 Global Status Report: Renewables in Energy Supply , page 42. 2023
• Global Consumption of Renewable Electricity Change (2017-2022): Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Renewable Energy Potential: Perez & Perez. A Fundamental Look at Energy Reserves for the Planet . 2009
• Share of Global Energy Demand (2022): Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Share of Global Electricity Demand (2022): Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Global Growth (2017-2022): Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Largest Renewable Energy Producers (World 2022): International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). Renewable Capacity Statistics 2023 . 2023.
• Highest Penetration Renewable Energy (World 2022): Our World in Data. Renewable Energy . 2023.
• Largest Renewable Electricity Producers (World 2022):   Energy Institute. Statistical Review of World Energy . 2023.
• Highest Penetration Renewable Electricity (World 2022): Our World in Data. Renewable Energy . 2023.
• Share of US Energy Demand (2022): Energy Information Administration (EIA). Electric Power Monthly. 2023.
• Share of Electricity Generation (2022): Energy Information Administration (EIA). Electric Power Monthly. 2023.
• States with Highest Generation (2022): Energy Information Administration (EIA). Electric Power Monthly. 2023.
• States with Highest Penetration (2021): Energy Information Administration (EIA). State Profile and Energy Estimates. 2023.
• LCOE of US Renewable Resources: Lazard. LCOE. April 2023.
• LCOE of US Non Renewable Resources: Lazard. LCOE. April 2023.

More details available on request . Back to Fast Facts

• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• Games & Quizzes
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center

• What is solar energy?
• How is solar energy collected?

renewable energy

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• U.S. Energy Information Administration - Energy Kids - Energy Sources - Renewable
• Natural Resources Defense Council - Renewable Energy: The Clean Facts
• Energy.gov - Renewable Energy
• United Nations - What is renewable energy?
• World Nuclear Association - Renewable Energy and Electricity
• alternative energy - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• alternative energy - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)

Recent News

renewable energy , usable energy derived from replenishable sources such as the Sun ( solar energy ), wind ( wind power ), rivers ( hydroelectric power ), hot springs ( geothermal energy ), tides ( tidal power ), and biomass ( biofuels ).

At the beginning of the 21st century, about 80 percent of the world’s energy supply was derived from fossil fuels such as coal , petroleum , and natural gas . Fossil fuels are finite resources; most estimates suggest that the proven reserves of oil are large enough to meet global demand at least until the middle of the 21st century. Fossil fuel combustion has a number of negative environmental consequences. Fossil-fueled power plants emit air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide , particulate matter , nitrogen oxides, and toxic chemicals (heavy metals: mercury , chromium , and arsenic ), and mobile sources, such as fossil-fueled vehicles, emit nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide , and particulate matter. Exposure to these pollutants can cause heart disease , asthma , and other human health problems. In addition, emissions from fossil fuel combustion are responsible for acid rain , which has led to the acidification of many lakes and consequent damage to aquatic life, leaf damage in many forests, and the production of smog in or near many urban areas. Furthermore, the burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), one of the main greenhouse gases that cause global warming .

In contrast, renewable energy sources accounted for nearly 20 percent of global energy consumption at the beginning of the 21st century, largely from traditional uses of biomass such as wood for heating and cooking . By 2015 about 16 percent of the world’s total electricity came from large hydroelectric power plants, whereas other types of renewable energy (such as solar, wind, and geothermal) accounted for 6 percent of total electricity generation. Some energy analysts consider nuclear power to be a form of renewable energy because of its low carbon emissions; nuclear power generated 10.6 percent of the world’s electricity in 2015.

Growth in wind power exceeded 20 percent and photovoltaics grew at 30 percent annually in the 1990s, and renewable energy technologies continued to expand throughout the early 21st century. Between 2001 and 2017 world total installed wind power capacity increased by a factor of 22, growing from 23,900 to 539,581 megawatts. Photovoltaic capacity also expanded, increasing by 50 percent in 2016 alone. The European Union (EU), which produced an estimated 6.38 percent of its energy from renewable sources in 2005, adopted a goal in 2007 to raise that figure to 20 percent by 2020. By 2016 some 17 percent of the EU’s energy came from renewable sources. The goal also included plans to cut emissions of carbon dioxide by 20 percent and to ensure that 10 percent of all fuel consumption comes from biofuels . The EU was well on its way to achieving those targets by 2017. Between 1990 and 2016 the countries of the EU reduced carbon emissions by 23 percent and increased biofuel production to 5.5 percent of all fuels consumed in the region. In the United States numerous states have responded to concerns over climate change and reliance on imported fossil fuels by setting goals to increase renewable energy over time. For example, California required its major utility companies to produce 20 percent of their electricity from renewable sources by 2010, and by the end of that year California utilities were within 1 percent of the goal. In 2008 California increased this requirement to 33 percent by 2020, and in 2017 the state further increased its renewable-use target to 50 percent by 2030.

Essay on Renewable Energy

Introduction to Renewable Energy

In the quest for a sustainable and environmentally conscious future, adopting renewable energy has emerged as a pivotal solution to mitigate the challenges posed by traditional fossil fuels. Take, for instance, the remarkable growth of solar power in countries like Germany, where the “Energiewende” policy has catapulted them to the forefront of green energy innovation. This transformative journey showcases the potential of harnessing solar energy as an alternative and a cornerstone for economic prosperity, reduced carbon emissions, and heightened energy security. As we delve into the world of renewable energy, it becomes evident that these innovations are key to shaping a cleaner, more resilient global energy landscape.

Importance of Transitioning to Renewable Sources

A sustainable future and resolving numerous global issues depend heavily on the switch to renewable energy sources. This shift is crucial for several reasons:

Watch our Demo Courses and Videos

Valuation, Hadoop, Excel, Mobile Apps, Web Development & many more.

• Environmental Preservation: Fossil fuel combustion contributes significantly to air and water pollution and climate change. Transitioning to renewables reduces greenhouse gas emissions, mitigates environmental degradation, and helps preserve ecosystems.
• Climate Change Mitigation: Renewable energy is a key player in mitigating climate change . Reducing greenhouse gas emissions, including carbon dioxide, is crucial to prevent catastrophic outcomes such as extreme weather events and rising sea levels.
• Energy Security: Wind and solar power, as renewable energy sources, provide a diverse and decentralized energy supply. This reduces dependence on finite and geopolitically sensitive fossil fuel reserves, enhancing energy security and resilience.
• Economic Opportunities: The renewable energy sector fosters job creation and economic growth. Investments in clean energy technologies stimulate innovation, create employment opportunities, and contribute to developing a robust and sustainable economy.
• Public Health Improvement: Transitioning away from fossil fuels decreases the release of harmful pollutants, leading to improved air and water quality. This, in turn, positively impacts public health by reducing respiratory illnesses and other pollution-related diseases.
• Resource Conservation: Unlike finite fossil fuel reserves, renewable sources are inherently sustainable and inexhaustible. By harnessing the power of sunlight, wind, water, and geothermal heat, societies can meet their energy needs without depleting limited natural resources.
• Technological Advancements: The transition to renewables drives innovation and technological advancements. Research and development in clean energy technologies contribute to a cleaner environment and the advancement of scientific knowledge and industrial capabilities.
• Global Cooperation: The shift to renewable energy encourages international collaboration to address shared challenges. Collaborative efforts in research, development, and the adoption of clean energy technologies can foster diplomatic ties and strengthen global cooperation.

Types of Renewable Energy

Sources naturally replenished on a human timescale, making them sustainable and environmentally friendly, derive renewable energy. Listed below are the main types of renewable energy:

• Solar Power: While solar thermal systems use sunshine to heat a fluid that produces steam to power turbines, photovoltaic cells use sunlight to convert light into energy.
• Wind Energy: Wind turbines are machines that use the wind’s kinetic energy to generate electricity through wind energy. When the wind rotates the turbine blades, a generator transforms that rotational energy into electrical energy. Onshore or offshore locations often host wind farms.
• Hydropower: Hydropower produces electricity by harnessing the energy of flowing water. Run-of-river systems divert a portion of a river’s flow, while dam-based hydropower involves the controlled release of stored water through turbines to generate power.
• Biomass Energy: Organic materials like wood, agricultural waste, and agricultural residues produce biomass energy. Biomass can produce heat, electricity, and biofuels through combustion or anaerobic digestion, offering a versatile energy source.
• Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy taps into the Earth’s internal heat by harnessing steam or hot water beneath the Earth’s surface. Geothermal power plants convert this thermal energy into electricity, providing a consistent and reliable power source.
• Tidal Energy: Tidal energy harnesses the moon’s and sun’s gravitational pull to create electricity as the tides rise and fall. Utilizing underwater turbines allows tidal stream devices to capture the energy of the water’s flow.
• Wave Energy: Wave energy captures the motion of ocean waves to generate electricity. Wave energy converters, including point absorbers and oscillating water columns, convert waves’ up and down motion into usable power.
• Hydrogen Energy: Hydrogen, often considered a carrier of energy, can be produced through electrolysis using renewable electricity. It is a clean fuel for various applications, including transportation and industrial processes, emitting only water vapor when used.

Technological advancements

Technological breakthroughs have shaped the modern world, revolutionizing industries and elevating people’s standard of living. Several key areas highlight the profound impact of technology on society:

• Information Technology (IT): The evolution of IT has transformed communication, information access, and business operations. The development of the Internet, cloud computing , and mobile technologies has facilitated instantaneous global communication, d ata storage , and access to vast amounts of information.
• Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning: AI and ML have ushered in a new era of automation and decision-making capabilities. From autonomous vehicles to predictive analytics in healthcare, these technologies continue to enhance efficiency, accuracy, and problem-solving across various industries.
• Biotechnology: Advances in biotechnology have revolutionized healthcare, agriculture, and environmental conservation. Gene editing tools like CRISPR-Cas9 offer unprecedented possibilities in treating genetic disorders, while biotech applications in agriculture improve crop yield and resilience.
• Renewable Energy Technologies: Clean energy generation is now more economical and efficient thanks to renewable energy technology, including energy storage systems, wind turbines, and solar panels. These innovations are pivotal in addressing environmental challenges and promoting sustainable practices.
• Nanotechnology: Nanotechnology manipulates materials at the atomic or molecular level. Nanotechnology has transformed the fields of materials science, electronics, and medicine. As a result, scientists have created sophisticated materials with unique qualities, developed more compact and potent electrical devices, and improved medication delivery methods.
• 3D Printing: Layer-by-layer construction of three-dimensional items is possible with additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing. This technology utilizes diverse applications, from prototyping and manufacturing to healthcare, producing custom implants and prosthetics.
• Blockchain Technology: The decentralized and secure ledger technology known as blockchain powers cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin . Beyond finance, it finds applications in supply chain management , voting systems, and ensuring the integrity and transparency of various processes.
• Quantum Computing: Using the ideas of quantum mechanics, quantum computing can execute intricate calculations at a pace impossible for conventional computers. This can potentially revolutionize fields such as cryptography, optimization problems, and drug discovery.
• Internet of Things (IoT): The technology known as the Internet of Things (IoT) enables commonplace objects to be linked to the Internet and gather and share data. This interconnectedness enhances efficiency in smart homes, cities, and industries, optimizing resource utilization and overall productivity.
• Augmented and Virtual Reality (AR/VR): AR and VR technologies immerse users in virtual or augmented environments, transforming experiences in fields like gaming, education, healthcare, and training simulations.

Challenges and Solutions

Addressing the challenges posed by technological advancements, societal changes, and global issues requires proactive strategies and innovative solutions. Here are some main challenges and possible solutions:

• Cybersecurity Threats:
• Challenge: Due to the growing interconnectivity of systems and the dependence on digital technology, individuals and organizations are more vulnerable to cyber threats such as ransomware attacks and data breaches.
• Solution: Implementing robust cybersecurity measures, regular updates, and user education can help mitigate cyber risks. Collaboration between governments, industries, and cybersecurity experts is crucial for developing effective strategies.
• Privacy Concerns:
• Challenge: The collection and utilization of personal data by companies and governments raise concerns about privacy infringement.
• Solution: Implemented to safeguard people’s privacy rights, GDPR (the General Data Protection Regulation) and other stricter laws and policies exist. Innovations like privacy-enhancing technologies and decentralized identity solutions offer alternative approaches.
• Job Displacement Due to Automation:
• Challenge: Automation and artificial intelligence technologies can lead to job displacement and economic inequality.
• Solution: Reskilling and upskilling programs and focusing on education in emerging fields can prepare the workforce for the changing job landscape. Social policies like universal basic income (UBI) may provide a safety net during transitions.
• Environmental Degradation:
• Challenge: Industrial activities and resource exploitation contribute to environmental degradation, climate change, and biodiversity loss.
• Solution: Sustainable practices, renewable energy adoption, and circular economy principles can mitigate environmental impact. International cooperation and stringent environmental regulations also play a crucial role.
• Ethical Concerns in AI:
• Challenge: Ethical issues surrounding artificial intelligence include biased algorithms, lack of transparency, and potential misuse.
• Solution: Implementing ethical guidelines and standards for AI development, promoting transparency in algorithms, and fostering interdisciplinary collaboration on AI ethics can help address these concerns.
• Healthcare Access Disparities:
• Challenge: Access to quality healthcare is unique globally, with disparities exacerbated by factors such as geography and socioeconomic status.
• Solution: Telemedicine, mobile health applications, and innovative healthcare delivery models can improve access. International collaborations and investment in healthcare infrastructure can reduce disparities.
• Digital Inequality:
• Challenge: Not everyone has equal access to digital technologies, leading to disparities in education, economic opportunities, and social inclusion.
• Solution: Initiatives focusing on digital literacy, affordable internet access, and technology inclusion programs can bridge the digital divide. Governments and organizations can also invest in infrastructure to expand connectivity.
• Global Public Health Crises:
• Challenge: Events like pandemics can strain healthcare systems, disrupt economies, and create social upheaval.
• Solution: Preparedness plans, early warning systems, and international cooperation in research and resource allocation are crucial. Advances in biotechnology and data analytics can aid in swift responses.
• Ethical Use of Biotechnology:
• Challenge: Biotechnological advancements like gene editing raise ethical concerns about human enhancement and unintended consequences.
• Solution: Robust ethical frameworks, public engagement, and interdisciplinary dialogues involving ethicists, scientists, and policymakers can guide responsible biotechnological development.
• Energy Transition Challenges:
• Challenge: Shifting from traditional to renewable energy sources faces infrastructure, economic viability, and societal acceptance challenges.
• Solution: Government incentives, public awareness campaigns, and investment in research and development can accelerate the transition. Community involvement and stakeholder engagement are critical for successful adoption.

Global Initiatives and Policies

Global initiatives and policies play a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of technological, economic, and environmental progress. These initiatives often reflect the collective effort of nations to address shared challenges and promote cooperation in various domains. Here are some notable global initiatives and policies:

• Paris Agreement: Global leaders reached a global agreement to keep the rise in temperature to less than 2°C above pre-industrial levels. Nations aim to enhance climate resilience while reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): The 17 goals address global issues, including poverty, inequality, and environmental sustainability. Goal 7 targets explicitly affordable and clean energy, promoting the transition to renewable sources.
• IRENA(International Renewable Energy Agency): An intergovernmental organization promoting the widespread use of renewable energy. IRENA facilitates cooperation among nations, provides policy advice, and supports capacity building for renewable energy projects.
• Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM): A forum bringing together energy ministers from various nations to promote clean energy policies, share best practices, and collaborate on initiatives to advance the global transition to low-carbon technologies.
• Mission Innovation: A global initiative involving 24 countries and the European Union, committed to doubling public investment in clean energy research and development over five years. It aims to accelerate innovation and make clean energy more affordable.
• European Green Deal: An ambitious EU policy framework aiming for climate neutrality by 2050. It describes plans to lower greenhouse gas emissions, support renewable energy, and completely revamp the European economy.
• Renewable Energy Policies at National Levels: Many countries have established specific policies and targets to promote renewable energy adoption. Examples include Germany’s Energiewende, India’s National Solar Mission, and China’s commitment to peak carbon emissions by 2030.
• Power Africa: An initiative by the U.S. government to increase access to electricity in sub-Saharan Africa. Its main objectives are to encourage investment in the region’s power sector and to facilitate the development of renewable energy projects.
• Global Geothermal Alliance: Launched at COP21, the alliance promotes geothermal energy deployment worldwide. It encourages collaboration between governments, development partners, and the private sector to harness the potential of geothermal resources.
• ESMAP (World Bank’s Energy Sector Management Assistance Program): ESMAP supports developing countries in building sustainable energy systems. It provides technical assistance, policy advice, and financial support for projects promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency.

Case Studies

• Germany’s Energiewende: Germany’s ambitious energy transition, known as Energiewende, aims to shift from conventional energy sources to renewable energy. The country has made significant investments in wind and solar energy, enacted energy-saving measures, and plans to phase out nuclear power. The Energiewende case study exemplifies the integration of renewables into the energy mix and the challenges of maintaining grid balance during this transition.
• China’s Renewable Energy Expansion: China has become a global leader in renewable energy deployment. The country has significantly invested in wind and solar energy projects, increasing capacity. The case study explores China’s policy incentives, market dynamics, and technological advancements that have facilitated its rapid expansion in the renewable energy sector.
• Denmark’s Wind Power Success: Denmark has been a pioneer in wind energy, with wind power contributing significantly to its electricity generation. The case study delves into Denmark’s wind energy policies, including favorable regulatory frameworks, community engagement, and advancements in wind turbine technology. It highlights the economic and environmental benefits of widespread wind power adoption.
• California’s Renewable Energy Leadership: In the US, California has used renewable energy. The state’s case study examines its aggressive renewable portfolio standards, innovative policies promoting solar power, and the role of technology companies in driving clean energy initiatives. California’s experience demonstrates the potential for subnational entities to lead in renewable energy transitions.
• Rural Electrification in India through Solar Power: India’s case study focuses on rural electrification efforts using solar power. Initiatives like the National Solar Mission and off-grid solar projects have brought electricity to remote areas, transforming lives and fostering economic development. The study explores the challenges faced and lessons learned in scaling up solar energy access in a diverse and populous country.
• Costa Rica’s Renewable Energy Achievement: Costa Rica stands out for achieving high levels of renewable energy generation, primarily from hydropower, wind, and geothermal sources. The case study examines the country’s commitment to environmental sustainability, policies promoting clean energy, and the role of hydropower in maintaining a reliable and renewable energy supply.
• South Australia’s Grid Transformation: South Australia’s case study illustrates its transition to a renewable energy-dominant grid. The state has faced challenges related to grid stability and intermittency but has also demonstrated successful integration of wind and solar power. The study delves into the policy measures, technological solutions, and lessons learned in South Australia’s journey toward a low-carbon energy system.
• Morocco’s Concentrated Solar Power Project: Morocco’s case study focuses on the Noor Ouarzazate Solar Complex, one of the world’s most significant concentrated solar power projects. The initiative aims to harness solar energy for electricity generation, reduce dependence on fossil fuels, and contribute to national energy security. The study explores the project’s technological innovations, financing models, and the impact on Morocco’s energy landscape.

Future Prospects

The future of energy holds exciting possibilities as technological advancements and evolving societal priorities shape the landscape. Several key prospects are likely to influence the trajectory of the global energy sector:

• Emerging Technologies: Ongoing research and development in renewable energy technologies will likely yield breakthroughs in efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and energy storage. Innovations such as advanced solar cells, next-generation wind turbines, and novel energy storage solutions will be crucial in shaping the future energy landscape.
• Tidal and Wave Energy: Tidal and wave energy, largely untapped at present, hold significant potential for sustainable power generation. As technologies mature, harnessing the kinetic energy of ocean tides and waves could contribute to a more diverse and reliable renewable energy mix.
• Advanced Solar Technologies: Continued advancements in solar technologies, including thin-film solar cells, tandem solar cells, and solar paint, are anticipated. These innovations aim to enhance the efficiency of solar energy capture and broaden its applications across various industries.
• Integration into Various Sectors: One of the most important aspects of the energy landscape of the future is integrating renewable energy into various sectors, including industrial processes and transportation. Electric vehicles, green hydrogen production, and sustainable manufacturing will likely gain prominence.
• Energy Transition in Developing Countries: A significant role in the global energy transition is expected to be played by developing countries. International collaborations, financial support, and technology transfer will empower these nations to leapfrog traditional fossil fuel-dependent phases of development and embrace cleaner energy solutions.
• Smart Grids and Energy Storage: Deploying smart power grids, in conjunction with advanced energy storage solutions, will simplify the integration of renewable energy resources in existing power systems. Battery technologies, grid-scale storage, and demand-response mechanisms will enhance grid reliability and flexibility.
• Decentralized Energy Systems: Decentralized energy systems, such as community microgrids and distributed energy resources, will likely become more prevalent. These systems empower communities to generate, store, and manage their energy locally, promoting resilience and energy independence.
• Circular Economy in Energy: The adoption of circular economy principles in the energy sector will gain traction, emphasizing resource efficiency, recycling, and waste reduction. This strategy seeks to mitigate the harmful consequences of energy production and consumption on nature.
• Policy and Regulatory Shifts: Governments worldwide are expected to implement more ambitious policies and regulations to accelerate the transition to renewable energy. Carbon pricing, renewable energy mandates, and incentives for sustainable practices will shape the regulatory environment.
• Global Collaboration: International cooperation and collaboration will be crucial for addressing global energy challenges. Shared research initiatives, technology transfer, and joint efforts to combat climate change will foster a collective approach to building a sustainable energy future.

The global shift towards renewable energy is pivotal in fostering a sustainable future. The imperative to mitigate climate change, ensure energy security, and promote economic prosperity underscores the significance of embracing clean technologies. The trajectory towards a low-carbon energy landscape becomes increasingly tangible as nations unite in initiatives like the Paris Agreement and implement robust policies. The successes of case studies from Germany to China demonstrate the feasibility and benefits of renewable energy adoption. By continuing to innovate, invest, and collaborate, humanity can unlock the full potential of renewable sources, ensuring a resilient and environmentally responsible energy paradigm for generations to come.

By signing up, you agree to our Terms of Use and Privacy Policy .

*Please provide your correct email id. Login details for this Free course will be emailed to you

Valuation, Hadoop, Excel, Web Development & many more.

Forgot Password?

This website or its third-party tools use cookies, which are necessary to its functioning and required to achieve the purposes illustrated in the cookie policy. By closing this banner, scrolling this page, clicking a link or continuing to browse otherwise, you agree to our Privacy Policy

Explore 1000+ varieties of Mock tests View more

Submit Next Question

Early-Bird Offer: ENROLL NOW

Search the United Nations

• What Is Climate Change
• Myth Busters
• Renewable Energy
• Finance & Justice
• Initiatives
• Sustainable Development Goals
• Paris Agreement
• Climate Ambition Summit 2023
• Climate Conferences
• Press Material
• Communications Tips

Renewable energy – powering a safer future

Energy is at the heart of the climate challenge – and key to the solution.

A large chunk of the greenhouse gases that blanket the Earth and trap the sun’s heat are generated through energy production, by burning fossil fuels to generate electricity and heat.

Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas, are by far the largest contributor to global climate change , accounting for over 75 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions and nearly 90 percent of all carbon dioxide emissions.

The science is clear: to avoid the worst impacts of climate change, emissions need to be reduced by almost half by 2030 and reach net-zero by 2050.

To achieve this, we need to end our reliance on fossil fuels and invest in alternative sources of energy that are clean, accessible, affordable, sustainable, and reliable.

Renewable energy sources – which are available in abundance all around us, provided by the sun, wind, water, waste, and heat from the Earth – are replenished by nature and emit little to no greenhouse gases or pollutants into the air.

Fossil fuels still account for more than 80 percent of global energy production , but cleaner sources of energy are gaining ground. About 29 percent of electricity currently comes from renewable sources.

Here are five reasons why accelerating the transition to clean energy is the pathway to a healthy, livable planet today and for generations to come.

1. Renewable energy sources are all around us

About 80 percent of the global population lives in countries that are net-importers of fossil fuels -- that’s about 6 billion people who are dependent on fossil fuels from other countries, which makes them vulnerable to geopolitical shocks and crises.

In contrast, renewable energy sources are available in all countries, and their potential is yet to be fully harnessed. The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) estimates that 90 percent of the world’s electricity can and should come from renewable energy by 2050.

Renewables offer a way out of import dependency, allowing countries to diversify their economies and protect them from the unpredictable price swings of fossil fuels, while driving inclusive economic growth, new jobs, and poverty alleviation.

2. Renewable energy is cheaper

Renewable energy actually is the cheapest power option in most parts of the world today. Prices for renewable energy technologies are dropping rapidly. The cost of electricity from solar power fell by 85 percent between 2010 and 2020. Costs of onshore and offshore wind energy fell by 56 percent and 48 percent respectively.

Falling prices make renewable energy more attractive all around – including to low- and middle-income countries, where most of the additional demand for new electricity will come from. With falling costs, there is a real opportunity for much of the new power supply over the coming years to be provided by low-carbon sources.

Cheap electricity from renewable sources could provide 65 percent of the world’s total electricity supply by 2030. It could decarbonize 90 percent of the power sector by 2050, massively cutting carbon emissions and helping to mitigate climate change.

Although solar and wind power costs are expected to remain higher in 2022 and 2023 then pre-pandemic levels due to general elevated commodity and freight prices, their competitiveness actually improves due to much sharper increases in gas and coal prices, says the International Energy Agency (IEA).

3. Renewable energy is healthier

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 99 percent of people in the world breathe air that exceeds air quality limits and threatens their health, and more than 13 million deaths around the world each year are due to avoidable environmental causes, including air pollution.

The unhealthy levels of fine particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide originate mainly from the burning of fossil fuels. In 2018, air pollution from fossil fuels caused $2.9 trillion in health and economic costs , about $8 billion a day.

Switching to clean sources of energy, such as wind and solar, thus helps address not only climate change but also air pollution and health.

4. Renewable energy creates jobs

Every dollar of investment in renewables creates three times more jobs than in the fossil fuel industry. The IEA estimates that the transition towards net-zero emissions will lead to an overall increase in energy sector jobs : while about 5 million jobs in fossil fuel production could be lost by 2030, an estimated 14 million new jobs would be created in clean energy, resulting in a net gain of 9 million jobs.

In addition, energy-related industries would require a further 16 million workers, for instance to take on new roles in manufacturing of electric vehicles and hyper-efficient appliances or in innovative technologies such as hydrogen. This means that a total of more than 30 million jobs could be created in clean energy, efficiency, and low-emissions technologies by 2030.

Ensuring a just transition , placing the needs and rights of people at the heart of the energy transition, will be paramount to make sure no one is left behind.

5. Renewable energy makes economic sense

About $7 trillion was spent on subsidizing the fossil fuel industry in 2022, including through explicit subsidies, tax breaks, and health and environmental damages that were not priced into the cost of fossil fuels.

In comparison, about $4.5 trillion a year needs to be invested in renewable energy until 2030 – including investments in technology and infrastructure – to allow us to reach net-zero emissions by 2050.

The upfront cost can be daunting for many countries with limited resources, and many will need financial and technical support to make the transition. But investments in renewable energy will pay off. The reduction of pollution and climate impacts alone could save the world up to $4.2 trillion per year by 2030.

Moreover, efficient, reliable renewable technologies can create a system less prone to market shocks and improve resilience and energy security by diversifying power supply options.

Learn more about how many communities and countries are realizing the economic, societal, and environmental benefits of renewable energy.

Will developing countries benefit from the renewables boom? Learn more here .

What is renewable energy?

Derived from natural resources that are abundant and continuously replenished, renewable energy is key to a safer, cleaner, and sustainable world. Explore common sources of renewable energy here.

Why invest in renewable energy?

Learn more about the differences between fossil fuels and renewables, the benefits of renewable energy, and how we can act now.

Five ways to jump-start the renewable energy transition now

UN Secretary-General outlines five critical actions the world needs to prioritize now to speed up the global shift to renewable energy.

What is net zero? Why is it important? Our net-zero page explains why we need steep emissions cuts now and what efforts are underway.

• What is climate change?

Our climate 101 offers a quick take on the how and why of climate change. Read more.

How will the world foot the bill? We explain the issues and the value of financing climate action.

Climate issues

Learn more about how climate change impacts are felt across different sectors and ecosystems.

It’s time to stop burning our planet, and start investing in the abundant renewable energy all around us." ANTÓNIO GUTERRES , United Nations Secretary-General

Facts and figures

• Causes and effects
• Myth busters

Cutting emissions

• Explaining net zero
• High-level expert group on net zero
• Checklists for credibility of net-zero pledges
• Greenwashing
• What you can do

Clean energy

• Renewable energy – key to a safer future
• What is renewable energy
• Five ways to speed up the energy transition
• Why invest in renewable energy
• Clean energy stories
• A just transition

Adapting to climate change

• Climate adaptation
• Early warnings for all
• Youth voices

Financing climate action

• Finance and justice
• Loss and damage
• $100 billion commitment
• Why finance climate action
• Biodiversity
• Human Security

International cooperation

• What are Nationally Determined Contributions
• Acceleration Agenda
• Climate Ambition Summit
• Climate conferences (COPs)
• Youth Advisory Group
• Action initiatives
• Secretary-General’s speeches
• Press material
• Fact sheets
• Communications tips

Renewable Energy Essay: Tips to Write a Great Paper

How to Choose Your Precious Metals Exchange

The Art of Scented Candle Making by Premium Suppliers

Scientists have categorized climate change as the greatest threat facing humanity today. While there’s irrefutable evidence that our climate is warming up, scientists are divided on its probable causes, with some attributing it to anthropogenic origins and others claiming Earth’s orbital patterns, among myriads of hypotheses. Today, climatologists and other mainstream researchers float renewable energy as humanity’s silver bullet to fight climate change. The discussions around the topic have inspired interest among the young and the old, leading to increased enrolment in climate-related studies, participation in demos and campaigns, and sharing of knowledge in talk shows and online platforms. However, being passionate about renewable energy and sharing your insights with others are two different things. Many people struggle to express themselves. Yet, there’s no room for hesitation regarding climate change. We must all act now and play the small part we can to reverse it. As such, it’s crucial to understand the power of words in advocating for change as the world shifts towards more sustainable energy sources. In this short article, we’ll guide you in crafting a winning essay on renewable energy, exploiting the power of storytelling to capture people’s attention while highlighting the importance of taking immediate action to reverse its potential impacts on humanity.

Unlocking the Power of Words: Secrets to Writing about Energy

The internet is awash with essays and articles on various topics. In the last few years, climate change has become one of the most targeted topics of discussion. So, by writing another renewable energy essay, you could add to the debate but not make any significant impact. Therefore, it’s vital to create a well-crafted piece to convey your ideas and influence your audience effectively. Remember that the intention is not to add to the existing literature but to make a powerful impact. A poorly written essay may fail to engage your readers and diminish the significance of your message. Consider what’s at stake when writing a renewable energy essay.

To make your work stand out, pay special attention to writing mechanics such as coherence and persuasive techniques. Additionally, adhere to grammar and writing style requirements. Most importantly, stay on the topic. While climate change is an emotive issue, be careful not to be dragged into every aspect of the debate. Yours should be to communicate your ideas effectively and inspire action.

From Sun to Success: Tips to Write an Essay on Renewable Energy

Writing a renewable energy paper is unlike crafting other documents. The scrutiny such pieces get in today’s world is mind-boggling. A simple misrepresentation of facts or omission can attract incredibly unwanted attention. So, how do you create an impactful and persuasive piece of writing on this topic? We’ve got you covered. Below, we’ve put together some invaluable tips to help you harness the power of words to make a difference in the world of renewable energy.

Choosing the perfect topic

There are numerous topics under renewable energy to explore. It’s improbable to examine or discuss them all. Consequently, it would be best to settle for the one that interests you the most or addresses the most critical issues on the subject matter. Here are a few factors to consider when choosing a topic:   

Relevance: If it’s not germane, don’t write it. Your primary objective is to address current issues and developments in the field of renewable energy, ensuring your essay is timely and highlights essential concerns. We understand this can challenge some students, so we recommend seeking professional help. For example, you can use a trustworthy paper writing service , to help write your essay online or develop a topic.

Uniqueness: As we said earlier, you don’t want to add to existing literature but explore new ideas from different perspectives. Consider topics that stand out, especially those in niche areas or emerging technologies within renewable energy, e.g., wave and tidal power, solar skin technology, and floating solar farms, among others.

Passion : Don’t just write, do so about the things you love or are genuinely passionate about. Readers can always tell if you’re writing for money, attention, or interest. If you put your heart into it, your enthusiasm will shine through it and engage them.

Conduct thorough research

Thorough research is the backbone of any well-written essay. This is especially critical when crafting an essay on renewable energy. You must not only gather reliable and up-to-date information from credible sources but also use them expertly. But how can an amateur achieve this? Here are some tips:

Rely on credible sources: Libraries and online databases contain millions of books and articles about renewable energy. So, how can a student know reputable ones? Most often, academic journals and government reports are the most reliable. They contain information that’s been verified by peers. You can also check educational institutes and organizations that provide primary data, e.g., NASA and NSE.

Stay updated : Things can move very fast in the field of renewable energy. As such, you must always be alert or risk being left behind. Therefore, access the latest research on the topic and, if possible, subscribe to newsletters and publications on renewable energy. A rapidly evolving field requires unconventional ways to stay ahead.

Take notes : There could be so much to learn on this topic. However, always note new trends, emerging issues, and controversies. This way, you can update your essays long after writing them, keeping them relevant for longer.   

Structuring your essay for maximum impact

An essay is only as impactful as the structure of its arguments. You can’t go far with a haphazard essay design. You must adopt a well-structured format to convey your ideas clearly and effectively. This may not be as straightforward as it seems. So, here are a few considerations for you:

Introduction : Begin your article with a powerful and captivating paragraph outlining what it is about and the direction of your argument. Remember that a flat introduction can distract readers from an otherwise excellent essay.    

Main body : Divide the body of your essay into several paragraphs, each focusing on a specific aspect or argument related to renewable energy. Here, you’re supposed to produce evidence and dispute any divergent opinions with solid arguments. This is the core of your paper.

Conclusion : This section is no less important than the others. You should use it to summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement. Given the criticalness of the topic, you can sign off with a thought-provoking message that reinforces the importance of renewable energy and encourages action or further exploration of the subject.

Do Some Research to Craft an A+ Renewable Energy Essay

Any good English paper requires careful planning, thorough research, and effective writing techniques . However, when trading in extremely high-stakes zones, your writing ability becomes secondary. The accuracy of your claims comes first when crafting essays on renewable energy. Still, other components remain vital. Therefore, by choosing a compelling topic, conducting thorough research based on valid questions, structuring your essay for maximum impact, and utilizing persuasive language and credible sources, you can create a powerful piece of writing that inspires action and raises awareness about the importance of renewable energy.

Share this:

Leave a reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

• Library of Congress
• Research Guides

Renewable Energy Industries: A Research Guide

Introduction.

• General Renewable Energy Resources
• Hydropower Industry
• Solar Power Industry
• Wind Energy Industry
• Geothermal Energy Industry
• Biomass Energy Industry
• Company Research
• Agencies and Organizations
• Regulations, Standards, and Incentives
• Electric Power Sector and Power Grid
• Subscription Databases
• Search the Library's Catalog
• Using the Library of Congress

Business Reference : Ask a Librarian

Have a question? Need assistance? Use our online form to ask a librarian for help.

Author: Natalie Burclaff, Business Section Head, Science & Business Reading Room.

Created: December 2020

Last Updated: March 2024

Get connected to the Library’s large and diverse collections related to science, technology, and business through our Inside Adams Blog. This blog also features upcoming events and collection displays, classes and orientations, new research guides, and more.

Renewable energy is generated by sources that can be replenished within a relatively short period of time. Solar, wind, water, biomass, and geothermal are all renewable energy sources. 1 Green energy, while similar to renewable energy, is a subset of sources that have the highest environmental benefits. 2 Clean energy sources emit low carbon, and include renewable energy sources along with nuclear power. 3

Renewable energy sources have been used to generate heat and power for much of human history, and more relatively recently, electricity. Renewable energy makes up 12% of primary energy use in the United States and 11% worldwide. 4 While there is still a strong dependence on fossil fuels for heating, electricity and transportation, the oil crises of the 1970s pushed for stronger investment into alternative energy sources. Additionally, the negative effects of climate change have increased public demand in finding non-fossil fuel based energy, aided by government incentives and standards. 5

This guide focuses on resources relevant to researching the business of generating and distributing renewable energy. To that end, there are sections of this guide about the power grid and the electric power sector which consumes energy in order to generate and sell electricity. This guide does not include technical or engineering information on developing renewable energy technologies. Information on the power grid, climate change, and energy policy are included as they relate to the renewable energy industry. For information on corporate responsibility, which includes businesses that use renewable or green energies, see Corporate Social Responsibility: A Resource Guide . Additional information on green businesses is in Green Business: Sources of Information . Most of the guide takes a U.S. perspective, but international sources are included throughout.

For an excellent overview U.S. energy sources, there have been a number of Congressional Research Service reports on renewable energy topics, including:

• Lawson, Ashley J. Variable Renewable Energy . CRS In Focus IF11257. Congressional Research Service, June 25, 2019. (PDF, 446 KB)
• U.S. Energy Supply and Use: Background and Policy Primer. CRS Report R47980. Congressional Research Service, March 14, 2024. (PDF, 2.02 MB) The section on renewable energy starts on page 28.

About the Business Section

Part of the Science & Business Reading Room  at the Library of Congress, the Business Section is the starting point for conducting research at the Library of Congress in the subject areas of business and economics. Here, reference specialists in specific subject areas of business assist patrons in formulating search strategies and gaining access to the information and materials contained in the Library's rich collections of business and economics materials.

• U.S. Energy Information Administration, " What is Renewable Energy? " (2021, May 21). Back to text
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, " Renewable Energy at EPA, " Back to text
• U.S. Department of Energy, " Clean Energy ."  Back to text
• U.S. Energy Information Administration, Table 2.1 Primary Energy Production by Source , (July 2021); Our World in Data: Renewable Energy, " Renewable Energy Generation External ," Back to text
• Congressional Research Service, 21st Century U.S. Energy Sources: A Primer , R44854 (2018).  Back to text
• Next: General Renewable Energy Resources >>
• Last Updated: Sep 13, 2024 12:30 PM
• URL: https://guides.loc.gov/renewable-energy

• Renewable Energy

What Is Renewable Energy?

Renewable energy comes from unlimited, naturally replenished resources, such as the sun, tides, and wind. Renewable energy can be used for electricity generation, space and water heating and cooling, and transportation.

Non-renewable energy, in contrast, comes from finite sources, such as coal, natural gas, and oil.

How Does Renewable Energy Work?

Renewable energy sources, such as biomass, the heat in the earth’s crust, sunlight, water, and wind, are natural resources that can be converted into several types of clean, usable energy:

Bioenergy Geothermal Energy Hydrogen and Other Renewable Fuels Hydropower Marine Energy Solar Energy Wind Energy

Learn the truth about clean energy.

Benefits of Renewable Energy

Renewable energy offers numerous economic, environmental, and social advantages. These include:

• Reduced carbon emissions and air pollution from energy production
• Enhanced reliability , security, and resilience of the power grid
• Job creation through the increased production and manufacturing of renewable energy technologies
• Increased U.S. energy independence
• Lower energy costs
• Expanded energy access for remote, coastal, or isolated communities.

Learn more about the advantages of wind energy , solar energy , bioenergy , geothermal energy , hydropower , and marine energy , and how the U.S. Department of Energy is working to modernize the power grid and increase renewable energy production.

Renewable Energy in the United States

Renewable energy generates over 20% of all U.S. electricity , and that percentage continues to grow. The following graphic breaks down the shares of total electricity production in 2022 among the types of renewable power: 

In 2022, annual U.S. renewable energy generation surpassed coal for the first time in history. By 2025, domestic solar energy generation is expected to increase by 75%, and wind by 11%. 

The United States is a resource-rich country with enough renewable energy resources to generate more than 100 times the amount of electricity Americans use each year.  Learn more about renewable energy potential in the United States.

Subscribe to stay up to date on the latest clean energy news from EERE.

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

The U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) has three core divisions: Renewable Energy, Sustainable Transportation and Fuels, and Buildings and Industry. The Renewable Energy pillar comprises four technology offices:

Every American can advocate for renewable energy by becoming a Clean Energy Champion. Both small and large actions make a difference. Join the movement .

Advancing Renewable Energy in the United States

EERE offers funding for renewable energy research and development, as well as programs that support the siting of renewable energy , connection of renewable energy to the grid , and community-led energy projects . Find open funding opportunities and learn how to apply for funding .

The U.S. Department of Energy's 17 national laboratories conduct research and help bring renewable energy technologies to market. 

Renewable Energy at Home

Homeowners and renters can use clean energy at home by buying green power, installing renewable energy systems to generate electricity, or using renewable resources for water and space heating and cooling.

Before installing a renewable energy system, it's important to reduce your energy consumption and improve your home’s energy efficiency .

Visit Energy Saver to learn more about the use of renewable energy at home.

You may be eligible for federal and state tax credits if you install a renewable energy system in your home. Visit ENERGY STAR to learn about federal renewable energy tax credits for homeowners. For information on state incentives, visit the Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency .

Other Ways EERE Champions Clean Energy

Find clean energy jobs.

EERE is dedicated to building a clean energy economy, which means millions of new jobs in construction, manufacturing, and many other industries. Learn more about job opportunities in renewable energy:

Renewable Energy

Renewable energy comes from sources that will not be used up in our lifetimes, such as the sun and wind.

Earth Science, Experiential Learning, Engineering, Geology

Wind Turbines in a Sheep Pasture

Wind turbines use the power of wind to generate energy. This is just one source of renewable energy.

Photograph by Jesus Keller/ Shutterstock

The wind, the sun, and Earth are sources of  renewable energy . These energy sources naturally renew, or replenish themselves.

Wind, sunlight, and the planet have energy that transforms in ways we can see and feel. We can see and feel evidence of the transfer of energy from the sun to Earth in the sunlight shining on the ground and the warmth we feel when sunlight shines on our skin. We can see and feel evidence of the transfer of energy in wind’s ability to pull kites higher into the sky and shake the leaves on trees. We can see and feel evidence of the transfer of energy in the geothermal energy of steam vents and geysers .

People have created different ways to capture the energy from these renewable sources.

Solar Energy

Solar energy can be captured “actively” or “passively.”

Active solar energy uses special technology to capture the sun’s rays. The two main types of equipment are photovoltaic cells (also called PV cells or solar cells) and mirrors that focus sunlight in a specific spot. These active solar technologies use sunlight to generate electricity , which we use to power lights, heating systems, computers, and televisions.

Passive solar energy does not use any equipment. Instead, it gets energy from the way sunlight naturally changes throughout the day. For example, people can build houses so their windows face the path of the sun. This means the house will get more heat from the sun. It will take less energy from other sources to heat the house.

Other examples of passive solar technology are green roofs , cool roofs, and radiant barriers . Green roofs are completely covered with plants. Plants can get rid of pollutants in rainwater and air. They help make the local environment cleaner.

Cool roofs are painted white to better reflect sunlight. Radiant barriers are made of a reflective covering, such as aluminum. They both reflect the sun’s heat instead of absorbing it. All these types of roofs help lower the amount of energy needed to cool the building.

Advantages and Disadvantages There are many advantages to using solar energy. PV cells last for a long time, about 20 years.

However, there are reasons why solar power cannot be used as the only power source in a community. It can be expensive to install PV cells or build a building using passive solar technology.

Sunshine can also be hard to predict. It can be blocked by clouds, and the sun doesn’t shine at night. Different parts of Earth receive different amounts of sunlight based on location, the time of year, and the time of day.

Wind Energy

People have been harnessing the wind’s energy for a long, long time. Five-thousand years ago, ancient Egyptians made boats powered by the wind. In 200 B.C.E., people used windmills to grind grain in the Middle East and pump water in China.

Today, we capture the wind’s energy with wind turbines . A turbine is similar to a windmill; it has a very tall tower with two or three propeller-like blades at the top. These blades are turned by the wind. The blades turn a generator (located inside the tower), which creates electricity.

Groups of wind turbines are known as wind farms . Wind farms can be found near farmland, in narrow mountain passes, and even in the ocean, where there are steadier and stronger winds. Wind turbines anchored in the ocean are called “ offshore wind farms.”

Wind farms create electricity for nearby homes, schools, and other buildings.

Advantages and Disadvantages Wind energy can be very efficient . In places like the Midwest in the United States and along coasts, steady winds can provide cheap, reliable electricity.

Another great advantage of wind power is that it is a “clean” form of energy. Wind turbines do not burn fuel or emit any pollutants into the air.

Wind is not always a steady source of energy, however. Wind speed changes constantly, depending on the time of day, weather , and geographic location. Currently, it cannot be used to provide electricity for all our power needs.

Wind turbines can also be dangerous for bats and birds. These animals cannot always judge how fast the blades are moving and crash into them.

Geothermal Energy

Deep beneath the surface is Earth’s core . The center of Earth is extremely hot—thought to be over 6,000 °C (about 10,800 °F). The heat is constantly moving toward the surface.

We can see some of Earth’s heat when it bubbles to the surface. Geothermal energy can melt underground rocks into magma and cause the magma to bubble to the surface as lava . Geothermal energy can also heat underground sources of water and force it to spew out from the surface. This stream of water is called a geyser.

However, most of Earth’s heat stays underground and makes its way out very, very slowly.

We can access underground geothermal heat in different ways. One way of using geothermal energy is with “geothermal heat pumps.” A pipe of water loops between a building and holes dug deep underground. The water is warmed by the geothermal energy underground and brings the warmth aboveground to the building. Geothermal heat pumps can be used to heat houses, sidewalks, and even parking lots.

Another way to use geothermal energy is with steam. In some areas of the world, there is underground steam that naturally rises to the surface. The steam can be piped straight to a power plant. However, in other parts of the world, the ground is dry. Water must be injected underground to create steam. When the steam comes to the surface, it is used to turn a generator and create electricity.

In Iceland, there are large reservoirs of underground water. Almost 90 percent of people in Iceland use geothermal as an energy source to heat their homes and businesses.

Advantages and Disadvantages An advantage of geothermal energy is that it is clean. It does not require any fuel or emit any harmful pollutants into the air.

Geothermal energy is only avaiable in certain parts of the world. Another disadvantage of using geothermal energy is that in areas of the world where there is only dry heat underground, large quantities of freshwater are used to make steam. There may not be a lot of freshwater. People need water for drinking, cooking, and bathing.

Biomass Energy

Biomass is any material that comes from plants or microorganisms that were recently living. Plants create energy from the sun through photosynthesis . This energy is stored in the plants even after they die.

Trees, branches, scraps of bark, and recycled paper are common sources of biomass energy. Manure, garbage, and crops , such as corn, soy, and sugar cane, can also be used as biomass feedstocks .

We get energy from biomass by burning it. Wood chips, manure, and garbage are dried out and compressed into squares called “briquettes.” These briquettes are so dry that they do not absorb water. They can be stored and burned to create heat or generate electricity.

Biomass can also be converted into biofuel . Biofuels are mixed with regular gasoline and can be used to power cars and trucks. Biofuels release less harmful pollutants than pure gasoline.

Advantages and Disadvantages A major advantage of biomass is that it can be stored and then used when it is needed.

Growing crops for biofuels, however, requires large amounts of land and pesticides . Land could be used for food instead of biofuels. Some pesticides could pollute the air and water.

Biomass energy can also be a nonrenewable energy source. Biomass energy relies on biomass feedstocks—plants that are processed and burned to create electricity. Biomass feedstocks can include crops, such as corn or soy, as well as wood. If people do not replant biomass feedstocks as fast as they use them, biomass energy becomes a non-renewable energy source.

Hydroelectric Energy

Hydroelectric energy is made by flowing water. Most hydroelectric power plants are located on large dams , which control the flow of a river.

Dams block the river and create an artificial lake, or reservoir. A controlled amount of water is forced through tunnels in the dam. As water flows through the tunnels, it turns huge turbines and generates electricity.

Advantages and Disadvantages Hydroelectric energy is fairly inexpensive to harness. Dams do not need to be complex, and the resources to build them are not difficult to obtain. Rivers flow all over the world, so the energy source is available to millions of people.

Hydroelectric energy is also fairly reliable. Engineers control the flow of water through the dam, so the flow does not depend on the weather (the way solar and wind energies do).

However, hydroelectric power plants are damaging to the environment. When a river is dammed, it creates a large lake behind the dam. This lake (sometimes called a reservoir) drowns the original river habitat deep underwater. Sometimes, people build dams that can drown entire towns underwater. The people who live in the town or village must move to a new area.

Hydroelectric power plants don’t work for a very long time: Some can only supply power for 20 or 30 years. Silt , or dirt from a riverbed, builds up behind the dam and slows the flow of water.

Other Renewable Energy Sources

Scientists and engineers are constantly working to harness other renewable energy sources. Three of the most promising are tidal energy , wave energy , and algal (or algae) fuel.

Tidal energy harnesses the power of ocean tides to generate electricity. Some tidal energy projects use the moving tides to turn the blades of a turbine. Other projects use small dams to continually fill reservoirs at high tide and slowly release the water (and turn turbines) at low tide.

Wave energy harnesses waves from the ocean, lakes, or rivers. Some wave energy projects use the same equipment that tidal energy projects do—dams and standing turbines. Other wave energy projects float directly on waves. The water’s constant movement over and through these floating pieces of equipment turns turbines and creates electricity.

Algal fuel is a type of biomass energy that uses the unique chemicals in seaweed to create a clean and renewable biofuel. Algal fuel does not need the acres of cropland that other biofuel feedstocks do.

Renewable Nations

These nations (or groups of nations) produce the most energy using renewable resources. Many of them are also the leading producers of nonrenewable energy: China, European Union, United States, Brazil, and Canada

Articles & Profiles

Media credits.

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Last Updated

June 21, 2024

User Permissions

For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource.

If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media.

Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service .

Interactives

Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives.

Related Resources

Accept cookies?

We use cook ies  to give you the best online experience and to show personalised content and marketing. We use them to improve our website and content as well as to tailor our digital advertising on third-party platforms. You can change your preferences at any time.  

Popular search terms:

• British wildlife
• Wildlife Photographer of the Year
• Explore the Museum
• Anthropocene

British Wildlife

Collections

Human evolution

What on Earth?

Aerial view of a wind farm at Pen y Cymoedd in south Wales, UK. Wind-generated power in the UK increased by 83% between 2015 and 2020 to provide nearly a quarter of our electricity . It's also one of the fastest-growing renewable energy technologies globally. © Richard Whitcombe/ Shutterstock

During Beta testing articles may only be saved for seven days.

Create a list of articles to read later. You will be able to access your list from any article in Discover.

You don't have any saved articles.

Renewable energy and its importance for tackling climate change

Replacing fossil fuel-reliant power stations with renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, is a vital part of stabilising climate change and achieving net zero carbon emissions.

Professor Magda Titirici , Chair in Sustainable Energy Materials at Imperial College London, offers an introduction to renewable energy and the future of clean, green power in the UK.

What is renewable energy?

Renewable energy comes from sources that replenish naturally and continually within a human lifetime. Renewable energy is often called sustainable energy.

Major sources of renewable energy include solar, wind, hydroelectric, tidal, geothermal and biomass energy, which is derived from burning plant or animal matter and waste.

Switching our reliance on fossil fuels to renewable energy sources that produce lower or no greenhouse gas emissions is critically important in tackling the climate crisis .

Clean, green or renewable - what's the difference?

Clean energy doesn't produce any pollution once installed. Nor does green energy, which comes from natural sources such as the Sun and is produced without any major negative impacts on the environment. Renewable energy refers to sources that are constantly replenished.

While there is often overlap between these definitions and most renewable energy sources can also be considered clean and green, it's not always the case.

Nuclear energy doesn't release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, so some people consider it to be clean - providing the radioactive waste is stored safely and doesn't escape into the environment. But the uranium energy source used in nuclear power plants isn't renewable.

A coal power plant emitting smoke, steam and carbon dioxide. Fossil fuels such as coal are non-renewable resources. Burning fossil fuels contributes to climate change by releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. © Peter Gudella/ Shutterstock

What's the difference between renewable and non-renewable energy?

Non-renewable energy comes from natural resources such as coal, oil and natural gas that take billions of years to form, which is why we call them fossil fuels. They are present in finite amounts and will run out, as we are using them far more quickly than they form.

When will fossil fuels run out?

Research based on 2015 data predicts that coal stocks will last well into the next century, but oil and natural gas reserves (stocks that we know we can extract from) will run out in the late 2060s . However, scientific models suggest that if we are to limit global warming to 2°C - the target agreed at COP26 is 1.5°C - over 80% of coal, 50% of gas and 30% of oil reserves will need to be left untouched anyway.

When we extract fossil fuels from deep within the planet and burn them, we can generate electricity quite efficiently. But the process releases a lot of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) into the atmosphere, which contributes to the greenhouse effect, global warming and biodiversity loss .

Magda explains, 'Fossil fuels brought with them immense technological progress but using them releases CO 2 into the atmosphere, which acts like a blanket, trapping heat that would otherwise escape into space and causing global warming.'

Did you know?

The energy sector is responsible for almost three-quarters of the emissions that have caused global temperatures to warm by 1.1°C since pre-industrial times. 

If we continue to use fossil fuels, the effect will only worsen.

Magda adds, 'If we want to live on this planet much longer than 2050 and keep temperature levels below the 1.5°C of warming agreed to by governments around the world, we need to make some radical changes right now. We need to move to technologies that will give us the same level and comfort of living but drastically cut our emissions and carbon footprint .'

Examples of renewable energy sources

The main types of renewable energy are wind, solar, hydroelectric, tidal, geothermal and biomass. Read on to discover the pros and cons of each of these renewable energy sources.

One of the main benefits of most renewable energy sources is that they don't release carbon dioxide or pollute the air when they are used to produce electricity or heat. Greenhouse gases are emitted during the lifetime of some of the technologies - for example, during their manufacture or construction - but overall emissions are significantly lower than for fossil fuels.

Whereas some countries lack direct access to fossil fuels and must rely on international sources, renewable energy often allows countries to supply their own energy needs, a big economic and political advantage.

Wind energy

An offshore wind farm in the North Sea off the UK coast. Wind energy is an important renewable resource for the UK. According to analysis by Imperial College London's Energy Institute , offshore wind turbines offer the best-value option for meeting the UK's target of delivering carbon neutral electricity by 2035. But the UK's current target for offshore wind electricity production - up to 50 gigawatts by 2030 - will need to be significantly increased to do so. © Riekelt Hakvoort/ Shutterstock

Wind power converts wind - the movement of air - into stored power by turning turbines and converting mechanical energy into electricity. Wind farms can be built both on land and offshore. They work well wherever wind is strong and reliable.

Advantages: Wind energy is a clean, green and renewable resource and turbines can be placed on farmland with minimal disruption. It has the lowest carbon footprint of all renewable energy sources .

Disadvantages: Like any infrastructure, there is an upfront establishment cost and ongoing maintenance fees. These are even higher if wind farms are built offshore. Turbines have a reputation for being noisy and poorly sited wind farms can be dangerous to some wildlife - for instance, if they're placed in the migration paths of birds or bats.

How loud is a wind turbine?

At 300 metres from a dwelling, wind turbines have a sound pressure of 43 decibels , which is between the volume of a refrigerator and an air conditioner.

Solar energy

An array of solar panels in a field in Chippenham, UK. Solar energy is a renewable resource, and the Sun provides more energy than we'll ever use. If we could capture it all, an hour of sunlight would meet the world's energy needs for a year. © Alexey Fedorenko/ Shutterstock

Solar power captures energy (radiation) from the Sun and converts it into electricity, which is then fed into a power grid or stored for later use. Although places near the equator receive the most solar energy, solar panels can generate electricity anywhere that gets sunlight.

Advantages:  Solar energy is renewable, clean, increasingly efficient and has low maintenance costs. Once established, it can dramatically reduce the price of generating electricity.

Disadvantages:  Setting up a solar array is costly and there are expenses involved with energy storage. Solar panels can take up more land than some other types of renewable energy and performance depends on the availability of sunlight. The mining and processing of minerals needed to make the panels can pollute and damage the environment.

China is currently leading the world in solar energy production , with roughly 35% of the global market.

Hydroelectric energy

Although hydroelectric energy is renewable, it is not always considered green, as building large-scale dams can negatively impact the environment. Nepean Dam in Australia, shown here, was included in a study that showed dams are causing problems for platypuses by creating a barrier between populations. © Greg Brave/ Shutterstock

Hydroelectric power uses the flow of water, often from rivers and lakes controlled by a dam, to turn turbines and power generators, creating electricity. Hydropower works best for regions with reliable rainfall and large, natural water reservoirs.

Hydropower currently produces more electricity than  all other renewable energy sources combined and provides around 17% of the world's energy.

Advantages: Hydroelectricity is dependable and renewable for as long as there is rainfall or flowing water. Reservoirs can offer additional benefits, such as providing drinking water, irrigation and recreational opportunities, including swimming or boating.

Disadvantages: Hydropower plants take up a lot of room and aren't suited to all climates. They are susceptible to drought. Creating artificial water reservoirs can harm biodiversity in natural water systems by limiting the inflow of nutrients and blocking the journey of migratory fish populations. These reservoirs can also release methane - a type of greenhouse gas - as vegetation in the flooded area decomposes. Large amounts of cement are used to construct dams. The manufacture of this material produces large amounts of carbon dioxide.

Tidal energy

Renewable tidal energy is produced by the natural rise and fall of the sea. However, tidal power plants can change the local biodiversity. This one on the River Rance in Brittany, France, not only led to the local extinction of a fish called plaice but to an increase in the number of cuttlefish, which now thrive there. © Francois BOIZOT/ Shutterstock

Tidal energy uses the continual movement of ocean tides to generate power. Turbines in the water turn a generator, creating electricity.

Advantages: Tidal energy is renewable, generates no carbon emissions and can produce a lot of energy very reliably.

Disadvantages: Offshore infrastructure is expensive to set up and maintain and there are a limited number of appropriate sites for tidal power plants around the world. They can also damage marine environments and impact local plants and animals.

Geothermal energy

A geothermal power plant in Iceland harnesses this renewable energy source. © Peter Gudella/ Shutterstock

Geothermal power uses underground reservoirs of hot water or steam created by the heat of Earth's core to generate electricity. It works best in regions near tectonic plate boundaries .

Advantages: Geothermal energy is highly reliable and has a consistent power output. It also has a relatively small footprint on the land.

Disadvantages: Drilling geothermal wells is expensive and can affect the stability of surrounding land. It must be monitored carefully to minimise environmental impact. There is also a risk of releasing greenhouse gases trapped under Earth's surface.  

Biomass energy

A biogas plant producing renewable energy from biomass in the Czech Republic. © Kletr/ Shutterstock

Biomass energy comes from burning plants, plant by-products or waste. Examples include ethanol (from corn or sugarcane), biodiesel (made from vegetable oils, used cooking oils and animal fats), green diesel (derived from algae, sustainable wood crops or sawdust) and biogas (derived from animal manure and other waste).

Advantages: Abundant and cheaply produced, biomass energy is a novel use of waste product and leftover crops. It creates less emissions than burning fossil fuels and having carbon capture in place can stop carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere. Biofuels are also considered relatively easy and inexpensive to implement, as they are compatible with existing agriculture and waste processing and used in existing petrol and diesel vehicles.

Disadvantages: Generating biofuels requires land and water so growing demand for them could lead to deforestation and biodiversity loss. Burning biomass emits carbon dioxide unless carbon capture is implemented.

Ethanol-powered vehicles create up to 86% less greenhouse gas emissions than petrol vehicles, and crops that are grown to produce biomass absorb carbon dioxide.

Can renewable energy replace fossil fuels in the UK?

In 2020, 42% of the UK's electricity came from renewable energy. A quarter of the UK's electricity was produced by wind power, which is the highest proportion of any G20 country and more than four times the global average. Statistics on UK energy trends reveal that from April to June 2022, nearly 39% of the UK's electricity came from renewable energy, slightly more than during the same period in 2021, but down from 45.5% between January and March 2022 when it was unusually sunny and wind speeds were high.

'There has been good news in recent years in terms of progress on renewables,' says Magda, 'but in my opinion, the UK is still lagging behind. It is not so strong yet for truly sustainable technologies. It needs storage and conversion.'

Magda believes that wind (particularly offshore), solar, green hydrogen and rapid innovation in battery storage will be key to the UK reaching net zero by 2050.

She explains, 'The UK is a really windy place, so wind is the perfect renewable energy technology. By 2035 wind and solar should provide 75-90% of total UK electricity to bring emissions down significantly.'

'It has already been shown that it's feasible to produce 90% of the UK's electricity from wind and solar combined. The tech is there and it's becoming more efficient and affordable each year.'

'Offshore wind capacity will also help produce green hydrogen, another crucial part of the UK decarbonisation path.'

What is green hydrogen?

Green hydrogen is a fuel created using renewable energy in a process known as electrolysis. When green hydrogen is burned to produce energy, it releases water.

It's predicted that the UK will need 100 terawatt-hours of green hydrogen by 2035.

What is a terawatt-hour?

A terawatt-hour is a unit of measurement that's large enough to describe the annual electricity needs of entire countries. For scale, one terawatt-hour is equivalent to burning 588,441 barrels of oil.

The future of renewable energy in the UK

Magda believes the UK is at a very critical point in its sustainable technologies journey.

'Everything will depend on what happens this year and next. We need to see radical changes, investment, subsidies and support to reach our target of net zero by 2050.'

'It would cost less than 1% of GDP to get to net zero by 2050 but the advantages would be immense: new jobs, a sustainable economy and a healthy and resilient society.'

An empty electric vehicle charging point © Tony Skerl/ Shutterstock

Challenges and opportunities for renewable energy in the UK

One of the biggest challenges the UK is facing right now is battery storage and access to materials like cobalt and lithium , which are needed to produce lithium-ion batteries at scale.

Why are batteries important for renewable energy?

Batteries help make renewable energy supply reliable and portable - such as in the case of electric vehicles.

Batteries are an important part of our transition to renewable technologies, as they allow energy to be stored and released as needed. For example, solar panels generate energy during the day, and batteries make it possible to store and use that electricity at night.

Currently, just a few countries are responsible for most of the world's production of lithium.

According to Magda, the UK lacks access to the supply chain needed for Li-ion batteries. 'As a result, she adds, 'Johnson Matthey, which is a major company driving battery innovations in the UK, announced they would stop lithium battery research because they are unable to secure a path to raw materials and be competitive on the international market.'

Museum researchers are investigating whether it would be possible to develop a  more sustainable, domestic supply chain by extracting lithium from UK rocks. They made a key breakthrough in 2021 when they produced battery-grade lithium chemicals from UK rocks for the first time.

According to Professor Richard Herrington, Head of Earth Sciences at the Museum, 'An increased, reliable supply of lithium is critical if we are to meet the rising demand for electric cars and provide a dependable supply of energy from renewable sources. The next generation of batteries that don't require lithium may still be three to five years away from being ready for public use.'

However, Magda is optimistic that the UK could lead in emerging battery technologies. 'I think the UK has an amazing opportunity to pioneer the next generation of batteries,' she says.

Innovative models already under development at The Faraday Institution include:

• Sodium-ion batteries, which are based on waste-derived anodes and critical metal -free cathodes, provide almost the same performance as lithium-ion batteries at half the cost.
• Lithium-sulphur batteries with 10 times the energy density of lithium-ion batteries make more efficient use of limited materials and eliminate metals from the cathode by using sulphur instead.

Magda adds, 'We need to focus on the areas where the UK has the potential to lead. The UK has such a big tradition in new materials and discoveries, we could move to completely new technologies both for batteries and hydrogen production.'

'There are a lot of challenges, but if we're investing in it, we could be future leaders and even solve one of the most difficult challenges in decarbonisation: flight.'

• Sustainability
• Biodiversity
• Climate change

Protecting our planet

We're working towards a future where both people and the planet thrive.

Hear from scientists studying human impact and change in the natural world.

How are climate change and biodiversity loss linked?

The climate crisis and biodiversity loss are closely connected but the good news is, so are the solutions.

Net zero is cheaper and greener than continuing the use of fossil fuels

Going green is no longer just the smart decision – it's also the most profitable one. 

Nine ways Museum scientists are fighting the planetary emergency

Discover how we're fighting to keep nature healthy.

Lithium carbonate has been produced from UK rocks for the first time

A breakthrough in domestic production could bring down the carbon footprint of lithium-ion batteries.

Don't miss a thing

Receive email updates about our news, science, exhibitions, events, products, services and fundraising activities. We may occasionally include third-party content from our corporate partners and other museums. We will not share your personal details with these third parties. You must be over the age of 13. Privacy notice .

Follow us on social media

• Search Menu

Sign in through your institution

• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Numismatics
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Social History
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Emotions
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Acquisition
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Media
• Music and Religion
• Music and Culture
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Meta-Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Politics
• Law and Society
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Legal System - Costs and Funding
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Restitution
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Toxicology
• Medical Oncology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Medical Ethics
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Security
• Computer Games
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Ethics
• Business Strategy
• Business History
• Business and Technology
• Business and Government
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Social Issues in Business and Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic History
• Economic Systems
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Social Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Sustainability
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• Ethnic Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Political Theory
• Politics and Law
• Politics of Development
• Public Policy
• Public Administration
• Qualitative Political Methodology
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Disability Studies
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

Renewable Energy: A Very Short Introduction

Author webpage

• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

Energy is vital for a good standard of living, and affordable and adequate sources of power that do not cause climate change or pollution are crucial. Renewables can meet the world’s energy needs without compromising human health and the environment, and this VSI gives a history of their deployment and the principles of their technologies. Wind and solar farms can now provide the cheapest electricity in many parts of the world. Decarbonizing heat is just as important as clean electricity, and can be achieved using renewably generated electricity to power heat pumps and to produce combustible fuels such as hydrogen and ammonia. Several other clean alternatives, notably hydropower, biofuels, nuclear power, and carbon capture, are also becoming important. Lithium-ion batteries are enabling the electrification of transport and providing grid storage. But while market forces are helping the transition from fossil fuels to renewables, there are opposing pressures, such as the United States’ proposed withdrawal from the Paris Climate Agreement, and vested commercial interests in fossil fuels. Net-zero emissions must be reached by 2050 for a sustainable future, and governments must act quickly to accelerate the transition.

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code
• Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card.

• Sign in with username/password
• Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

External resource

• In the OUP print catalogue
• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Essay Service Examples Environment Renewable Energy

Advantages and Disadvantages of Renewable Energy Essay

Table of contents

Introduction, advantages and disadvantages to the use of renewable energy.

• Proper editing and formatting
• Free revision, title page, and bibliography
• Flexible prices and money-back guarantee

Our writers will provide you with an essay sample written from scratch: any topic, any deadline, any instructions.

Cite this paper

Related essay topics.

Get your paper done in as fast as 3 hours, 24/7.

Related articles

Most popular essays

• Renewable Energy

According to the encyclopedia National Geographic non-renewable energy comes from sources that...

• Conservation

According to Ritchie (2019), Oceania emits 1.3 billion tonnes of CO2 yearly, which is equivalent...

Energy is vital in our daily life because it is a basic human need. Almost all human activities...

• Business Analysis
• Tesla Motors

Tesla Inc. is an automotive and energy production company based in California, United States of...

• Solar Energy

With the increasing concern about climate change and the impact human actions have on Earth, the...

Wind power is a method of renewable energy. It uses the wind to turn large blades attached to a...

• Critical Reflection

In this speedy video, you will analyze how renewable electrical energy sources may additionally...

The world has been powered by carbon-based energy since the industrial revolution. It is what...

• Critical Thinking
• Nuclear Energy

Coming to the 21st century there are a fairly large number of programs, as well as legal acts...

Join our 150k of happy users

• Get original paper written according to your instructions
• Save time for what matters most

Fair Use Policy

EduBirdie considers academic integrity to be the essential part of the learning process and does not support any violation of the academic standards. Should you have any questions regarding our Fair Use Policy or become aware of any violations, please do not hesitate to contact us via [email protected].

We are here 24/7 to write your paper in as fast as 3 hours.

Provide your email, and we'll send you this sample!

By providing your email, you agree to our Terms & Conditions and Privacy Policy .

Say goodbye to copy-pasting!

Get custom-crafted papers for you.

Enter your email, and we'll promptly send you the full essay. No need to copy piece by piece. It's in your inbox!

News  | Events | People |  Giving

Transitioning to renewable energy: Challenges and opportunities

Nutifafa Yao Doumon

Countries around the world are exploring ways to transition away from fossil fuels. The transition, prompted by carbon emissions that exacerbate climate change, is vast and includes renewables such as solar, wind, and hydro. But is transitioning as simple as choosing renewables for energy? What other facets must be considered in this transition? Nutifafa Yao Doumon is an IEE faculty member and an assistant professor in the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences. He and his students have been thinking about what the transition will require, what challenges lie ahead, and what could go right/wrong in the process.

What factors should be considered in the transition to renewable energy?

I recently had a similar discussion with my graduate students in MatSE 597 (Organic/Hybrid Optoelectronic & Photovoltaic Devices), a course that discusses renewable energy, sustainability, and energy transition . We agreed that meeting the energy transition is a complex challenge that requires a multifaceted approach. Though the following factors may not be exhaustive, they are crucial for the transition to renewable energy:

• Investment in renewable energy infrastructures
• Technology innovation and research and development (R&D)
• Energy efficiency measures
• Policy support and regulatory frameworks
• Global cooperation and collective action

What are some of the main challenges in the transition to solar energy?

The energy transition  is not a simple task. It faces many multifaceted challenges, including technological, environmental, societal, economic, and geopolitical issues. Here, I will comment briefly on the technological and geopolitical aspects  to give you a sense of the complexity we are dealing with.

From a geopolitical perspective, it is crucial to acknowledge the concerns of many regions or countries in the global south . They believe the West is coercing them into adopting renewable technologies , arguing that they have not been the main contributors to greenhouse gas emissions and that transitioning to other energy sources is not a priority, especially when they have not yet reached the level of development that the West has experienced. They believe, especially in Africa, that this may stall Africa’s rise out of poverty. These opinions are thoroughly expressed in two op-eds authored separately by the ex-vice-president of Nigeria, Prof. Yemi Osinbajo in an  Economist op-ed  (paywall) , and the president of Uganda, his excellency Yoweri K. Museveni, in a  Wall Street Journal op-ed  (paywall). This could be a whole debate on its own.

From a technological perspective, the energy transition seems to be equated with transitioning entirely from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources through novel technologies. While this is an ideal scenario for the betterment of the planet, the reality could involve drastically reducing fossil fuels and significantly increasing renewable fuels. Most renewable energy technologies are not fully mature and do not yet match fossil fuels in terms of societal integration. Silicon-based solar technology, the most established, has an efficiency of 26% and a lifespan of 20-25 years. Many other solar technologies, such as organic, dye-sensitized, and perovskite solar cells, are still under investigation and not yet market-ready due to their low efficiency and instability.

The biggest challenge to solar technology is that it cannot be a standalone solution; it needs complementary storage technologies like batteries to be fully accessible 24/7. Solar installations also require significant land, often in farming communities. Mining for materials to sustain solar and battery technologies opens a new set of challenges. There are many ramifications in terms of challenges that solar power or panels face during their lifespan, including disposal or recycling of this technology.

What opportunities exist to make the transition more just and sustainable?

We have many opportunities and lessons from our past actions and inactions to make the transition more just and sustainable. Deploying some of the renewable technologies can be region-, location-, or geography-dependent. For example, solar energy is highly efficient in hot climates, predominantly found in the global south, while wind energy is more suitable for regions with high natural wind speeds.

Global cooperation and collective action are crucial for investing in renewable energy infrastructures and driving technology innovation and R&D geared toward making the transition just and sustainable. Our past actions have shown that raw materials and minerals mining and processing can negatively impact deprived, rural, local, or Indigenous communities. This past knowledge gives us an opportunity to do better this time. However, this will require the involvement of communities themselves, the right policies, governments, and political will.

How could these opportunities impact researchers' work?

These opportunities could open the door for research diversification and inter-/multi-disciplinary team collaboration. Investing money and time into innovation and R&D of new technology for renewable energy harvesting, conversion, and storage is vital. It is also crucial to ensure that communities appreciate the efforts and technologies that could potentially replace or be in the mix with existing fossil fuel-based assets and gadgets.

Therefore, I see a considerable impact not only on how the community of researchers should approach research from an interdisciplinary and community-engagement perspective but also on how renewable technology companies and industries approach their R&D portfolios. Topical research must also involve pre- and post-technology development and deployment assessment. Researchers are becoming increasingly aware of their research’s carbon footprint, developing new and efficient work methods, and embedding sustainability in their processes.

What could go wrong if we are not mindful of these challenges?

The danger here is friction between the global south and global north and imminent fracture on the geopolitical front. Global warming and climate change are universal threats and must be confronted together. Working together voluntarily and collectively as equals, knowing our strengths and weaknesses, is the right way forward. Otherwise, countries in the global south may resist the push toward a green energy transition, becoming immediate and/or future polluters of the planet, which contrasts with the desired outcome.

On the technological side, though it may be insignificant, there is a risk that we may fail to fully realize the technological dream and deploy all renewable energy sources in time to mitigate global warming. Finally, in the quest for these technologies, we may end up worsening environmental pollution levels, health hazards, living standards, and well-being of different communities globally.

What could go right if we address these challenges?

Almost everything, from solving energy crises in major geographical locations through global cooperation and collective action to protecting our collective environment through equal treatment, climate justice, and mitigating global warming. A collective, well-coordinated effort can help us achieve our renewable energy and climate goals, creating a more sustainable and equitable energy landscape for future generations.

Nutifafa Yao Doumon  is an assistant professor and Virginia S. & Philip L. Walker Jr. Faculty Fellow in the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences. With a background in physics, nanoscience, and leadership, his main interest focuses on materials for solar technologies. He conducts research into Optoelectronic and photovoltaic devices, looking at stability testing and chemical characterization of the active layer, indoor/outdoor testing of organic/perovskite photovoltaic modules, and characterization of degradation and failure modes/mechanisms.

Related News

IEEE Account

• Change Username/Password
• Update Address

Purchase Details

• Payment Options
• Order History
• View Purchased Documents

Profile Information

• Communications Preferences
• Profession and Education
• Technical Interests
• US & Canada: +1 800 678 4333
• Worldwide: +1 732 981 0060
• Contact & Support
• About IEEE Xplore
• Accessibility
• Terms of Use
• Nondiscrimination Policy
• Privacy & Opting Out of Cookies

A not-for-profit organization, IEEE is the world's largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity. © Copyright 2024 IEEE - All rights reserved. Use of this web site signifies your agreement to the terms and conditions.

• Student Portal
• Staff Portal
• Exam Results 2024 FAQs
• Clearing 2024
• Reporting absence
• Work for Us

Introduction to Renewable Energy – P00673

Home > Courses > Built Environment & Onsite Construction > Introduction to Renewable Energy – P00673

• Course Code P00673

Course Overview

This one day course is designed to help various industries, organisations and businesses in better understanding the range of renewable technologies and their application. The programme will inform and support organisations and businesses in considering renewable technology as a green alternative energy in moving away from more traditional fossil fueled technologies.

What You'll Learn

Over the full-day program, the topics covered will include

– Understanding the challenges, barriers and application of renewable energy. – Solar photovoltaic and thermal technology. – Wind energy and turbines. – Hydro electric power. – Ground, water and air source heat pumps – Biomass, boilers and anaerobic digestion. – Passive Haus design, autonomous buildings and renewable energy.

Entry Requirements

There are no entry requirements for this course, but it is designed for adults aged 19+ who want to enhance their knowledge and skills in green practices within their organisation or business.

How you will be assessed

A short online interactive assessment will be given to check your overall understanding of the topic. Multiple choice assessment criteria used.

Course Fees

Tuition fees.

Please read our course disclaimer

Learn more about fees

Course and Career progression

The purpose of the course is for the student to have a better overall understanding of the chosen topic and be able to relate and communicate this back to their company or organisation in improving sustainable and environmental credentials. The course also connects to other full-time higher and further education courses at Leicester College, particularly in the construction and engineering disciplines.

What Happens Next

Apply online via the College website, and if you meet the entry criteria you will be invited for an interview/audition.

• First Name *
• Last Name *
• Enter your email *

Print Course Information

View our related Built Environment & Onsite Construction

Construction management htq higher national certificate – p00267.

View Course

Mechanical/Electrical Engineering BTEC Higher National Certificate – P00263

Bsc (hons) construction management – p00611.

The impact of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption on aggregate output in Pakistan: robust evidence from the RALS cointegration test

• Research Article
• Published: 16 September 2024

Cite this article

• Waqar Khalid   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5275-6665 1 ,
• Mehdi Seraj   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4746-6970 2 ,
• Kiran Khalid   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0002-2237-5332 3 &
• Hüseyin Özdeşer   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5385-8949 2  

Over the past three decades, Pakistan’s energy consumption has surged due to industrialization, population growth, and development activities. To meet the escalating energy demands, the country has primarily relied on thermal power projects, which are financially burdensome and environmentally detrimental, compared to hydropower projects. This reliance exposes Pakistan to global oil price shocks and environmental degradation. To address this dilemma, this empirical research investigates the impact of both non-energy factors (labour and capital) and energy-specific factors (renewable and non-renewable) on Pakistan’s aggregate output, using annual time-series data from 1980 to 2021. The analysis employs the newly established Residual Augmented Least Square (RALS) cointegration test and the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) methodology to estimate the long-term cointegrating relationship among the examined variables. The empirical findings demonstrate that both non-energy and energy-specific factors positively and significantly influence Pakistan’s long-term aggregate output. However, petroleum consumption exerts a positive but insignificant influence on Pakistan’s long-term aggregate output. The study recommends diversifying the energy supply mix to include more hydroelectricity, non-hydroelectric renewables (mainly solar and wind), and natural gas. Specifically, transitioning from imported, expensive, and more greenhouse gas (GHG)-generating petroleum products to domestically produced natural gas could potentially reduce Pakistan’s trade deficit and its vulnerability to global oil price shocks. Besides the economic benefits, shifting from non-renewable energy sources (specifically oil) to renewable energy would enhance Pakistan’s image and increase its geopolitical influence over neighboring countries. Additionally, the study emphasizes the need to encourage private sector participation in renewable energy projects and suggests implementing effective carbon tax policies to mitigate CO 2 emissions and foster economic growth.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Source: Authors’ computations (2023)

Explore related subjects

• Environmental Chemistry

Data availability

The data that support the empirical findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Hu et al. ( 2023 ) confirm no causal relationship between energy consumption and economic development.

This term is also known as Harrod-neutral.

Traditional cointegration tests, such as the Engle-Granger or Johansen tests, typically assume normality of errors and may not yield reliable results under non-normal conditions. Conversely, the RALS-EG approach is specifically tailored to address non-normal distributions, rendering it a preferable choice for our dataset.

\({H}_{0}:{ \theta }_{2}={\theta }_{3}={\theta }_{4}={\theta }_{5}={\theta }_{6}={\theta }_{7}={\theta }_{8}=0\)

\({H}_{0}:\rho =0 (no serial correlation)\)

\({H}_{1}:\rho \ne 0 (serial correlation is present)\)

\({H}_{0}:var\left({u}_{i}\right)={\sigma }^{2} (homoscedasticity)\)

\({H}_{1}:var\left({u}_{i}\right)={\sigma }_{i}^{2} (heteroscedasticity)\)

As we are primarily interested in the long-term results of the ARDL approach, we have not presented the short-term results. The ARDL short-term results can be made available on reasoned request.

Abbas Z (2020) Re-assessing the contribution of energy consumption to GDP per-capita: Evidence from developed and developing countries. Int J Energy Econ Policy 10(6):404–410. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.9803

Article   Google Scholar  

Abdullah, Javed A, Ashraf J, Khan T (2020) The impact of renewable energy on GDP. Int J Manag Sustain 9(4):239–250. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.11.2020.94.239.250

Adebayo TS, Awosusi AA, Kirikkaleli D, AkinsolaMadhy GD, Mwamba MN (2021) Can CO 2 emissions and energy consumption determine the economic performance of South Korea? A time series analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:38969–38984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13498-1

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Adedoyin FF, Ozturk I, Agboola MO, Agboola PO, Bekun FV (2021) The implications of renewable and non-renewable energy generating in Sub-Saharan Africa: The role of economic policy uncertainties. Energy Policy 150:112115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2020.112115

Adekunle KA, Aderemi AK (2012) Domestic investment, capital formation and population growth in Nigeria. Dev Country Stud 2(7):37–45

Google Scholar  

Afroz R, Muhibbullah M (2022) Dynamic linkages between non-renewable energy, renewable energy and economic growth through nonlinear ARDL approach: evidence from Malaysia. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(32):48795–48811. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19346-0

Ahmad M, Jabeen G, Irfan M, Mukeshimana MC, Ahmed N, Jabeen M (2020a) Modeling Causal Interactions between Energy Investment, Pollutant Emissions, and Economic Growth: China Study. Biophys Econ Sustain 5(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41247-019-0066-7

Ahmad M, Zhao Z-Y, Irfan M, Mukeshimana MC, Rehman A, Jabeen G, Li H (2020b) Modeling heterogeneous dynamic interactions among energy investment, SO 2 emissions and economic performance in regional China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27(3):2730–2744. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07044-3

Ahmed S, Alam K, Sohag K, Gow J, Rashid A, Akter M (2019) Renewable and non-renewable energy use and its relationship with economic growth in Myanmar. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26(22):22812–22825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05491-6

Ahmed F, Kousar S, Pervaiz A, Trinidad-Segovia JE, Del Pilar Casado-Belmonte M, Ahmed W (2022) Role of green innovation, trade and energy to promote green economic growth: a case of South Asian Nations. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29:6871–6885. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15881-4

Akram R, Chen F, Khalid F, Huang G, Irfan M (2021) Heterogeneous effects of energy efficiency and renewable energy on economic growth of BRICS countries: A fixed effect panel quantile regression analysis. Energy 215(B):119019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.119019

Alaali F, Roberts J, Taylor K (2015) The effect of energy consumption and human capital on economic growth: an exploration of oil exporting and developed countries. Sheffield Economic Research Paper Series, SERPS-015 , 1–23. Department of Economics, The University of Sheffield. www.sheffield.ac.uk/economics

Ali M, Syed, Raza A, Khamis B (2020) Environmental degradation, economic growth, and energy innovation: evidence from European countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:28306–28315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09142-z

Ali M, Seraj M, Turuc F, Tursoy T, Uktamov KF (2023) Green finance investment and climate change mitigation in OECD-15 European countries: RALS and QARDL evidence. Environ Dev Sustain 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03765-1

Alper AE, Alper FO, Ozayturk G, Mike F (2023) Testing the long-run impact of economic growth, energy consumption, and globalization on ecological footprint: new evidence from Fourier bootstrap ARDL and Fourier bootstrap Toda-Yamamoto test results. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30(15):42873–42888. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18610-7

Amin N, Song H (2023) The role of renewable, non-renewable energy consumption, trade, economic growth, and urbanization in achieving carbon neutrality: A comparative study for South and East Asian countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30(5):12798–12812. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22973-2

Amri F (2017) The relationship amongst energy consumption (renewable and non-renewable), and GDP in Algeria. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 76:62–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.029

Andrieu B, Vidal O, Le Boulzec H, Delannoy L, Verzier F (2022) Energy intensity of final consumption: the richer, the poorer efficiency. Environ Sci Technol 2022(19):13909–13919. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c03462

Androniceanu A, Georgescu I (2023) The Impact of CO 2 Emissions and Energy Consumption on Economic Growth: A Panel Data Analysis. Energies 16(3):1342–1358. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031342

Arain H, Sharif A, Akbar B, Younis MY (2020) Dynamic connection between inward foreign direct investment, renewable energy, economic growth and carbon emission in China: evidence from partial and multiple wavelet coherence. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:40456–40474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08836-8

Asiedu BA, Hassan AA, Bein MA (2021) Renewable energy, non-renewable energy, and economic growth: Evidence from 26 European countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:11119–11128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11186-0

Asif M, Bashir S, Khan S (2021) Impact of non-renewable and renewable energy consumption on economic growth: evidence from income and regional groups of countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:38764–38773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13448-x

Aslan A, Altinoz B, Özsolak B (2021) The nexus between economic growth, tourism development, energy consumption, and CO 2 emissions in Mediterranean countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:3243–3252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10667-6

Asteriou D, Hall SG (2007) Applied econometrics: a modern approach, revised edition. Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire, pp 1–397

Aydin M (2022) The impacts of political stability, renewable energy consumption, and economic growth on tourism in Turkey: New evidence from Fourier Bootstrap ARDL approach. Renew Energy 190:467–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.03.144

Banga C, Deka A, Kilic H, Ozturen A, Özdeşer H (2022) The role of clean energy in the development of sustainable tourism: does renewable energy use help mitigate environmental pollution? A panel data analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(39):59363–59373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19991-5

Baranzini A, Weber S, Bareit M, Mathys NA (2013) The causal relationship between energy use and economic growth in Switzerland. Energy Econ 36:464–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2012.09.015

Batool K, Akbar M (2022) The Impact of Nuclear Energy Consumption on Economic Growth and CO 2 Emissions in Selected Asian Economies. Pak J Human Soc Sci 10(3):1015–1027. https://doi.org/10.52131/pjhss.2022.1003.0265

Bayar Y, Gavriletea MD (2019) Energy efficiency, renewable energy, economic growth: evidence from emerging market economies. Qual Quant 53:2221–2234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-019-00867-9

Bayar Y, Özel HA (2014) Electricity Consumption and Economic Growth in Emerging Economies. J Knowl Manag Econ Inform Technol 4(2):1–18

Baz K, Cheng J, Xu D, Abbas K, Ali I, Ali H, Fang C (2021) Asymmetric impact of fossil fuel and renewable energy consumption on economic growth: A nonlinear technique. Energy 226:120357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.120357

Behera J, Mishra AK (2020) Renewable and non-renewable energy consumption and economic growth in G7 countries: evidence from panel autoregressive distributed lag (P-ARDL) model. IEEP 17:241–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10368-019-00446-1

Berlemann M, Wesselhöft J-E (2014) Estimating Aggregate Capital Stocks Using the Perpetual Inventory Method - A Survey of Previous Implementations and New Empirical Evidence for 103 Countries. Rev Econ 65:1–34

Bhat JA (2018) Renewable and non-renewable energy consumption—impact on economic growth and CO 2 emissions in five emerging market economies. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25(35):35515–35530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3523-8

Bilgili F, Kuşkaya S, Ünlü F, Gençoğlu P (2022) Export quality, economic growth, and renewable-nonrenewable energy use: non-linear evidence through regime shifts. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(24):36189–36207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18601-8

BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2021 – 2022 (n.d.) (PDF) / BP /  http://www.bp.com/ . Accessed 13 October 2023

Breusch TS, Pagan AR (1979) A Simple Test for Heteroscedasticity and Random Coefficient Variation. Econometrica: J Econ Soc 47(5):1287–1294. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1911963

Brown RL, Durbin J, Evans JM (1975) Techniques for testing the constancy of regression relationships over time. J R Stat Soc Ser B Stat Methodol 37(2):149–163

Bulut U, Apergis N (2021) A new methodological perspective on the impact of energy consumption on economic growth: time series evidence based on the Fourier approximation for solar energy in the USA. GeoJournal 86(4):1969–1980. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-020-10171-x

Bunnag T (2023) Analyzing Short-run and Long-run Causality Relationship among CO 2 Emission, Energy Consumption, GDP, Square of GDP, and Foreign Direct Investment in Environmental Kuznets Curve for Thailand. Int J Energy Econ Policy 13(2):341–348. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.14088

Candra O, Chammam A, Alvarez JRN, Muda I, Aybar H (2023) The Impact of Renewable Energy Sources on the Sustainable Development of the Economy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Sustainability 15(3):2104. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032104

Chaudhry IS, Safdar N, Farooq F (2012) Energy consumption and economic growth: Empirical evidence from Pakistan. Pak J Soc Sci 32(2):371–382

Chen Y, Mamon R, Spagnolo F, Spagnolo N (2022) Renewable energy and economic growth: A Markov-switching approach. Energy 244(B):123089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.123089

Cobb CW, Douglas PH (1928) A Theory of Production. Am Econ Rev 18(1):139–165. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1811556

de La Fuente A, Donénech R (2000) Human capital in growth regressions: how much difference does data quality make? Economics Department Working Papers No. 262. Working Papers - Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Economics Department, pp 1–68

de Oliveira HVE, Moutinho V (2022) Do renewable, non-renewable energy, carbon emission and KOF globalization influencing economic growth? Evidence from BRICS’ countries. Energy Rep 8(3):48–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.01.031

Deka A, Cavusoglu B, Dube S (2022) Does renewable energy use enhance exchange rate appreciation and stable rate of inflation? Environ Sci Pollut Res 29:14185–14194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16758-2

Dickey DA, Fuller WA (1981) Likelihood Ratio Statistics for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root. Econometrica: J Econ Soc 49(4):1057–1072. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1912517

Doğanlar M, Mike F, Kızılkaya O, Karlılar S (2021) Testing the long-run effects of economic growth, financial development and energy consumption on CO 2 emissions in Turkey: new evidence from RALS cointegration test. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(25):32554–32563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12661-y

EIA (2023) International Energy Statistics. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). https://www.eia.gov/international/data/world# /?. Accessed 13 October 2023

Eicke L, Weko S (2022) Does green growth foster green policies? Value chain upgrading and feedback mechanisms on renewable energy policies. Energy Policy 165:112948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2022.112948

Emir F, Karlilar S (2022) Application of RALS cointegration test assessing the role of natural resources and hydropower energy on ecological footprint in emerging economy. Energy Environ 34(4):764–779. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X211073807

Engle RF, Granger CW (1987) Co-integration and error correction: representation, estimation, and testing. Econometrica: J Econ Soc 55(2):251–276. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1913236

Formánek T (2020) Renewable energy and its impact on GDP growth factors: Spatial panel data analysis of gross fixed capital formation in selected EU countries. Software Engineering Perspectives in Intelligent Systems: Proceedings of 4th Computational Methods in Systems and Software 2(4):230–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63319-6_20

Godfrey LG (1978) Testing for Higher Order Serial Correlation in Regression Equations when the Regressors Include Lagged Dependent Variables. Econometrica: J Econ Soc 46(6):1303–1310. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913830

Gregory AW, Hansen BE (1996) Residual-based tests for cointegration in models with regime shifts. J Econ 70(1):99–126

Gyimah J, Yao X, Tachega MA, Sam Hayford I, Opoku-Mensah E (2022) Renewable energy consumption and economic growth: New evidence from Ghana. Energy 248:123559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.123559

Hu Z, Hu Z (2013) Models of Electricity with Capital and Labor. In: Hu Z, Hu Z (eds) Electricity Economics: Production Functions with Electricity. Springer, Berlin, pp 413–441. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-40757-4_15

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Hu M, Wang Y, Xia B, Huang G (2023) What is the relationship between energy consumption and economic development? New evidence from a rapidly growing economic development region. Environ Dev Sustain 25(4):3601–3626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02196-8

Huang Y, Raza SMF, Hanif I, Alharthi M, Abbas Q, Zain-ul-Abidin S (2020) The role of forest resources, mineral resources, and oil extraction in economic progress of developing Asian economies. Resour Policy 69:101878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2020.101878

Huang Y, Abidin SZU, Raza SMF (2023) Investigation of resource curse hypothesis: the role of renewable energy and urbanization in realizing environmental sustainability in China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30(37):86927–86939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28719-y

IFS (2023) International Financial Statistics (IFS). The International Monetary Fund (IMF) Data. https://data.imf.org/ . Accessed 13 October 2023

Iftasari T (2022) The Effect of Energy Consumption, Fixed Capital and Labor Cost on Manufacturing Output in Indonesia. Int J Multidiscip Res Lit 1(5):481–600. https://doi.org/10.53067/ijomral.v1i5

Im KS, Schmidt P (2008) More efficient estimation under non-normality when higher moments do not depend on the regressors, using residual augmented least squares. J Econ 144(1):219–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2008.01.003

Im KS, Lee J, Tieslau MA (2014) More Powerful Unit Root Tests with Non-normal Errors. In: Sickles R, Horrace W (eds) Festschrift in Honor of Peter Schmidt. Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-8008-3_10

International Energy Statistic / Geography / Pakistan / U.S. Energy Information Administration (2023) http://www.eia.gov/ . Accessed 13 October 2023

Ito K (2016) CO 2 emissions, renewable and non-renewable energy consumption, and economic growth: evidence from panel data for developed countries. Econ Bull 36(1):553–559

Ito K (2017) CO 2 emissions, renewable and non-renewable energy consumption, and economic growth: Evidence from panel data for developed countries. Int Econ 151:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2017.02.001

Javed ZH, Shabir M, Waseem LA, Iqbal K, Munir M (2019) Estimation Relationship Between Nuclear Energy Consumption and Economic Growth in Pakistan using ARDL Approach. Indian J Sci Technol 12(45):1–8. https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2019/v12i45/147141

Jayasinghe M, Selvanathan S, Selvanathan EA (2022) Energy Consumption and GDP Nexus in Bangladesh. In: Hossain M, Ahmad QK, Islam MM (eds) Towards a Sustainable Economy, 1st edn. Routledge, London, pp 96–116

Jia H, Fan S, Xia M (2023) The Impact of Renewable Energy Consumption on Economic Growth: Evidence from Countries along the Belt and Road. Sustainability 15(11):8644. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15118644

Johansen S, Juselius K (1990) Maximum likelihood estimation and inference on cointegration—with applications to the demand for money. Oxford Bull Econ Stat 52(2):169–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.1990.mp52002003.x

Kadir MO, Deka A, Özdeşer H, Seraj M, Turuc F (2023) The impact of energy efficiency and renewable energy on GDP growth: new evidence from RALS-EG cointegration test and QARDL technique. Energy Eff 16(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-023-10130-8

Kamps C (2006) New Estimates of Government Net Capital Stocks for 22 OECD Countries, 1960–2001. IMF Staff Pap 53:120–150

Karaaslan A, Çamkaya S (2022) The relationship between CO 2 emissions, economic growth, health expenditure, and renewable and non-renewable energy consumption: Empirical evidence from Turkey. Renew Energy 190:457–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.03.139

Khalid W, Jalil A (2019) An econometric analysis of inter-fuel substitution in energy sector of Pakistan. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26(17):17021–17031. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05014-3

Khalid W, Özdeşer H (2021) Estimation of Substitution Possibilities Between Hydroelectricity and Classical Factor Inputs for Pakistan’s Economy. Forman J Econ Stud 17(2):69–101. https://doi.org/10.32368/FJES.20211712

Khalid W, Özdeşer H, Jalil A (2021) An empirical analysis of inter-factor and inter-fuel substitution in the energy sector of Pakistan. Renew Energy 177:953–966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.05.163

Khalid W, Civcir I, Özdeşer H (2023a) The Asymmetric Effects of Third-Country Exchange Rate Volatility on Turkish-German Commodity Trade. Panoeconomicus. https://doi.org/10.2298/PAN220624015K

Khalid W, Civcir I, Özdeşer H, Iqbal J (2023b) The asymmetric impact of real exchange rate misalignment on growth dynamics in Turkey. J Policy Model 45(6):1184–1203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2023.10.003

Khan R, Kong YS (2020) Effects of Energy Consumption on GDP: New Evidence of 24 Countries on Their Natural Resources and Production of Electricity. Ekonomika 99(1):26–49. https://doi.org/10.15388/ekon.2020.1.2

Khan AH (1989) The Two-Level CES Production Function for the Manufacturing Sector of Pakistan. Pak Dev Rev 28(1):1–12. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41259209

Khilji NMK (1982) Growth prospects of a developing economy: a macroeconometric study of Pakistan. (Doctoral Dissertation), McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, pp 1–279

Kim S, Jeon W (2022) Which clean energy contributes better for growth? – dynamic panel analysis of heterogeneous impacts of individual renewable sources on economic growth. Energy Environ 35(1):312–330. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X221130541

Kimiagari AM, Delouyi FL, Shabani M (2016) Analysis of the simultaneous effects of renewable energy consumption and GDP, using Dynamic Panel Data. J Ind Eng Manag Stud 3(1):1–14. www.jiems.icms.ac.ir

Krkošková R (2021) Causality between energy consumption and economic growth in the V4 countries. Technol Econ Dev Econ 27(4):900–920. https://doi.org/10.3846/tede.2021.14863

Lahrech A, Abu-Hijleh B, Aldabbas H (2023) The impact of global renewable energy demand on economic growth – evidence from GCC countries. Arab Gulf J Sci Res. https://doi.org/10.1108/AGJSR-01-2023-0007

Lee H, Lee J, Im K (2015) More powerful cointegration tests with non-normal errors. Stud Nonlinear Dyn Econom 19(4):397–413. https://doi.org/10.1515/snde-2013-0060

Lei X, Yang Y, Alharthi M, Rasul F, Raza SMF (2022) Immense reliance on natural resources and environmental challenges in G-20 economies through the lens of COP-26 targets. Resour Policy 79:103101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.103101

Lin B, Ahmad I (2016a) Technical change, inter-factor and inter-fuel substitution possibilities in Pakistan: A trans-log production function approach. J Clean Prod 126:537–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.065

Lin B, Ahmad I (2016b) Energy substitution effect on transport sector of Pakistan based on trans-log production function. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 56:1182–1193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.012

Luqman M, Ahmad N, Bakhsh K (2019) Nuclear energy, renewable energy and economic growth in Pakistan: Evidence from non-linear autoregressive distributed lag model. Renew Energy 139:1299–1309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.03.008

Mahmood N, Wang Z, Zhang B (2020) The role of nuclear energy in the correction of environmental pollution: Evidence from Pakistan. Nucl Eng Technol 52(6):1327–1333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.net.2019.11.027

Mankiw NG (2010) Macroeconomics, (7th Int. edn). New York, Worth Publishers.  www.worthpublishers.com

Mbarek MB, Saidi K, Rahman MM (2018) Renewable and non-renewable energy consumption, environmental degradation and economic growth in Tunisia. Qual Quant 52(3):1105–1119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0506-7

McNown R, Sam CY, Goh SK (2018) Bootstrapping the autoregressive distributed lag test for cointegration. Appl Econ 50(13):1509–1521

Meng M, Lee J, Payne JE (2017) RALS-LM unit root test with trend breaks and non-normal errors: application to the Prebisch-Singer hypothesis. Stud Nonlinear Dyn Econom 21(1):31–45

Mohammadi H, Saghaian S, Gharibi BZD (2023) Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Consumption and Its Impact on Economic Growth. Sustainability 15(4):3822. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043822

Moussavou F (2022) Electricity Consumption and Economic Growth in WAEMU Countries: an Empirical Analysis using Panel Data. Valahian J Econ Stud 13(2):33–42. https://doi.org/10.2478/vjes-2022-0013

Muazu A, Yu Q, Alariqi M (2023) The Impact of Renewable Energy Consumption and Economic Growth on Environmental Quality in Africa: A Threshold Regression Analysis. Energies 16(11):4533. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16114533

Naimoğlu M (2022) Impact of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption on economic growth in Mexico: A RALS-EG cointegration test approach. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi 17(2):502–518. https://doi.org/10.25294/auiibfd.1077576

Nakhli MS, Shahbaz M, Ben Jebli M, Wang S (2022) Nexus between economic policy uncertainty, renewable & non-renewable energy and carbon emissions: Contextual evidence in carbon neutrality dream of USA. Renew Energy 185:75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.12.046

Naqvi SNH, Khan AH, Khilji NM, Ahmed AM (1983) The PIDE macro-econometric model of Pakistan's economy. PIDE Books. Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, number 1983:1

Narayan PK, Popp S (2012) The energy consumption-real GDP nexus revisited: Empirical evidence from 93 countries. Econ Model 29(2):303–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2011.10.016

Nawaz MA, Hussain MS, Kamran HW, Ehsanullah S, Maheen R, Shair F (2021) Trilemma association of energy consumption, carbon emission, and economic growth of BRICS and OECD regions: quantile regression estimation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:16014–16028. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11823-8

Nehru V, Dhareshwar A (1993) A new database on physical capital stock: sources, methodology and results. Rev Anal Econ 8(1):37–59

Nwatu V, Dosumu A, Nteegah A (2023) Natural Gas Consumption and Economic Growth in Top Gas-Producing African Countries. Asian J Econ Finance Manag 5(1):374–387

Odugbesan JA, Rjoub H (2020) Relationship Among Economic Growth, Energy Consumption, CO 2 Emission, and Urbanization: Evidence from MINT Countries. SAGE Open 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020914648

Pakistan/The World Factbook/Library/Central Intelligence Agency/ (n.d.) http://www.cia.gov/

Pan X, Ashraf A, Raza SMF, Nasriddinov F, Ahmad M (2023) Exploring the asymmetric effects of urbanization and trade on CO 2 emissions: fresh evidence from Pakistan. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30(38):89770–89783. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28719-y

Paul S, Bhattacharya RN (2004) Causality between energy consumption and economic growth in India: A note on conflicting results. Energy Econ 26(6):977–983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2004.07.002

Perron P (1989) The great crash, the oil price shock, and the unit root hypothesis. Econometrica: J Econ Soc 57(6):1361–1401

Pesaran MH, Shin Y, Smith RJ (2001) Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. J Appl Econ 16(3):289–326. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2678547

Pierdzioch C, Risse M, Rohloff S (2015) Cointegration of the prices of gold and silver: RALS-based evidence. Financ Res Lett 15:133–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2015.09.003

Qasim M, Kotani K (2014) An Empirical Analysis of Energy Shortage in Pakistan. Asia-Pac Dev J 21(1):137–166

Rahman MM, Alam K (2021) Exploring the driving factors of economic growth in the world’s largest economies. Heliyon 7(5):e07109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07109

Rehman A, Ma H, Ozturk I, Radulescu M (2022) Revealing the dynamic effects of fossil fuel energy, nuclear energy, renewable energy, and carbon emissions on Pakistan’s economic growth. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(32):48784–48794. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19317-5

Romer PM (1990) Endogenous technological change. J Polit Econ 98(5, Part 2):S71–S102

Saldivia M, Kristjanpoller W, Olson JE (2020) Energy consumption and GDP revisited: A new panel data approach with wavelet decomposition. Appl Energy 272:115207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115207

Sánchez-Triana E, Enriquez S, Afzal J, Nakagawa A, Khan AS (2014) Cleaning Pakistan’s air: policy options to address the cost of outdoor air pollution. World Bank Publications, The World Bank

Sek SK (2017) The impact of energy consumption on economic growth: The case of China. Appl Ecol Environ Res 15(3):1243–1254. https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1503_12431254

Shafiullah M, Miah MD, Alam MS, Atif M (2021) Does economic policy uncertainty affect renewable energy consumption? Renew Energy 179:1500–1521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.07.092

Shahbaz M, Raghutla C, Chittedi KR, Jiao Z, Vo XV (2020) The effect of renewable energy consumption on economic growth: Evidence from the renewable energy country attractive index. Energy 207:118162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.118162

Smyth R, Narayan PK, Shi H (2011) Substitution between energy and classical factor inputs in the Chinese steel sector. Appl Energy 88(1):361–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.07.019

Soava G, Mehedintu A, Sterpu M, Raduteanu M (2018) Impact of renewable energy consumption on economic growth: Evidence from European Union countries. Technol Econ Dev Econ 24(3):914–932. https://doi.org/10.3846/tede.2018.1426

Solaymani S, Villamor G, Dunningham A, Hall P (2023) The relationship between energy and non-energy factors and CO 2 emissions in New Zealand. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:104270–104283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-29784-z

Solow RM (1956) A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth. Q J Econ 70(1):65–94. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1884513

Statistical Review of World Energy (2022) Energy institute, 73rd edn. energyinst.org/statistical-review

Stern DI (2019) Energy and Economic Growth. In: Soytaş U, Sarı R (ed.), Routledge Handbook of Energy Economics, Routledge, pp 28–46. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315459653-3

Tatou FZ, Abdellah Y, Tawfiq R (2023) The Relationship between Economic Growth and Energy Consumption Disaggregated by Sector: The Case of Morocco. Int J Energy Econ Policy 13(3):538–544. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.14049

Tran BL, Chen CC, Tseng WC (2022) Causality between energy consumption and economic growth in the presence of GDP threshold effect: Evidence from OECD countries. Energy 251:123902. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.123902

Wahyudi H, Palupi WA (2023) Relationship between Energy Consumption, Foreign Direct Investment, and Labor Force Participation Using the VECM Model: Empirical Study in OECD Countries. Int J Energy Econ Policy 13(2):157–165. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.13999

Wang J, Zhang S, Zhang Q (2021) The relationship of renewable energy consumption to financial development and economic growth in China. Renew Energy 170:897–904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.02.038

Wang Z, Yen-Ku K, Li Z, An NB, Abdul-Samad Z (2022) The transition of renewable energy and ecological sustainability through environmental policy stringency: Estimations from advance panel estimators. Renew Energy 188:70–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.01.075

WB (2023) Pakistan oil and gas review, Report No. 26072-PK, the World Bank

WDI (2023) World Development Indicators (WDI) . The World Bank, Washington D. C. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators . Accessed 13 Oct 2023

Wesseh PK, Lin B, Appiah MO (2013) Delving into Liberia’s energy economy: Technical change, inter-factor and inter-fuel substitution. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 24:122–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.03.061

Zafirova A, Angelova B (2022) The Relationship between Energy Consumption and Gross Domestic Product: Potential Impact of Energy Crisis on Economic Growth of Republic of North Macedonia. Econ Dev 24(2):19–30

Zhang D, Mohsin M, Rasheed AK, Chang Y, Taghizadeh-Hesary F (2021) Public spending and green economic growth in BRI region: Mediating role of green finance. Energy Policy 153:112256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112256

Zhou X, Jia M, Altuntaş M, Kirikkaleli D, Hussain M (2022) Transition to renewable energy and environmental technologies: The role of economic policy uncertainty in top five polluted economies. J Environ Manag 313:115019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115019

Zou G, Chau KW (2023) Energy consumption, economic growth and environmental sustainability: Evidence from China. Energy Rep 9(9):106–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2023.05.251

Zweifel P, Praktiknjo A, Erdmann G (2017) Energy economics: theory and applications. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-53022-1

Download references

“The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.”

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Sector H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan

Waqar Khalid

Department of Economics, Near East University, Nicosia, North Cyprus

Mehdi Seraj & Hüseyin Özdeşer

Department of Economics, Abdul Wali Khan University (Gardan Campus), Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Kiran Khalid

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

“All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Waqar Khalid, Mehdi Seraj, and Kiran Khalid. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Waqar Khalid and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Waqar Khalid .

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval.

Not Applicable.

Consent to participate

Consent to publish.

“The authors declare that this manuscript has not been published elsewhere and has not been submitted simultaneously for publication elsewhere. The authors also declare that this manuscript is original and is their own work.”

Competing interests

“The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.”

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Roula Inglesi-Lotz

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Figures  4 , 5 , 6 , 7 and 8

Trends in the Production and Consumption of Oil over the 1980–2021 period

Trends in the Consumption and Production of Natural Gas over the 1980–2021 period

Trends in the Consumption and Production of Coal over the 1980–2021 period

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA 2023 )

Electricity Generation in Pakistan over the period 2010–2021.

Total Energy Consumption in Pakistan over the period 1980–2021

CO 2 emissions resulted from Energy Consumption, 1980–2021

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Khalid, W., Seraj, M., Khalid, K. et al. The impact of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption on aggregate output in Pakistan: robust evidence from the RALS cointegration test. Environ Sci Pollut Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-34804-7

Download citation

Received : 18 December 2023

Accepted : 22 August 2024

Published : 16 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-34804-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Renewable energy
• Economic growth
• Non-renewable energy
• CO 2 emissions
• RALS cointegration test
• ARDL estimator

JEL Classification

• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Thermal Energy Storage as a Strategic Technology to Increase Renewable Energy Penetration in Grid

34 Pages Posted: 13 Sep 2024

Umberto Desideri

University of Pisa

Jaroslaw Milewski

Warsaw University of Technology

Marcin Kruk

affiliation not provided to SSRN

Several studies have been focused on increasing renewable power generation in electric grids. The long-time experience in balancing the electric grids allows to predict the demand and supply with reliable information and even though intermittent renewables increase uncertainties on the supply side there has been a marked increase in the renewable electricity worldwide.When considering primary energy consumption, the results of renewable energy penetration are far from reaching the desired targets. Transferring most heat loads from fuels to electric driven heat pumps or other heat generation systems is not the final solution since the residential, services and industrial heat is demanded at very different levels of temperature which require different technologies and tailored solutions.Starting from primary energy consumption in two different countries, Italy, and Poland, with a different energy mix and different climate and industrial mix this paper proposes some solutions that help increase the primary renewable energy penetration avoiding a complete transfer of heat generation from the electric supply.

Keywords: renewable energy penetration, electric grid balancing, heat generation systems, energy mix comparison: Italy and Poland, tailored energy solutions

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

University of Pisa ( email )

DESTEC Largo Lucio Lazzarino Pisa, PI 56122 Italy

Jaroslaw Milewski (Contact Author)

Warsaw university of technology ( email ).

Pl. Politechniki 1 Warsaw, 00-661 Poland

affiliation not provided to SSRN ( email )

No Address Available

Do you have a job opening that you would like to promote on SSRN?

Paper statistics, related ejournals, renewable energy ejournal.

Subscribe to this fee journal for more curated articles on this topic

Energy Policy & Economics eJournal

Solar energy ejournal, fossil energy ejournal, energy & environmental science ejournal.

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 16 September 2024

Design and development of different adaptive MPPT controllers for renewable energy systems: a comprehensive analysis

• Bongani Eswaraiah 1 &
• Kethineni Balakrishna 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  21627 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Electrical and electronic engineering
• Engineering

As of now, all over the world is focusing on the Electric Vehicle (EV) technology because its features are low environmental pollution, less maitainence cost required, high robustness, and good dynamic response. Also, the EVs work continuously until the input fuel is provided to the fuel stack. Here, a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) is used as an input source to the electric vehicle system because of its merits fast startup, and quick response. However, the PEMFC gives nonlinear voltage versus current characteristics. As a result, the extraction of maximum power from the fuel stack is very difficult. The main aim of this work is to study different Maximum Power Point Tracking Techniques (MPPT) for the DC-DC converter-fed PEMFC system. The studied MPPT controllers are Adjusted Step Value of Perturb & Observe (ASV with P&O), Adaptive Step Size with Incremental Conductance (ASS with IC), Radial Basis Functional Network (RBFN), Incremental Step-Fuzzy Logic Controller (IS with FLC), Continuous Step Variation based Particle Swarm Optimization (CSV with PSO), and Adaptive Step Value-Cuckoo Search Algorithm (ASV with CSA). The selected MPPT controllers’ comprehensive study has been in terms of maximum power extraction, tracking speed of the MPP, settling time of the fuel stack output voltage, oscillations across the MPP, and design complexity. From the comprehensive performance results of the hybrid MPPT controllers, the ASV with CSA technique gives superior performance when equated to the other MPPT controllers.

Similar content being viewed by others

A novel advanced hybrid fuzzy MPPT controllers for renewable energy systems

A comprehensive performance analysis of advanced hybrid MPPT controllers for fuel cell systems

A novel development of wide voltage supply DC–DC converter for fuel stack application with PSO-ANFIS MPPT controller

Introduction.

As of now, the nonrenewable energy sources utilization kept on reducing because of their drawbacks are more implementation costs, excessive environmental pollution, and heavy damage to human health, wildlife, and habitat loss 1 . Also, nonrenewable energy sources require a high catchment area for the installation and release the greenhouse gasses 2 . So, most of the automotive industries are working on the development of various renewable energy systems. The most popularly used renewable energy systems are wind, solar, tidal, hydropower, and geothermal energy 3 . In wind power generation systems, the kinetic energy of the wind blades is converted into an electrical power supply by using the Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG). After collecting the electricity from the PMSG, the power converters are utilized for the conversion of direct power supply into alternative power supply. In addition, the transformer is included with power converters for enhancing the voltage profile of the grid. The features of wind power systems are very low operating cost, clean energy, effective utilization of land space, and creating more jobs for human beings 4 . The drawbacks of wind systems are noise pollution, intermittent, high environmental impact, and suitable only at remote locations. The demerits of wind power production systems are limited by utilizing the solar energy source 5 .

The solar cells convert the sunlight photo energy into useful electrical power. Every cell gives only 0.78–0.95 V which is not useful for local load applications 6 . So, the solar cells are integrated in parallel and series sequence to improve the supply power rating of the solar system. The working nature of solar cells is quite equal to the P-N diode operation. The features of solar systems are diverse applications, reduced electricity bills, less maitainence cost, plus ease of maintenance 7 . The drawbacks of this power generation system are weather dependent, needs a high catchment area for installation, and its working performance depends on environmental pollution. So, the above drawbacks of solar, and wind energy systems are limited by using fuel cell technology 8 . A fuel stack is a device that transfers chemical energy into an electrical power supply by the use of electrochemical reactions. In the fuel cell, the oxygen and hydrogen atoms are reacted with each other and generate power along with the water and heat as the byproducts 9 . The fuel cells give very little pollution and also give more than two times the efficiency of the other renewable energy systems. Based on the operating temperature, the fuel cells are classified as low operating temperature (25–100 °C) fuel cells, medium operating temperature fuel cells (100–500 °C), plus high operating temperature fuel cells (500–1000 °C).

For all the types of fuel stacks, the utilized input fuels are hydrogen, low hydrocarbons, alcohols, hydrazine, metal hydrides, and high hydrocarbons. The supplied input fuel is oxidized at the anode chamber, and the oxidant is reduced at the cathode side. Inside the fuel stack, one species of ions is shifted from anode to cathode via electrolyte to combine these with their counterparts 10 . The available electrons flow through the external circuit to generate the electrical current. In 11 , based on the type of electrolyte, the researchers explained the different categories of fuel stacks which are Solid Oxide Fuel Stack (SOFS), Molten Carbonate Fuel Stack (MCFS), Alkaline Fuel Stack (AFS), and Phosphoric Acid Fuel Stack (PAFS). Certain solid material has the property to conduct electricity at very high temperatures and it works as an electrolyte for the solid oxide-based fuel stack. In 12 , the authors selected the SOFS for supplying the power to the auxiliary power storage application. High operating temperature-based solid oxide cells give pollution-free, and clean energy to supply the electrical energy to the local consumers with high operating efficiency 13 . The merits of this solid oxide cell over traditional power supply systems are high reliability, modularity, high input fuel adaptability, and good functioning efficiency. Also, this fuel cell releases very less amount of nitrous oxide and solid dioxide.

Here, due to the high temperature withstand stability of the solid oxide fuel cell, the natural gas is formed inside the fuel stack. As a result, the expensive external reformer is not required in the SOFS. The high-operating pressurized SOFS is used as a combustor in the gas power generation system. The SOFS-based gas turbine electricity supply network’s maximum functioning efficiency is 70%. In 14 , the researchers developed the advanced solid oxide cell which is a combination of sealing fewer properties of a tubular cell with integral ribs, and a flatted air electrode. This tubular cell-based SOFS consists of a concise current path. So, the resistance of the solid oxide cell is very low, and more output power over the other fuel cells. The main feature of SOFS is noise-less operation. The drawback of SOFS is high startup time because of its high operating temperature 15 . As a result, many chemical and mechanical compatibility issues occur in the solid oxide cell. The applications of solid oxide fuel cells are emergency backup power supply, transportation systems, submarine systems, and rockets. Also, most of the utility vehicles are implemented by utilizing the solid oxide membrane-based fuel stack 16 .

From the literature study, the reduction of carbon footprint utilization has been done by using molten carbonate fuel cells 17 . Due to this MCFS, the amount of carbon dioxide released from nonrenewable energy sources is reduced. The features of MCFS are highly efficient, and cleaner over to the traditional power supply networks. Also, most of the MCFS are used in stationary applications because of their compact, less noise pollution. In 18 , the authors studied the photovoltaic systems along with the MCFS for generating power for all local consumers. Here, the power is equally shared along with the inverters and step-up transformers. This hybrid power network is useful for supplying continuous power to all hospitals as well as shopping malls. In this hybrid power system, the per-unit cost of the solar system is two times of the MCFS power supply. Also, the molten carbonate cell gives slightly higher profits when equated to the solar modules. However, the reduction of operational, and maitainence costs is a challenging task in the MCFS. Also, the natural gas price in the MCFS is very high. To overcome the disadvantages of molten carbonate cells, in 19 , the researchers used the PAFS along with the solar, plus wind power system for supplying the power to the microgrid network. Phosphoric acid cells a one of the most popular fuel stacks that are used for food drier systems to protect the food from various chemicals 20 . In this PAFS, the electrolyte is developed with highly concentrative phosphoric acid along with the silicon carbide. The functioning temperature of this cell is between 150 and 210 °C. The electrodes of the PAFS are developed by utilizing the carbon cloth coating. Finally, the dispersed catalyst is used in the PAFS.

The phosphoric acid fuel cells are used in 100–400 kW stationary applications, backup power supply for industrial as well as commercial applications, residential buildings, and remote accessible areas 21 . The demerits of PAFS are less power density and a very aggressive electrolyte. Also, the PAFS works with very high startup time. As a result, this fuel stack is not useful for emergency power applications. The disadvantages of PAFS are limited by utilizing the AFS. The alkaline cells are anionic exchange membrane fuel cells that are used to replace the liquid electrolyte alkaline cells. Also, different manufacturers developed advanced alkaline catalyst material that has high thermal stability and gives very good performance 22 . The peak current density and power density of alkaline fuel stacks are 100–300 mA/cm 2 , and 50–300 mW/cm 2 respectively. The lifetime of this fuel cell is greater than 5000 h, and its degradation rate is 3–20 µV/h 23 .

Here, the anode of the alkaline fuel stack is designed by using platinum, and nickel. Similarly, the cathode is implemented by utilizing the Manganese dioxide. At the anode, the platinum catalyst breaks the alkaline liquid into alkaline ions for supplying the electricity to the external load circuit, and the nickel cathode collects the anode ions which are converted into waste chemicals. The features of alkaline fuel stacks are less operating temperature capability, easy handling, and very good operating efficiency 24 . Also, this AFS is used in the Apollo space mission application. The disadvantages of AFS are high manufacturing cost, and lack of infrastructure to support the hydrogen distribution. However, the above fuel cell drawbacks are overcome by using the PEMFS. The attractive features of PEMFS are fast startup and quick response 25 .

The polymer membrane fuel stacks give nonlinear voltage versus current characteristics 26 . Also, the functioning point of the fuel stack changes from one point to another point on the V-I characteristics of the fuel stack at different water membranes, and operating temperature conditions. So, the peak power extraction from the fuel stack is highly difficult. At this time, the MPPT controller plays an important role in stabilizing the maximum power point of the fuel stack at various water membrane conditions 27 . As a result, the overall fuel stack system supplies constant power to the electric vehicle load. From the previously published articles, the MPPT technologies are differentiated as traditional, artificial intelligence, metaheuristics, and soft computing methods. The most popular traditional MPPT technologies are Perturb & Observe (P&O) 28 , fractional current, Incremental Conductance (IC) 29 , fractional voltage, Incremental Resistance (IRR), and Ripple Correlation Method (RCM). In 30 , the researchers utilized the P&O concept for a standalone DC–DC converter-fed fuel array system to vary the duty cycle of the interleaved converter thereby enhancing the load voltage profile of the electric vehicle system. Here, the P&O is investigated along with the Proportional and Integral (PI) controller in terms of steady-state oscillations of the fuel cell output voltage, converter voltage gain, and oscillations of MPP under different water membrane conditions of the fuel stack. From the simulation results, the authors concluded that the P&O methodology gives better performance when equated to the PI controller.

Similarly, in 31 , the researchers introduced the drift-free P&O controller for improving the voltage extraction capability of the fuel stack at dynamic water membrane conditions. The P&O controller tracks the MPP by equating the instantaneous slope value of the V–I curve with the previously stored slope value. The comparative slope value consists of a positive indication then the perturbation moves in the front direction. Otherwise, the perturbation of the P&O controller moves in the backward direction. This process continues until the functioning point of the fuel stack comes to the one stable position on the V–I curve of the fuel stack. However, this MPPT method does not give an accurate MPP position and also gives an oscillated MPP position because of the improper decision made by the P&O controller at dynamic operating water membrane conditions of the fuel stack 32 . So, the drift-free P&O methodology is used in the 100 W standalone fuel stack system to eliminate the disadvantages of a basic P&O controller. The drawbacks of drift-free P&O methodology are less convergence speed and more time for reducing the oscillations of MPP. So, the fractional current power point tracking controller is used in the PV/PEMFS hybrid power generation system for identifying the functioning point of the overall power supply network 33 . The merits of this controller are fast-tracking speed, very low cost, easy handling, and very good static response. But it gives a less accurate MPP position. So, the entire system gets affected by the heat and conduction losses.

The fractional voltage-based PI controller is utilized in the hybrid grid-connected fuel stack system to maintain the voltage stability of the grid at diverse water membrane conditions of the fuel stack system 34 . In this method, a separate switch is required for evaluating the open circuit voltage of the fuel stack. Here, the open circuit fuel stack voltage is measured by the shutdown of the entire system. As a result, the hybrid system gives a very bad dynamic response. So, the IRR MPPT concept is used in the article 35 for reducing the oscillations of MPP. In this method, the current density function is utilized for moving the functioning point of the fuel stack near the actual MPP position 36 . At the starting point of the fuel stack V–I curve, the variation of the current density value is positive then the functioning point of the fuel stack goes in the forward direction. If the operating point of the fuel stack reaches the global MPP position then the current density function value is zero. The merits of an IRR controller are fast static and dynamic response when equated to the traditional MPPT techniques 37 . The fuel stack-fed multiphase DC-DC converter circuit generates fluctuated output current ripples and voltage ripples which are sent to the RCM block for identifying the suitable operating duty cycle of the DC-DC converter. Due to this controller operation, the entire system’s heat conduction losses are reduced. As a result, the operating and maitainence costs of the fuel stack are reduced extensively 38 . The drawbacks of this controller are less applicable for quick changes in the operating temperature conditions of the fuel stack and needs high space for installation.

The fractional order variable step value-based IC power point identifier is applied to the PEMFS power supply system for effective tracking of the fuel stack MPP. Here, the main aim of the variable step fractional order IC controller is improving the steady state as well as dynamic response of the PEMFS at quick changes in water membrane conditions 39 . The merits of this controller are good tracking speed, a smaller number of sensing devices required for sensing the fuel stack parameters, and extracting the maximum power of the fuel stack thereby enhancing the overall system efficiency. As a result, the PEM fuel stack system input fuel utilization is reduced. So, this controller reduces the maintenance and installation cost of the entire power supply network 40 . The Hill Climb Controller (HCC) working is quite similar to the large perturbation size-based P&O method. Here, in this HCC, there are different perturbation step size values are selected which are the high perturbation step, and the low perturbation step. The high perturbation step concept is utilized at the beginning stage of the HCC operation to enhance the convergence speed of the controller 41 . After that, the perturbation step value is reduced to eliminate the distortions of converter output voltage. The disadvantages of these traditional controllers are less MPP tacking speed, and may not be applicable for quick changes of water membrane conditions of the fuel stack.

In 42 , the authors focused on the conventional neural network controller for estimating the fuel stack output power thereby generating the suitable duty cycle to the three-phased z-source power converter. Here, the input signals fed to the artificial intelligence controller are oxygen consumption, hydrogen decomposition, utilized temperature, and the Faraday constant of the fuel stack. The features of neural network-based MPPT controllers are fast response, required less formal statistical training, and the capability to handle highly complex nonlinear issues. However, the neural network drawbacks require high training time, plus highly knowledgeable candidates are required to operate the controller 43 . In this work, there are various types of hybrid MPPT controllers are studied for generating the optimum duty cycle to the conventional boost converter and which are compared in terms of fuel stack output voltage, converter output voltage, fuel stack output current, converter output current, the efficiency of MPPT controller, settling time of the load voltage, number iterations required to track the MPP, and design complexity of the controller 44 . Here, these hybrid controllers overcome the disadvantages of traditional, and soft computing controllers. The detailed differentiation of all types of MPPT methodologies is illustrated in Fig.  1 The utilized fuel module technology is mentioned in Fig.  2 .

Types of power point identifying controllers for PEMFC.

Detailed utilization of polymer cell under quick variation of temperatures.

The fuel stack gives very high-level output currents. Due to this, the system power conduction losses are increased extensively 45 . So, there are various categories of power DC–DC converters are used to improve the voltage profile rating of the induction motor-fed fuel stack system 46 . The major classification of power converters are non-isolated, and isolated power converters. All the isolated converters needed separate transformers, and rectifiers. In addition, these converters needed more space for installation. Also, the manufacturing cost of the isolated converters is very high. From the literature survey, the generally isolated converters consist of an output load that is separated from the input signal and are classified as bridge-type forward converters and flyback converters 47 . In a forward converter, the load voltage gain mainly depends on the input transformer. The features of a forward converter are galvanic isolation, multiple outputs, and the ability to provide low as well as high output voltage supplies simultaneously. However, the major disadvantage is the high cost of implementation. In the article 48 , the authors referred to the flyback technology for DC–DC power conversion. The flyback converter is capable of accommodating the non-isolated and isolated formations. However, the drawbacks of the isolated converter are less operating efficiency, very high leakage current, and high sensitivity to operating temperature. So, in this work, a conventional non-isolated DC–DC converter is utilized for optimizing the overall cost of the PEMFS-fed non-isolated converter system. The features of this converter are less space required for installation, more efficiency, and high flexibility.

Mathematical implementation of PEM fuel stack

Present non-renewable sources reduction, and environmental considerations, the fuel cell stacks are acting as renewable energy systems for supplying electricity to electric vehicle systems. Most of the fuel stacks’ input source is H 2 which is produced from the various biological sources 49 . The major H 2 production methodologies are steam reforming of CH 4 and Coke. In steam reforming of methane, the CH 4 chemical is reacted with the water at 800 °C 50 . As a result, the hydrogen, plus carbon monoxide chemical compounds are generated. The combined chemical composition of hydrogen and carbon monoxide is sent to the cooling compression chamber to separate the pure hydrogen content. Similarly, in the steam reforming of coke, the coke is combined with the water in the presence of nickel catalyst at 1000 °C to produce the carbon monoxide, and hydrogen 51 . The general features of hydrogen are tested less, odorless, colorless, and lightweight gas.

In this work, the PEMFC is used as a source for the electric vehicle load. The input source of PEMFC is hydrogen which is sent to the anode of the fuel stack. The proton-conducting polymer is worked as an electrolyte in the PEMFS. The chemical reactions of the polymer membrane fuel stack are explained in Fig.  3 (a), and its resultant circuit is given in Fig.  3 (b). The PEMFS is designed by using the polymer membrane electrolyte. The utilized electrolyte consists of different layers which are diffusion layer, catalyst layer, anode, plus cathode chambers. In this fuel stack, the paper-type carbon is covered by both anode and cathode electrodes to protect the PEMFS from the higher operating temperature conditions. The major observation of this fuel stack is polymer membrane is not conducting electrically. Also, the PEMFS works at 100 °C temperature for the effective utilization of the hydrogen.

Utilized polymer membrane electrolyte fuel stack, (a). Chemical reactions, plus (b). Equalized circuit of the fuel stack.

From Fig.  3 (a), the direct combination of O 2 , and H 2 generates the heat energy. Here, the hydrogen moves near the anode chamber and it separates into hydrogen ions and electrons. The resultant hydrogen ions move from the anode chamber to the cathode chamber. The available electrons in the PEMFS are collected by using an external circuit. The proposed PEM fuel stack chemical reactions are derived as,

From the equivalent circuit of the fuel stack, the single cell output voltage is represented as V FC which mainly depends on the three types of fuel stack resistors which are concentrative (R Co ), active polarization resistors (R Ac ) plus ohmic resistors (R Oh ). The voltage drops across the three resistors, and the open circuit voltage of the fuel stack is represented as active voltage (V Ac ), ohmic voltage (V Oh ), concentrated voltage (V Co ), and thermodynamic voltage (V otv ). Finally, there is a total N number of fuel cells interconnected to generate the high output voltage which is represented as V total .

Where T Fop , P H2 , and P O2 are indicated as operating fuel stack temperature, hydrogen partial pressure, plus oxygen partial pressure. The terms HV A , HV c , P A , P C , plus P H2O are represented as anode humidity vapor, relative humidity vapor at the cathode, anode partial pressure, cathode partial pressure, plus water pressure of the fuel stack. Here, the empirical coefficients are indicated as g 1 , g 2 , g 3 plus g 4 . Finally, the parameters I FC , F, X, and A are each cell current, faraday constant, overall stack current, and fuel stack chamber area. In the diffusion layer, the oxygen concentration is determined by using Eq. ( 12 ). From Eq. ( 15 ), the effective resistance of the single cell, and the overall resistance of the fuel stack are represented as r ef , plus R ef . The PEMFS design parameters are given in Table  1 , and also the proposed fuel stack power versus current nonlinear characteristics are shown in Fig.  4 .

(a) Fuel stack generated V–I curve. (b). Fuel stack generated P–I curve.

Design, and investigation of controllers

Due to the nonlinear characteristics of the fuel stack, the maximum power extraction from the source is very difficult. So, the MPPT technology plays an important role in tracking the fuel stack MPP position at different water membranes, and operating temperature conditions 52 . Also, from section “ Introduction ”, it is identified that the general power point tracing methodologies are not suitable for rapid changes in operating temperature conditions of the fuel stack. The conventional MPPT controllers’ disadvantages are high output voltage fluctuations, more time for extracting the maximum output voltage, high convergence time, plus needed a greater number of sensing devices. The limitations of conventional controllers are overcome by using the advanced MPPT controllers which are ASV with P&O 53 , ASS with IC 54 , RBFN 55 , IS with FLC 56 , CSV with PSO 57 , and ASV with CSA.

Adjusted step value-based P&O MPPT technique

As we know the general P&O method is useful only for constant operating temperature conditions of the fuel stack, and it is applied where the accuracy of MPPT is not necessary. This controller’s disadvantages are high oscillations across MPP, high power conduction losses, less life span of the system, plus less efficiency. Also, this controller depends on the initial working conditions of the PEMFS 58 . In article 59 , the authors focused on the ASV-P&O method which is implemented by using the different steps which are system modeling, power loop control, step constant variation, performance evaluation, and stability. In the system modeling step, the PEMFC characteristics are studied. In the second step, the power loop control continuously adjusts the overall system impedance to track the fuel stack MPP. Here, the PEMFS voltage is perturbated to enhance the power rating of the fuel stack. The advantages of the adjusted step value-based P&O MPPT technique are moderate oscillations across MPP, fast system response, plus high efficiency when equated to the conventional P&O controller 60 . Based on Eq. ( 16 ), when the functioning point of the fuel stack is lying on the last corner of the P–I curve then the duty value of the DC-DC converter is improved to move the operating point of the fuel stack near to the actual MPP position. Otherwise, the duty cycle of the converter is reduced which is given in Eq. ( 17 ).

Where the parameters \(\:{\updelta\:}\left(\text{t}\right)\:,\:\text{a}\text{n}\text{d}\:{\updelta\:}\left(\text{t}-1\right)\) are the instant duty cycle, plus the previous duty cycle. Here ‘ α ’ is an adjustable constant parameter that is used to adjust the duty value. Similarly, the parameters v(t), p(t), v(t–1) & p(t–1) are the present and previous voltages and powers of the fuel stack.

Adaptive step size with incremental conductance

One of the most commonly used conventional MPPT controllers is IC which is applied in traffic signal control systems. The IC concept implementation has been done by utilizing the nonlinear V-I characteristics of the fuel stack. Here, the system conductance is varied continuously until the functioning point of the fuel stack reaches the actual MPP position 61 . In article 62 , the adjusted step value-based IC controller is used in the electric vehicle-fed fuel stack system for running slip ring induction machines under continuous changes of water membrane content of the fuel stack. Here, the water electrolysis concept is used for supplying H 2 to the fuel cell banks, and the fuel stack electrodes are designed using copper materials. In this ASS-IC controller, the equivalent impedance of the fuel stack is used for identifying the optimum duty value of the interleaved DC–DC converter. The adjustment of the converter duty cycle by using this MPPT controller is given in Eq. ( 18 ), and Eq. ( 19 ) 63 .

Where the terms \(\:\Psi\left(\text{t}\right)\:\&\:\Psi(\text{t}-1)\) is the present duty value, and past duty cycle parameters and their related power changes are represented as p(t), and p(t-1). Finally, the evaluated fuel stack past and instant voltages are v(t−1), and v(t).

Radial basis functional network-based MPPT controller

Mostly, the ANN is used in nonlinear decision-making problems applications 64 . These networks are implemented from the inspiration of biological neurons, and the ANN is designed from the combination of activation functions, mathematical operations, and optimization methodologies. In the article 65 , the RBFN model neural controller is interfaced in the automotive fuel stack system to improve the dynamic behavior of EVs 66 . The RBF networks have the capability of approximation of complex functions, good modeling of nonlinear relationships, plus capturing the complex patterns from the available data to determine the accurate MPP position of the fuel stack. The RBF-related power point identifying the network working nature is illustrated in Fig.  5 . Based on Fig.  5 , the radial function is used as an activation function for obtaining the desirable duty to the DC–DC converter circuit. The RBF demonstrates the smooth transition from the center point to the surroundings of the neurons to adapt to the source space very efficiently. Based on available data sets, the RBF interpolates the input-output relations, and it generalizes the input-output relations for non-available data. The major advantage of RBF is its high computational efficiency.

RBFN work process for PEMFC-based power supply system.

Where the terms T, U, and Y are the first layer, output layer, plus middle layers. The variables \(\:{\text{S}}_{\text{T}}^{1}\left(\text{x}\right),\) \(\:\text{n}\text{e}{\text{t}}_{\text{T}}^{\left(1\right)}\left(\text{x}\right)\) represents the net value of the source layer, and its corresponding output signal. The total selected data samples are identified as ‘x’. The \(\:{\text{H}}_{\text{L}}^{\left(1\right)}\left(\text{x}\right)\) , \(\:{\text{H}}_{\text{Y}}^{\left(2\right)}\left(\text{x}\right)\) gives the center layer the first, and second node overall input signal. The hidden layer output net value is determined as \(\:\text{n}\text{e}{\text{t}}_{\text{Y}}^{\left(2\right)}\left(\text{x}\right)\) . The variables ‘S’, \(\:{\upmu\:}\) , \(\:\text{ɳ},\) \(\:\text{W},\) and \(\:\text{O}\) are indicated as input vectors, the mean value of the signal, controller coefficient, neuron weight, and required RBF output signal.

Incremental step-fuzzy logic controller

The radial functions have certain drawbacks which are high training complexity. Especially, the training of large data sets and multidimensional input parameters is very difficult. The overfitting problem occurs in RBF networks due to the number of radial basis functions. Selection of suitable radial basis functions is a challenging task for the greater number of radial functions. In the article 67 , the fuzzy controller is integrated into the Z-circuit converter-fed fuel stack system to enable the peak power supply of PEMFC at diverse water membranes, and operating temperature conditions 68 . The fuzzy is formed from the mathematical framework which especially deals the impression and uncertainty. Also, the fuzzy handles the linguistic variables and terms to allow the experts to represent their expertise naturally. The fuzzy systems are easily adapted for various multidimensional problems. The features of fuzzy are high flexibility, best suitable for dynamic environmental conditions, and high robustness for handling noisy, and incomplete data 69 . Also, this system works inherently for uncertainty issues, and it consists of more transparency, plus provides high interpretability.

In a fuzzy MPPT block, there are different blocks integrated which are fuzzification of input parameters, execution of various rules of the controller, plus defuzzification of output variables to crisp value for finding the error parameter of the system 70 . The fuzzy controller for the MPPT application is given in Fig.  6 , and its rules and membership functions are stated in Fig.  6 . The error variables of fuzzy are given in Eq. ( 28 ). From Fig.  6 , the fuzzy adapts the continuous variation of EV fed fuel stack temperature, and it traces the functioning point of PEMFC on P-I curve with high convergence speed. Here, the fuzzy membership functions are chosen based on the application of optimization techniques. The fuzzy does not involve any mathematical formulas 71 . So, the entire controller implementing cost, and size are reduced. The efficiency of fuzzy MPPT is high when equalized with the neural network because of the multiple-step value selection on the V–I curve. The fuzzy enhances the duty of the converter because the working point of PEMFC is the right-side corner of the actual MPP or else, the duty is varied in a descending fashion to reduce the fluctuations of load power.

Improved fuzzy MPPT for fuel stack application.

Continuous step variation-based PSO MPPT controller

Sometimes, fuzzy systems are more complex because they need more rules and membership functions. So, the entire controller design, plus maintenance cost is increased 72 . In a hybrid fuel stack/PV power supply, the PSO controller is applied for the continuous improvement of the efficiency of the converter. PSO is one of the metaheuristic swarm controllers that can be used for solving any nonlinear issue of the fuel stack 73 . Also, all the fuel stacks are highly complex, plus nonlinear systems. The fuel cells involve many conflicting requirements which are minimum fuel usage, maximizing the available power, plus optimizing the environmental emissions. The PSO handles the multiple objectives of PEMFS at continuous changes in the working temperature of the fuel stack. In the initial stage of PSO, all the swarm agents’ weights are given by applying the random probability technique. Here, all the agents work cooperatively, and a single agent is represented as one particle 74 .

At the first iteration of PSO, all the agents move away from the required object in various directions with different velocities. After completing certain iterations, the agents try to come near the required target position. In the search process, all the agents exchange their information to extract the peak voltage of the fuel stack 75 . The agent’s successive velocity (V), and its associated position (y) are varied based on Eq. ( 29 ), plus ( 30 ). The MPPT tracking process using PSO is given in Fig.  7 .

Continuous step value adjustment of PSO controller for PEMFC system.

Where, the variables V s+1 , and Y s+1 are adjusted velocities, plus the position of agents. The terms ‘ s ’ , ‘ k ’ , P b_k, and G b_k have selected iterations, particle number, each iteration’s best global position, and the global position of MPP after completing all the iterations 76 . The constraints L 1 , and L 2 are acceleration factors. Similarly, the variables g 1 , and g 2 are particle random values.

Adaptive step value-cuckoo search algorithm

One of the known metaheuristics’ optimization methods is cuckoo search controllers which are implemented from the breeding nature of cuckoos 77 . This algorithm solves all types of optimization issues, especially in global optimization where the search space is very high. In this technique, there are three conditions involved which are in the initial iteration each cuckoo should give one egg after that in the second condition, all available eggs have more quality then the controller moves to the next condition or else it goes into the previous condition 78 . The algorithm starts initializing the all-cuckoos weights randomly in the overall search space. Each egg gives a solution for the particular optimization issue. Here, each cuckoo egg is identified by applying the fitness function. The main objective of the fitness function is identifying good quality cuckoo eggs. Another major parameter of CS MPPT is levy flight which is incorporated for initializing the random walk of cuckoos 79 . Also, the levy is useful for the deciding step value of the cuckoos in the multidimensional search region. After applying levy flights, there are a few cuckoos laying their eggs in the host nest 80 .

The CS controller selects the best solution from the available solution. A good solution for cuckoos is to have the chance to go to the next iteration 81 . To eliminate the overcrowding of nests, the diversity of the population is continued, and some of the worst solutions are removed from the search space for achieving potentially good solutions. The application of adaptive CS MPPT for the fuel stack system is illustrated in Fig.  8 . From Fig.  8 , the voltage supplying of the fuel stack, and power of the converter circuit are determined at the initial stage of the adaptive CS MPPT controller. Later, the cuckoos start searching for the required object of the system with the speed (V) 82 . The continuous updating of solutions has been done by applying multiple iterations, and various levy flights. The levy limits of the CS technique are derived in Eq. ( 31 ). The parameters \(\:\:\text{\S\:}\) , s, q, X, plus Y are represented as operating constant, number iterations, cuckoo length, and distribution curves. Also, parameters a, and b are the levy flight sizes 83 .

Improved adaptive CS controller for rapid change of fuel stack temperature.

Design of conventional boost DC–DC converter

All the fuel stacks supply very low voltages. So, the output of PEMFC is enhanced by interfacing the DC–DC converter. From the previously existing articles, the isolated converter circuits needed high design costs 84 . Also, these converters need more additional components which are transformers, and rectifier circuits. Due to the additional requirement of the converter, the entire fuel cell power system size is increased. This is undesirable for electric vehicle-fed fuel stacks. So, the conventional non-isolated converter circuit is integrated with the fuel cell to enhance the working efficiency of PEMFC 85 . The general boost converter circuit is frequently used in many applications because of its advantages are easy to design, more flexibility, fewer components required for implementation, optimal size, plus easy understanding and operation. The working stages of this converter circuit are given in Fig.  9 (a), (b), and (c) 86 . The step-up of fuel cell voltage is obtained by the application of the MPPT controller which is mentioned in Eq. ( 35 ). From Fig.  9 , the consumer load current is given in Eq. ( 36 ). Based on Eqs. ( 35 ), and ( 36 ), the current plus voltage conversion ratios are determined which are given in Eq. ( 37 ).

DC–DC Converter circuit, (a). block diagram, (b). switch working, plus (c). switch blocking stage.

Where T p , and D are the switching period and converter duty value. Similarly, the terms I 0 , plus V 0 are the load currents and voltages.

Analysis of summation results

The resistive load boost converter circuit is integrated with the PEMFC to improve the power supply capacity of the load with less power conduction losses. The entire system investigation has been done by the use of the MATLAB Simulink tool. Here, the polymer-type fuel stack is selected for the power supply of peak load demand. This fuel stack takes hydrogen, and water for the production of electrons. The selected rated power of the stack is 1.26*10 3 W, and its supply voltage is 24.23 V. The current flow through the circuit is 52 A which can be optimized by using the DC–DC converter. The fuel stack output capacitor value C v is 38 µF that is maintained constant supply voltage under rapid changes in fuel stack temperatures. Also, this capacitor optimizes the ripples of fuel stack power thereby enhancing the performance of the entire power supply system. The load capacitor C w value is 23 µF, and it is helpful for the consumer to maintain the uninterruptable load voltage.

Analysis of MPPT controllers at static 270 K temperature

Here, under the forward stage of a switch, the diode goes into the blocking stage, and the entire supply energy is stored in the inductor L V . In the second stage, the switch (S) goes off-stage then the diode conducts with supply voltage. Here, the MOSFET is selected for analysis of the DC–DC converter circuit. The features of this device are high input resistance, the switch works very fast manner, less power absorption, plus less output resistance. Also, this device works in both depletion and enrichment mode operations. The ASV with P&O and ASS with IC controllers fed fuel stack system give the maximum power, plus currents are 362.84 W, 24.5 A, 451.98 W, plus 27 A respectively. The obtained current, plus the voltage of the PEMFC system are explained in Fig.  10 (a), and (b). The evaluated fuel stack power by interfacing the RBFN, IS with FLC, plus CSV with PSO is 494.13 W, 531.88 W, plus 555.80 W as given in Fig.  10 (c). From Fig.  10 (c), the resistive load connected to ASV with the CSA controller extracts more power from the PEMFC which is equal to 567.82 W. The supply voltage of PEMFC is increased by the application of CSV with PSO, and ASV with CSA controller. The DC-DC converter circuit is fed to the load and its related voltage, plus powers by the application of ASV with P&O, ASS with IC, RBFN, IS with FLC, CSV with PSO, plus ASV with CSA techniques are 108.5 V, 294.25 W, 118.07 V, 349.48 W, 123.05 V, 375.42 W, 127.21 V, 400.717 W, 128.004 V, 409.86 W, 128.93 V, plus 416.18 W. The application of MPPT controllers for the converter current and voltage improvement is given in Fig.  10 (d), and (e). From Fig.  10 (f), the generated converter power by utilizing ASV with CS is very high when equated to the ASV with P&O, RBFN, and IS with FLC techniques. The converter voltage and PEMFC system MPP oscillations are more for the application of ASV with a P&O controller. The evaluated parameters of various MPPT controllers for the DC–DC converter circuit fed fuel stack system are given in Table  2 .

PEMFC, (a). Current, (b). Voltage, (c). Power, (d). DC–DC current, (e). DC–DC voltage, and (f). DC–DC power under the static functioning temperature of the fuel stack.

Analysis of MPPT controllers at dynamic temperatures (270 K, 300 K, and 330 K)

The PEMFC system is studied at fast changes in temperature values by the integration of different MPPT blocks. The fuel stack MPP tracking speed by the use of ASV with P&O, ASS with IC, RBFN, IS with FLC, CSV with PSO, plus ASV with CSA controllers at 270 K are 0.081 s, 0.102 s, 0.11 s, 0.127 s, 0.1281 s, plus 0.1288 s. The conventional ASS with IC, plus ASV with P&O controllers’ implementation, and design complexity is quite less than the other power point identifying controllers. At 300 K, the fuel stack, and DC-DC converter circuit available currents, and voltages by applying the CSV with PSO, and ASV with CSA are 37.29 A, 22.8 V, 4.02 A, 152.79 V, 38.09 A, 22.98 V, 4.089 A, plus 153.98 V respectively. At dynamic temperature states of the fuel stack, the supply current, plus voltage waveforms of the PEMFC system are illustrated in Fig.  11 (a), and (b). There are multiple types of power point determine controllers utilized for the improvement of the output power of PEMFC under dynamic functioning temperatures as given in Fig.  11 (c).

PEMFC, (a). Current, (b). Voltage, (c). Power, (d). DC–DC current, (e). DC–DC voltage, and (f). DC–DC power under the dynamic functioning temperature of the fuel stack.

Based on Fig.  11 (c), the settling time of fuel power is high for the application of ASV with the P&O technique. Also, this ASV with P&O methodology is not useful for supplying the constant current to the load as mentioned in Fig.  11 (d). The converter generated voltage and its related powers are mentioned in Fig.  11 (e), and (f). From the converter circuit, current waveforms at 330 K by utilizing the ASV with CSA, and CSV with PSO consist of fewer distortions. Also, their tracking speeds under static as well as fast variations of fuel stack functioning temperatures are high which are evaluated as 0.1273 s, and 0.1277 s respectively. Here, the swarm optimization methodologies’ design complexity is moderate. However, these techniques are needed for optimizing the oscillations of fuel stack voltages thereby minimizing the working power and heating losses are decreased extensively. The conventional may not give a good dynamic response because of their accuracy in MPP finding and required high maitainence cost.

The proposed PEMFS-fed ASV with a CSA-based MPPT controller is designed by using the MATLAB/Simulink tool. Here, in the first objective, the PEMFS is selected for the comprehensive analysis of different nature-inspired optimization controllers. The features of PEMFS are high-temperature withstand ability, high operating efficiency, less weight, high scalability, plus more life span. However, the drawback of PEMFS is the high output current. In the second objective, the DC–DC converter circuit is used to optimize the fuel stack output current and increase the fuel stack output voltage. However, the converter needed a suitable duty signal which is generated by using the MPPT controller. Finally, in the third objective, there are different types of MPPT controllers are analyzed in terms of maximum power extraction, settling time of the converter output voltage, oscillations across MPP, convergence speed of the MPPT controller, and implementation complexity. From the comprehensive summary, the ASV with CSA-based MPPT controller is giving high tracking speed of MPP, and high efficiency when compared to the other MPPT controllers.

Future scope of the work

The present studied MPPT controllers have the limitations of moderate MPP tracking accuracy, and less convergence speed when the total number of iterations are required very high at continuous changes of operating temperature conditions of the polymer exchange membrane fuel stack. In the future, the nature-inspired PSO, and ASV with CSA-based MPPT controllers’ hybridization has been done along with the conventional controller to increase the MPP tracking accuracy and find the optimum duty cycle of the DC–DC converter.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Rather, K., Nesar, M. K., Mahalik & Mallick, H. Do renewable energy sources perfectly displace non-renewable energy sources? Evidence from Asia–Pacific economies. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 31 , 25706–25720 (2024).

Article   Google Scholar  

Behera, B. et al. A blend of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption on economic growth of India: the role of disaggregate energy sources. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 31 (3), 3902–3916 (2024).

Khalid, M. Smart grids and renewable energy systems: perspectives and grid integration challenges. Energy Strategy Reviews 51 , 101299 (2024).

Benbouhenni, H. et al. A new integral-synergetic controller for direct reactive and active powers control of a dual-rotor wind system. Meas. Control 57 (2), 208–224 (2024).

Hodel, H. et al. Which wind turbine types are needed in a cost-optimal renewable energy system? Wind Energy (2024).

Sun, H. et al. Optimal scheduling considering Carbon capture and demand response under Uncertain output scenarios for wind energy. Sustainability 16 (3), 970 (2024).

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Hussaian Basha, C. H. et al. Design and performance analysis of common duty ratio controlled zeta converter with an adaptive P&O MPPT controller. In Proceedings of International Conference on Data Science and Applications: ICDSA. Volume 1 (Springer, 2022).

Fawzy, S. et al. Optimal location and operation of energy storage and transmission switching for minimizing wind power spillage. J. Energy Storage 90 , 111925 (2024).

Wang, R. et al. FI-NPI: exploring optimal control in parallel platform systems. Electronics 13 (7), 1168 (2024).

Basha, C. H. H. et al. A novel on intelligent energy control strategy for micro grids with renewables and EVs. Energy Strategy Rev. 52 , 101306 (2024).

Tian, H. et al. Dynamic analysis and sliding Mode Synchronization Control of Chaotic Systems with conditional symmetric fractional-order memristors. Fractal Fract. 8 (6), 307 (2024).

Zhang, J. et al. A novel multiple-Medium-AC-Port power electronic transformer. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. (2023).

Zhang, J. et al. An embedded DC power flow controller based on full-bridge modular multilevel converter. IEEE Trans. Industr. Electron. 71 (3), 2556–2566 (2023).

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Fang, S. et al. A novel adaptive fast sliding mode control method based on fuzzy algorithm for the air management system of fuel cell stack. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 187 , 506–517 (2024).

Liu, Q. et al. Transfer-free in-situ synthesis of high-performance polybenzimidazole grafted graphene oxide-based Proton exchange membrane for high-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cells. J. Power Sourc. 559 , 232666 (2023).

Ju, Y. et al. Distributed three-phase power flow for AC/DC hybrid networked microgrids considering converter limiting constraints. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 13 (3), 1691–1708 (2022).

Li, M. et al. Scaling-basis chirplet transform. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 68 (9), 8777–8788 (2021).

Sun, Q. et al. Virtual current compensation-based quasi-sinusoidal-wave excitation scheme for switched reluctance motor drives. IEEE Trans. Industr. Electron. (2023).

Shirkhani, M. et al. A review on microgrid decentralized energy/voltage control structures and methods. Energy Rep. 10 , 368–380 (2023).

Sorlei, I. S. et al. Fuel cell electric vehicles—a brief review of current topologies and energy management strategies. Energies 14 (1), 252 (2021).

Bizon, N. Sensitivity analysis of the fuel economy strategy based on load-following control of the fuel cell hybrid power system. Energy. Conv. Manag. 199 , 111946 (2019).

Bizon, N. Real-time optimization strategy for fuel cell hybrid power sources with load-following control of the fuel or air flow. Energy. Conv. Manag. 157 , 13–27 (2018).

Bizon, N. Fuel saving strategy using real-time switching of the fueling regulators in the proton exchange membrane fuel cell system. Appl. Energy 252 , 113449 (2019).

Liang, J. et al. A direct yaw moment control framework through robust TS fuzzy approach considering vehicle stability margin. IEEE/ASME Trans. Mechatron. 29 (1), 166–178 (2023).

Chen, J. et al. Hybrid modeling for vehicle lateral dynamics via AGRU with a dual-attention mechanism under limited data. Control Eng. Pract. 151 , 106015 (2024).

Yaghoubi, E. et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of machine learning, deep learning, and ensemble learning approaches in predicting EV charging behavior. Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell. 135 , 108789 (2024).

Zhou, M. et al. Robust rgb-t tracking via adaptive modality weight correlation filters and cross-modality learning. ACM Trans. Multimedia Comput. Commun. Appl. 20 (4), 1–20 (2023).

Google Scholar  

Saidi, S. et al. Precise parameter identification of a PEMFC model using a robust enhanced salp swarm algorithm. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 71 , 937–951 (2024).

Basha, C. H., Hussaian & Rani, C. Different conventional and soft computing MPPT techniques for solar PV systems with high step-up boost converters: a comprehensive analysis. Energies 13 (2), 371 (2020).

Kiran, S. et al. Reduced simulative performance analysis of variable step size ANN based MPPT techniques for partially shaded solar PV systems. IEEE Access 10 , 48875–48889 (2022).

Pathak, P., Kumar, A. K., Yadav & Alvi, P. A. A state-of-the-art review on shading mitigation techniques in solar photovoltaics via meta-heuristic approach. Neural Comput. Appl. 2022 , 1–39. (2022).

Pathak, P. et al. Fuel cell-based topologies and multi‐input DC–DC power converters for hybrid electric vehicles: a comprehensive review. IET Gener. Transm. Distrib. 16 (11), 2111–2139 (2022).

Hussaian Basha, C. H. & Rani, C. Performance analysis of MPPT techniques for dynamic irradiation condition of solar PV. Int. J. Fuzzy Syst. 22 (8), 2577–2598 (2020).

Li, Luoyi, et al. "Seasonal hydrogen energy storage sizing: Two-stage economic-safety optimization for integrated energy systems in northwest China." iScience 27.9 (2024).

Basha, C. H. & Murali, M. A new design of transformerless, non-isolated, high step‐up DC‐DC converter with hybrid fuzzy logic MPPT controller. Int. J. Circuit Theory Appl. 50 (1), 272–297 (2022).

Basha, C., Hussaian & Rani, C. Design and analysis of transformerless, high step-up, boost DC‐DC converter with an improved VSS‐RBFA based MPPT controller. Int. Trans. Electr. Energy Syst. 30 (12), e12633 (2020).

Zhu, C. Y. Intelligent robot path planning and navigation based on reinforcement learning and adaptive control. J. Logist Inf. Serv. Sci. 10 (3), 235–248 (2023).

Yang, Y. et al. Broadband electrical impedance matching of sandwiched piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers for structural health monitoring of the rail in-service. Sens. Actuat. A: Phys. 364 , 114819 (2023).

Meng, Q. et al. An online reinforcement learning-based energy management strategy for microgrids with centralized control. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. (2024).

Basha, C., Hussaian, C., Rani & Odofin, S. Analysis and comparison of SEPIC, Landsman and Zeta converters for PV fed induction motor drive applications. In 2018 International Conference on Computation of Power, Energy, Information and Communication (ICCPEIC). IEEE (2018).

Meng, Q. et al. Revolutionizing Photovoltaic Consumption and Electric Vehicle Charging: A Novel Approach for Residential Distribution Systems (IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution, 2024).

Wu, J., Wang, Y. & Yin, C. Curvilinear multilane merging and platooning with bounded control in curved road coordinates. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 71 (2), 1237–1252 (2021).

Basha, C. H., Hussaian & Rani, C. A new single switch DC-DC converter for PEM fuel cell-based electric vehicle system with an improved beta-fuzzy logic MPPT controller. Soft. Comput. 26 (13), 6021–6040 (2022).

Zhou, Z. et al. Short-term lateral behavior reasoning for target vehicles considering driver preview characteristic. IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. 23 (8), 11801–11810 (2021).

Li, P. et al. A distributed economic dispatch strategy for power–water networks. IEEE Trans. Control Netw. Syst. 9 (1), 356–366 (2021).

Article   MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Nadimuthu, L. P. et al. Energy conservation approach for continuous power quality improvement: a case study. IEEE Access. 9 , 146959–146969 (2021).

Govinda, C. et al. Hybrid Fuzzy logic-based MPPT for wind Energy Conversion System. Soft Computing for Problem Solving: SocProS 2018, Volume 2 (Springer, 2020).

Huang, Zihao, et al. Performance analysis and multi-objective optimization of a novel solid oxide fuel cell-based poly-generation and condensation dehumidification system. Energy Conversion and Management 319 (2024): 118935.

Wang, Haowen, et al. A MTPA and flux-weakening curve identification method based on physics-informed network without calibration. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics (2023).

Hussaian Basha, C. H. et al. Simulation of Metaheuristic Intelligence MPPT Techniques for Solar PV Under Partial Shading Condition. Soft Computing for Problem Solving: SocProS. Volume 1 (Springer, 2018).

Duan, Y., Zhao, Y. & Jiangping, H. An initialization-free distributed algorithm for dynamic economic dispatch problems in microgrid: modeling, optimization and analysis. Sustain. Energy Grids Netw. 34 , 101004 (2023).

Lu, Y. et al. Adaptive disturbance observer-based improved super-twisting sliding mode control for electromagnetic direct-drive pump. Smart Mater. Struct. 32 (1), 017001 (2022).

Xu, B. et al. A novel adaptive filtering for cooperative localization under compass failure and non-gaussian noise. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 71 (4), 3737–3749 (2022).

Murali, M. et al. Design and analysis of neural network-based MPPT technique for solar power-based electric vehicle application. In Proceedings of Fourth International Conference on Inventive Material Science Applications: ICIMA 2021 (Springer, 2022).

Udhay Sankar, V. et al. Application of wind-driven Optimization for decision-making in Economic Dispatch Problem. Soft Computing for Problem Solving: SocProS 2018, Volume 1 (Springer, 2020).

Basha, C., Hussaian, C., Rani & Odofin, S. Design and switching loss calculation of single leg 3-level 3-phase VSI. 2018 In I nternational Conference on Computation of Power, Energy, Information and Communication (ICCPEIC) (IEEE, 2018).

Mariprasath, T. et al. Design and analysis of an improved artificial neural network controller for the energy efficiency enhancement of wind power plant. In Computational Methods and Data Engineering: Proceedings of ICCMDE 2021 67–77 (Springer Nature, 2022).

Kumari, P. et al. Application of DSO algorithm for estimating the parameters of triple diode model-based solar PV system. Sci. Rep. 14 (1), 3867 (2024).

Article   ADS   MathSciNet   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Li, Luoyi, et al. Multi-dimensional economy-durability optimization method for integrated energy and transportation system of net-zero energy buildings. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy 15.1 (2023): 146–159.

Pathak, P., Kumar, A. K., Yadav, P. & Ahmad, A. Advanced solar MPPT techniques under uniform and non-uniform irradiance: a comprehensive review. J. Sol. Energy Eng. 142 (4), 040801 (2020).

Kumbhar, A. et al. Reducing grid dependency and operating cost of micro grids with effective coordination of renewable and electric vehicle’s storage. In Soft Computing for Problem Solving: Proceedings of the SocProS 2022 639–653 (Springer Nature, 2023).

Ibrahim, M. et al. Optimizing step-size of perturb & observe and incremental conductance MPPT techniques using PSO for grid-tied PV system. IEEE Access. 11 , 13079–13090 (2023).

de Jesús Rubio, J. et al. Energy processes prediction by a convolutional radial basis function network. Energy 284 , 128470 (2023).

Minh, L. et al. Ensemble models based on radial basis function network for landslide susceptibility mapping. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 30 (44), 99380–99398 (2023).

Wang, Y. & Fu, L. Study on regional tourism performance evaluation based on the fuzzy analytic hierarchy process and radial basis function neural network. Ann. Oper. Res. 2023 , 1–28. (2023).

Bai, J. et al. Physics-informed radial basis network (PIRBN): a local approximating neural network for solving nonlinear partial differential equations. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 415 , 116290 (2023).

Article   ADS   MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Rodríguez-Abreo, O. et al. Fuzzy logic controller for UAV with gains optimized via genetic algorithm. Heliyon 10 , 4 (2024).

Maroua, B. et al. Robust type 2 fuzzy logic control microgrid-connected photovoltaic system with battery energy storage through multi-functional voltage source inverter using direct power control. Energy Rep. 11 , 3117–3134 (2024).

Maghfiroh, H., Wahyunggoro, O. & Adha Imam, C. Energy management in hybrid electric and hybrid energy storage system vehicles: a fuzzy logic. Controll. Rev. IEEE Access. (2024).

Anssari, O. M., Hussein, M., Badamchizadeh & Ghaemi, S. Designing of a PSO-based adaptive SMC with a Multilevel Inverter for MPPT of PV systems under rapidly changing weather conditions. IEEE Access. 12 , 41421–41435 (2024).

Hussaian Basha, C. H. et al. Design of an adaptive fuzzy logic controller for solar PV application with high step-up DC–DC converter.In Proceedings of Fourth International Conference on Inventive Material Science Applications: ICIMA 2021 . (Springer, 2022).

Ofoli, A. R. Fuzzy-logic Applications in Electric Drives and Power Electronics. Power Electronics Handbook 1233–1260 (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2024).

Mariprasath, T. et al. A novel on high voltage gain boost converter with cuckoo search optimization based MPPTController for solar PV system. Sci. Rep. 14 (1), 8545 (2024).

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Touti, E. et al. A Novel Design and Analysis Adaptive Hybrid ANFIS MPPT Controller for PEMFC-Fed EV Systems. Int. Trans. Electr. Energy Syst. 1 (2024): 5541124 (2024).

Águila-León, J. et al. Optimizing photovoltaic systems: a meta-optimization approach with GWO-Enhanced PSO algorithm for improving MPPT controllers. Renew. Energy 230 , 120892 (2024).

Xu, Bo, and Yu Guo. A novel DVL calibration method based on robust invariant extended Kalman filter." IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology 71.9 (2022): 9422–9434.

Regaya, C. et al. Real-time implementation of a novel MPPT control based on the improved PSO algorithm using an adaptive factor selection strategy for photovoltaic systems. ISA Trans. 146 , 496–510 (2024).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Ahmed, W., Manohar, P. & Hussaian Basha, C. H. A novel transient analysis of multiterminal VSC-HVDC system incorporating superconducting fault current limiter. Int. Trans. Electr. Energy Syst. 1 (2024): 5549066 (2024).

Dennai, M., Yassine, H., Tedjini & Nasri, A. Comparative assessment of P&O, PSO sliding mode, and PSO-ANFIS controller MPPT for microgrid dynamics. Elektronika Ir. Elektrotechnika 30 (3), 54–61 (2024).

Nouh, A. et al. A hybrid of Meta-Heuristic techniques based on cuckoo search and particle swarm optimizations for solar PV systems subjected to partially shaded conditions. J. Solar Energy Sustain. Dev. 13 (1), 114–132 (2024).

Güven, A. F. & Exploring solar energy systems: A comparative study of optimization algorithms, MPPTs, and controllers. IET Control Theory Appl. 18 (7): 887–920 (2024).

Kumar, S., Sunil & Balakrishna, K. A novel design and analysis of hybrid fuzzy logic MPPT controller for solar PV system under partial shading conditions. Sci. Rep. 14 (1), 10256 (2024).

Khan, M. et al. Enhancing efficient solar energy harvesting: a process-in-loop investigation of MPPT control with a novel stochastic algorithm. Energy Convers. Manage. X 21 , 100509 (2024).

Subbulakshmy, R. et al. Implementation of non-isolated high gain interleaved DC-DC converter for fuel cell electric vehicle using ann-based mppt controller. Sustainability 16 (3), 1335 (2024).

Wang, H. et al. Theoretical comparison, real-time emulation and experiment validation of DC/DC Converter for Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle. IEEE Access. (2024).

Aljafari, B. et al. Transformer-less high gain DC–DC converter design and analysis for fuel cell vehicles. Sci. Rep. 14 (1), 19221 (2024).

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Download references

The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Vignan’s Foundation for Science Technology and Research, Vadlamudi, India

Bongani Eswaraiah & Kethineni Balakrishna

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study, conception, and design. all authors commented on the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kethineni Balakrishna .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval

This paper does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Eswaraiah, B., Balakrishna, K. Design and development of different adaptive MPPT controllers for renewable energy systems: a comprehensive analysis. Sci Rep 14 , 21627 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-72861-7

Download citation

Received : 30 July 2024

Accepted : 11 September 2024

Published : 16 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-72861-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Accuracy of MPP
• Converter duty cycle
• DC-DC converter
• Efficiency of the MPPT controller
• Fast MPP tracking speed
• Plus oscillations across the functioning point of the fuel stack

By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines . If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.