academic paper rubric ap research

AP Research

Learn all about the course and assessment. Already enrolled? Join your class in My AP.

Not a Student?

Go to AP Central for resources for teachers, administrators, and coordinators.

About the Assessment

There is no end-of-course written exam for AP Research. Instead, you’ll be assessed on performance tasks you complete that are based on your yearlong research project: an academic paper (which you’ll submit online for scoring through the AP Digital Portfolio), a presentation, and an oral defense of your research. These components all contribute to your final AP score on a scale of 1–5.

Updates to AP Research Performance Task

Given the implications of ChatGPT and other similar generative artificial intelligence (AI) tools on the AP Research performance task components, we’ve updated the guidance  regarding the use of these tools. These guidelines require your teacher to attest to the authenticity of your work in order for you to receive a score on the associated performance task. Review the  AP Research Course and Exam Description for the full policy and details.

Assessment Date

Wed, Apr 30, 2025

11:59 PM ET

AP Research Performance Task Due Date

Submit your AP Research performance task as final in the AP Digital Portfolio by this date.

Assessment Components

Academic paper.

75% of Score

The academic paper should be 4,000–5,000 words long. You’ll be evaluated on the content, structure, format, and conclusions of the paper as well as your ability to properly and accurately cite sources.

Presentation and Oral Defense

25% of Score

The culminating event of the AP Research course will be a presentation of your research question, research methodology, and findings, including an oral defense that addresses a set of questions about your research inquiry. The presentation and defense take 15–20 minutes. You will also be required to answer 3–4 questions from a panel of trained evaluators and your AP Research teacher.

• AP Research teachers use a scoring rubric designed by the AP Program.
• AP Research teachers also take part in mandatory training from the AP Program in how to score these components.

How We Score Your Work

Teacher Scored Components

Your in-class presentation and oral defense is scored by your AP Research teacher.

Here’s how we make sure that scoring by AP Research teachers is standardized:

College Board Scored Components

After you submit your academic paper online through the AP Digital Portfolio, it is scored by trained, experienced educators called AP readers.

Assessment Essentials

Assessment preparation, ap daily videos.

Once you join your AP class section online, you’ll be able to access AP Daily videos in AP Classroom. AP Daily videos cover every proficiency and skill outlined in the AP Research Course and Exam Description. Sign in to access them.

Performance Task Sample Student Responses and Scoring Information

Go to the Academic Paper Samples and Scoring Information section of the AP Research assessment page on AP Central to review the latest scoring information and sample student responses for the performance tasks.

Past Performance Task Samples and Scoring Information

Go to AP Central to review student samples of the academic paper, as well as scoring information for both performance tasks, from past years.

AP Research Course and Exam Description

This is the core document for the course. It clearly lays out the course content and describes the assessment and the AP Program in general.

Services for Students with Disabilities

Students with documented disabilities may be eligible for accommodations for the through-course assessment and the end-of-course exam. If you’re using assistive technology and need help accessing the PDFs in this section in another format, contact Services for Students with Disabilities at 212-713-8333 or by email at [email protected] . For information about taking AP Exams, or other College Board assessments, with accommodations, visit the Services for Students with Disabilities website.

Guidance for Artificial Intelligence Tools and Other Services

Learn more about the AP Program’s policy on generative AI tools (e.g., ChatGPT).

Credit and Placement

Search AP Credit Policies

Find colleges that grant credit and/or placement for AP Exam scores in this and other AP courses.

Additional Information

AP ® Research Syllabus

9 pacing guide, 9.1 unit 1: introduction.

July/August : Develop research ideas/topics and formulate focused research questions. [CR1a] [CR1b]

Use Workbook (pp. 18–26) as a guide to turn a problem statement in your field of inquiry into a focused research question. [CR1a]

E-mail your teacher with your proposed research topic and focused research question. You may submit multiple topics/questions if you have not decided on just one. [CR1g]

• focused: narrowing in scope
• valuable: contributes to a new understanding in the field
• feasible: replicable method that can be completed in a few months in time for the final paper deadline

August/September : Conduct preliminary research on a research topic. Begin annotated bibliography. Refine research question and begin research proposals. Gain familiarity with the academic paper rubric. [CR1b] [CR1c] [CR1d]

Refer to Workbook (pp. 6–9) to explore different ways of knowing across disciplines. [CR1c]

• In your PREP, reflect on how your chosen discipline engages in research using your collected sources as examples. [CR1f] [CR4a]

Use Workbook (pp. 64–81) as a guide to begin your annotated bibliography. Focus on the following points:

• Select a discipline-specific style (e.g., MLA, APA, or Chicago) used in your field of inquiry. Refer to Workbook (p. 65) and Purdue OWL for detailed documentation on citation styles.
• Select and use a reference management software such as Mendeley to organize your sources and integrate your bibliography into Microsoft Word or LaTeX.
• Go through the process of SMARTER searches to ensure that sources are situated in your topic of inquiry from multiple perspectives, relevant to your research question, and integrated into the broader field of knowledge (Workbook, pp. 75–76). [CR1c] [CR1d]
• Begin your annotated bibliography with 5–10 sources. Add 5–10 sources every week to your annotated bibliography until you have enough sources to develop a literature review. Refer to Workbook (pp. 77-81) for sample annotated bibliography entries.
• When finding sources, you should use the PAARC test to assess credibility, validity, and relevance (Workbook, pp. 82–83).

Go through previous AP Research sample papers . Annotate sample papers using the new AP Research paper rubic .

9.2 Unit 2: Topic to Proposal

October/November : Complete research proposals for approval. Synthesize annotated bibliography into literature review. [CR1d] [CR3]

As a class, we will go over important ethical pratices in research, including the following:

• AP Capstone Policy on Plagiarism and Falsification or Fabrication of Information [CR2b]
• IRB process for research involving human subjects [CR2a]
• Consent forms for research participants [CR2a]
• Parental permission for research participants under age 18 [CR2a]

Do a dry run of an inquiry method using the Health Halos Experiment (Workbook, pp. 148–153). As a class, use this topic to fill out an inquiry proposal form as a sample.

With you own research topic, complete an initial draft of the inquiry proposal form. [CR3]

Use p. 77 of the Workbook as a reference to develop a brief elevator speech with an informal poster containing the following elements: [CR5]

• Proposal title
• Problem statement & research question
• Definitions, hypotheses, and importance of study
• Proposed research methods
• List of sources
• Develop slides to present elements of the inquiry proposal form for peer review. [CR1e] [CR1g] [CR5]

Revise inquiry proposal form to reflect peer review comments. [CR1e] [CR1f]

Submit inquiry proposal form to teacher for approval. If applicable, you should include IRB forms and identify potential expert advisors. You may not begin conducting research until your teacher approves your inquiry proposal form. [CR2a] [CR3]

• Store your PREP on a cloud server and share a password-protected URL link with your teacher for weekly progress check-ups.
• Create a folder in your PREP to document reflections on peer review comments as well as feedback from your teacher and expert advisors. [CR1f]

9.3 Unit 3: Research Methods

November/December : Learn and implement replicable research methods to address research question. [CR3]

Review Chapter 3 of Gray et al. (2007, pp. 33–56) for an overview on research design.

• Learn more about your research design and the specific research methods you will employ to conduct your research.
• As a starting point, establish if you will use qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Reference “6. The Methodology” tab in USC Libraries Research Guides before you embark on more specific methods.

Review Chapters 8, 9, and 10 in Creswell (2009, pp. 145–225) for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods, respectively.

Create a research blueprint poster and present your proposed research design/methods to the class for peer review. [CR1e] [CR1g]

• Research question and hypothesis
• Literature review
• Continue to build more sources into annotated bibliography.
• Synthesize annotated bibliography into an initial literature review draft for the research proposal. [CR1d]
• Align research question with literature review and research methods. By the time you begin applying your research methods, your research question should no longer shift to ensure that you are not trying to make the data fit your question.
• Demonstrate that you are learning enough about your research methods to apply them properly in your own research. Create a separate folder in your PREP to document your learning process on research methods. [CR1f] [CR4a]

9.4 Unit 4: Academic Paper Drafts & Peer Review

January/February : Complete implementation of research methods. Undergo peer review of academic paper drafts. [CR3] [CR1e]

Finish conducting your research and documenting your results in your PREP. [CR4a]

Adapt your research proposal into the first draft of your academic paper. Refine the methods section of your paper to reflect findings from your research. Include a new section that analyzes and evaluates your results. Your conclusion should include limitations of the study and directions for future studies. [CR3]

• Submit your initial draft for peer review.
• File the peer review comments from your classmates into your PREP.

Develop slides on your research method and findings. Present results to the class for peer review. [CR1e] [CR1g]

9.5 Unit 5: Final Academic Paper, Presentation, and Oral Defense

March/April : Complete and submit final academic paper. Conduct 20-minute presentation with oral defense. [CR3] [CR5]

Incorporate peer review feedback into the second draft of the paper. [CR1e]

• Submit your second draft for a final round of peer review.

Refer to pages 58–59 of the AP Research Course and Exam Description for the list of oral defense questions. You will receive one question per section for a total of three questions and possibly some follow-up questions. [CR5]

• In your PREP, outline some responses to these questions as preparation for your oral defense. You will not know ahead of time which questions the panel will ask, so do not try to memorize responses.

Finalize academic paper and submit it to AP Digital Portfolio. Your teacher will dedicate class time for students to upload their final papers a few days before the official deadline. [CR3]

Sign up for a 20-minute time slot to present and orally defend your research. Prior to the presentations, we will go over the presentation and oral defense rubric . The presentations and oral defense will be recorded. [CR5]

9.6 Unit 6: Beyond AP Research

May/June : Finalize PREP and begin introduction to research tools necessary for research at the undergraduate and graduate levels.

Finalize your PREP with the following points in mind: [CR4a]

Include a readme file that documents the contents and purpose of each folder and file in your PREP. Anyone who reads through your readme file should be able to understand how to navigate your PREP without ever having worked with you during the research process.

Finalize data documentation that includes metadata (i.e., data about the data) and step-by-step instructions that show how you used the data in your research methods to arrive at your results. Anyone with your PREP should be able to locate the data documentation file from your readme file descriptions and follow your instructions to replicate your results.

Explore current best practices of reproducible research.

• R (using RStudio)
• LaTeX (using TeXStudio)
• R Sweave (Rnw files = R + LaTeX)
• R Markdown (R + Markdown to produce HTML, Word, LaTeX, and PDF outputs)
• Instead of saving multiple versions of the same file with version numbers appended to the file name, you can use just one file and commit changes to a repository, which will store metadata about each version of the file.

Develop a basic static website to showcase your research for college applications and future employment.

• We will use the R blogdown package to develop a basic static website with Hugo, an open-source website generator. Hosting the site is completely optional.
• Research portfolio
• Research blog posts
• Publication section

AP Research Rubric

The AP Research Rubric is a set of criteria used to evaluate and score the research papers submitted by students in the AP Research course. It assesses various aspects such as the quality of research design, analysis, and presentation.

Related terms

Topic of Inquiry : The topic or question that forms the basis of your research project.

Scholarly Works : Academic articles or publications written by experts in a particular field that provide valuable information and support for your own research.

Analysis : The process of examining data or evidence to draw conclusions and make interpretations.

" AP Research Rubric " appears in:

Additional resources ( 1 ).

• AP Research - 4.1 Formulating a well-reasoned argument

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Here’s Why More Students Have Passed AP Exams in Recent Years

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Some Advanced Placement teachers might have noticed that a higher percentage of their students received passing scores on the program’s year-end exams in the last few years.

This year , 72 percent of students who took the AP U.S. History exam earned scores of 3, 4, or 5—scores that often allow exam takers to claim college credit—up from 48.3 percent in 2022 . On the AP Macroeconomics exam, 62 percent of students this year earned passing grades, up from 51.8 percent two years earlier, according to College Board data.

It’s not that the exams that determine whether students can receive college credit have become easier, or that there was a sudden shift in how students prepared—or in how AP teachers taught. It’s more of a course correction in exam scoring, according to the College Board, the nonprofit organization that runs the AP program.

Between 2022 and this spring, the nonprofit adjusted how it scores AP subject exams using a new, data- and numbers-based approach aimed at eliminating some of the subjectivity and inconsistency that had previously been part of AP exam scoring. This “recalibration” resulted in a higher percentage of students getting the 3’s, 4’s, and 5’s that qualify them for college credit in nine subjects.

The move by the College Board comes at a time when researchers have documented accelerating grade inflation, in particular since the start of the pandemic, at both the K-12 and college levels. In addition, dual credit programs , in which students don’t rely on an exam score to earn college credit, are becoming an increasingly popular alternative to AP courses.

In that context, the College Board’s move led some educators and researchers to question whether AP exams have become easier , or whether the College Board purposefully sought to boost the percentage of students receiving passing scores to compete against dual credit programs.

But neither one of those scenarios is true, said Trevor Packer, the head of the AP program.

Instead, he said, the adjustments came about because the use of a new data-based approach to setting cutoff scores led the AP program to find more students have actually been demonstrating the proficiencies required for college credit.

“We don’t have an agenda for AP scores to be harder or easier. Our objective is to reflect what the evidence shows,” Packer said.

Though experts don’t see an immediate need for AP teachers to change how they teach as a result of the scoring changes, there are some key takeaways from this recalibration for teachers.

How the AP program determines what’s a passing score and what changed

Every five to 10 years, the College Board reviews how to determine cutoff scores for each exam.

AP exams are scored on a 5-point scale, and students who score a 3 or higher qualify for cost-saving college credit depending on the college or university they ultimately attend.

For years, the College Board relied on panels of 10 to 18 higher education faculty members for each AP subject to determine what a student had to do to earn a 3 instead of a 2, or a 5 instead of a 4. These panels also estimated what percentage of students should get each score.

It’s a standard approach and the best methodology the College Board had on hand, Packer said. Historically, these panels estimated that about 60 to 80 percent of students should score a 3 or higher on most AP exams. But in some subjects, especially in the humanities, the passing rate had recently been lower than 60 percent.

College Board officials wanted to make sure the lower passing rates in those subject areas were fair and accurately reflected students’ understanding of the course material, Packer said.

In 2013, new research emerged on a methodology known as evidence-based standard setting that relies on exam data to determine score cutoffs.

For instance, on a U.S. History AP exam, a student earns a certain number of points on an open-ended essay response that becomes part of a composite score that is then converted to a 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. The College Board uses its standard-setting methodology to determine which composite scores become which exam grades.

The new methodology also involves a detailed rubric that outlines how many points a student should earn for meeting the requirements of the open response question.

For example, in responding to an essay question on the American Revolution, did a student meet all the requirements, including explaining four causes of the war, crafting a thesis statement, and providing appropriate context?

College Board officials began developing those detailed rubrics for all AP exams in 2019.

Due to delays tied to the COVID-19 pandemic, it wasn’t until 2022 that the College Board officially began using the new approach to assess data from AP exams across the country, Packer said.

As a result of the analysis and switch to the new scoring methodology, the College Board determined that the 60- to 80-percent passing rate in most subjects should stay the same. It also found that the passing rates in nine subjects needed to rise:

• AP World History
• AP English Literature
• AP Macroeconomics
• AP Microeconomics
• AP Chemistry
• AP U.S. Government and Politics
• AP U.S. History
• AP European History

“The goal was not set up to say, ‘we’re going to set out to make AP scores better.’ Our goal was to use the largest evidence set possible to determine, are there reasons some of these subjects, the humanities subjects, should have lower success rates than the others?,” Packer said.

“When we did the evidence-based process, we didn’t find a reason for that. We found that they should have success rates very similar to the other APs.”

The College Board has been making these adjustments over the last three years and plans to rely on the new methodology, alongside college faculty expertise, moving forward.

What this means for teachers and school leaders

Some teachers have called for adjustments to passing rates in the past. Some felt, for instance, that students scoring a 2 should have qualified for a 3.

“These students were clearly outperforming students at the college level, and yet weren’t being given the credit of passing the exam,” said Noah Lipman, who teaches AP U.S. History, AP U.S. Government and Politics, and AP Macroeconomics at Highlands High School in San Antonio, Texas.

The College Board needed data to prove this hunch, he added, which the new methodology has provided.

As a result of the College Board’s adjustments this year, Lipman saw the passing rate for his AP U.S. History students rise from the typical rate of about 50 percent to about 70 percent this year.

He saw no change to the passing rate for his AP U.S. Government and Politics students.

Lipman, who consults for the College Board on history courses and is an AP exam grader, has changed nothing about how he teaches the courses nor has he noticed major changes to the rigor of the course curriculum. He hasn’t noticed a change on the student side, either, he added.

“All that’s changed is that more students are now passing the exam with a 3 or 4 than previously had,” he said.

An additional immediate benefit for some teachers—beyond the gratitude that more of their students are eligible for college credit—is potentially more pay.

Some districts pay bonuses to teachers with high AP exam passing rates, said John Moscatiello, founder and chief executive of Marco Learning, a consulting group that helps schools design AP programs.

Moving forward, Moscatiello recommends AP teachers and school leaders take the College Board’s new approach to scoring into account when analyzing their students’ performance.

For instance, if a school implemented a program in the 2023-24 school year to help raise students’ AP scores, and they saw a bump, how much of the growth can they attribute to their new program versus the scoring change?

And if the scoring for a subject changed, but the percent of students passing didn’t go up, what additional support can their school offer?

“This adjustment of AP scores, and more transparency, will give clarity to school leaders to make the right decisions about what’s working and what’s not for their AP programs,” Moscatiello said.

More students could be inspired to take AP courses

AP exams and dual-credit programs are two of the most popular pathways for students to earn college credit while in high school.

Now, given a statistically better chance of earning credit through an AP exam, Moscatiello and others say the College Board’s score adjustments could lead more students to choose AP courses.

On college applications, AP scores on a transcript are still one way students can distinguish themselves, said Christoph Guttentag, the dean of undergraduate admissions at Duke University, who is also a trustee of the College Board.

At Duke, individual university departments determine how much credit to award students for AP scores. It will take some time to see how these departments react to the AP adjustments, Guttentag said, though he suspects faculty may be encouraged by how the College Board relied on data to support these changes and set cutoff scores.

Guttentag also sees the potential for these changes to boost student participation in AP courses.

“If this change encourages more students to take AP courses, if it gives students the confidence that they can succeed in these courses, I think that’s a great thing,” Guttentag said. “I think that I worry more about not enough students taking APs than I do about too many students taking APs.”

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How to cite ChatGPT

Use discount code STYLEBLOG15 for 15% off APA Style print products with free shipping in the United States.

We, the APA Style team, are not robots. We can all pass a CAPTCHA test , and we know our roles in a Turing test . And, like so many nonrobot human beings this year, we’ve spent a fair amount of time reading, learning, and thinking about issues related to large language models, artificial intelligence (AI), AI-generated text, and specifically ChatGPT . We’ve also been gathering opinions and feedback about the use and citation of ChatGPT. Thank you to everyone who has contributed and shared ideas, opinions, research, and feedback.

In this post, I discuss situations where students and researchers use ChatGPT to create text and to facilitate their research, not to write the full text of their paper or manuscript. We know instructors have differing opinions about how or even whether students should use ChatGPT, and we’ll be continuing to collect feedback about instructor and student questions. As always, defer to instructor guidelines when writing student papers. For more about guidelines and policies about student and author use of ChatGPT, see the last section of this post.

Quoting or reproducing the text created by ChatGPT in your paper

If you’ve used ChatGPT or other AI tools in your research, describe how you used the tool in your Method section or in a comparable section of your paper. For literature reviews or other types of essays or response or reaction papers, you might describe how you used the tool in your introduction. In your text, provide the prompt you used and then any portion of the relevant text that was generated in response.

Unfortunately, the results of a ChatGPT “chat” are not retrievable by other readers, and although nonretrievable data or quotations in APA Style papers are usually cited as personal communications , with ChatGPT-generated text there is no person communicating. Quoting ChatGPT’s text from a chat session is therefore more like sharing an algorithm’s output; thus, credit the author of the algorithm with a reference list entry and the corresponding in-text citation.

When prompted with “Is the left brain right brain divide real or a metaphor?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that although the two brain hemispheres are somewhat specialized, “the notation that people can be characterized as ‘left-brained’ or ‘right-brained’ is considered to be an oversimplification and a popular myth” (OpenAI, 2023).

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

You may also put the full text of long responses from ChatGPT in an appendix of your paper or in online supplemental materials, so readers have access to the exact text that was generated. It is particularly important to document the exact text created because ChatGPT will generate a unique response in each chat session, even if given the same prompt. If you create appendices or supplemental materials, remember that each should be called out at least once in the body of your APA Style paper.

When given a follow-up prompt of “What is a more accurate representation?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that “different brain regions work together to support various cognitive processes” and “the functional specialization of different regions can change in response to experience and environmental factors” (OpenAI, 2023; see Appendix A for the full transcript).

Creating a reference to ChatGPT or other AI models and software

The in-text citations and references above are adapted from the reference template for software in Section 10.10 of the Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2020, Chapter 10). Although here we focus on ChatGPT, because these guidelines are based on the software template, they can be adapted to note the use of other large language models (e.g., Bard), algorithms, and similar software.

The reference and in-text citations for ChatGPT are formatted as follows:

• Parenthetical citation: (OpenAI, 2023)
• Narrative citation: OpenAI (2023)

Let’s break that reference down and look at the four elements (author, date, title, and source):

Author: The author of the model is OpenAI.

Date: The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.

Title: The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.

The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.

Bracketed text is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.

Source: When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).

Other questions about citing ChatGPT

You may have noticed the confidence with which ChatGPT described the ideas of brain lateralization and how the brain operates, without citing any sources. I asked for a list of sources to support those claims and ChatGPT provided five references—four of which I was able to find online. The fifth does not seem to be a real article; the digital object identifier given for that reference belongs to a different article, and I was not able to find any article with the authors, date, title, and source details that ChatGPT provided. Authors using ChatGPT or similar AI tools for research should consider making this scrutiny of the primary sources a standard process. If the sources are real, accurate, and relevant, it may be better to read those original sources to learn from that research and paraphrase or quote from those articles, as applicable, than to use the model’s interpretation of them.

We’ve also received a number of other questions about ChatGPT. Should students be allowed to use it? What guidelines should instructors create for students using AI? Does using AI-generated text constitute plagiarism? Should authors who use ChatGPT credit ChatGPT or OpenAI in their byline? What are the copyright implications ?

On these questions, researchers, editors, instructors, and others are actively debating and creating parameters and guidelines. Many of you have sent us feedback, and we encourage you to continue to do so in the comments below. We will also study the policies and procedures being established by instructors, publishers, and academic institutions, with a goal of creating guidelines that reflect the many real-world applications of AI-generated text.

For questions about manuscript byline credit, plagiarism, and related ChatGPT and AI topics, the APA Style team is seeking the recommendations of APA Journals editors. APA Style guidelines based on those recommendations will be posted on this blog and on the APA Style site later this year.

Update: APA Journals has published policies on the use of generative AI in scholarly materials .

We, the APA Style team humans, appreciate your patience as we navigate these unique challenges and new ways of thinking about how authors, researchers, and students learn, write, and work with new technologies.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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