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Composition & Writing

How to write a research paper.

• How to Write an Essay
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• Creating a Thesis Statement
• Critical Thinking
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Writing the Body of the Paper

Use your notes to write your paper. As you read over your notes, look for main themes and points of interest. These can be the main ideas you read about in your research sources.  Try to support these main ideas with facts and statistics you have collected. If the paper is argumentative, remember to provide an argument for counterpoints to your main ideas. 

Try outlining you ideas. Outlining is a way to organize your information into a series of well-ordered and understandable thoughts. What ideas are your main points and what ideas are supporting information.  You may also find gaps in your ideas and reasoning. Use the outline to give yourself a better idea of what structure you paper is going to take. It will create a map for where information should be placed; how the placement of the information will create a flow of ideas. 

Try to state the main theme and supporting points in your own words. See the  Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing  Guidelines   from Purdue Owl. Try to explain the major ideas. Begin a new paragraph for each main idea. Remember to integrate the research you have found and acknowledge ideas and information you have learned with in-text citations. A research paper is not an essay, in other words, this is not about your opinions. Do not use first person nouns such as "I" or "my."   If you have developed new interpretations or concepts related to your research, great! But, you need to back up these ideas with facts.  Read the paper out loud.  In addition to helping you express ideas in your own words, this exercise may stimulate your own thoughts and viewpoints concerning your topic. Reading out loud also helps with your phrasing and organization of ideas. Even better, read your paper out loud to someone else. You may be more aware of how your words sound when you have an audience, and they may also give you some good feedback. 

Parts of the Paper

Papers should have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Your introductory paragraph should grab the reader's attention, state your main idea and how you will support it. The body of the paper should expand on what you have stated in the introduction. Finally, the conclusion restates the paper's thesis and should explain what you have learned, giving a wrap up of your main ideas.   

1. The Title The title should be specific and indicate the theme of the research and what ideas it addresses. Use keywords that help explain your paper's topic to the reader. Try to avoid  abbreviations  and  jargon.  Think about keywords that people would use to search for your paper and include them in your title. 

2. The Abstract The abstract is used by readers to get a quick overview of your paper. Typically, they are about 200 words in length (120 words minimum to  250 words maximum). The abstract should introduce the topic and thesis, and should provide a general statement about what you have found in your research. The abstract allows you to mention each major aspect of you topic and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Because it is a summary of the entire research paper, it is often written last. 

3. The Introduction The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and explain the focus of the research. You will introduce your overview of the topic, your main points of information, and why this subject is important. You can introduce the current understanding and background information about the topic. Toward the end of the introduction, you add your thesis statement, and explain how you will provide information to support your research questions. This provides the purpose, focus, and structure for the rest of the paper.

4. Thesis Statement Most papers will have a thesis statement or main idea and supporting facts/ideas/arguments. State your main idea (something of interest or something to be proven or argued for or against) as you thesis statement, and then provide your supporting facts and arguments. A thesis statement is a declarative sentence that asserts the position a paper will be taking. It also points toward the paper's development. This statement should be both specific and arguable. Generally, the thesis statement will be placed at the end of the first paragraph of your paper. The remainder of your paper will support this thesis.

Students often learn to write a thesis as a first step in the writing process, but often, after research, a writers viewpoint may change. Therefore a thesis statement may be one of the final steps in writing.  Examples of Thesis Statements from Purdue OWL

5. The Literature Review The purpose of the literature review is to describe past important research and how it specifically relates to the research thesis. It should be a synthesis of the previous literature and the new idea being researched. The review should examine the major theories related to the topic to date and their contributors. It should include all relevant findings from credible sources, such as academic books and peer-reviewed journal articles. You will want  to:

• Explain how the literature helps the researcher understand the topic.
• Try to show connections and any disparities between the literature.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.

More about writing a literature review. . . More about summarizing. . .

6. The Discussion ​The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe what you have learned from your research. Make the reader understand why your topic is important. The discussion should always demonstrate what you have learned from your readings (and viewings) and how that learning has made the topic evolve, especially from the short description of main points in the introduction. Explain any new understanding or insights you have had after reading your articles and/or books. Paragraphs should use transitioning sentences to develop how one paragraph idea leads to the next. The discussion will always connect to the introduction, your thesis statement, and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction. You want to: 

• Demonstrate critical thinking, not just reporting back facts that you gathered.
• If possible, tell how the topic has evolved over the past and give it's implications for the future.
• Fully explain your main ideas with supporting information.
• Explain why your thesis is correct giving arguments to counter points.

​7. The Conclusion A concluding paragraph is a brief summary of your main ideas and restates the paper's main thesis, giving the reader the sense that the stated goal of the paper has been accomplished. What have you learned by doing this research that you didn't know before? What conclusions have you drawn? You may also want to suggest further areas of study, improvement of research possibilities, etc. to demonstrate your critical thinking regarding your research.

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• Last Updated: Feb 1, 2024 4:02 PM
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How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂 

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

• How to write a research paper
• Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
• Stage 2 : Structure & outline
• Stage 3 : Iterative writing
• Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

• Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
• Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
• Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

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Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail. 

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications . If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

• To choose a research question and review the literature
• To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
• To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

Can you help me with a full paper template for this Abstract:

Background: Energy and sports drinks have gained popularity among diverse demographic groups, including adolescents, athletes, workers, and college students. While often used interchangeably, these beverages serve distinct purposes, with energy drinks aiming to boost energy and cognitive performance, and sports drinks designed to prevent dehydration and replenish electrolytes and carbohydrates lost during physical exertion.

Objective: To assess the nutritional quality of energy and sports drinks in Egypt.

Material and Methods: A cross-sectional study assessed the nutrient contents, including energy, sugar, electrolytes, vitamins, and caffeine, of sports and energy drinks available in major supermarkets in Cairo, Alexandria, and Giza, Egypt. Data collection involved photographing all relevant product labels and recording nutritional information. Descriptive statistics and appropriate statistical tests were employed to analyze and compare the nutritional values of energy and sports drinks.

Results: The study analyzed 38 sports drinks and 42 energy drinks. Sports drinks were significantly more expensive than energy drinks, with higher net content and elevated magnesium, potassium, and vitamin C. Energy drinks contained higher concentrations of caffeine, sugars, and vitamins B2, B3, and B6.

Conclusion: Significant nutritional differences exist between sports and energy drinks, reflecting their intended uses. However, these beverages’ high sugar content and calorie loads raise health concerns. Proper labeling, public awareness, and responsible marketing are essential to guide safe consumption practices in Egypt.

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Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on March 27, 2023.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

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Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

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This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

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The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

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Writing a Research Paper

This page lists some of the stages involved in writing a library-based research paper.

Although this list suggests that there is a simple, linear process to writing such a paper, the actual process of writing a research paper is often a messy and recursive one, so please use this outline as a flexible guide.

Discovering, Narrowing, and Focusing a Researchable Topic

• Try to find a topic that truly interests you
• Try writing your way to a topic
• Talk with your course instructor and classmates about your topic
• Pose your topic as a question to be answered or a problem to be solved

Finding, Selecting, and Reading Sources

You will need to look at the following types of sources:

• library catalog, periodical indexes, bibliographies, suggestions from your instructor
• primary vs. secondary sources
• journals, books, other documents

Grouping, Sequencing, and Documenting Information

The following systems will help keep you organized:

• a system for noting sources on bibliography cards
• a system for organizing material according to its relative importance
• a system for taking notes

Writing an Outline and a Prospectus for Yourself

Consider the following questions:

• What is the topic?
• Why is it significant?
• What background material is relevant?
• What is my thesis or purpose statement?
• What organizational plan will best support my purpose?

Writing the Introduction

In the introduction you will need to do the following things:

• present relevant background or contextual material
• define terms or concepts when necessary
• explain the focus of the paper and your specific purpose
• reveal your plan of organization

Writing the Body

• Use your outline and prospectus as flexible guides
• Build your essay around points you want to make (i.e., don’t let your sources organize your paper)
• Integrate your sources into your discussion
• Summarize, analyze, explain, and evaluate published work rather than merely reporting it
• Move up and down the “ladder of abstraction” from generalization to varying levels of detail back to generalization

Writing the Conclusion

• If the argument or point of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to add your points up, to explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction.
• Perhaps suggest what about this topic needs further research.

Revising the Final Draft

• Check overall organization : logical flow of introduction, coherence and depth of discussion in body, effectiveness of conclusion.
• Paragraph level concerns : topic sentences, sequence of ideas within paragraphs, use of details to support generalizations, summary sentences where necessary, use of transitions within and between paragraphs.
• Sentence level concerns: sentence structure, word choices, punctuation, spelling.
• Documentation: consistent use of one system, citation of all material not considered common knowledge, appropriate use of endnotes or footnotes, accuracy of list of works cited.

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Writing a Research Paper

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The Research Paper

There will come a time in most students' careers when they are assigned a research paper. Such an assignment often creates a great deal of unneeded anxiety in the student, which may result in procrastination and a feeling of confusion and inadequacy. This anxiety frequently stems from the fact that many students are unfamiliar and inexperienced with this genre of writing. Never fear—inexperience and unfamiliarity are situations you can change through practice! Writing a research paper is an essential aspect of academics and should not be avoided on account of one's anxiety. In fact, the process of writing a research paper can be one of the more rewarding experiences one may encounter in academics. What is more, many students will continue to do research throughout their careers, which is one of the reasons this topic is so important.

Becoming an experienced researcher and writer in any field or discipline takes a great deal of practice. There are few individuals for whom this process comes naturally. Remember, even the most seasoned academic veterans have had to learn how to write a research paper at some point in their career. Therefore, with diligence, organization, practice, a willingness to learn (and to make mistakes!), and, perhaps most important of all, patience, students will find that they can achieve great things through their research and writing.

The pages in this section cover the following topic areas related to the process of writing a research paper:

• Genre - This section will provide an overview for understanding the difference between an analytical and argumentative research paper.
• Choosing a Topic - This section will guide the student through the process of choosing topics, whether the topic be one that is assigned or one that the student chooses themselves.
• Identifying an Audience - This section will help the student understand the often times confusing topic of audience by offering some basic guidelines for the process.
• Where Do I Begin - This section concludes the handout by offering several links to resources at Purdue, and also provides an overview of the final stages of writing a research paper.

Encyclopedia

Writing with artificial intelligence, composition studies.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - Professor of English - USF
• an academic discipline chiefly concerned with the study of composing
• a subdiscipline of Writing Studies.

Composition Studies is

Scholars and researchers in Composition Studies (aka Compositionists) focus on investigating composing process es (also known as creative processes).

Related: Composing, Writing, Drafting ; The Writing Process

In their introduction to Exploring Composition Studies: Sites, Issues, Perspectives , Kelly Ritter and Paul Kei Matsuda sketch a genealogy for the discipline of Composition Studies back to

• antiquity, particularly the work of Aristotle on Rhetorical appeals and the Rhetorical Situation
• the early 1890s when Harvard instituted the first undergraduate course explicitly on college writing
• 1911 when the National Council of Teachers of English was formed
• 1950 when College Composition and Communication, an academic journal was founded.

The Conference on College Composition and Commun i catio n , which is the professional organization for Composition Studies, defines the field very broadly:

The field of composition studies draws on research and theories from a broad range of humanistic disciplines—English studies, rhetoric, cultural studies, LGBT studies, gender studies, critical theory, education, technology studies, race studies, communication, philosophy of language, anthropology, sociology, and others—and from within composition and rhetoric studies, where a number of subfields have also developed, such as technical communication, computers and composition, writing across the curriculum, research practices, and the history of these fields.  Conference on College Composition and Communication

In Stephen North’s creation story for Composition Studies (see The Making of Knowledge in Composition , 1987), he traces the roots of the discipline to Sputnik and the rise of the science along with the GI Bill in the U.S. North believes the GI Bill, which funded millions of U.S. veterans to attend colleges, created a shock to the educational system. Because many of these students funded by the GI bill were underprepared in terms of their literacy competencies , schools had to rethink their curriculum and pedagogy.

North argues the early pioneers, the first-generation of Compositionists, embraced the idea that the scientific method would provide new solutions for teaching and learning. Here, the Compositionists leveraged America’s fear that it was falling behind Russia, as symbolized by Sputnik.

Related Concepts

Research & theory on composing.

This provides a rough sketch of some major research studies regarding the composing processes of with graders. It addresses the complexities of composing processes.

Olson, Keith. “The G. I. Bill and Higher Education: Success and Surprise,”  American Quarterly  Vol. 25, No. 5 (December 1973) 596-610.  in JSTOR in JSTOR

Brevity - Say More with Less

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Citation - Definition - Introduction to Citation in Academic & Professional Writing

• Joseph M. Moxley

Explore the different ways to cite sources in academic and professional writing, including in-text (Parenthetical), numerical, and note citations.

Collaboration - What is the Role of Collaboration in Academic & Professional Writing?

Collaboration refers to the act of working with others or AI to solve problems, coauthor texts, and develop products and services. Collaboration is a highly prized workplace competency in academic...

Genre may reference a type of writing, art, or musical composition; socially-agreed upon expectations about how writers and speakers should respond to particular rhetorical situations; the cultural values; the epistemological assumptions...

Grammar refers to the rules that inform how people and discourse communities use language (e.g., written or spoken English, body language, or visual language) to communicate. Learn about the rhetorical...

Information Literacy - Discerning Quality Information from Noise

Information Literacy refers to the competencies associated with locating, evaluating, using, and archiving information. In order to thrive, much less survive in a global information economy — an economy where information functions as a...

Mindset refers to a person or community’s way of feeling, thinking, and acting about a topic. The mindsets you hold, consciously or subconsciously, shape how you feel, think, and act–and...

Rhetoric: Exploring Its Definition and Impact on Modern Communication

Learn about rhetoric and rhetorical practices (e.g., rhetorical analysis, rhetorical reasoning,  rhetorical situation, and rhetorical stance) so that you can strategically manage how you compose and subsequently produce a text...

Style, most simply, refers to how you say something as opposed to what you say. The style of your writing matters because audiences are unlikely to read your work or...

The Writing Process - Research on Composing

The writing process refers to everything you do in order to complete a writing project. Over the last six decades, researchers have studied and theorized about how writers go about...

Writing Studies

Writing studies refers to an interdisciplinary community of scholars and researchers who study writing. Writing studies also refers to an academic, interdisciplinary discipline – a subject of study. Students in...

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• Research and Composition

With most pieces of work you do, there are two key components to consider when it comes to ensuring your work is organized and effective. These two components are research and composition . 

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Which of these things is not usually thought of as having been 'composed'?

True or false, careful composition can make a written work more aesthetically pleasing.

How many key types of research are there?

Which of these is NOT an example of a print resource?

Which of these is not a type of essay?

True or false, references and citations can help you avoid plagiarism.

Is it possible to use both qualitative and quantitative research methods during the research process, or do you need to choose only one type?

Which of these is NOT an example of a research question?

Why is the research process important?

Which of these descriptions best fits the term “research process”?

Which of these research methods can be found in both qualitative and quantitative research?

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In this article, we'll look at the different factors that contribute to successful research and all the things you need to know about composing compelling written work.

Research and Composition Definition

Before we go any further, let's take a quick look at some definitions and examples:

Research refers to the organized and systematic investigation of a topic using various strategies and sources to obtain factual information, data, or evidence from which to draw a conclusion.

An example of research could be investigating the effects of caffeine on productivity in men aged 20-25. This research could be carried out by conducting interviews with participants regarding their caffeine consumption and productivity levels, or by observing these factors yourself in a more controlled environment. You could also do some independent research using secondary sources about the effects of caffeine.

And what about 'composition'?

Composition refers to how the components (parts) of something are arranged in relation to each other.

Some common contexts in which you've probably heard the word 'composition' might include:

• a photo's composition – how the photographer has arranged the subjects of the photograph to create a pleasing aesthetic
• a music composition – the way a musician has composed or put together different musical instruments or techniques
• a written composition – how an essay, article, or other written piece of work is structured.

In a nutshell, to create written work that is effective, engaging, and factually accurate, research and composition are critical.

Research and Composition: English

As far as English studies are concerned, thorough research and carefully considered composition are necessary aspects of written work in both English Language and Literature. It doesn't matter if you're writing an essay on The Great Gatsby or analyzing a piece of text from a newspaper; these two factors will help you to take your written work to the next level.

Research and Composition: Writing

When starting a written project, or indeed any kind of project with a written component, you should start with some thorough research.

Why is Effective Research Important?

Research allows you to improve your personal knowledge of the subject you're writing about.

Research can help you to fill in any blanks where you may not be sure of something.

Research equips you with interesting information and facts that can enhance your project.

Effective research can also help you to improve certain skills, such as skimming and scanning text for keywords and cross-referencing information to ensure it is complete and accurate.

Types of Research

Although research is a wide and varied topic in its own right, there are two key types of research that you need to know about. These are:

Qualitative research

Qualitative research is concerned with the quality or nature of things, or in other words, things that cannot be counted or directly measured. Qualitative research is often concerned with people's feelings, opinions, or viewpoints on a particular subject.

Quantitative research

Quantitative research is concerned with the countable aspects of a particular subject or topic. Quantitative research tends to look for more numerical or statistics-based data rather than descriptive information. If something can be timed, measured, or quantified in other ways, it will likely fall under quantitative research.

In the next section, we'll look at some examples of these types of research, but first, let's ask ourselves:

Why is Careful Composition Important?

It helps the writer articulate complex thoughts, ideas, or opinions in an effective and easily understandable way.

It helps to ensure that the written piece is structured in a way that flows logically.

Good composition can help readers make their own connections and draw their own conclusions.

It can help writers to improve other writing skills such as spelling, sentence structure, and vocabulary.

It can create a more aesthetically pleasing result in many cases (for example, poems can be composed and laid out in many different ways, creating different visual impacts).

Research and Composition: Examples

So, we know a bit about the 'what' and 'why' surrounding research and composition. Now, we're going to look at each topic in more detail.

As we mentioned, there are two types of research Qualitative and Quantitative. So, what kind of research methods can we use for each?

Qualitative research methods include things like interviews, observation, and focus groups. Some surveys and questionnaires can also gather qualitative data if they ask for more detailed input about a topic.

Some examples of quantitative research methods include surveys , polls, and questionnaires.

When it comes to resources to support research, there are a few different places you can look:

Print resources: books, printed research papers, textbooks, newspapers, magazines, journals, etc

Digital resources: websites, online journals, online magazines, digital archives, search engines, etc

Search engines are software programs that allow users to type in a keyword or query, and then methodically search through all the resources on the internet for relevant information. Some useful examples of search engines for students include Google Scholar and your school's own library database.

Whatever resources we choose to use in research, it is vital that we keep track of the sources from which we get our information. These sources can either be primary or secondary. What does this mean? Let's have a look:

A primary source is when information has been recorded directly by a person who has experienced it or has recorded the first-hand experiences of someone else.

Some examples of primary sources include diary or journal entries, news reports written by reporters who witnessed an event (or directly recorded eyewitness testimonies), speeches, and audio, video, or photographic files.

What is a secondary source, then?

A secondary source is any document that analyzes, evaluates, or comments on a primary source.

Some examples of secondary sources include journal articles, books or textbooks about different subjects, academic essays, news reports offering an interpretation or analysis of an event, and documentaries.

Whenever you use a primary or secondary source in your research, it is mandatory that you reference these sources accurately. Referencing enables the readers of your work to learn more about the topic, as they can then follow your references to the sources used. It also helps to ensure your work remains free of plagiarism.

Ethical Considerations

When carrying out any kind of research, you must ensure your data collection methods are as ethical as possible. Some potential ethical issues that might arise during the research process include:

Bias: not all information available out there is impartial/ purely factual.

Lack of confidentiality or anonymity: identifying information about participants needs to be kept strictly confidential unless consent is obtained for this information to be shared.

Taking advantage of participants: if you're surveying, observing, or interviewing people, you need to ensure you're not taking advantage of your participants.

Unclear intent: make the point of your research clearly known to all parties involved.

Lack of consent: ALWAYS obtain complete and specific consent from participants.

This is not an exhaustive list of possible ethical issues but should give you an idea of the things to think about before engaging in research.

Composition

The composition you create when writing depends very much on the type of writing you are doing.

Some key types of writing include:

• Technical writing
• Analytical writing
• Creative writing
• Personal writing
• Persuasive writing
• Descriptive writing

There are also several different types of essays:

Narrative essay

Synthesis essay

Expository essay

Descriptive essay

Rhetorical analysis essay

There are articles on each of these essay types and writing types on the StudySmarter platform if you want to dive in a little deeper!

A narrative essay will include three key components: the background information, a complication or conflict, and finally a resolution, and will also have characters and a sense of setting. In contrast, a synthesis essay will have an abstract (a brief summary of what the essay is about), a thesis statement (a claim about an idea or hypothesis), and a discussion of data and evidence gathered during the research phase. A synthesis essay will end with a conclusion.

The Composition Process

There are several parts to the composition process, and you must dedicate enough time and effort to each of them to ensure your final composition is as compelling and effective as possible. These steps are:

Planning: thinking about what you want to write about, the points you want to make, and the evidence you're going to use

Drafting : writing a rough version of the completed document, ensuring all necessary information is included and that the basic structure of the composition works

Editing : going through your composition with a fine-tooth comb to identify and correct any content errors, structural issues, redundant words, syntactical problems, etc

Proofreading: going through the edited piece once more to ensure there are no remaining grammatical or spelling errors (or any other errors that you didn't notice during editing )

Referencing and citations: giving credit where credit is due – always cite and reference your sources to avoid plagiarism. References should include in-text citations when you have quoted or paraphrased someone else's words, as well as a complete reference list at the end of your written work.

Further Resources for Research and Composition

The sections above briefly describe different aspects of research and composition, but if you want to dive deeper into these topics, there are many articles on the StudySmarter platform that might be of interest.

For more information on research, check out these articles:

The Research Process

Ethical Issues in Data Collection

For more information on the different facets of composition, check out these articles:

Proofreading

Research and Composition - Key Takeaways

• Research and composition are two key components of effective writing.
• Research refers to the systematic investigation of a topic using a range of resources.
• Composition refers to how the components of something are arranged or structured.
• The two key types of research are qualitative and quantitative, and there are many research methods including surveys, interviews, observation, polls, etc.
• The key steps of the composition process are planning, drafting, editing, proofreading, and referencing/ citations.

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Frequently Asked Questions about Research and Composition

Why is research important?

Research is important for the following reasons:

• helps to fill in knowledge gaps about a particular subject
• improves personal knowledge about a topic
• equips you with interesting information to enhance your project
• helps to improve other skills such as skimming and scanning, and fact-checking/ cross-referencing

How many types of research are there and what are they?

There are two key types of research: 

Qualitative research is concerned with feelings, opinions, viewpoints, and other descriptive information about the qualities of a topic. 

Quantitative research is concerned with facts, statistics, and measurable or countable data. 

How do you write a research composition?

When writing a research paper, it is important to ensure that your research has been thorough and ethical, and that you have references for all of your sources. When composing your paper, you should plan the structure of the paper before writing it, and should draft a rough version to make sure you've included all relevant information. You should then edit, proofread, and reference your work to fine-tune it and avoid plagiarism. 

Why is composition important in writing?

Composition is important in written work because: 

• it helps you to articulate complex ideas in an effective way.
• it can improve other skills such as spelling, sentence structuring, and lexical choices. 
• it helps you to structure your writing logically and in a way that flows well. 
• it can help to make your work more aesthetically pleasing.

What are the key types of writing and essays?

Types of writing

• technical writing
• analytical writing
• creative writing
• personal writing
• persuasive writing
• descriptive writing

Types of essay: 

• narrative essay
• synthesis essay
• expository essay
• descriptive essay
• rhetorical analysis essay

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113 Great Research Paper Topics

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

Are you also learning about dynamic equilibrium in your science class? We break this sometimes tricky concept down so it's easy to understand in our complete guide to dynamic equilibrium .

Thinking about becoming a nurse practitioner? Nurse practitioners have one of the fastest growing careers in the country, and we have all the information you need to know about what to expect from nurse practitioner school .

Want to know the fastest and easiest ways to convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius? We've got you covered! Check out our guide to the best ways to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit (or vice versa).

These recommendations are based solely on our knowledge and experience. If you purchase an item through one of our links, PrepScholar may receive a commission.

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Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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Writing and Literature: Composition as Inquiry, Learning, Thinking, and Communication

(17 reviews)

Tanya Long Bennet

Copyright Year: 2017

ISBN 13: 9781940771236

Publisher: University of North Georgia Press

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Gina Burkart, Director of Learning Services and Adjunct Instructor of English, Clarke University on 12/13/22

I was very impressed. Bennet covered all of the necessary topics that are covered in the Intro to Literature course that I normally teach and used the same approach that I use with students. The glossary and index were helpful. There were also... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

I was very impressed. Bennet covered all of the necessary topics that are covered in the Intro to Literature course that I normally teach and used the same approach that I use with students. The glossary and index were helpful. There were also great resources and examples provided.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The accuracy of the material was spot on. It matched how I present the material and was accessible to students.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The examples were very relevant--even Call of Duty was included for students to relate to. The stories and and literature used were the same as which I often use. The language and tone was perfect and accessible/authentic for students.

Clarity rating: 5

As mentioned above, the language and tone was very accessible for students.

Consistency rating: 5

It seemed consistent.

Modularity rating: 5

The headings worked well . It was easy to navigate.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

It was organized in a format similar to how I organize my course.

Interface rating: 5

I didn't have any issues.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I didn't notice any.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

It seemed more traditional in the use of texts/stories--but those are the same texts/stories that I use and this university uses--so I didn't have a problem with it.

I think it is an excellent text and will recommend it to our department!

Reviewed by Katherine Ramsey, Academic Director of English/Literature, Spartanburg Community College on 9/22/22

This text includes a detailed table of contents, a glossary of terms, and a bibliography. It does not include an index. The books consist of nine chapters. It does include a review of rhetorical appeals and effective argumentation, which is... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This text includes a detailed table of contents, a glossary of terms, and a bibliography. It does not include an index. The books consist of nine chapters. It does include a review of rhetorical appeals and effective argumentation, which is helpful. The major literary genres are covered, including creative non-fiction, which is not typically included in this type of literature anthology. This text also includes suggested texts based on theme to support instructors. However, there is only one chapter each devoted to short fiction, drama, and poetry, so the information on the various literary elements could be developed more thoroughly. Overall, this hits all the necessary basic information about literary genres and literary elements, with a decent assortment of literary works and essay assignment ideas.

I did not notice any typographic or content errors in the text. There is no overt bias detected.

Content is up to date. Links to the MLA formatting go to the most updated version of the handbook. Most of the linked materials are to readings, which will not go out of date. This text would be fairly simple to modify and update. Instructors could add additional readings and poems.

This text is a straightforward and concise book that is student centered and not so in-depth that it would intimidate students. It is an “easy read” for students; the phrasing is not overly dense or wordy. With only 9 chapters, all of the essentials are covered. Terms are in bold type face, and a glossary is provided.

The formatting of the textbook is consistent and uniform. It progresses logically and is effectively laid out for the reader, so it is easy to follow.

This text is well divided into 9 chapters, with subheadings/subsections within, making this easy to “chunk” into reading assignments.

The material is well organized, includes a review of the elements of rhetoric and argumentation, in addition to the genre studies, critical theory, terminology, and a variety of readings throughout. It flows smoothly and logically from topic to topic.

Interface rating: 4

There were no significant issues in this area. Although one text link did not open when I tried it, all of the other links were working. The charts that were included were displayed correctly and were easy to read although one chart was in landscape orientation, but it was still fairly easy to read. The margins, spacing, and general page appearance is pleasing to the eye and simple to read/navigate. The page numbers are clearly labeled, and the chapter information is in the right header bar. The book effectively uses text structures such as bolding, headings, italics, etc. in an effective manner.

I detected no grammatical errors while I was reviewing this text.

This text is well rounded and inclusive with works, both contemporary and canonical, from a wide variety of authors with diverse genders, ethnicity, and cultural backgrounds. Instructors could add additional readings to further diversify the literary perspectives, but overall, there was effort made to present a variety of authors, considering the issue of copyright that governs the use of literary texts.

Reviewed by Rebecca Owen, Part-Time Faculty, Chemeketa Community College on 3/10/22

This book covers all the major writing projects that they might encounter in a writing or literature class. Chapters are conversational, easy to follow, and provide good examples of texts and questions. It gives sample essays for the genres and... read more

This book covers all the major writing projects that they might encounter in a writing or literature class. Chapters are conversational, easy to follow, and provide good examples of texts and questions. It gives sample essays for the genres and does a fine job at explaining the why behind common writing assignments.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

The content is clear, straightforward, and easily navigable for a student reader. It does feel like there could be more possible examples to include--especially by delivering links to more representative content in some chapters, like Creative Nonfiction vs. providing whole excerpts or stories (like in the fiction chapter). I wouldn't have minded more examples, though! I think a student reader or instructor might also appreciate more examples of texts to analyze and review.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

I felt like the introduction led us toward an idea that this would be a way to see a similarity between popular movies/literature and social media alongside the classics (like Shakespeare, Hemingway, Joan Didion, etc). I wouldn't have minded more of those types current examples as well as the classics. It might help students see a link between the content they consume and the content they're using for class.

Very clear, very easy to follow writing throughout. I think a student reader would find this as a very helpful intro-level guide. It's very accessible for new writers.

Consistency rating: 4

I felt like the book is overall very comprehensive and complete--but it does feel like a very basic or brief look at literature analysis. I felt like it is a book that might come up when looking for texts for a composition class, but it felt much more focused on reading and interpreting literature than learning about composition. That's where the consistency felt a little off to me.

I could see using a chapter--the discussion of scholarly vs. non-scholarly sources, for instance, or ethos/logos/pathos--and posting those links to my composition students. I might not assign the whole textbook, but there are very easily digestible pieces to add to students' understanding of the subject.

Very clear, very well organized throughout. Each chapter is nicely organized with a conversational style. I liked that it included creative nonfiction as a genre, too. Lots of useful information about personal writing (and reading personal essays), too.

For the most part, everything is great. Once we get into the research paper chapter, though, there is a graph that presents sideways (chapter 8). I was reading on both a phone and a laptop, and it was tricky to access that chart both times.

I didn't notice anything alarming, grammar-wise.

I think some of the examples of texts to read could be a little more modern--more recent texts from a variety of backgrounds, cultures, original languages, ethnicity. I think it could make more of an appeal to students through new media and other multimedia examples as well.

This book was clear and easy to follow--I don't know if I would assign the entire book for a composition class, but I could see several chapters as really helpful, easy resources for certain assignments.

Reviewed by Annamaria Formichella, Professor, Buena Vista University on 12/28/21

The chapters on writing are relatively comprehensive, and I appreciated the prefatory comments in the “Why Write About Literature” section. They helped to establish the usefulness of this approach for students. On the other hand, certain of the... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The chapters on writing are relatively comprehensive, and I appreciated the prefatory comments in the “Why Write About Literature” section. They helped to establish the usefulness of this approach for students. On the other hand, certain of the genre chapters are brief. The drama chapter has only about one page of content regarding dramatic structure, followed by about 117 pages of sample plays. The creative nonfiction chapter is only about five pages long. More information defining the literary genres would have been helpful as I taught my course.

The content was accurate and unbiased.

Much of the content is relevant and current, especially the sample student papers. In order to strengthen the relevance, I would recommend revising the drama chapter to include the genre of film. Film is our contemporary medium for telling visual stories, has become much more popular than traditional plays, and would resonate more powerfully with undergraduates. In a similar vein, most of the poems at the end of chapter 4 were published in the 19th-century or earlier. Contemporary poetry has changed significantly in terms of form and content, and again would appeal more strongly to young people today. Including song lyrics or links to spoken-word poetry performances would resonate with this generation of students.

The writing style is clear and jargon-free. The conversational style is likely to appeal to young readers.

The text is consistent in terms of the way the chapters are structured. Most contain bolded key terms, relevant student examples, and discussion questions. Again, as I mentioned above, the four chapters that focus on literary genres might have been more consistent in terms of depth. The poetry chapter contains much more terminology than the others.

The chapters are relatively short, which makes them easy to assign in the course. The exception would be the lengthy sample texts. Shakespeare’s The Tempest, for example, takes up almost 100 pages (and the entire book is only about 260 pages).

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The text begins with chapters about analytical writing, then moves into the four literary genres, then returns to writing assignments (literary analysis and the research paper). Although this order might have worked well for the author’s purposes, in my course it would have been preferable to begin with the genre chapters and then move on to the writing chapters. I would put chapters 2 and 3 just prior to chapter 8, so that the writing guidance could be more effectively integrated.

The text does not contain many graphic elements. In fact, there are no images at all. The few charts that are included are displayed clearly, and the reader can interact easily with the text. Because the textbook is available as a pdf, the highlighted links to outside texts do not work as hotlinks. The student must copy and paste the link into a browser. That might dissuade some young readers from pursuing extra-textual content. While the majority of the links work, I found three (Didion on p. 233, Feynman on p. 234, and Anzaldua on p. 269) that were broken (page not found or forbidden access).

There are no grammatical errors in the text.

For the most part, the textbook is inclusive. I appreciated, for example, the nuanced discussion of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn in chapter 5. I do think the list of additional readings, included in the Resources for Instructors section, could be more diverse. Of the fifteen readings listed, only three are written by women, and only two have nonwhite authors.

I used this textbook in my composition II class in the fall of 2021. Midway through the semester, I asked the students for feedback on the readings. I thought I’d include a few representative comments. “I think that this textbook is ok. I appreciate that it is free but sometimes the chapters seem like they are only examples. I feel like some of the information in each chapter is unnecessary.” “I think that the chapters are helpful in certain aspects. I do wish that they used fewer examples and just discussed the topics themselves more. I feel that it uses the examples as an out to avoid having to elaborate, but that can make the concepts confusing at times. Especially when they are topics that I have never heard of before.” “The chapters are very long and there are a lot of inserts of outside text.” “The chapters themselves are not bad for the book being free, but sometimes the text seems very simple which is not a bad thing, but it is something that I noticed.” “I think this book does its job. It is not the best book in the world, but I think considering it is free, it does everything it needs to. After reading the chapters I know what the main idea was and know what I was supposed to learn. I think the chapters are short and to the point which makes it easy to read. Sometimes it is hard to get myself to spend the five to ten minutes reading the chapter when the examples are long and harder to read. I have trouble focusing on lengthy examples.” From the students’ perspective, the main takeaways seem to be that the sample texts are lengthy, and the content is fairly simple. The simplicity can make it a very useful and accessible text for some students, especially those just beginning to think about writing and literature. I did find myself quite often needing to supplement with content. Shorter sample texts might make it more likely that students would complete those readings.

Reviewed by Marion Hernandez, Adjunct Instructor English Department/DCE, Bunker Hill Community College on 6/30/21

This text covers every aspect of literature, writing skills. instructions for writing papers i each genre as well as giving clear writing lessons and sample essays. read more

This text covers every aspect of literature, writing skills. instructions for writing papers i each genre as well as giving clear writing lessons and sample essays.

The point of view is written with the student in mind and the terminology and focus are very student centered. No grammar errors are present and the level is definitely focused on college level readers.

Because the focus is on the student, concerns particular to first year students is the priority. Agin, the terminology is consistent with any pedagogy teachers might decide to present.

The writing lessons are present is a very clear manner. The format here is using bold face type to work in an outline form when describing the various points to consider in reading and writing. The materials and sample essays are pinpointed to include advanced readings suitable for college and points of view that are challenging, that is, not talking down to the students.

The chapters are consistent because the format repeats itself in a good way as it works from genre to genre giving instruction, reading and sample students papers. The format is repeated by the content is specific to the genre under study.

One of the very best features of the text is that the terminology dictates the order of both the chapters and the presentations. The chapters are clear-cut and the student could easily use only the chapters pn which the class focuses.

All the previous recommendations focus on just this point of organization. The clear cut sections are presented in clearly defined sequences would give students confidence in the text, knowing that the information is right on target and presented in an academic but casual voice. Only one thing seems to be a small weakness in the text: adequate work on building a thesis. This is not that important because every chapter cover thesis in some way, but in the research writing section, only half a page is devoted to thesis statements.

There are no distractions such as visuals, cartoons, and charts. There are diagrams and subtitles and some charts. Fro instance in the Critical Thinking chapter deductive and inductive reasoning skills. pathos and logos are charted in a clear and informative manner.

There are no grammatical errors. Sentence structure is varied and employs longer sentences with complex and compound clauses. The terminology dictates the the vocabulary would be at a college level.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The readings span many various time periods and points of view. Everything from Susan Glaspell to Shakespeare. Poetry has a separate unit as well as drama and all selections are provocative without being biased.

This is a wonderful text that covers every aspect of what one expects to find in an English course. Because to its comprehensive nature, the text would be perfect for a two semester course. However the organization into separate chapters and genres lends itself to a one semester course as well. i will use this for my research writing course.

Reviewed by Kirstin Krick, Instructor, Community College of Aurora on 5/30/21

The information presented in this resource outlines the major elements of literature analysis while also focusing on traditional genres. There are added segments discussing common settings in which students might also use academic research writing... read more

The information presented in this resource outlines the major elements of literature analysis while also focusing on traditional genres. There are added segments discussing common settings in which students might also use academic research writing principles. Chapters are well-rounded and easy to maneuver.

Overall, the content is simple in nature, each section breaks down a topic, expands on it, then there are exercises or sample readings that illustrate further. This text contains few to no errors as far as content in general; but the author does juxtapose questionable phraseology, opinion language, and superfluous imagery [often found in hypothetical examples] with the contradictory idea of research writing needing to be based in fact and conformed to a rigid set of formatting guidelines and structural parameters.

There are up to date samples and references mixed with outdated terminology [names, issues, trends] throughout this source. Where the author includes quite a few classical or contemporary titles, there is nothing after 2018, which is ancient history by now (2021). Although use of current examples and associations is lacking, instructors can easily implement ancillary materials more suited to the evolving world condition.

Clarity rating: 4

A majority of the text is easily readable whereas some illustrations [charts, essay samples, annotations] may have accessibility issues if students are using older versions of Windows or Word, a Mac, etc. In these cases, it might get tricky viewing and working with the source information outside of its original formatting. Annotation examples are not tabled, the only thing distinguishing the notes from the original excerpt being annotated is font style. That is being really picky though, some instructors may not feel that it affects the flow at all. To each their own.

This resource provides consistent, relevant information pertaining to topics typically discussed in literature courses, with the added bonus of outlining the essential format and structure of college-level research writing. Activities and exercises are carried out in similar fashion throughout. Additionally, the author clearly attempts to balance the amount of content presented [to the reader] in each section so it is never overwhelming.

In terms of modularity, the layout of contents is very user friendly. It’s easy to “get around” and sections are not too congested with distracting visual implements. What is promised in the introduction is delivered to its conclusion, the author does a great job of keeping expectations transparent without oversimplifying.

For the most part, the ideas in this source are fleshed out clearly, save a few rocky areas. One thing that might throw the reader off is the order in which writing concepts are presented. As an example, Argument is discussed in depth at the beginning, but Analysis is not mentioned except in reference to specific genres. It seems slightly counterintuitive not to have a section on critical/analytical thinking and reasoning before delving into the complexities of argumentation.

Navigating through this resource is a breeze! There aren’t excessive advertisements on the sites the reader is linked to either, just nice, clean web pages that have been well vetted (most of which are also mainstays in the field of literature). That being said, whether it will quench the modern day student’s thirst for interaction or obsession with social media, remains to be seen.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

Due to the author’s choice of simple, relatable terms, along with clearly outlined activities and examples, there are no obvious errors when it comes to the overall content. Tiny incongruities may exist, such as sources not being quoted or cited with appropriate punctuation. The concern there is that parts of the text are incorrectly formatted [APA, MLA, CMS] which contradicts parameters illustrated in later chapters.

In the author’s defense, this resource was created in 2018, pre-pandemic; which now seems like light years in the past, so although it could use a touch-up, there is no need for a full on make-over here. When the writer puts forth hypotheticals, they pass the basic test of not being gender or race bias but the full source doesn’t include cultural considerations (like a multiple language learner’s perspective) or present case studies specifically designed to exemplify instances of diversity. Under some circumstances, the cultural aspect is lost in time, there are several outdated references and examples that present missed opportunities to get students communicating about people with different cultural backgrounds and unique world views. Instructors may want to do some maintenance in those sections.

In OER (whenever referenced) the author's name is spelled Bennet, but on the original source it is Bennett. That could be an issue for the writer, especially when citing or documenting.

Reviewed by Donald Carreira Ching, Instructor, Leeward Community College on 3/12/21

Overall, what I like about this text is that it concisely covers what it needs to. There is a table of contents, a glossary, additional resources for instructors, and a bibliography. read more

Overall, what I like about this text is that it concisely covers what it needs to. There is a table of contents, a glossary, additional resources for instructors, and a bibliography.

The content is accurate and concise. This text works as a great reference point for instructors and students. I also like that it covers a wide-range of writing forms.

This is great for a wide-range of courses. The fact that you can re-mix and build the work in various ways makes it particularly relevant, especially when combined with other outside resources and readings.

Text is written in a clear and concise way. Examples are provided. Text is student-focused.

The text is ordered and organized consistently. Sections are broken up in a consistent way.

As mentioned in the relevance section, the license allows the text to be remixed and integrated in the way that suits the instructor. It is easily and readily divisible. I also like the concision of the sections.

Well organized and presented. Concise.

I didn't notice any errors in regard to the interface. Everything was readable and accessible.

Text is free of grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 2

The book does not contain readings but what is contained in the text is focused on a Western-audience. More diversity in perspective and content would be appreciated. This is perhaps my biggest concern with the text, but it's a common one across all of the OER texts.

Reviewed by C. Mason, Adjunct Instructor of English, Middlesex Community College on 6/30/20

The text aspires to comprehensiveness, but serves better as a useful introduction to literary analysis. The examples of literature provided may appear limited, but that opens the door for instructors to introduce their own examples and have... read more

The text aspires to comprehensiveness, but serves better as a useful introduction to literary analysis. The examples of literature provided may appear limited, but that opens the door for instructors to introduce their own examples and have students implement these various critical approaches. The initial chapters are a bit underdeveloped. For example, Historical Analysis gets a sentence. A more thorough examination of logical fallacies would be appreciated. That said, the sections on comprehending and writing about fiction, poetry and drama are the heart of the text and are effective.

The analytical content is accurate. With respect to MLA citation, the text may need to be updated in the future.

As stated, the text provides students with a foundational grounding in literary criticism. This analysis is often applied to traditional works of literature. One might welcome more contemporary works of literature, along with more recent forms of literary criticism. This is not the primary focus of the text. These gaps provide an excellent opportunity for instructors to introduce recent critical approaches, or ask students to seek these out and evaluate these approaches as part of a project. On another note, there is always the possibility that the sample student paper on Call of Duty may be viewed as outdated by future students.

The procession through the subject matter, from the introduction through fiction, poetry, and drama, is logical. This will certainly benefit students who wish to use the text as quick reference for composing assignments.

The chapters are thoughtfully and consistently organized.

The modules clearly follow a logical pattern. An instructor could break it apart if necessary. For example, the poetry chapter could stand on its own. Overall, each chapter is informed by previous chapters and anticipates future chapters, providing a holistic approach to examining literature.

Overall, the structure of the book holds together quite well. Occasionally, transitions between chapters are a bit clunky. A careful instructor can easily bridge these gaps for the class.

The formatting is consistent. Students should be able to navigate the text on their phones, if necessary.

There are apparently none.

One would certainly appreciate a more diverse grouping of authors. Obtaining author permissions may have posed difficulties. That said, because the offerings of open source materials are fluid, one may be able successfully supplement the readings by drawing from other texts.

I would strongly consider this text for an introductory literature course.

Reviewed by Laurette Folk, Adjunct Professor of English, North Shore Community College on 6/30/20

While I enjoyed reading Writing and Literature and found it very accessible, it seems to be missing some key elements and is out of scope in others. 1. While the works included here are exemplary and timeless, there are few modern-day, living... read more

While I enjoyed reading Writing and Literature and found it very accessible, it seems to be missing some key elements and is out of scope in others. 1. While the works included here are exemplary and timeless, there are few modern-day, living writers discussed. How are students supposed to know where we are now with respect to the literary canon? I think of writers/poets like Marie Howe, Sharon Olds, Billy Collins, Jhumpa Lahiri, Alice Munro, Lynn Nottage. Also, the diversity of the literary canon is not exactly obvious through the work selected. We have primarily white and African American writers studied here. 2. The Effective Argument chapter needs to be condensed. Some of the law terms such as "enthymeme" are out of scope and not needed. Inductive reasoning is really the only type of logic needed for this class. 3. I found the discussion on thesis statements to be weak. Students in an introductory literature class struggle with thesis statements and need examples of working, final, and erroneous statements. 4. In chapter 2, "Forming a Perspective on a Subject/Discovering and Honoring Your Passions and Values" the sample paper "Call of Duty: Short of Reality" is better suited for a first semester composition class via the concept essay. I understand that it is important for students to hone in on their passions, but professors must hold the primary texts as paramount for a literature class. Where is the connection to the character in the story regarding his war experience? There in no evidence of this, no in-text citations; the novel The Sun Also Rises is not even in the Works Cited page.

Although somewhat verbose at times, I found the discussion to be quite accurate, with the exception of number 4 in "Comprehensiveness."

Modifying the text with modern-day poets, fiction writers, and playwrights can be easily implemented.

This text is written in conversational language with concrete examples that are easy to comprehend.

The consistency of the main literary elements of theme, imagery, character/narrator, setting, etc could be better emphasized with respect to the genres. For instance, theme is common to all of the literary genres discussed.

Text can be easily used to teach the different genres of literature in a particular sequence for each semester.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

I don't agree with the author's philosophy of teaching poetry first. Poetry is often dense, complex, and abstract ("Ode on a Grecian Urn" is a perfect example of this) and will surely send students mentally heading for the hills. Beginning the course with concrete, relatable stories in short fiction and introducing the main literary elements regarding this genre is a better strategy.

The interface of the text is mostly fine; there were some links that didn't work, however. These are p. 37, link to the Poetry Foundation; p. 47 link to "Blackberry Eating" (link does not take you directly to the poem, but to the home page); p. 258, "The Hunting of the Hare" story in the Works Cited page, EBSCO link in Works Cited.

Ostentatious grammatical errors were not immediately apparent.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

See comment in "Comprehensiveness."

I liked the main philosophy of the book--to reach students. Discussions on passive vs. active reading, why we need literary terminology, evidence, writing as a process, and research are thorough. My main complaint is the lack of literary diversity and the esoteric law terms.

Reviewed by Michael Alleman, Associate Professor, LSUE on 4/30/20

The textbook provides what few others do: analysis of and guidance in the core methods of literary argumentation in particular, although Chapter 3 (Effective Argument) would be valuable in a number of writing situations. The writer has done a... read more

The textbook provides what few others do: analysis of and guidance in the core methods of literary argumentation in particular, although Chapter 3 (Effective Argument) would be valuable in a number of writing situations. The writer has done a commendable job of covering critical reading compositional strategies, including literary research in an economical way. The only quibble I have is the limited literary pieces, but these author is limited to what they can choose, so I do not hold this against the text.

I find the concepts and strategies to conform to best practices.

The textbook could have made better use of hyperlinks to online texts or supplemental material. Some links do not work.

The writing is clear because the writer focuses on conveying ideas and methods in a simple and succinct style.

No problems here.

The nine chapters can work for either a short (7-8 week) course or long (15 week) course, and the text provides a mix-and-match flexibility that can be easily adapted to a long or short session.

I love the organization, especially the Tractatus-like numbering system which make it easy to organize the sections and subsections to suit a particular course's emphasis.

Interface rating: 3

Some problems with dead links or links leading to sites access to which is denied.

No noticeable errors.

The text is inclusive and sensitive.

There's a lot you can do with this book. It can act as the foundation of the course, or it can be used in a supplementary fashion. I might consider assigning one or two of the chapters to any of my classes that require critical writing about texts. This

Reviewed by Alissa Cruz, Adjunct English Instructor, Blue Ridge Community College on 4/13/20

The book covers genre, approach, reasoning and more. I was impressed with the range it was able to cover. read more

The book covers genre, approach, reasoning and more. I was impressed with the range it was able to cover.

This book is accurate and thorough.

The examples and ideas in this book are relevant and current, but will not be outdated quickly. The book is arranged in a way that is logical and easy to follow.

This book is excellent in terms of clarity. The tone is perfect for students. Everything is explained well with strong, relevant examples that students can relate to. In some cases, such as the Effective Argument section, there could have been more explanation or more examples given. Sometimes a student needs more than one example to understand the concept.

The text is consistent and thorough. The glossary of terms in the back is particularly helpful.

The text is divided into sections that are readable and that make sense for the student. Everything is presented well and has relevant titles.

It is organized in a logical, helpful manner. I would not change a thing about how the text is presented.

The books interface is perfect until Chapter 8 (pages 241-42). This section has a very helpful calendar example of how a student should break up working on their essay. The drawback is that the calendar is vertical and not easy to read. If this was flipped to a horizontal structure it would be easier to follow. Everything else in the book is set up well.

The book is grammatically sound.

The text is not insensitive in any way. There could be more inclusion of literature that includes a variety of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds.

An aspect that I really enjoyed was the style in which it was written. It is casual and accessible for the student. The author uses many examples that allow the student to see the relevance of the topic. There are a good number of diverse stories, plays, essays, and poems to look at. There are helpful links to outside sources, sample essays, and helpful diagrams to enhance the students' understanding.

Reviewed by Kathryn Enders, Lecturer, Shenandoah University on 7/17/19

As a textbook addressing students in a freshman composition course, "Writing and Literature" has very little about writing. Chapters on "The Literary Analysis Essay" and "The Research Paper" are pushed to the end of the book. The two paragraphs on... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 2 see less

As a textbook addressing students in a freshman composition course, "Writing and Literature" has very little about writing. Chapters on "The Literary Analysis Essay" and "The Research Paper" are pushed to the end of the book. The two paragraphs on "Articulating an Effective Thesis" fail to offer examples, and although sample student papers are later included, they do not identify the strengths or weaknesses of those papers or show the writing process. Overall, this is not a helpful textbook on composition. Nor is this textbook especially comprehensive when it comes to analyzing literature. The chapter on drama consists mostly of two complete plays that would be better accessed through online links. Chapters on poetry, fiction, and creative nonfiction are slightly more thorough. The questions about literature that seem to be the impetus for the subtitle "Composition as Inquiry, Learning, Thinking, and Communication" really are nothing more than questions at the end of a reading. Nothing new here!

Content Accuracy rating: 3

The information presented here is accurate enough, but shallow. An instructor could use the textbook as a starting point, perhaps, though many other textbooks provide this information in more accessible and engaging formats.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 1

With little variety of literature and few samples of the process of writing, this textbook is probably already irrelevant one year after publication with the content easily found elsewhere. As the author writes, "For success in any project, a writer must be aware of and carefully consider his [sic] audience." Unfortunately, Bennett did not take her own advice. This textbook does not address the situation of a contemporary student. For example, in arguing the benefits of writing about literature in a composition course, her first explanation is that an imaginary professor, Dr. Lopez, would have chosen this approach because, "He is better able to evaluate the effectiveness of your compositions if they are written on a topic with which he has some expertise." That rationale gives students little reason to want to read literature or write about it, other than to please the professor and get out of the class as quickly as possible.

Clarity rating: 3

The language used in this textbook is clear and defines terms used, but it fails to address its intended audience in an engaging, informative, and consistent way.

Consistency rating: 2

In some cases, this textbook refers students to other open-source locations to read the literature selections being discussed, but in other cases, it includes the entire text. This inconsistency makes sense (perhaps) with short texts like poetry, but not so much with the entirety of "The Tempest" and "Trifles". As a result the quality of chapters is uneven. This seems like an unfinished attempt.

Modularity rating: 1

As currently organized, this is not a course-friendly text. Also, more links to more literature selections would be helpful.

Chapters were clearly organized, though content was uneven. For a composition textbook, I would expect more discussion of writing earlier in the book.

No interface issues

I found no glaring grammatical errors except a reliance on the male generic pronoun.

The text assumes a male generic pronoun throughout; the literature chosen for analysis is Western canonical. At times, the author's voice seemed patronizing, as when she suggested students "probably enjoy reading certain kinds of texts, such as internet articles on your pet interests.... You may even have literary favorites."

I'm surprised that the ratings of this textbook have been so high despite the critical comments made by other reviewers. Is that because of getting high marks on "modularity" and "interface"? If this text were not available through the Open Textbook Library, it would not be worth purchasing. A big disappointment and I will not use it for my classes!

Reviewed by Thom Addington, Visiting Assistant Professor, Richard Bland College on 4/12/19

The "About the Book" section suggests an engagement in reconfiguring literature-centered composition practice in the age of social media and digital humanities. Ultimately, the textbook does not follow this through. While it references pop culture... read more

The "About the Book" section suggests an engagement in reconfiguring literature-centered composition practice in the age of social media and digital humanities. Ultimately, the textbook does not follow this through. While it references pop culture touchstones in video games and other media, these references are scattered across the text and not deployed in a way that generates critical discussion on expanding definitions of literature, literacy, and/or critical engagement through composition. As a result, the textbook repackages a very traditional understanding of literature and literary analysis in a way that makes it feel disconnected from the contemporary student. The recognition of one's passions, however, as important context(s) that impact reading and writing is well-taken and could perhaps be expanded and developed as a central contribution of a revised edition.

While the textbook is forthcoming about its literary bias, its treatment of texts and its assumptions about the reader lean towards universalizing. Moreover, its handling of new media and literary nonfiction is beginning to feel outdated.

The textbook's present content is relevant insofar as the canon (both categorically and by composition) remains so. It would be beneficial and impactful to look ahead to how the various literary genres, schools of criticism, and works are developing.

The textbook presents and unpacks literary and critical concepts in accessible prose.

The textbook is consistent in its structuring and unpacking of concepts and practices, but framing commentary is at times excluded in sections.

Modularity rating: 4

In certain chapters, the division among framing material, literary text, and student application could be demarcated more clearly. While the genre chapters could function as standalone units, the first three chapters build on one another in such a way that they must be assigned in order.

Individual chapters are introduced clearly and thoroughly, and each of the genre chapters could function as a standalone piece; however, some closer attention could be payed to the linkages between chapters after the first three.

Aside from the alignment of some tables, the textbook's interface is crisp and clean. There may be some benefit in reevaluating the use of font, color, and page arrangement, but these would be improvements rather than corrections. The centering of the literary text on the page in the short prose and drama sections does not inhibit reading, but it does make these sections border on the overly long and visually monotonous.

I found no grammatical errors.

As noted in previous reviews, the textbook draws its content almost exclusively from the Western literary canon; the majority of the works considered are written by white men. The textbook does engage the work of six writers of color: Charles Chesnutt, Langston Hughes, Robert Hayden, Paul Laurence Dunbar, Maya Angelou, and Gloria Anzaldua. Their respective works, however, are given marginal status. Angelou and Anzaldua, the only two women writers of color, are only listed in the “Also for Consideration” portions of their respective sections. While texts such as Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address,” and Shakespeare’s The Tempest invite inquiry into issues such as race, nationalism, and empire, the textbook does not enter this terrain.

Reviewed by Nicole Drewitz-Crockett, Associate Professor of English, Emory and Henry College on 4/11/19

Since this book is taking a particular approach to teaching college writing, it is not attempting to be comprehensive in subject matter. Instead, it focuses on ways composition can be taught through literature. In that vein, the text does a good... read more

Since this book is taking a particular approach to teaching college writing, it is not attempting to be comprehensive in subject matter. Instead, it focuses on ways composition can be taught through literature. In that vein, the text does a good job of moving instructors and students through a comprehensive process of reading closely and arguing effectively in a variety of literary genres. Although the text does not provide an index, it does offer a helpful glossary and several resources for instructors including possible themes and primary works and assignment ideas.

The content is accurate and easily digestible for students. It provides a good foregrounding in effective reading and argument before venturing into literary genres and analysis. The text does a good job of revealing its bias from the beginning; as a good example of argumentation, it indicates why a professor might choose to teach composition using literature rather than non-fiction.

Primarily because this text does not include a section of primary readings, it will have good longevity. Although the suggested thematic list of texts is helpful and there are some primary text examples weaved throughout the text, a given instructor can easily use any pieces of literature with this book.

This text is very clear and highly accessible. It is easy to read. While one could see it as "too easy" for a college audience, it invites the students to read difficult material outside of the text. In other words, it instructs them on how to read and how to argue in student-friendly prose so that they can clearly grasp the framework for reading more difficult materials outside of the text. This strategy is quite helpful when instructing a class of students whose abilities can vary widely.

It is consistent in terminology and framework throughout.

It would be difficult to take this text apart into modules that don't follow the prescribed organizational pattern. While an instructor could certainly teach the genres included in any order desired, the first three chapters build on one another to build the framework necessary for analyzing those genres.

The text is well-organized. It progresses clearly from foundational ideas and terms to genres in which one might practice using those ideas and terms.

This text is extremely straight forward. There are no issues in navigation; it is a basic chapter by chapter book in black and white. In fact, I would offer that as a slight criticism. Although there a couple of charts, some images would be helpful for student interest.

The book does not contain errors that disrupted my reading.

Of the primary text examples this book included and suggested for thematic courses, almost all of them are well-known, canonical texts. Although some women's voices and voices of color are included, the literary selections are primarily written by white men. This surprises me somewhat since I am familiar with Dr. Bennet's work on Appalachian author Lee Smith. Even though the primary texts in the book are limited, I will again state that the instructor would be able to easily add primary texts. Perhaps that is why "classic" texts were chosen.

Reviewed by James Gapinski, Instructional Specialist, Chemeketa Community College on 3/8/19

The description of this book seems to suggest that WRITING AND LITERATURE will explore how literary texts remain relevant and vital amid a modern era of hashtags and image-rich media. The book approaches this goal, but it never fully achieves it.... read more

The description of this book seems to suggest that WRITING AND LITERATURE will explore how literary texts remain relevant and vital amid a modern era of hashtags and image-rich media. The book approaches this goal, but it never fully achieves it. The introduction specifically situates this book as a beginning college-level reader, but the topics discussed feel at times esoteric, and at other times the book comes off as reductive. There are some moments when modern examples are peppered into this book—for example, there’s a sample that discusses the popular Call of Duty videogame franchise. However, the majority of this book does not directly deal with a deep discussion of how literature fits into a landscape dominated by new media. Moreover, the texts discussed often draw from a classic American and European texts, and there is not much time spent on new modes of thinking or diverse voices. Students reading this book are being told that literature is vital to their lives and that rhetorical analysis of literature builds crucial college-level skills, but this message falls flat when the text often resorts to the same Western canon that has already been drilled into their heads throughout high school. There is not enough expansion of knowledge here. Ultimately, the book feels like a stodgy literary text that has been dressed up with some approximations of a modern student’s perspective.

This book is relatively accurate, but it makes some assumptions about its audience and about new media that come off as reductive.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 2

WRITING AND LITERATURE will need substantial updating to remain relevant. The few examples of new media that are discussed will likely be obsolete in a couple years, and some other material already feels dated. The book’s central goal seems to be convincing students that classic modes of writing are still relevant, but it does not fully achieve this goal.

The book uses accessible language in most chapters, and new terms are quickly defined for readers. Transitions between chapters could be strengthened; the book’s main ideas are not always linked, and there are missed opportunities for callbacks or review of previous information. However, the book is clear and readable overall. Adept students will be able to identify the core themes and of each isolated chapter.

This book is consistent in its formatting. Chapter breaks are clear, bulleted lists help set key information apart, and sections are clearly marked. Students reading this book will discover a consistent layout and feel to each chapter.

WRITING AND LITERATURE has some clear modules, but many of them may be longer than they need to be. Breaking each section into smaller subsections could improve navigation, especially for students who have trouble synthesizing large swaths of text.

Individual chapters flow well; there is a logical internal progression. Overall, each chapter works well as a standalone piece. These pieces, however, do not always add up to a cohesive whole. The book is occasionally disjointed and transitions from one chapter to the next could be smoother.

There are some tables, samples, and lists to guide students. The use of color could be more thoughtful, and the chapters themselves could be enhanced with more explicit concluding ideas and next steps for students who want to apply their newfound knowledge. The interface is usable, but it could be improved with some additional special formatting.

I did not notice any glaring grammatical problems.

Cultural Relevance rating: 1

As mentioned by previous reviewers, this text relies heavily on a whitewashed Western canon. Obviously, an OER textbook author is often limited by licensing. However, there are many public domain works from diverse authors; there is no justifiable need to rely so heavily on a predominantly white male canon even in an OER textbook. A quick search of Project Gutenberg yields numerous diverse pieces of literature from the American civil rights era. Additionally, there are places in this book where the WRITING AND LITERATURE does not directly address or embed texts into the work, opting to simply recommend that students follow a URL to read a freely available website. This workaround could be used more thoughtfully in order to share contemporary work that is more universal, culturally relevant, and better aligns with the book’s rhetorical goals.

WRITING AND LITERATURE has a grand vision that is not fully executed. The idea is impressive, and I fully support texts that seek to venerate and celebrate literature in the composition classroom. I’d love to see an updated version that is more culturally competent, comprehensive, and strengthens its links to the lives of everyday students.

Reviewed by Cassandra Sachar, Assistant Professor, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania on 1/27/19

The book attempts to cover many different aspects related to writing and literature; however, due to the ambitious breadth, it often only skims the surface of many of the topics. For example, while I appreciate the background on different types of... read more

The book attempts to cover many different aspects related to writing and literature; however, due to the ambitious breadth, it often only skims the surface of many of the topics. For example, while I appreciate the background on different types of literary criticism in Ch. 2, there are no actual examples of the different critical approaches and no follow-up student exercises. Additionally, literary terms are defined throughout the book but are often not explained. The glossary, list of links for additional works of literature, and assignment ideas at the back of the book are well-organized and helpful.

I did not find any inaccuracies or biases, but many of the descriptions were not detailed enough, which I believe will lead to poor comprehension of several concepts for readers. For example, in order for a reader to understand blank verse, the book could easily show lines of poetry, but there is merely a short definition.

The writer incorporates examples from modern life that are sure to help college readers relate, but none of these should make this book seem outdated in the next decade or so, as I cannot imagine that social media (which she references) will become obsolete. From the book's description, which mentions "Buzzfeeds, hashtags, and Tweets," I expected more references to modern technology, but the author may be making a concerted effort to avoid discussing trends so as not to have the world outgrow her work too quickly. While I appreciate the inclusion of (mostly British) classic texts, I would have liked to see more modern writings, as well.

The writer maintains a pleasant, very readable style and strives to make her ideas accessible with many easy-to-relate analogies. However, there are times when the introduction to a concept goes on for far too long, causing the reader to lose focus, and then the concept itself is often not described in adequate detail. For example, there is a whole section about a student playing video games. The purpose of this is to explain the importance of forming a perspective, but it's very long-winded. Then, the student's full research paper is included, but there is no explanation on what was done well or poorly. Why not just share a snippet of the paper to illustrate a point?

The text uses consistent headings and organization; however, there are places where sample texts are given without much context. Some texts are introduced with focal areas and/or follow-up questions, yet others, such as the poems at the end of Ch. 4, are simply provided without direction. Also, I cannot understand why the book includes the entire play of _The Tempest_; why not just provide a piece and a link?

Every chapter is short (except the one that includes an entire play) and thus does not present an overwhelming reading assignment to a student. I do not believe the text needs to be presented in a linear fashion; there is such breadth to this book that the chapters could easily be mixed, matched, and/or left out.

Chapter titles and headings are informative. I believe some of the content presented in narrative form would be more easily accessible to the reader if formatted into bulleted lists. This would cut much of the wordiness.

The book is presented clearly with no distortions. The font is easy to read, and the writer uses color to her advantage, such as showcasing different methods of annotation. There are a few calendar pages which are printed sideways, but this is not really an issue.

I did not locate a single grammatical error. This text looks very professional.

Nothing in this book is culturally insensitive, and the author includes pieces from some writers of color. The literature is mostly American or British in origin and could include other parts of the world, but I do understand that the author is limited by copyright laws.

Reviewed by Joy Sanchez-Taylor, Associate Professor, LaGuardia Community College (CUNY) on 12/5/18

This text is well-organized and clearly addresses ways to write about different genres of literature. I like that the text begins by explaining how the study of literature can be relevant to students who are not English majors. The chapter follow... read more

This text is well-organized and clearly addresses ways to write about different genres of literature. I like that the text begins by explaining how the study of literature can be relevant to students who are not English majors. The chapter follow a logical progression and cover all of the major topic for literary analysis. I find Dr. Long Bennet to be very knowledgeable about her subject. My major critiques of the text are the separation of “fun reading” like science fiction and fantasy and “literary” readings. This view is an outdated classification. These days, literature professors are assigning a variety of literary works in their courses to try to fully engage students. Which leads me to my second criticism of the text: the choice of readings. I understand that with an open-access textbook, Dr. Long Bennet was limited in her choices of literary examples. But for future versions, it would be great if she could try to get permission to include more contemporary texts.

I find the text to be accurate overall. The descriptions of the critical perspectives could have been more detailed. Some of the citations will need to be updated to MLA 8 format. I particularly like the research essay checklist and glossary sections.

The overall advice for writing about literature will be relevant for many years. The MLA citation examples, however, will need to be updated whenever MLA changes their guidelines, which happened again recently.

Overall, I find the wording to be clear. I think some of the writing, such as the justifications for why non-English majors should write about literature, are a little wordy. Students don’t need every reason why they should write about literature; a few concise examples of how literary analysis can help them in other courses would be more effective.

The chapters are very consistently organized.

A professor could easily teach the genre chapters in whatever order they preferred.

The textbook has strong organization and flow.

Overall, the text was clear and the visuals were easy to read. Some of the visuals, such as the sample essay planning calendar, will need to be printed out for students to read because they are sideways in the text.

I would like to see examples of authors from a diverse range of backgrounds and time periods. Again, this is difficult to achieve when dealing with author permissions, but it is not impossible.

I plan to use some of the writing descriptions and materials in my course, but I will change the literary samples to include a more diverse range of authors.

Table of Contents

• Why Write About Literature?
• Chapter 1: Reading Like a Professional
• Chapter 2: Forming a Perspective on the Subject
• Chapter 3: Effective Argument
• Chapter 4: Experiencing the Power of Poetry
• Chapter 5: The Truths of Fiction
• Chapter 6: All the World's a Stage
• Chapter 7: Creative Nonfiction, The Fourth Genre
• Chapter 8: The Literary Analysis Essay
• Chapter 9: The Research Paper

Ancillary Material

• Ancillary materials are available by contacting the author or publisher .

About the Book

In the age of Buzzfeeds, hashtags, and Tweets, students are increasingly favoring conversational writing and regarding academic writing as less pertinent in their personal lives, education, and future careers. Writing and Literature: Composition as Inquiry, Learning, Thinking and Communication connects students with works and exercises and promotes student learning that is kairotic and constructive. Dr. Tanya Long Bennett, professor of English at the University of North Georgia, poses questions that encourage active rather than passive learning. Furthering ideas presented in Contribute a Verse: A Guide to First-Year Composition as a complimentary companion, Writing and Literature builds a new conversation covering various genres of literature and writing. Students learn the various writing styles appropriate for analyzing, addressing, and critiquing these genres including poetry, novels, dramas, and research writing. The text and its pairing of helpful visual aids throughout emphasizes the importance of critical reading and analysis in producing a successful composition. Writing and Literature is a refreshing textbook that links learning, literature, and life.

About the Contributors

Dr. Tanya Long Bennet, University of North Georgia

Contribute to this Page

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How to Write Dark Fantasy: A Guide for New Authors

One of the (many) great things about the new publishing landscape is the plethora of books available for all different tastes. No matter how strange or niche you think your tastes are, you're likely to find something that will scratch that particular itch.

While dark fantasy isn't all that niche, it's a broad enough genre that it contains a number of different subcategories and story types to appeal to a broad audience of avid readers. 

So in this article, I'll go over how to write dark fantasy readers will love. 

• The definition of dark fantasy
• What to do before you start writing your dark fantasy novel
• Tips for writing your dark fantasy

What is Dark Fantasy?

Dark fantasy is characterized by the mixture of sinister elements commonly found in horror, and fantastic settings and storylines commonly found in fantasy. While traditional fantasy novels usually have happy endings, this is not always the case for dark fantasy. Likewise, the books of this fantasy genre explore darker themes than the often black-and-white, good-vs-evil of other fantasy genres. 

The worlds in dark fantasy are often just that—dark. It's not always easy to tell the difference between the good guys and the bad guys. Morally ambiguous antiheroes are common protagonists in dark fantasy novels.

Different Types of Fantasy

To understand dark fantasy, it's important to make a distinction between it and other types of fantasy. Here's a brief overview of the most common fantasy subgenres . 

• High Fantasy – Sometimes called epic fantasy, these stories have clear heroes and villains and usually feature a wide-ranging conflict with extremely high stakes. You can often spot a high fantasy story by its extensive cast of characters and its epic storyline. 
• Low Fantasy – These stories usually feature some sort of magic from a fantasy world coming into the real world. In essence, these stories are a little more grounded in our reality than epic fantasy stories. 
• Urban Fantasy – Urban fantasy narratives usually take place in the modern day, in our world, where magic is used but not widely, and often not with the knowledge of the world at large. 
• Grimdark – Grimdark fantasy is dark fantasy cranked up to the utmost. Where there may be some pockets of goodness in a dark fantasy world, there's nothing but evil, war, pestilence, and backstabbers in a grimdark fantasy world.

It’s worth noting that there’s overlap between genres and definitions can vary depending on the source. 

Dark Fantasy Novels to Read

To get a feel for a good dark fantasy story , it's good to read what others have done before. The most well-known dark fantasy series is probably A Song of Ice and Fire by George R. R. Martin, thanks to the Game of Thrones HBO show. (That series could also be considered epic fantasy.) But it's important to read widely in the genre.  

Here are just a few excellent examples to get you started:

• The Citadel of Fear by Gertrude Barrows
• The Black Company series by Glen Cook
• Most of Clive Barker’s catalog
• Black Sun Rising by C.S. Friedman
• The Dark Tower series by Stephen King
• Prince of Thorns by Mark Lawrence
• The Malazan Book of the Fallen series by Steven Erikson
• Daughter of the Blood by Anne Bishop

Research Your Genre Before You Write

While there aren't a ton of dark fantasy categories on Amazon, it's still important to do your genre research before you start writing.

There is a dark fantasy category under the broader horror category, but there's also one in the teen and young adult category. In the past, Amazon would let you put your book in both adult and teen/young adult categories, but they've been cracking down on this recently.  

While they won't explicitly prevent you from selecting both major dark fantasy categories (yet), they're likely to simply remove your book from whichever category they feel doesn't fit and put it into one they feel suits the novel better, even if they're way off. 

This is why it's so important to research your genre first and determine which categories you will put your book in. If you're planning on writing a really dark and violent fantasy, you'll probably want to stick to the non-young adult categories. But then that begs the question: which three will you choose?

The less competitive the category, the more likely you are to rank in the top 100 . And if you can get into the top 100, you're more likely to get the algorithm to work for you to get organic sales. 

This is one big reason why we created Publisher Rocket. This tool pulls information directly from Amazon to give you easy-to-understand information about:

• Customer search terms related to dark fantasy and similar genres. 
• Category data to help you decide which three categories to put your book in. 
• Competition data so you can know what you’re up against in a given category. 
• Amazon ads keywords to use in your marketing efforts.  

Using this tool can help you get your dark fantasy novel out on the right foot from the moment you press publish. Check out Publisher Rocket here to learn more. 

How to Write Dark Fantasy: Writing Tips

Formatting has never been easier.

Write and format professional books with ease.  Never before has creating formatted books been easier.

The following tips can get you started on your dark fantasy story. Whether you like to outline or just fly by the seat of your pants, these tips can help you flesh out your story idea. 

Contemplate Your Fantasy World

One trope common among all types of fantasy is the world in which the story takes place. In a dark fantasy, the world is often dark and gritty. Maybe there's a curse on the land and the people within, or a vicious army that has come in and taken over what was once an idyllic kingdom. These are pretty basic examples, but you get the idea. 

Part of the fun is determining the logic of your fantasy world and why it is the way it is. The possibilities are endless when it comes to fantasy . You can create an entire magic system that operates within the world, or you can make magic a rarity in your world, only used by a select few crazy enough to try and tame it. It's completely up to you. 

When it comes to any societies in your fantasy world (those not already besieged by some Great Evil, anyway), don't shy away from the more unpleasant modes of operation. You'll often find that societies in dark fantasy novels are brutal and unforgiving, operating on the backs of slaves and crushing the weak under the constantly churning wheels of civilization. 

In some dark fantasy series, there's no such thing as a “good” society with a benevolent ruler. If there is, they're usually conquered during the course of the story. More often, you'll find bad and “less bad” societies, along with hordes of wild people and/or creatures who live outside the walls of “civilization,” such as it is.

Craft Your Protagonist

When I'm crafting a dark fantasy protagonist, I like to think of your average protagonists from Disney fairy tales and then do the opposite of that. Whether your main character is male or female, they should be deeply flawed, gruff, and the furthest thing from a traditional hero as you can think. 

Often, the protagonist in a dark fantasy doesn't have any truly heroic tendencies—just a goal in opposition to that of the antagonist. This goal is usually driven by pure selfishness, such as seeking riches, power, or revenge.

However, while dark fantasy readers expect these kinds of protagonists, it's still important to give the reader a reason to like yours. There are a number of ways to do this, such as making them funny, giving them a sympathetic past, or just having them demonstrate how not as bad they are compared to other brutes in your dark fantasy world.

Consider Magic and Creatures

As mentioned above, dark fantasy has elements of horror in it, often in the form of magic and magical creatures. While a traditional high fantasy novel may have cute unicorns and benevolent elves, a dark fantasy novel is more likely to have unicorns who are vicious and elves who kill anyone who crosses them with no questions asked. 

A dark fantasy book may also feature other fictional creatures , such as vampires, werewolves, and Eldritch gods in the vein of Cthulhu. 

When it comes to magic in a dark fantasy story, it's not going to be pretty. Often, using magic takes a terrible toll on the user, or requires some heinous sacrifice to use it in the first place. Those who wield it use it for evil, creating death, destruction, and disfigurement for pleasure or power. 

Other times, magic is barely used due to its difficulty or limited usefulness. When it is used, bad things tend to happen. 

Conjure Your Antagonist

There's something about a good antagonist that really gets the heart pumping. If you can make your readers understand but hate the Big Bad in your dark fantasy novel, it will go a long way to getting them invested in the story. 

Since there's no guarantee of a happy ending in these stories, the reader will want to see whether the villain is vanquished or not. Since dark fantasy doesn't often hold back on the gritty and brutal, you can really turn your antagonist up to eleven. 

Keep in mind that this doesn't have to be a human or even a human-like character. Although the books fall under the epic fantasy heading, Sauron from The Lord of the Rings trilogy is a great non-human antagonist.  

Your antagonist doesn't even have to be a single being. It could be a group, a curse, or even some powerful and destructive magical element that no one truly understands. 

Create Conflict

The key to any compelling fantasy story is conflict. What kind of conflict will depend on the story and characters, but it should be the driving force behind the plot. 

It's never a bad idea to study plot structures like the Hero's Journey , which has conflict built into it (as do other plot structures ). The conflict often starts when something pulls the main character out of their “ordinary world” (even if that world is filled with magical creatures and horrendous curses). 

The primary conflict should make sense for your characters. Again, this isn't usually the heroic prince heading off to save a damsel in distress. In dark fantasy, the protagonist is often acting out of purely selfish motivations.

Speaking of motivations, let's talk about character development. 

Develop Characters

While you'll often see a positive character arc for main characters in most other fantasy fiction. This is where the character changes for the better by the end of the story. 

Dark fantasy is a little different. While there's no rule against having a positive character arc in your novel, it's more common to have a flat arc or a negative arc. 

As you can probably imagine, a flat arc is where the character doesn't noticeably change. They may learn a new skill or overcome challenges, but they don't change internally. 

A negative arc is where the character changes for the worse. This is possible even when your character accomplishes their goal. If they're motivated by revenge or a quest for riches at the cost of their morality, a negative arc is common even when there's a “happy” ending for the character.  

Consider Your Ending

Like other genre fiction, you'll want to end your fantasy story with an exciting climax . While this often includes action of some sort, like a battle or a head-to-head confrontation, any action you include should be meaningful for the characters involved. 

Remember your dark fantasy book doesn't have to have a happy ending. It can have an unhappy ending or a neutral one where the outcome is neither good nor bad for your main character—they end up not accomplishing their goal but not losing everything either. 

The part of your book after your climax is also the place to set up the next book if you're writing a series. 

Stick to a Writing Habit

Like all artistic endeavors, creative writing only pays off when you do it consistently. In the beginning, creating a writing habit can be difficult, but you can do small things to reinforce the habit and help you do it every day. 

This is why the team at Atticus has added a writing goal tool. You simply set your goal for whatever days of the week you want, and Atticus will record your words as you write in the app. It will let you know when you've reached your goal and how many words you have left. This is a simple but effective way to reinforce your writing habit. 

When you're ready to bring your dark fantasy world to life, having the right tools can make all the difference. That's where Atticus comes in. This powerful book writing and formatting software is designed with authors in mind, offering features that are particularly useful for fantasy writers.

With Atticus, you can easily organize your complex world-building notes, keep track of your gritty characters, and set writing goals to maintain consistency in your dark fantasy writing journey. Its distraction-free writing environment allows you to immerse yourself fully in your brooding universe.

Once your manuscript is ready, Atticus seamlessly transitions to formatting, ensuring your dark fantasy novel looks as professional and captivating on the page as it does in your imagination. Whether you're publishing an ebook or print version, Atticus has you covered.

Ready to elevate your dark fantasy writing experience? Check out Atticus at and see how it can transform your writing process.

How to Write Dark Fantasy: Conclusion   

As a dark fantasy author, you get to create a brutal and unforgiving world populated by unique characters and creatures with a one-of-a-kind set of rules. This type of dark fiction has a ready-made audience of hungry readers looking for books similar to the ones they love. If you can hit all the right tropes and present your book with a professional cover and a great-looking interior, it's very possible to make a living as a fantasy writer!

Dave Chesson

When I’m not sipping tea with princesses or lightsaber dueling with little Jedi, I’m a book marketing nut. Having consulted multiple publishing companies and NYT best-selling authors, I created Kindlepreneur to help authors sell more books. I’ve even been called “The Kindlepreneur” by Amazon publicly, and I’m here to help you with your author journey.

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Americans Are Actually More Unified on Political Issues Than We Think

W e’ve been told for years that Americans are irreconcilably polarized. Neighbors, family members, and friends have grown apart based on political differences. Party affiliation signals whether you are “friend” or “foe.” We live in separate echo chambers on social media. Most of us  won’t even date people  who don’t share our political persuasions.

But perhaps there is more common ground between us than meets the eye. The Harris Poll , which has tracked public opinion for over 60 years, recently reran a 2022 survey on the issues that matter most to Americans. While our bitter partisanship appears worse on the surface today than it did two years ago, a deeper dive reveals the possibility for greater unity across political parties.

Over the last two years, the number of Americans who see potential for broad agreement on kitchen table issues actually increased. People are optimistic about the possibility for consensus on a range of priorities including the economy, the environment, criminal justice, health care, education, and international relations. Many believe there is considerable space to come together and form consensus: Nearly 60% of U.S. adults claim they are receptive to new ideas, and two-in-three U.S. adults believe that political ideology is not an important part of their identity.

Further, polling by counter-polarization organization More in Common reveals a “perception gap” : both sides of the spectrum overestimate by about 30% the extremism of the other side. That gap warps our views and leads both sides to violate norms in the mistaken belief that the other side is going to do it so we must do it first. It turns out that reducing that gap, by talking with and perhaps serving alongside people with whom we may disagree, both humanizes our political opponents and helps us see we may not be as far apart as we thought.

Read More: Americans Are Tired of Political Division. Here’s How to Bridge It

With this knowledge at our fingertips, it is our job to narrow the gap between the divisions we see and the hunger for unity we all privately share.

That’s why the three of us—who each hail from different corners of the political spectrum—are joining forces to help Americans get to know each other again, so we can rediscover our shared commitment to basic values and find common-sense solutions to the challenges we face. Our combined push for unity isn’t designed to promote “universal consensus.” Democracy thrives on disagreement, debate, and dissent—and that will not change. But our great American experiment requires universal commitment to the process of healthy disagreement, competition, and bargaining. As Constitutional scholar Yuval Levin wrote recently, “unity does not mean thinking alike; unity means acting together.”

While most Americans feel confident in their moral compass, fewer feel confident in expressing opinions with those they disagree with. Four in five (79%) agree that they trust themselves to do the right thing, yet only half (51%) feel confident respectfully expressing their beliefs to someone with whom they disagree. But a majority of Americans (58%) also think democracy is stronger when citizens can have respectful discussions with each other about topics on which they disagree.

By working together, we can rediscover how to disagree without being disagreeable. A host of bipartisan and nonpartisan organizations have emerged in recent years aiming to cool the political temperature and foster national unity. Initiatives like Disagree Better , Listen First Project , and Starts With Us promote civil engagement and respectful dialogue—left, right, and center. These programs, and others, are helping Americans to unite in mending the cracks in our national political community. More people are listening first and disagreeing better— and that’s a start.

The three of us aren’t naive about the challenge of the work ahead. It is exponentially more difficult to build than to break. Strengthening institutions and civic bonds doesn’t come easy. But destroying them does.

While progress isn’t pre-ordained, progress is possible. Change starts with individuals stepping up to make a difference. We are calling on everyone to help us heal the divisions within our communities—from reconnecting with that friend you wrote off because of political differences, to running for office in a way that helps unite instead of divide. It also takes everyone recognizing that we are on the same team, as Americans, and sharing a commitment to respect and accommodation where we agree and civil disagreement where we differ.

If public opinion is any indication, there are more of “us” than we once thought. Let’s not miss this opportunity to bring our country together again.

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49 Procter & Gamble Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on procter & gamble, 🎓 most interesting procter & gamble research titles, 💡 simple procter & gamble essay ideas.

• Procter & Gamble Company Environmental and SWOT Analysis
• Procter and Gamble (P&G): Strategic Management
• P&G and Unilever Open Innovation Case Study
• L’Oreal and Procter & Gamble Companies Financial Analysis
• Procter & Gamble Company’s Marketing Audit
• Wal-Mart and Procter & Gamble: From Rivalry to Partnership
• The Procter & Gamble Advertising Campaign Analysis
• P&G Supply Chain Management: International Business
• Procter and Gamble on the China Market
• Customer Stories: Procter & Gamble
• Procter & Gamble: Financial Analysis & SWOT Insights
• Learning From Procter & Gamble’s Value Pricing Strategy
• Procter & Gamble Organisation and People Management
• Successful Sustainability Strategy: Procter & Gamble
• Procter & Gamble: Global Business Services
• The Strengths That Propel Procter & Gamble to Success
• Procter & Gamble’s Global Reach Changing
• Internationalization at Procter & Gamble: A Brief Summary of Cross-Cultural Convergence
• Procter & Gamble: Changing the Face of Consumer Marketing
• Leadership & Development: Careers at Procter & Gamble
• Procter & Gamble’s Sustainable Business Practices
• Connect and Develop: Inside Procter & Gamble’s New Model for Innovation
• Procter & Gamble’s Digital Leap: Digital Solutions and AI Applications
• The History of Procter & Gamble’s Brand Strategy
• Procter & Gamble, Global Partners Create Value and Sustainable Growth
• Total Unduplicated Reach and Frequency Optimization at Procter & Gamble
• Procter & Gamble’s Green Initiatives: Decarbonization and Sustainability in India
• Financial and Marketing Performance of Procter & Gamble and Unilever
• Procter & Gamble and Its Innovation in Artificial Intelligence
• Procter & Gamble: Pulse of the Consumer
• Leveraging Technology to Improve the Lives of Procter & Gamble Consumers
• Procter & Gamble: A Titan in Turbulent Times
• Achieving Business Success in the Fourth Industrial Revolution: The Case of Procter & Gamble
• Procter & Gamble: History, Popular Brands and Products
• History of Procter & Gamble: Timeline and Facts
• Market Analysis of the Procter & Gamble Company
• Procter & Gamble: Company Strategies and Challenges
• Leadership, Disruption, and Innovation at Procter & Gamble
• The Strategic Impact of Procter & Gamble’s Stringent Supplier Regulation and Oversight
• Procter & Gamble-Committed to Innovation & Growth That Grows
• Chinese-Oriented Advertising Strategy of Procter & Gamble
• Procter & Gamble’s Blueprint for Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Leadership
• An Example of Open Innovation Success With Procter & Gamble
• Procter & Gamble’s Generic Competitive Strategy & Growth Strategies
• The Manufacturing Success Story of Procter & Gamble: From One Store to a Global Brand
• Changing the Game in Strategic Sourcing at Procter & Gamble: Expressive Competition Enabled by Optimization
• Procter & Gamble: Founding History and the Company’s Formula for Success
• Brand Management and Marketing Careers at Procter & Gamble
• Procter & Gamble Corporation: Value Co-Creation Through Open Innovation

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Healthier, happier, fairer: new research shows major life benefits from decarbonising transport

Associate Professor in Public Health, University of Otago

Disclosure statement

Caroline Shaw received funding from the Health Research Council of New Zealand for this work, which was also supported by the University of Otago.

University of Otago provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.

University of Otago provides funding as a member of The Conversation NZ.

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With walking and cycling funding halved in the government’s recently released National Land Transport Programme , and a weaker transport emissions reduction plan, the potential health benefits of a low-carbon transport system have hit a real speed bump.

This is a pity, because one of the great promises of low-carbon transport is the health improvements that can accompany certain policy choices. Health is tangible, while decarbonisation policy is often complex and highly technical. People care deeply about health, both physical and mental.

However, we are now faced with climate and transport policy options that will have radically different implications for health.

To explore this, we looked at two distinct future transport pathways described by the Climate Change Commission. We found the choices New Zealand makes now will be crucial to improving people’s lives in the near future.

Transport and health

We already know transport systems cause a lot of disease and harm from air and noise pollution, physical inactivity and injury. Cancer, asthma, heart disease, premature birth, depression and dementia have all been linked to the effects of transport emissions.

It is hard to precisely quantify the health impacts of New Zealand’s current transport system. But we know it has a greater effect than tobacco , causes thousands of premature deaths each year and adds avoidable burdens to strained health services.

These impacts do not fall equally on different parts of the population. People with low incomes, for example, are more likely to die from road traffic injury. We also know those who drive the most (and have the most environmental impact) tend to experience the least adverse transport-related health outcomes.

Reducing transport emissions involves a series of choices about how we decarbonise. For example, we can emphasise vehicle electrification, change urban design, or pursue combinations of both.

To explore the health implications of this, our new research quantifies two possible transport pathways outlined in the Climate Change Commission’s 2021 advice to the government, Ināia tonu nei: a low emissions future for Aotearoa .

Behaviour and technology

Focusing on population health, health system costs, health inequity and transport greenhouse gas emissions, we modelled household travel under the two most distinct pathways out to 2050. We then compared these to the current transport system (as of 2018).

The two pathways – “further behaviour change” and “further technology change” – both rely on increasing public transport and reducing vehicle travel per person by 2050. The behaviour pathway achieves the most in those areas and includes a large increase in cycling.

Both pathways require a transition to electric cars, but the technology pathway gets to a 100% electric light fleet by 2050 compared to 89% in the behaviour pathway.

Compared to the 2018 transport system, we found both pathways would save lives, reduce health system costs and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, the health gains were around two-and-half times greater in the behaviour pathway than the technology pathway (health savings were three times larger).

This was primarily because of the increased physical activity in this pathway. Lifecycle emissions reductions (for example, from the manufacture and destruction of a car, as well as driving it) were quite similar between the two pathways.

Similar impacts to tobacco reduction

We also modelled how the pathways would affect existing health inequities. We found the behaviour pathway could contribute to reducing healthy life expectancy differences between Māori and non-Māori.

This depended on how policies are implemented: the fairer the transport system, the better it is for health equity.

The potential health benefits of the behaviour pathway are of the same magnitude as those seen from tobacco market interventions such as a 10% tax increase and creation of a smoke-free generation.

These results are quite conservative, too. The Climate Change Commission assumed only minimal changes in walking. But the policies needed to deliver this pathway are all likely to increase walking substantially. And even the policies needed to achieve the technology pathway would increase walking.

Moreover, our health model itself is conservative. For example, we know the positive impacts of the behaviour pathway on mental health would be considerably larger than we were able to model.

Health and fairness

These findings also relate to the government’s emissions reduction plans, which were published after the Climate Change Commission delivered its advice.

The behaviour change pathway is similar to the approach taken in the first emissions reduction plan from 2022, so we can assume there would be comparable health impacts. In contrast, the approach in the draft second emissions reduction plan , published this year, is radically different.

This newer plan focuses on the emissions trading scheme (a pricing tool), increasing electric car charging infrastructure, and a few public transport projects (mainly in Auckland).

These policies are unlikely to have much impact on land transport emissions. Nor will they achieve the health benefits of even the technology pathway. Other transport policies – speed limit increases, expanded road building and weaker vehicle emissions standards – will likely counteract any potential benefits from the second emissions reduction plan, as well as make health worse.

This research illustrates how the way we choose to decarbonise transport is important. It adds to other local research showing that moving to a “planet-friendly” diet would result in large health, health equity and climate benefits.

Collectively these studies demonstrate how we can decarbonise in ways that meaningfully improve lives. And we can build support for climate policy by focusing on the things people truly value, such as health and fairness.

The author gratefully acknowledges her fellow researchers and co-authors on this project: Anja Mizdrak, Ryan Gage and Melissa McLeod, University of Otago; Rhys Jones and Alistair Woodward, University of Auckland; and Linda Cobiac, Griffith University.

• New Zealand
• Public transport
• Health equity
• Transport emissions
• Health costs
• Road transport
• transport injuries
• NZ Climate Change Commission
• NZ Emissions Reduction Plan
• New research, Australia New Zealand

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