science experiments properties of materials

Learn about the properties of materials as you experiment with a variety of objects in this great science activity for kids. Discover the interesting characteristics of materials; are they flexible, waterproof, strong or transparent? Play around with the objects and see what interesting facts you observe. Test the properties of metal, paper, fabric, rubber and glass before using a blueprint to make objects from the different materials. Try making a car tire, saucepan, towel, notebook, sports bottle and window, what happens when you try making them from the wrong material? Why are some better suited than others? Kids will enjoy the challenge of this cool, interactive game.

Not working? Try downloading the game and running it through flash player from your desktop.

Download Material Properties Game

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Year 5: Properties of materials

Properties and Changes of Materials has been split into two lists , which look at properties and changes of materials and changes of state.This list consists of lesson plans and activities to support the teaching of properties and changes of materials in Year Five. It contains tips on using the resources, suggestions for further use and background subject knowledge. Possible misconceptions are highlighted so that teachers may plan lessons to facilitate correct conceptual understanding. Designed to support the new curriculum programme of study it aims to cover many of the requirements for knowledge and understanding and working scientifically. The statutory requirements are that children are taught to:

· compare and group together everyday materials based on evidence from comparative and  fair tests, including their hardness, solubility, transparency, conductivity (electrical and thermal), and response to magnets

· understand that some materials will dissolve in liquid to form a solution, and describe how to recover a substance from a solution

· use knowledge of solids, liquids and gases to decide how mixtures might be separated, including through filtering, sieving and evaporating

·  give reasons, based on evidence from comparative and fair tests, for the particular uses of everyday materials, including metals, wood and plastic

· demonstrate that dissolving, mixing and changes of state are reversible changes

Visit the primary science  webpage to access all lists.

Properties and Changes of Materials *suitable for home teaching*

Quality Assured Category: Science Publisher: Sigma Science

Activity ideas and worksheets which support the teaching of materials and their properties, good for homework sheets.

The Chemedian: Starting Secondary School

Quality Assured Category: Science Publisher: University of the West of England (Bristol)

Introduce dissolving with this colourful comic, which children will love. Carrying out an investigation which looks at the effect of temperature on dissolving will highlight the importance of fair testing. Further investigations look at different factors, such as the speed of stirring and the weight of salt added.

Children often confuse dissolving and melting so it is worth discussing the difference and providing examples of each.

Melting requires heat and dissolving requires a solvent to take place. Further information and activity ideas may be found here .

Growing Crystals

Quality Assured Category: Science Publisher: Centre for Science Education

Children will often describe a solid as 'disappearing' when it dissolves in a solvent such as water, because this is what they observe. This activity is a great way of showing them that salt is still present in the resulting solution and how to recover. Children could use a microscope to observe and draw the shapes of some of the resulting crystals as the water evaporates from the solution and the salt appears.

Although salt or sugar is generally used for this activity, alum (aluminium potassium sulfate) will grow the best crystals and is available from any chemical supplier.

How can we clean our dirty water?

Quality Assured Category: Careers Publisher: Royal Society

This resource provides a set of videos and a practical investigation aimed at supporting experimental science in the classroom and relating it to real world experiences.   In the first video Professor Brian Cox joins a teacher to find out how to set up and run an investigation to find out how to turn dirty water into clean water. Provided with a water mixture including stones, sand and salt children are asked to separate it to get pure water using sieves, filters and evaporation. In the next video he then joins the class carrying out their investigation. Further videos show Brian Cox visiting a sewage treatment plant to see how sewage is cleaned by various processes so it can be returned to rivers. He also meets a scientist using chromatography as a separation technique. 

Kitchen Concoctions

Quality Assured Category: Science Publisher: Centre for Industry Education Collaboration (CIEC)

Children can explore a range of mixtures, through fun kitchen science practicals and scenarios. 

Pinch of Salt

Children can explore solutions, evaporation and filtering through the real world applications of salt.

Plastics Playtime

Children can explore the properties of materials, including thermal insulation, through a range of activities linked to plastics.

Runny Liquids

A range of activities linked to Y5 materials, investigating properties of liquids.

Polymers: Physical Testing

Quality Assured Category: Physics Publisher: Centre for Industry Education Collaboration (CIEC)

Activities linked to year 5 materials.

Product Design: Polymers in Sleeping Bags

Quality Assured Category: Design and technology Publisher: Centre for Industry Education Collaboration (CIEC)

Product Design: Sports Shoes

Product design: pop bottles, let sleeping bags lie.

Lots of activities to test different properties of materials.

Science Specials Needs Supplement

Lots of real life problems for children to solve involving materials and their properties.

Science of Healthy Skin

Relates to Y5 materials.

Pulp to paper (in forces and recycling)

Children explore materials through making their own recycled paper.

May 2, 2011

It's a Solid... It's a Liquid... It's Oobleck!

Bring Science Home: Activity 1

By Katherine Harmon

Getty Images

Key concepts Liquids and solids Viscosity Pressure From National Science Education Standards : Properties of objects and materials

Introduction Why is it so hard to get out of quicksand? Is it a solid? Is it a liquid? Can it be both? In this activity, you will make a substance that is similar to quicksand—but much more fun. Play around with it and find out how it acts differently from a normal liquid and a normal solid. Other, more familiar substances change states (from solids to liquids to gases) when we change the temperature, such as freezing water into ice or boiling it away into steam. But this simple mixture shows how changes in pressure, instead of temperature, can change the properties of some materials. Background Applying pressure to the mixture increases its viscosity (thickness). A quick tap on the surface of Oobleck will make it feel hard, because it forces the cornstarch particles together. But dip your hand slowly into the mix, and see what happens—your fingers slide in as easily as through water. Moving slowly gives the cornstarch particles time to move out of the way. Oobleck and other pressure-dependent substances (such as Silly Putty and quicksand) are not liquids such as water or oil. They are known as non-Newtonian fluids. This substance's funny name comes from a Dr. Seuss book called Bartholomew and the Oobleck .

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Materials •    1 cup of water •    1 to 2 cups of cornstarch •    Mixing bowl •    Food coloring (optional) Preparation •    Pour one cup of cornstarch into the mixing bowl, and dip your hands into it. Can you feel how smooth the powder is? It's made up of super-fine particles. •    Now pour the water in, mixing slowly as you go. Keep adding more water until the mixture becomes thick (and hardens when you tap on it). Add more cornstarch if it gets too runny, and more water if it becomes too thick. •    Add a few drops of food coloring if desired. (If you want to turn your Oobleck another hue, it’s easier to add the coloring to the water before you mix it with the cornstarch.) •    Oobleck is non-toxic, but please use caution when doing any science activity. Be careful not to get it in your eyes, and wash your hands after handling the Oobleck. Procedure •    Roll up your sleeves and prepare to get messy! Drop your hands quickly into the Oobleck, then slowly lower your hands into it. Notice the difference! •    Hold a handful in your open palm— what happens? •    Try squeezing it in your fist or rolling it between your hands— how does it behave differently? •    Move your fingers through the mixture slowly, then try moving them faster. •    What else can you do to test the mixture's properties? •    Extra: If you have a large plastic bin or tub, you can make a big batch of Oobleck. Multiply the quantity of each ingredient by 10 or more and mix it up. Take off your shoes and socks and try standing in the Oobleck! Can you walk across it without sinking in? Let you feet sink down and then try wiggling your toes. What happens?

Read on for observations, results and more resources.

Observations and results What is happening when you squeeze the Oobleck? What is happening when you release the pressure? Does the Oobleck remind you of anything else? The Oobleck mixture isn't your typical liquid—or solid. The cornstarch-and-water mixture creates a fluid that acts more like quicksand than water: applying force (squeezing or tapping it) causes it to become thicker. If you were trapped in a tub of Oobleck, what would be the best way to escape? Share your Oobleck observations and results! Leave a comment below or share your photos and feedback on Scientific American 's Facebook page . Cleanup Wash hands with water. Add plenty of extra water to the mixture before pouring it down the drain. Wipe up any dried cornstarch with a dry cloth before cleaning up any remaining residue with a damp sponge. More to explore " What is Jell-O? " from Scientific American " Ask the Experts: What Is Quicksand? " from Scientific American " States of Matter " overview from Idaho Public Television's Dialogue for Kids Slime and Goo activities from the American Chemical Society's Science for Kids Oobleck, Slime & Dancing Spaghetti: Twenty terrific at-home science experiments inspired by favorite children's books by Jennifer Williams, ages 4–8 The Everything Kids' Easy Science Experiments Book: Explore the world of science through quick and easy experiments! By J. Elizabeth Mills, ages 9–12 Up next… The Magic of Gravity What you'll need •    Coin •    Bottle, jar or canister with a small top opening (larger—but not too much bigger—than the coin) •    3- by-5-inch note card or other sturdy piece of paper •    Scissors •    Tape •    Pen or pencil •    Water (optional)

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72 Easy Science Experiments Using Materials You Already Have On Hand

Because science doesn’t have to be complicated.

If there is one thing that is guaranteed to get your students excited, it’s a good science experiment! While some experiments require expensive lab equipment or dangerous chemicals, there are plenty of cool projects you can do with regular household items. We’ve rounded up a big collection of easy science experiments that anybody can try, and kids are going to love them!

Easy Chemistry Science Experiments

Easy physics science experiments, easy biology and environmental science experiments, easy engineering experiments and stem challenges.

1. Taste the Rainbow

Teach your students about diffusion while creating a beautiful and tasty rainbow! Tip: Have extra Skittles on hand so your class can eat a few!

Learn more: Skittles Diffusion

2. Crystallize sweet treats

Crystal science experiments teach kids about supersaturated solutions. This one is easy to do at home, and the results are absolutely delicious!

Learn more: Candy Crystals

3. Make a volcano erupt

This classic experiment demonstrates a chemical reaction between baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and vinegar (acetic acid), which produces carbon dioxide gas, water, and sodium acetate.

Learn more: Best Volcano Experiments

4. Make elephant toothpaste

This fun project uses yeast and a hydrogen peroxide solution to create overflowing “elephant toothpaste.” Tip: Add an extra fun layer by having kids create toothpaste wrappers for plastic bottles.

5. Blow the biggest bubbles you can

Add a few simple ingredients to dish soap solution to create the largest bubbles you’ve ever seen! Kids learn about surface tension as they engineer these bubble-blowing wands.

Learn more: Giant Soap Bubbles

6. Demonstrate the “magic” leakproof bag

All you need is a zip-top plastic bag, sharp pencils, and water to blow your kids’ minds. Once they’re suitably impressed, teach them how the “trick” works by explaining the chemistry of polymers.

Learn more: Leakproof Bag

7. Use apple slices to learn about oxidation

Have students make predictions about what will happen to apple slices when immersed in different liquids, then put those predictions to the test. Have them record their observations.

Learn more: Apple Oxidation

8. Float a marker man

Their eyes will pop out of their heads when you “levitate” a stick figure right off the table! This experiment works due to the insolubility of dry-erase marker ink in water, combined with the lighter density of the ink.

Learn more: Floating Marker Man

9. Discover density with hot and cold water

There are a lot of easy science experiments you can do with density. This one is extremely simple, involving only hot and cold water and food coloring, but the visuals make it appealing and fun.

Learn more: Layered Water

10. Layer more liquids

This density demo is a little more complicated, but the effects are spectacular. Slowly layer liquids like honey, dish soap, water, and rubbing alcohol in a glass. Kids will be amazed when the liquids float one on top of the other like magic (except it is really science).

Learn more: Layered Liquids

11. Grow a carbon sugar snake

Easy science experiments can still have impressive results! This eye-popping chemical reaction demonstration only requires simple supplies like sugar, baking soda, and sand.

Learn more: Carbon Sugar Snake

12. Mix up some slime

Tell kids you’re going to make slime at home, and watch their eyes light up! There are a variety of ways to make slime, so try a few different recipes to find the one you like best.

13. Make homemade bouncy balls

These homemade bouncy balls are easy to make since all you need is glue, food coloring, borax powder, cornstarch, and warm water. You’ll want to store them inside a container like a plastic egg because they will flatten out over time.

Learn more: Make Your Own Bouncy Balls

14. Create eggshell chalk

Eggshells contain calcium, the same material that makes chalk. Grind them up and mix them with flour, water, and food coloring to make your very own sidewalk chalk.

Learn more: Eggshell Chalk

15. Make naked eggs

This is so cool! Use vinegar to dissolve the calcium carbonate in an eggshell to discover the membrane underneath that holds the egg together. Then, use the “naked” egg for another easy science experiment that demonstrates osmosis .

Learn more: Naked Egg Experiment

16. Turn milk into plastic

This sounds a lot more complicated than it is, but don’t be afraid to give it a try. Use simple kitchen supplies to create plastic polymers from plain old milk. Sculpt them into cool shapes when you’re done!

17. Test pH using cabbage

Teach kids about acids and bases without needing pH test strips! Simply boil some red cabbage and use the resulting water to test various substances—acids turn red and bases turn green.

Learn more: Cabbage pH

18. Clean some old coins

Use common household items to make old oxidized coins clean and shiny again in this simple chemistry experiment. Ask kids to predict (hypothesize) which will work best, then expand the learning by doing some research to explain the results.

Learn more: Cleaning Coins

19. Pull an egg into a bottle

This classic easy science experiment never fails to delight. Use the power of air pressure to suck a hard-boiled egg into a jar, no hands required.

Learn more: Egg in a Bottle

20. Blow up a balloon (without blowing)

Chances are good you probably did easy science experiments like this when you were in school. The baking soda and vinegar balloon experiment demonstrates the reactions between acids and bases when you fill a bottle with vinegar and a balloon with baking soda.

21 Assemble a DIY lava lamp

This 1970s trend is back—as an easy science experiment! This activity combines acid-base reactions with density for a totally groovy result.

22. Explore how sugary drinks affect teeth

The calcium content of eggshells makes them a great stand-in for teeth. Use eggs to explore how soda and juice can stain teeth and wear down the enamel. Expand your learning by trying different toothpaste-and-toothbrush combinations to see how effective they are.

Learn more: Sugar and Teeth Experiment

23. Mummify a hot dog

If your kids are fascinated by the Egyptians, they’ll love learning to mummify a hot dog! No need for canopic jars , just grab some baking soda and get started.

24. Extinguish flames with carbon dioxide

This is a fiery twist on acid-base experiments. Light a candle and talk about what fire needs in order to survive. Then, create an acid-base reaction and “pour” the carbon dioxide to extinguish the flame. The CO2 gas acts like a liquid, suffocating the fire.

25. Send secret messages with invisible ink

Turn your kids into secret agents! Write messages with a paintbrush dipped in lemon juice, then hold the paper over a heat source and watch the invisible become visible as oxidation goes to work.

Learn more: Invisible Ink

26. Create dancing popcorn

This is a fun version of the classic baking soda and vinegar experiment, perfect for the younger crowd. The bubbly mixture causes popcorn to dance around in the water.

27. Shoot a soda geyser sky-high

You’ve always wondered if this really works, so it’s time to find out for yourself! Kids will marvel at the chemical reaction that sends diet soda shooting high in the air when Mentos are added.

Learn more: Soda Explosion

28. Send a teabag flying

Hot air rises, and this experiment can prove it! You’ll want to supervise kids with fire, of course. For more safety, try this one outside.

Learn more: Flying Tea Bags

29. Create magic milk

This fun and easy science experiment demonstrates principles related to surface tension, molecular interactions, and fluid dynamics.

Learn more: Magic Milk Experiment

30. Watch the water rise

Learn about Charles’s Law with this simple experiment. As the candle burns, using up oxygen and heating the air in the glass, the water rises as if by magic.

Learn more: Rising Water

31. Learn about capillary action

Kids will be amazed as they watch the colored water move from glass to glass, and you’ll love the easy and inexpensive setup. Gather some water, paper towels, and food coloring to teach the scientific magic of capillary action.

Learn more: Capillary Action

32. Give a balloon a beard

Equally educational and fun, this experiment will teach kids about static electricity using everyday materials. Kids will undoubtedly get a kick out of creating beards on their balloon person!

Learn more: Static Electricity

33. Find your way with a DIY compass

Here’s an old classic that never fails to impress. Magnetize a needle, float it on the water’s surface, and it will always point north.

Learn more: DIY Compass

34. Crush a can using air pressure

Sure, it’s easy to crush a soda can with your bare hands, but what if you could do it without touching it at all? That’s the power of air pressure!

35. Tell time using the sun

While people use clocks or even phones to tell time today, there was a time when a sundial was the best means to do that. Kids will certainly get a kick out of creating their own sundials using everyday materials like cardboard and pencils.

Learn more: Make Your Own Sundial

36. Launch a balloon rocket

Grab balloons, string, straws, and tape, and launch rockets to learn about the laws of motion.

37. Make sparks with steel wool

All you need is steel wool and a 9-volt battery to perform this science demo that’s bound to make their eyes light up! Kids learn about chain reactions, chemical changes, and more.

Learn more: Steel Wool Electricity

38. Levitate a Ping-Pong ball

Kids will get a kick out of this experiment, which is really all about Bernoulli’s principle. You only need plastic bottles, bendy straws, and Ping-Pong balls to make the science magic happen.

39. Whip up a tornado in a bottle

There are plenty of versions of this classic experiment out there, but we love this one because it sparkles! Kids learn about a vortex and what it takes to create one.

Learn more: Tornado in a Bottle

40. Monitor air pressure with a DIY barometer

This simple but effective DIY science project teaches kids about air pressure and meteorology. They’ll have fun tracking and predicting the weather with their very own barometer.

Learn more: DIY Barometer

41. Peer through an ice magnifying glass

Students will certainly get a thrill out of seeing how an everyday object like a piece of ice can be used as a magnifying glass. Be sure to use purified or distilled water since tap water will have impurities in it that will cause distortion.

Learn more: Ice Magnifying Glass

42. String up some sticky ice

Can you lift an ice cube using just a piece of string? This quick experiment teaches you how. Use a little salt to melt the ice and then refreeze the ice with the string attached.

Learn more: Sticky Ice

43. “Flip” a drawing with water

Light refraction causes some really cool effects, and there are multiple easy science experiments you can do with it. This one uses refraction to “flip” a drawing; you can also try the famous “disappearing penny” trick .

Learn more: Light Refraction With Water

44. Color some flowers

We love how simple this project is to re-create since all you’ll need are some white carnations, food coloring, glasses, and water. The end result is just so beautiful!

45. Use glitter to fight germs

Everyone knows that glitter is just like germs—it gets everywhere and is so hard to get rid of! Use that to your advantage and show kids how soap fights glitter and germs.

Learn more: Glitter Germs

46. Re-create the water cycle in a bag

You can do so many easy science experiments with a simple zip-top bag. Fill one partway with water and set it on a sunny windowsill to see how the water evaporates up and eventually “rains” down.

Learn more: Water Cycle

47. Learn about plant transpiration

Your backyard is a terrific place for easy science experiments. Grab a plastic bag and rubber band to learn how plants get rid of excess water they don’t need, a process known as transpiration.

Learn more: Plant Transpiration

48. Clean up an oil spill

Before conducting this experiment, teach your students about engineers who solve environmental problems like oil spills. Then, have your students use provided materials to clean the oil spill from their oceans.

Learn more: Oil Spill

49. Construct a pair of model lungs

Kids get a better understanding of the respiratory system when they build model lungs using a plastic water bottle and some balloons. You can modify the experiment to demonstrate the effects of smoking too.

Learn more: Model Lungs

50. Experiment with limestone rocks

Kids  love to collect rocks, and there are plenty of easy science experiments you can do with them. In this one, pour vinegar over a rock to see if it bubbles. If it does, you’ve found limestone!

Learn more: Limestone Experiments

51. Turn a bottle into a rain gauge

All you need is a plastic bottle, a ruler, and a permanent marker to make your own rain gauge. Monitor your measurements and see how they stack up against meteorology reports in your area.

Learn more: DIY Rain Gauge

52. Build up towel mountains

This clever demonstration helps kids understand how some landforms are created. Use layers of towels to represent rock layers and boxes for continents. Then pu-u-u-sh and see what happens!

Learn more: Towel Mountains

53. Take a play dough core sample

Learn about the layers of the earth by building them out of Play-Doh, then take a core sample with a straw. ( Love Play-Doh? Get more learning ideas here. )

Learn more: Play Dough Core Sampling

54. Project the stars on your ceiling

Use the video lesson in the link below to learn why stars are only visible at night. Then create a DIY star projector to explore the concept hands-on.

Learn more: DIY Star Projector

55. Make it rain

Use shaving cream and food coloring to simulate clouds and rain. This is an easy science experiment little ones will beg to do over and over.

Learn more: Shaving Cream Rain

56. Blow up your fingerprint

This is such a cool (and easy!) way to look at fingerprint patterns. Inflate a balloon a bit, use some ink to put a fingerprint on it, then blow it up big to see your fingerprint in detail.

57. Snack on a DNA model

Twizzlers, gumdrops, and a few toothpicks are all you need to make this super-fun (and yummy!) DNA model.

Learn more: Edible DNA Model

58. Dissect a flower

Take a nature walk and find a flower or two. Then bring them home and take them apart to discover all the different parts of flowers.

59. Craft smartphone speakers

No Bluetooth speaker? No problem! Put together your own from paper cups and toilet paper tubes.

Learn more: Smartphone Speakers

60. Race a balloon-powered car

Kids will be amazed when they learn they can put together this awesome racer using cardboard and bottle-cap wheels. The balloon-powered “engine” is so much fun too.

Learn more: Balloon-Powered Car

61. Build a Ferris wheel

You’ve probably ridden on a Ferris wheel, but can you build one? Stock up on wood craft sticks and find out! Play around with different designs to see which one works best.

Learn more: Craft Stick Ferris Wheel

62. Design a phone stand

There are lots of ways to craft a DIY phone stand, which makes this a perfect creative-thinking STEM challenge.

63. Conduct an egg drop

Put all their engineering skills to the test with an egg drop! Challenge kids to build a container from stuff they find around the house that will protect an egg from a long fall (this is especially fun to do from upper-story windows).

Learn more: Egg Drop Challenge Ideas

64. Engineer a drinking-straw roller coaster

STEM challenges are always a hit with kids. We love this one, which only requires basic supplies like drinking straws.

Learn more: Straw Roller Coaster

65. Build a solar oven

Explore the power of the sun when you build your own solar ovens and use them to cook some yummy treats. This experiment takes a little more time and effort, but the results are always impressive. The link below has complete instructions.

Learn more: Solar Oven

66. Build a Da Vinci bridge

There are plenty of bridge-building experiments out there, but this one is unique. It’s inspired by Leonardo da Vinci’s 500-year-old self-supporting wooden bridge. Learn how to build it at the link, and expand your learning by exploring more about Da Vinci himself.

Learn more: Da Vinci Bridge

67. Step through an index card

This is one easy science experiment that never fails to astonish. With carefully placed scissor cuts on an index card, you can make a loop large enough to fit a (small) human body through! Kids will be wowed as they learn about surface area.

68. Stand on a pile of paper cups

Combine physics and engineering and challenge kids to create a paper cup structure that can support their weight. This is a cool project for aspiring architects.

Learn more: Paper Cup Stack

69. Test out parachutes

Gather a variety of materials (try tissues, handkerchiefs, plastic bags, etc.) and see which ones make the best parachutes. You can also find out how they’re affected by windy days or find out which ones work in the rain.

Learn more: Parachute Drop

70. Recycle newspapers into an engineering challenge

It’s amazing how a stack of newspapers can spark such creative engineering. Challenge kids to build a tower, support a book, or even build a chair using only newspaper and tape!

Learn more: Newspaper STEM Challenge

71. Use rubber bands to sound out acoustics

Explore the ways that sound waves are affected by what’s around them using a simple rubber band “guitar.” (Kids absolutely love playing with these!)

Learn more: Rubber Band Guitar

72. Assemble a better umbrella

Challenge students to engineer the best possible umbrella from various household supplies. Encourage them to plan, draw blueprints, and test their creations using the scientific method.

Learn more: Umbrella STEM Challenge

Plus, sign up for our newsletters to get all the latest learning ideas straight to your inbox.

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Course info, instructors.

• Prof. Francesco Stellacci
• Prof. Linn Hobbs
• Prof. Silvija Gradecak

Departments

• Materials Science and Engineering

As Taught In

• Quantum Mechanics
• Thermodynamics

Learning Resource Types

Materials laboratory.

This page summarizes the structure and goals of the class labs, and presents the background notes for most experiments.

Lab Structure and Goals

The class of typically 50 students is divided into six lab groups. During each lab week, six separate 4-hour experiments run simultaneously, grouped into three topical themes. Each lab group conducts 1 of the 2 experiments grouped under each theme (α, β, γ). Hence, each lab group will perform 3 experiments per lab week, totaling to 12 experimental sessions of 4-hours each over the course of the semester.

Each lab experiment is designed to give students first-hand experience with the concepts developed in the lecture subject 3.012 . In addition, students gain familiarity with common tools for materials characterization, including differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), x-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning probe microscopy (AFM/STM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV/Vis, Raman and FTIR spectroscopy, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS).

To prepare for specific labs, students are provided with background notes tailored to the experiment to be conducted. The notes, linked in the table below, provide background information and suggest supplementary readings, but do not generally detail the specific experiments to be conducted, or the procedures involved.

Students are responsible for recording procedure, data, data analysis in their laboratory notebooks, and build their formal laboratory reports based on these recordings.

Grading Approach for Lab Notebooks ( PDF )

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Science- Properties and Changes of materials- Testing materials- Year 5

Subject: Primary science

Age range: 7-11

Resource type: Lesson (complete)

Last updated

24 May 2024

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In this lesson, students will look at what the properties of materials are e.g. hard, waterproof, reflective, electronically conductive. They will watch an engaging video displaying this and will carry out their own tests on various materials following the experiment sheet.

A list of equipment required is detailed as well as example experiments that can be used to test the various materials for their properties. They will record their observations and then look at what materials would be best to suit certain properties suggested.

This lesson is one of 6 lessons on Properties and Changes of Materials. To view the other lessons, please visit: https://www.tes.com/teaching-resources/shop/ResourcesForYou/Primary science

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A bundle is a package of resources grouped together to teach a particular topic, or a series of lessons, in one place.

Science- Properties and Changes of Materials BUNDLE Year 5

This BUNDLE contains 6 lessons of teaching material which span from 1-2 hours of content per lesson. The lessons follow the sequence: Lesson 1- Testing properties of materials Lesson 2- Thermal conductors and insulators Lesson 3- Dissolving Lesson 4- Separating Mixtures Lesson 5- Reversible and Irreversible Changes Lesson 6- Planning own Investigation Lessons come with an interactive presentation, video links and experiment sheets to follow. They deliver a comprehensive overview of Properties and Changes of Materials and do so in an engaging way. These lessons have been designed for Year 5 students but can be easily adapted to suit KS2 or KS3 students.

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Chemistry archive

Course: chemistry archive   >   unit 1.

• The history of atomic chemistry
• Dalton's atomic theory

Discovery of the electron and nucleus

• Rutherford’s gold foil experiment

• J.J. Thomson's experiments with cathode ray tubes showed that all atoms contain tiny negatively charged subatomic particles or electrons .
• Thomson's plum pudding model of the atom had negatively-charged electrons embedded within a positively-charged "soup."
• Rutherford's gold foil experiment showed that the atom is mostly empty space with a tiny, dense, positively-charged nucleus .
• Based on these results, Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of the atom.

Introduction: Building on Dalton's atomic theory

• All matter is made of indivisible particles called atoms , which cannot be created or destroyed.
• Atoms of the same element have identical mass and physical properties.
• Compounds are combinations of atoms of 2 ‍   or more elements.
• All chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms.

J.J. Thomson and the discovery of the electron

• The cathode ray is composed of negatively-charged particles.
• The particles must exist as part of the atom, since the mass of each particle is only ∼ ‍   1 2000 ‍   the mass of a hydrogen atom.
• These subatomic particles can be found within atoms of all elements.

The plum pudding model

Ernest rutherford and the gold foil experiment, the nuclear model of the atom.

• The positive charge must be localized over a very tiny volume of the atom, which also contains most of the atom's mass. This explained how a very small fraction of the α ‍   particles were deflected drastically, presumably due to the rare collision with a gold nucleus.
• Since most of the α ‍   particles passed straight through the gold foil, the atom must be made up of mostly empty space!
• Thomson proposed the plum pudding model of the atom, which had negatively-charged electrons embedded within a positively-charged "soup."

Attributions

• “ Evolution of Atomic Theory ” from Openstax, CC BY 4.0 .
• " Atomic Theory " from UC Davis ChemWiki, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 US .

Additional References

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• Published: 21 June 2024

Science and applications of 2.5D materials: development, opportunities and challenges

• Hiroki Ago   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0908-5883 1 , 2 &
• Pablo Solís-Fernández   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1001-5874 1 , 2  

NPG Asia Materials volume  16 , Article number:  31 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Electronic properties and devices
• Two-dimensional materials

Research on two-dimensional (2D) materials has made tremendous progress reflecting their unique properties and promising applications. In this perspective, we review the novel concept of “2.5-dimensional (2.5D) materials”, which represent new opportunities to extend the field of materials science beyond 2D materials. This concept consists of controlling van der Waals interactions and using interlayer nanospaces to synthesize new materials and explore their intriguing properties. It also includes combination with other dimensional materials, the fabrication of three-dimensional (3D) architectures of 2D materials, and practical applications in our 3D everyday life. We discuss recent research based on this concept and provide future perspectives.

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Introduction.

The first report of the exfoliation of graphene in 2004 strongly impacted the scientific field of nanoscience and nanotechnology 1 . Specifically, this report introduced the previously missing two-dimensional (2D) category to the research of low-dimensional materials 2 , which had previously focused on one-dimensional (1D) structures, such as nanotubes and nanowires, and zero-dimensional (0D) structures, such as fullerenes and nanoparticles. Since then, 2D materials have been extensively studied from both fundamental science and application viewpoints 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 . We attribute the widespread interest in 2D materials to three main reasons, as listed below:

Thinning a bulk crystal down to atomically thin 2D materials results in unique physical properties distinct from those of their bulk counterparts due to quantum confinement within the isolated 2D structure. Furthermore, their atomically thin structure makes 2D materials optically transparent and mechanically flexible, making them perfect candidates for use in ultrascaled electronic devices. Two of the most representative materials to show the differences between 2D and 3D materials include monolayer graphene, with its extraordinarily high carrier mobility originating from its linear band dispersion and the emergence of quantum effects 6 , and the strong photoluminescence (PL) of monolayer transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) due to the substantial change from indirect to direct band gap 4 . However, this quantum confinement is not the only fascinating aspect of 2D materials.

A large number of layered materials existing in nature have been re-discovered as atomically thin 2D materials, offering a wide variety of physical properties 3 , 7 , 8 . These materials are not only limited to electrical conductors, semiconductors, and wide-gap insulators but also include more exotic materials, such as superconductors, ferromagnets and topological insulators 7 , 8 . The emergence of these various 2D materials has extended the research field of 2D materials and allowed to combine them for new functionalities. As a result, many promising applications have been proposed and extensively investigated. These applications include post-silicon electronics, high-speed communication, quantum technologies, large-area flexible electronics, photodetectors, various types of sensors, and energy storage/generation 7 .

The weak interlayer interaction of 2D materials provides great flexibility when they are assembled into heterostructures without constraints on the materials, lattice mismatch and/or twist angle between adjacent layers 3 . This allows the production of heterostructures with a freedom that is not possible with bulk three-dimensional (3D) materials, and with sharp interfaces providing a 2D nanospace between layers 8 .

The multiple integration of 2D materials by either stacking or in-plane interconnection offers a new class of nanomaterials whose physical properties are significantly different from those of the original 2D materials. In addition, the well-defined nanospace created by stacked 2D materials can serve as a platform for developing new structures and phenomena. Additionally, many opportunities are available to modify the 2D structure and properties, either chemically or structurally or via combination with other dimensional materials. Therefore, such new material systems should be distinguished from traditional 2D materials. Thus, we propose the term “2.5-dimensional (2.5D) materials” 8 , which represents a new concept beyond 2D materials.

What are 2.5D materials?

While 2D materials are fascinating, the integration of multiple 2D materials or their modification introduces a more captivating domain that not only offers opportunities to observe new interesting phenomena but also sets the stage for performance enhancements, which effectively expands the playground of 2D materials. Recently, we proposed the novel concept of “2.5D materials”, expressing new possibilities and the future of materials science beyond the realm of 2D materials 8 . The additional 0.5D symbolizes extra degrees of freedom in the materials, composition, angles, and space typically used in 2D materials research. In other words, the 2.5D concept is related to the artificial control and utilization of van der Waals interactions. This 2.5D framework also aims to bridge the gap between 2D materials and 3D architectures, allowing the incorporation of 2D materials into practical applications in our 3D-based everyday life.

In Fig. 1 , we illustrate a variety of examples that showcase the diverse family of 2.5D materials. The ability to produce stacks of 2D materials, either in homo- or heterostacks, is facilitated by van der Waals interactions between layers (Fig. 1a ) 3 . This interlayer interaction can significantly modify the electronic, optical, and magnetic properties of the original isolated layers and introduce novel phenomena, as in the case of interlayer excitons in TMD stacks 9 . The ease of assembling these stacks, coupled with their versatility, wide spectrum of properties and potential applications, make this area one of the most interesting and rapidly evolving fields of 2.5D materials research. Recent research has proven the intimate relationship between the properties of 2D materials and moiré superlattices that arise from slightly different lattice constants and/or small twist angles between stacked 2D layers 10 . This relationship offers new opportunities to observe novel emerging properties, such as superconductivity in twisted bilayer graphene (BLG) 6 . It is also worth mentioning the essential role in stacks of 2D materials of multilayer hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), which provides an effective screening from the environment and allows realizing the intrinsic properties of the stacked materials 3 , 6 .

Various types of 2.5D materials are available, including multi-component stacked ( a ) and in-plane b heterostructures, intercalations ( c ), combinations with other dimensional materials ( d ), functionalizations ( e ), and 3D architectures with 2D materials ( f ).

The study of 2D heterostacks has been accelerated by advances in stacking and transfer techniques and the general handling of 2D materials 11 . Table 1 compares the vertical stacking of 2D materials with other methods widely used to produce materials. Most materials, such as inorganic thin films and molecules, are based on rigid chemical bonds (e.g., ionic and covalent bonds). Consequently, their structures are strongly limited by the formation of chemical bonds and by their lattice constants. van der Waals interactions, whose strength is roughly 1/100 that of the abovementioned rigid chemical bonds, can be found in self-assembled structures and molecular crystals. However, these systems tend to have the most energetically stable structures. In contrast, the stacking of 2D materials offers an essentially new approach for synthesizing materials by artificially controlling van der Waals interactions regardless of the composition and structure of these materials 3 . This strategy constitutes new route for synthesizing novel van der Waals materials, which are part of the realm of 2.5D materials.

While the stacking of 2D materials has attracted significant attention, other fascinating aspects encompassed within the 2.5D framework should be noted. In-plane heterostructures (Fig. 1b ) are another class of 2.5D materials in which two or more 2D materials are connected by covalent bonds, such as MoS 2 -WS 2 and graphene-hBN heterostructures 5 . These heterostructures offer a unique platform for the exploration of new device functionalities. By combining selected materials and controlled growth, in-plane heterostructures can lead to ultimately thin functional layers. In addition, the boundary between two neighboring materials can provide a unique 1D electronic structure and enable the spatial modulation of the band structure due to the stitching of two different layered materials. In contrast to stacking (Fig. 1a ), in-plane heterostructures generally require direct growth, as adjacent layers are connected by covalent bonds 8 . Highly controlled CVD growth has been used to synthesize alternating in-plane arrays, such as WS 2 -WSe 2 heterostructures, which can be regarded as unique quasi-1D superlattices of each TMD 12 .

The sharp interface between vertically stacked 2D layers provides a unique 2D nanospace, with interlayer gaps typically below 1 nm, and is characterized by the different surface energies and electronic properties of adjacent 2D materials (Fig. 1c ) 5 . This interlayer nanospace can be used to accommodate different ions and molecules, similar to the intercalation of bulk van der Waal layered materials, such as graphite intercalation compounds (GICs). However, compared to that of bulk materials, the atomic thickness of 2D materials can yield unique results. For example, the nanospace of 2.5D stacks can be easily expanded compared with that of bulk materials due to the mechanical flexibility of thin 2.5D materials. In addition, intercalation in heterostacks, which consist of different 2D materials for the upper and lower layers, can be also interesting, and such case is not possible in bulk materials. These aspects significantly diverge from those found in traditional intercalations of bulk materials and are readily accessible for analysis techniques, such as various electron microscopies 13 , 14 . Furthermore, the synthesis of materials within this confined 2D nanospace is expected to lead to the production of novel materials, even those considered unstable, owing to the stabilization and protection offered by 2D layered materials. In this context, hBN can prove to be highly beneficial. As an electrical insulator with high optical transparency, hBN allows both the electrical and optical investigation of materials in the nanospace.

Another field of 2.5D materials involves the integration of 2D materials with other dimensional materials, such as 0D quantum dots and 1D nanotubes and nanowires (Fig. 1d ). This integration can be achieved not only through traditional functionalization methods, such as the chemisorption or physisorption of chemical species, but also by interfacing 2D materials with 0D/1D entities, such as plasmonic particles, quantum dots, or nanowires 3 , 10 , or by the controlled inclusion of point/linear defects 15 . This approach can significantly alter the electronic and optical properties of the original 2D materials.

Another approach to fabricate 2.5D materials is to directly modify 2D materials. TMD Janus structures can be produced by replacing one of the chalcogen layers of a monolayer TMD with different chalcogen atoms (Fig. 1e ), resulting in properties that include vertical piezoelectricity or the Rashba effect, with applications in nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) and spintronics 16 . Additionally, chemical functionalization has been employed to tune the electrical transport properties of the original 2D material. This approach has enabled advancements, such as the precise fabrication of p- or n-type transistor channels and the creation of p-n junctions within a single TMD grain 17 . Geometric modifications, such as nanoscrolls or periodic ripples, will also increase the physical dimension of layered 2D materials and modify their properties.

2D materials are promising for a wide range of applications, including electronics, photonics, and energy storage and conversion, and are expected to enrich our daily life. However, current industrial processing methods are predominantly focused on 3D materials. The processing and integration of 2D materials present unique challenges that must be addressed to enable their widespread integration into industrial manufacturing processes. In this context, the 2.5D framework serves as a bridge, filling the gap between the 2D and 3D worlds by easing the implementation of 2D layered materials into tangible 3D architectures (Fig. 1f ). One of the most advanced applications of this concept is the development of next-generation integrated circuits based on TMD materials, as shown in Fig. 1f . These circuits can circumvent the short channel effect and maintain high carrier mobilities, even for ultrathin, 1 nm-thick channels 7 . Gate-all-around (GAA) and nanosheet devices with TMD channels are expected to provide high-performance transistors that are difficult to establish in the silicon electronics 18 . Many challenges should be addressed to develop such cutting-edge devices consisting of 2D materials.

Research topics in 2.5D materials science

In this section, we outline some of the subjects that need to be investigated in 2.5D materials research. The wafer-scale growth of various high-quality 2D materials is essential because these wafers act as building blocks of different types of 2.5D materials 10 . For this purpose, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and metal-organic CVD (MOCVD) are currently the most promising methods. The synthesis of novel types of layered materials is also very important because the production of many 2D materials still relies on mechanical exfoliation from bulk crystals. Recently, significant progress has been made in the development of 2D material stacking (transfer) techniques with the aid of machine learning and robotics. These technologies enable the autonomous identification of the materials and their thickness, automatically producing stacks with the desired thicknesses, layer compositions, and angles 10 . The development of facile, clean, and large-scale transfer techniques that can avoid breakage, bubbles, wrinkles, and contamination is also important 11 .

Analysis methods with high sensitivity and spatial resolution specialized for atomically thin 2D/2.5D materials also urgently need to be developed because the analysis of such atom-thick materials is much more difficult than that of their bulk counterparts. Specifically, the development of quantitative analysis methods that can determine the concentrations of defects and impurities in 2D materials is especially important because even low concentrations of these defects can significantly alter the properties of 2D materials. Such alterations impact not only the practical applications of these materials but also open up avenues for the exploration of novel functionalities 15 .

Ultimately, the development of applications and the move toward commercialization are eagerly expected to accelerate 2.5D materials research. Such advanced research will not only accelerate application-focused studies but also stimulate basic research.

Recent progress and achievement

In this section, we explain some of the most representative results demonstrating the concept of 2.5D materials. Given their importance and maturity, advances regarding the production of stacked structures are the most significant 10 . BLG can be considered one of the simplest structures of 2.5D materials, but still its physical properties strongly depend on the stacking angle of the two layers 8 , 10 . While AB-stacked BLG has a tunable bandgap, the discovery of the superconducting state in magic-angle twisted BLG sparked increased interest in the study of twisted structures 6 , including twisted TMDs 10 . Interlayer excitons are observed when two semiconducting TMD layers are stacked together, emitting light with energies different from those of the original layers 8 . As shown in Fig. 2a, b , such excitons can be confined by the moiré potential of the stack, producing distinctive narrow emission peaks. This approach provides a method to tune the light emission by controlling the twist angle and/or the material being stacked, which is important for applications in quantum optics, such as coherent quantum emitters and quantum computing 9 , 19 .

a moiré superlattice of twist stacked MoSe 2 and WSe 2 monolayers 19 . b Illustration of the moiré exciton and the light emission from the excitons measured at low temperature 9 . c . STEM image and atomic models of bilayer alkali metals stored in BLG 14 . d Three 2D structures of AlCl 3 molecules observed inside the interlayer nanospace of BLG 13 . e Schematic of the synthesis of an in-plane heterostructure by the CVD method and a STEM image of an alternating heterostructure of WS 2 and WSe 2 12 . f Schematic of the nanoscroll and cross-sectional STEM image of the SnS 2 -WSe 2 hetero-nanoscroll 20 . g Illustration of the MoSSe Janus monolayer and a cross-sectional annular dark-field STEM image 16 . h Illustration of molecular doping on monolayer WSe 2 and the resulting transfer curves of WSe 2 transistors functionalized with two types of different p-/n-type dopant molecules 17 . i Cross-sectional TEM image and elemental mapping images of a GAA transistor with a MoS 2 channel surrounded by a high- k dielectric layer 18 . j Illustration of monolithic 3D integration of 2D material-based transistor and memristor arrays 21 . k Photographs of the tape transfer of monolayer graphene and a flexible thermal sensor arrays array based on tape-transferred graphene 11 . a , b Reproduced with permission from the American Chemical Society. c , f , g , j , k . Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature. d , h Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH. e Reproduced with permission from AAAS. i . Reproduced with permission from IOP Publishing.

The sharp interface between layers provides an exceptional nanospace that can be used as a nanoreactor to confine molecules and ions and produce novel nanostructures that otherwise might not be fabricated. Figure 2c shows that the interlayer nanospace in BLG can store two layers of alkali metals (K, Rb, and Cs), unlike the single layer of alkali produced in the interlayer of graphite, reflecting the high flexibility of BLG 14 . Moreover, AlCl 3 molecules intercalated in BLG were also found to exhibit unique 2D network structures that have never been observed in bulk AlCl 3 crystals (Fig. 2d ) 13 . These results indicate that the van der Waals nanospace offers an interesting platform for observing new structures and unique phenomena.

The growth of in-plane heterostructures has been widely studied 8 . For instance, in-plane WS 2 -WSe 2 heterostructures can be synthesized by precisely tuning the feedstock supply (Fig. 2e ) 12 . This method is of particular interest because it allows the production of 1D alternating arrays of TMD nanoribbons. Nanoscrolls, as shown in Fig. 2f , can also be considered as a form of 2.5D materials created by rolling 2D materials into a 3D structure. Scrolling heterostacks of 2D materials allow the production of nanoscrolls that can be regarded as multi-stacked 2D layers in the radial direction (e.g., SnS 2 /WS 2, as shown in Fig. 2f ) 20 . Janus TMD materials are also attractive because they have electronic structures that are different from those of the original TMD sheets (Fig. 2g ) 16 . In addition, Janus TMD has a dipole perpendicular to the plane, giving rise to out-of-plane ferroelectricity. Figure 2h shows the effects of molecular functionalization of WSe 2 . By selecting the adsorbed molecules, both p- and n-type conduction were achieved in WSe 2 transistors 17 . Complementary metal oxide (CMOS) operation was also demonstrated by combining these two types of WSe 2 transistors. The interplay between point defects and the twist angle has also been used to produce controlled light emission at the interface of hBN layers 15 .

Nanosheet transistors and GAA transistors are attractive targets for next-generation devices. As displayed in Fig. 2i , the GAA structure has been demonstrated using monolayer MoS 2 , in which the MoS 2 channel is surrounded by a high- k dielectric layer to effectively apply a gate voltage 18 . The monolithic 3D integration of 2D material-based electronics, as depicted in Fig. 2j , can offer an interesting multifunctional platform. Here, layers of 2D material-based device components with different functionalities are integrated into vertical architectures 21 .

Notably, the transfer and handling processes of 2D materials are very important for assisting in the development of 2.5D materials research and the fabrication of 2.5D-based devices 10 . As displayed in Fig. 2k , we have recently demonstrated a facile method to transfer 2D materials on a large scale using functional tape whose adhesive force is tunable by exposure to ultraviolet light 11 . This method can be applied to stack different 2D materials on a large scale, even on plastic and nonflat substrates, and save materials by cutting the tapes after adhering the 2D materials.

Future outlook

In this perspective, we reviewed our novel concept of 2.5D materials and the important research subjects related to this concept, along with the recent development of scientific research. The future prospects of these exciting material systems are illustrated in Fig. 3 . This viewpoint provides new opportunities to explore the science and technologies of nanomaterials. The science of 2.5D materials has accelerated with the recent development of CVD/MOCVD syntheses and handling techniques for 2D materials, possibly with the assistance of machine learning and robotics 10 . Recently, the term “multidimensional” has been sometimes used, but here, we propose “2.5D materials” to maintain a greater focus on 2D materials. We selected this focus because 2D materials are promising for both science and applications due to their compatibility with modern device architectures and high processability. Thus, we expect that this 2.5D concept will further stimulate the development of advance materials science research and practical applications. In Japan, we are organizing a national project named “Science of 2.5 Dimensional Materials: Paradigm Shift of Materials Science Toward Future Social Innovation”, which is supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) from 2021 to 2026 ( https://25d-materials.jp/en/ ). In this project, over 50 principal investigators have been collaborating extensively to facilitate breakthroughs in this exciting field.

In the 2.5D materials science era, a wide variety of materials are integrated to develop new, intriguing properties and many exciting applications.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by a JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas “Science of 2.5 Dimensional Materials: Paradigm Shift of Materials Science Toward Future Social Innovation” (KAKENHI grant numbers JP21H05232, JP21H05233), JSPS KAKENHI grant numbers JP24H00407, JP23K17863, JP21K18878, JST CREST grant numbers JPMJCR18I1, JPMJCR20B1. H.A. acknowledges Profs. S. Okada, Y. Miyata, K. Matsuda, M. Koshino, K. Ueno, K. Nagashio, and Y. Takamura for their fruitful discussions.

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Hiroki Ago & Pablo Solís-Fernández

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H.A. wrote the text and prepared the figures. P.S.F. reviewed and edited the paper. Both authors discussed the content together.

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Ago, H., Solís-Fernández, P. Science and applications of 2.5D materials: development, opportunities and challenges. NPG Asia Mater 16 , 31 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41427-024-00551-x

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Automating NIF Beam-Timing Delays

Members of the NIF hardware, software, process and operations teams came together to improve NIF shot rates and reliability with a new fiber-delay backlighter (FDBL) process. Reviewing a fiber selection prior to installation in the Master Oscillator Room are (from left) automated FDBL system co-responsible individuals Russ Fleming and Dave Mathisen; Alex DeLand, integrated fiber system specialist; and Brad Golick, NIF timing system manager. Credit: James Pryatel

For many NIF experiments, data from different stages of the experiment as it evolves in time can provide insights into such areas of interest as the ability of materials to resist growing hydrodynamic instabilities and the properties of low-density plasmas as they expand away from the target.

To increase the facility’s usefulness to experimenters, in 2013 the NIF Team developed a unique long-delay backlighter (LDBL) capability that made it possible to propagate backlighter beams at delays of up to one microsecond after the initial laser pulse (backlighters irradiated by several of the NIF beams provide the illuminating radiation that enables diagnostic equipment to record experimental results). The long-delay capability has been used in more than a dozen NIF material strength and other high energy density experiments in the last two years (see " Experiments Test High-Pressure Material Response ").

But setting up an experiment for an LDBL shot, and then restoring the system to normal operations, was time-consuming and labor-intensive. "The overhead was quite extensive," said Dave Mathisen, Integrated Computer Control System shot timing system engineer. "There was always at least a four-hour delay in just setting up for one of these shots."

The shots required the installation of additional lengths of fiber in the Master Oscillator Room (MOR), where each NIF shot originates, to shift the timing of the laser "window" on the backlighter beams (see "I njection Laser System "). Then a software script was run to redefine timing points throughout the beamline for the value of the additional fiber, while saving the initial values. "It would basically be tricking the shot automation system downstream to not really know whether or not we had a (new) fiber installed at all," Mathisen said.

"Then there was a manual inspection of hundreds of lines of data," added Gordon Brunton of NIF Computing Applications. "Changes that were being proposed needed to be reviewed by subject-matter experts to make sure that what we were intending to do was going to achieve the desired results." After the shot, the extra fiber was uninstalled, the set points were restored to their original values, and the normal timing was verified. The total process required about four hours before the shot and another four hours afterward, or about one complete shot cycle.

This year, as part of NIF’s continuing efforts to increase its shot rate in part through efficiency improvements, a multi-program team set out to streamline and automate the LDBL process. "We took a long view of it," Mathisen said. "We met with customers, we met with the User Office, we met with everybody who had a stake in it." Shot RIs (responsible individuals), fiber fabricators, experimentalists, diagnostics analysists, and shot automation and logistics experts were consulted to develop a new process, called the fiber delay backlighter (FDBL) system.

Set Procedures and Guidance

"It was an automation of the process on the front end," Mathisen said. When users decide to employ the long-delay process, the system provides feedback about the availability of the required fibers and the cost of ordering new fibers, if needed. If the user approves, the fibers, which are fabricated in-house, are prepared and the experiment is run.

The system also provides set procedures and guidance that allows the fibers to be installed in the MOR by trained technicians, eliminating the need for timing experts to handle the setup. Data system tools validate that the timing system is capable of supporting the requested delays. "That was all manually done previously by manual timing qualification," said Brunton. With the FDBL process, setup and teardown time has gone from four hours before and after the shot to 40 to 50 minutes per shot, depending on the number of quads employing the delays.

Another FDBL feature is the ability to change the delay time in different quads, so data from multiple backlighters can be obtained. "The shot users are all very excited about using the system because it’s much easier for them to visualize," Mathisen said. "They get instant feedback when they’re planning. All kinds of optimizations fall out of this because of the ability to see what we’re doing."

The FDBL system was used in four recent Discovery Science experiments designed to study the star-formation process in molecular hydrogen clouds, such as the famous "Pillars of Creation" in the Eagle Nebula (see " Unlocking the Secrets of Star Creation "). Researchers were able to use FDBL to drive four hohlraums one after another, from times of 0 to 15 nanoseconds, 15 to 30 ns, 30 to 45 ns, and 45 to 60 ns, for a total x-ray drive length of 60 ns. The multi-hohlraum array simulates a bright, sustained stellar source, and the NIF Eagle science package mocks up a radiatively-driven, star-forming cloud of molecular hydrogen. The same fiber was used in back-to-back experiments, saving additional time.

"The fiber-delay system permits the Eagle multi-hohlraum x-ray source to drive a science package for 60 nanoseconds, instead of the 30 nanoseconds that was possible on the first NIF Eagle shots" in April, said co-principal investigator Jave Kane. "This permits the science package to evolve hydrodynamically into a mature column structure with density and velocity similar to what astronomers observe in the Pillars of the Eagle Nebula."

"Now that we’re allocating shots based on time, (the FDBL process) empowers the users," Brunton said. "If they can avoid a fiber swap, they can avoid the time penalty cost in doing that by switching the order of the shots in the experiment. And this is even more important going forward into (Fiscal Year 2016). The shot rate (goal) goes up to 400 a year now (from 300 in FY 2015), so anything we can do to try to minimize the impact of setting up for these more complex experiments can pay dividends."

Other members of the NIF Team contributing to the development of the FDBL process were Adrian Barnes, Mitanu Paul, Bruce Conrad, Gaylen Erbert, Allan Casey, Russell Fleming, Rich Beeler, Rick Olson, Mark Bowers, Mike Shaw, Ron House, Barry Fishler, Joyce Li, Steve Hahn, Scott Reisdorf, Hye-Sook Park, Bruce Wilson, Susheela Muralidhar, Yvon Tang, Mike Shaw, Doug Speck, Misha Shor, Brent McHale, Steven Glenn, Susan West, Yan Pan, and Brett Raymond.

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