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Social Work Theories in Practice

Social work is a multifaceted profession that uses various theories to guide practice and intervention strategies. These theories provide a framework for understanding complex social issues and facilitating change at individual, community, and societal levels. 

This blog post will explore critical theories that inform social work practice, including social learning theory, psychodynamics, psychosocial development theory, systems theory, rational choice theory, contingency theory, cognitive behavioral therapy, conflict theory, and the broader societal context.

Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory, pioneered by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modeling. This theory is crucial in social work as it underscores the importance of role models and environments in shaping behavior. Interventions based on this theory often involve shaping positive behaviors and attitudes through structured programs that promote positive social interactions.

Example : A social worker is helping a teenager who struggles with aggression and has been influenced by violent behavior in his neighborhood. The social worker organizes a mentorship program where the teenager can interact with positive role models, demonstrating effective conflict resolution and communication skills. This exposure helps the teenager learn and adopt healthier behaviors through observation and emulation.

Psychodynamics

Developed from the ideas of Sigmund Freud, psychodynamics explores how unconscious motives and conflicts influence behavior. In social work, psychodynamic theory is used to delve into an individual's past experiences and emotional traumas affecting their current behavior and relationships. This understanding helps social workers address deep-seated emotional issues and foster healing and development.

Example : A social worker encounters a client who exhibits severe trust issues and difficulty forming relationships stemming from early childhood neglect. Using psychodynamic principles, the social worker explores these past experiences with the client, helping them understand and process their unconscious fears and how these impact their current relationships, thereby facilitating emotional healing and development.

Psychosocial Development Theory

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development emphasizes the impact of social experiences across the lifespan. Each stage of life is associated with specific challenges and tasks that contribute to overall growth. Social workers use this theory to assess and support clients at different developmental stages, ensuring that developmental crises are resolved healthily.

Example : In a case involving an elderly client facing depression after retiring, a social worker uses Erikson's stages of psychosocial development to assess and address the crisis of integrity vs. despair. The social worker encourages the client to reflect on life achievements and develop a sense of fulfillment and purpose, possibly through volunteering or community activities.

Systems Theory

Systems theory views individuals as part of more interconnected systems, including family, community, and society. This approach helps social workers recognize the multiple factors affecting individuals and how changes in one part of the system can influence others. Interventions may focus on altering the environment or interactions within these systems to improve the individual's circumstances.

Example : A social worker assists a family with a child with behavioral problems. Recognizing the interconnectedness of systems, the social worker evaluates the dynamics within the family, school, and peer group. The intervention includes working with the parents to improve their parenting techniques, liaising with teachers for support at school, and facilitating positive peer interactions.

Rational Choice Theory

Rational choice theory suggests that individuals make decisions based on actions' anticipated costs and benefits. Social workers applying this theory might focus on helping clients weigh the pros and cons of their choices to foster better decision-making processes, particularly in scenarios involving high-risk or significant life changes.

Example : A social worker uses rational choice theory to help a client contemplating leaving a job due to stress but is worried about financial security. The social worker helps the client list the benefits and drawbacks of staying versus leaving the job, considering factors like mental health, economic implications, and long-term career goals, thereby aiding the client in making a well-informed decision.

Contingency Theory

Contingency theory is rooted in the premise that there is no best way to approach management but that the most effective approach depends on the specific circumstances. In social work, this theory can tailor interventions to clients' unique needs and contexts, recognizing that strategies and plans must be flexible and adaptable.

Example : A social worker leading a community outreach program adapts their approach based on each neighborhood’s needs and resources. In one area, the focus might be on job training due to high unemployment, while another might need more youth programs to engage teenagers. The social worker uses contingency theory to assess and apply the most effective strategies in each unique situation.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

CBT is a structured, hands-on approach that addresses problematic behaviors by identifying and changing negative thinking patterns and beliefs. Social workers use CBT to help clients develop coping strategies and change behaviors detrimental to their well-being. This therapy is particularly effective in treating anxiety, depression, and certain disorders.

Example : A client is dealing with anxiety and panic attacks. The social worker, trained in CBT, works with the client to identify specific thought patterns and beliefs that trigger anxiety. Through techniques such as cognitive restructuring and behavioral experiments, the client learns to manage and reduce anxiety symptoms effectively.

Case Studies in Social Work Practice, 3rd Edition

ISBN: 978-1-118-12834-3

February 2014

Digital Evaluation Copy

Craig W. LeCroy

A practical approach to understanding social work concepts in action that integrates theory and practice

In this updated edition of the classic social work text, students and instructors have access to real-world demonstrations of how social work theories and concepts can be applied in practice. The case studies in this book bridge the gap between the classroom and the field by allowing students to discover the when, why, and how of social work principles. Brief but comprehensive topic overviews are brought to life by case studies that apply general theories to the work of social work.

• Each of the book's nine sections cover an essential area of social work, encompassing the micro, mezzo, and macro levels
• Highly readable explanations are followed by 3-5 case studies relating theory to the living practice of real social workers
• Topics include Generalist Practice; Family Therapy, Treatment of Adults; and Diversity

Approaching each topic from a variety of different theoretical bases, this essential text allow students to learn by concrete example, experiencing social work concepts as they are applied in the profession today.

Craig Winston LeCroy , PhD, is Professor in the School of Social Work at Arizona State University. Dr. LeCroy has directed several projects for children and adolescents, including a National Institue of Mental Health Training Grant for emotionally disturbed children and adolescents. He has published widely in the areas of children's mental health, social skills training, risk and needs assessment with juvenile offenders, and adolescent treatment and program evaluation.

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Online MSW Programs / Social Work / 6 Important Theories in Social Work

Six important theories in social work

Social work theories attempt to describe, explain and predict social events based on scientific evidence, studies and research. Social work perspectives draw from psychology, philosophy, economics, education and other fields to attempt to explain what drives and motivates people at various stages of life.

Some social work students studying for a  bachelor’s degree in social work  or  master of social work  may wonder, “Why is theory important in social work?” Studying theory ensures that aspiring professionals are both competent and confident when the time comes to apply social work theories to practice.

Why is theory important in social work?

Social work theories help social workers analyze cases, understand clients, create interventions, predict intervention results, and evaluate outcomes. While the theories are constantly evolving as new evidence is produced, referencing social work theories that have been used over time enables social workers to explore causes of behavior and identify potential solutions.

A crucial objective of learning social work theories is to train and encourage social workers to set aside personal assumptions and beliefs when engaging in social work practice. Social workers should use evidence-based theories to investigate issues and drive their decision making.

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Applying social work theory to practice

Social work theory provides a starting point for social workers to address client problems through a research-based lens.

The theories help social workers better understand complex human behaviors and social environments, which influence their clients lives and the challenges they face. A good grasp of theory that is backed by research-based scientific evidence helps guide social workers by providing them with a sense of direction and purpose.

One challenge when applying social work theories to practice is choosing the right theory for the situation. It can be difficult to assign a single theory to complex client issues. Often, it’s more practical to draw upon the knowledge of multiple theories and use that understanding to design multifaceted interventions.

List of important social work theories

The following list of social work theories includes some of the most widely referenced theories used in social work.

1. Social learning theory

Social learning theory , which is also known as social cognitive theory , was developed by psychologist Albert Bandura. This theory posits that learning occurs by observing others and modeling their behavior.

In order for social learning to occur, a person must want to emulate the person they’re watching. The individual pays close attention to the action and retains the action in memory. Then, the individual must experience a situation where the behavior can be repeated and must be motivated to repeat the behavior.

Social workers can use this theory to better understand how role models affect the behaviors and emotions of their clients. Social learning theory can also help social workers form intervention strategies that use positive modeling and reinforcement to encourage their clients to engage in new positive behaviors.

2. Systems theory

Systems theory proposes that people are products of complex systems, rather than individuals who act in isolation. According to this theory, behavior is influenced by a variety of factors that work together as a system. These factors include family, friends, social settings, religious structure, economic class, and home environment.

Systems theory can be used to treat issues like eating disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, school trauma, and risky behavior. In ecological systems theory, individuals are observed in multiple environments so that behavior is fully understood. Family systems theory examines the family as a social system influencing behavior and thoughts.

Social workers using systems theory will work to understand how their clients are influenced by the systems they’re a part of. Social workers then identify where systemic breakdowns are affecting behavior.

3. Psychosocial development theory

Psychosocial development theory  was introduced by German psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, who believed personality develops in a series of stages. Erikson created an  eight-stage theory of psychosocial development . According to the theory, the eight stages of development that people pass through in life are:

• Trust versus mistrust
• Autonomy versus shame and doubt
• Initiative versus guilt
• Industry versus inferiority
• Identity versus confusion
• Intimacy versus isolation
• Generativity versus stagnation
• Integrity versus despair

Psychosocial development theory explains that humans pass through these stages as they age. By identifying which stage of development their clients are experiencing, social workers can better understand the challenges their clients face.

4. Psychodynamic theory

Psychodynamic theory  was introduced by the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud. This theory is founded on the idea that humans are biologically driven to seek gratification. The theory states that people do this based on processes that have developed outside of conscious awareness, with origins in childhood experiences. This drive influences everyday behavior, leading to actions like aggression, sex and self-preservation.

In social work, psychodynamic theory can help to explain the internal processes individuals use to guide their behavior , some of which may be unconsciously motivated. Social workers may also examine how early childhood experiences have played a role in influencing their clients’ current behavior.

5. Social exchange theory

Social exchange theory suggests that relationships are based on cost-benefit analysis. Each person seeks to maximize their benefits and is expected to reciprocate for the benefits they’ve received. When risks outweigh potential rewards, relationships may be abandoned. When one person in a relationship has greater personal resources than another, that person is predicted to have greater power as well.

Social workers can use social exchange theory to understand their clients’ relationships,  including why they continue to maintain certain relationships or abandon them.

Social exchange theory can also be applied to the techniques social workers use to connect with their clients. This theory can influence how social workers position the social worker-client relationship as one that benefits their clients.

6. Rational choice theory

Rational choice theory helps explain why people make the choices they do, by weighing risks, costs and benefits. This theory suggests that all choices are rational because people calculate the costs and benefits before making a decision. Even when a choice seems irrational, there is reasoning behind it.

This theory can help social workers understand the decision-making processes and motivations of their clients.

Six practice models in social work

Social work practice models enable social workers to implement theories in their day-to-day work. Just like a social worker may use various theories to guide their interventions, social workers may also use various practice models depending on the problems their clients encounter.

1. Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on how thoughts and feelings influence behaviors, which can sometimes lead to psychological problems. Social workers using cognitive behavioral therapy methods help clients identify self-destructive thoughts that influence negative emotions and behaviors.

Cognitive behavioral therapy is often used for individuals who are experiencing mental health issues, mental illness or depression resulting from crisis or trauma. Social workers using cognitive behavioral therapy help their clients eliminate negative thoughts to prevent destructive behaviors and adverse outcomes.

2. Crisis intervention model

The crisis intervention model is used for clients who are experiencing crisis and trauma, such as victims of domestic violence, and for clients who require intervention to prevent physical harm or suicide. Albert R. Roberts, PhD, and Allen J. Ottens, PhD, developed a  seven-stage crisis intervention model :

• Take a psychosocial and lethality assessment.
• Rapidly establish rapport.
• Identify the major crisis cause(s).
• Enable the client to express their feelings and emotions.
• Generate and explore safe alternatives for coping.
• Create an action plan.
• Follow up after the intervention.

This social work model can be used for clients who are experiencing thoughts of suicide or self-harm or who have undergone an acute crisis, like rape or violence.

3. Narrative therapy

Narrative therapy is the process of helping the individual recognize that they have the power to change their life story, also known as the narrative. Narrative therapy helps individuals realize that they are separate from their problems and can fix them when they view the narrative from an outside perspective.

Using narrative therapy, a social worker can help an individual create a new narrative with different positive actions. The social worker enables the individual to understand how the broader context is contributing to their narrative, so that they can be aware of pitfalls to avoid and can utilize various strategies to tackle their problems.

4. Problem-solving model

The problem-solving model was created by Helen Harris Perlman , a social worker and author of “Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process.” Using the problem-solving model, a social worker helps an individual identify a problem, create an action plan to solve it, and implement the solution. Together, the social worker and individual discuss the effectiveness of the problem-solving strategy and adjust it as necessary. The problem-solving model enables the social worker and individual to focus on one concrete problem at a time.

5. Solution-focused therapy

Solution-focused therapy involves the social worker and client identifying a problem and creating a solution based on the individual’s strengths. It’s a short-term practice model that focuses on helping clients cope with challenges using specific behaviors. Instead of focusing on changing who a client is, solution-focused therapy attempts to change a client’s actions in certain situations to achieve more favorable outcomes.

Collaborating to create solutions allows the client to play an active role in implementing necessary actions and achieving positive change.

6. Task-centered practice

Using task-centered practice, a social worker breaks down a problem into manageable tasks. The individual has deadlines to complete the tasks and agrees to meet them. Task-centered practice is a goal-setting form of social work that helps individuals make consistent steps toward improving their lives.

Instead of focusing on the past, this type of practice encourages clients to live in the present and think about how completing certain tasks will positively impact their future.

Resources to explore social work theories

Social work theories have been practiced over decades and continually evolve when new research is completed. Learn more about social work theories by exploring the resources below.

• Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work : This journal features research on evidence-based practice in social work and evaluates social work theory, techniques, and strategies.
• Journal of Social Work Practice : This journal focuses on psychodynamic and systemic social work perspectives. It features research on theory and practice and includes articles offering critical analysis of systemic and psychodynamic theory.
• Journal of Social Work : This journal includes social work research and short “think pieces” on social work theoretical understanding, policy, and practice.
• Social Work:  This journal is the official journal of the National Association of Social Workers and features articles on social work and social welfare, including new techniques and research.
• Clinical Social Work Journal:  This journal features peer-reviewed articles on clinical social work practice with individuals, groups, families, and couples. It also has articles on theory developments, practice and evidence-based clinical research.

Introductory books

• “A Brief Introduction to Social Work Theory” : This textbook by David Howe explains how social work practice is influenced by various social work theories and shows how social work theories have evolved over time.
• “An Introduction to Applying Social Work Theories and Methods”:    This book by Barbra Teater explains the most prominent social work theories and how those approaches can be used in practice.
• “Social Work Theory and Practice”:  This book by Lesley Deacon and Stephen J. Macdonald explains how social work theory informs practice for various individuals and contexts.
• “Modern Social Work Theory”:  This book by Malcolm Payne introduces the major social work practice theories and explains how to apply theory to practice.
• “An Introduction to Using Theory in Social Work Practice”:  This book by James A. Forte covers 14 social work theories and explains how to use them from engagement through evaluation.

Note: the links in this section on Social Work Theory all go to Google Books and are solely provided for your information. edX does not receive any form of compensation for these links.

Other online resources

• NASW Clinical Social Work : This section of the National Association of Social Workers website covers clinical social work practice. It features content, publications, and related resources for clinical social workers, like the “ NASW Standards for Clinical Social Work in Social Work Practice (PDF, 135 KB) .”
• Encyclopedia of Social Work:  The Encyclopedia of Social Work by the National Association of Social Workers Press and Oxford University Press features tools for applying social work theory to practice. These resources include scholarly articles and bibliographies.
• Social Work Today :  This publication features articles on current social work trends in categories like behavioral health, addictions, children and family, aging and professional practice.

Science-based social work theory helps social workers and their clients succeed

Social work theory helps professionals in the field identify and implement effective interventions for clients. An understanding of the most prominent social work theories gives social workers the tools they need to provide evidence-based treatment and help their clients overcome their problems. As social work theories continue to evolve and emerge, social workers can apply their multifaceted knowledge to unique situations and clients.

Are you considering a career in social work? Read more about the field of social work and the steps to becoming a social worker , which can vary by location. 

Last updated: November 2023

Theories Used in Social Work

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Social workers are employed throughout a variety of settings and guide people from all walks of life. Regardless of their context, social workers can leverage some core theories and practice models to help clients throughout the industry.

Common Theories and Practice Models in Social Work

In many ways, social work is a science. Social workers can guide their clients, but they don’t carry out their practice based on their own opinion and/or style. Instead, social workers study specific clinical theories that are grounded in research to inform how they implement clinical practice in a methodological manner. In fact, clinical social workers need to obtain both a bachelor’s and master’s degree in order to fully understand these theories and master therapeutic practice models.

At its core, social work focuses on “person-in-environment” (PIE) theory. This considers clients within their psychosocial contexts, and it connects to micro, mezzo, and macro levels of social work practice. This guide explores how each theory and practice model functions within the PIE theory.

Social workers learn about these theories during their education. You can learn more about these academic programs with these resources: a guide to social work bachelor’s degrees , master’s degrees , and online master’s degrees .

Why is Theory Important in Social Work?

As any social work professor can tell you, understanding clinical theories are an essential part of a social worker’s job. It allows social workers to explore certain origins of behavior with evidence-based approaches. Social workers also lean on these theories and practices to address client problems with research to back up their practice. This is especially important, as social workers need to avoid personal assumptions or biases from interfering with effective treatment plans.

Learning about these theories can also help social workers implement effective solutions rather than grasping at straws. If a certain therapeutic approach does not work, social workers can examine the reasons and use what they’ve learned to try a different approach.

Common Social Work Theories

Social workers can incorporate components of several different clinical theories in their work with clients. Some popular approaches for social workers include theories of systems, social learning, psychosocial development, psychodynamic, transpersonal, and rational choice.

Many of these theories have been developed within the past century, and several draw upon Sigmund Freud’s theories of psychoanalysis. Some of these theories encompass a broad outlook (such as systems theory), while others focus on specific conflicts (like psychosocial theory). Not every social worker uses every theory, while some social workers might use elements of each one. You can read more information about the most common social work theories below.

Systems theory assumes that human behavior is the result of a larger system comprised of several elements, including the relationships between these elements, as well as external factors like their environment. These factors could involve a person’s family, peers, school, work, or community. Sociologists have identified many different types of systems, including microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems, and macrosystems.

Social work professionals examine how the systems in which their clients live affect their behaviors. For instance, living in a system of poverty can have a significant impact on how a person makes decisions. Social workers can devise strategies based on these systems in order to provide a more concise treatment plan for their client.

Developed by psychologist Albert Bandura in the 1970s, social learning theory accounts for how the behavior of other people can affect somebody’s behavior. Bandura argued that individuals pick up behaviors by observing and imitating the people around them. Unlike behavioral theories, social learning theory proposes that people actively and mentally process other people’s behaviors before imitating them.

Social workers may take into account social learning theory when working with children who take on aggressive or violent behaviors, for example. The children may mimic their parents or other significant adults in their lives. When social workers are able to identify the origin of a child’s behaviors, they are able to effectively create a treatment approach.

Influenced by the seminal work of Freud, psychologist Erik Erikson proposes several stages of development relating to a person’s ego identity, personal identity, and social and cultural identity. Erikson’s theory argues that humans struggle with specific conflicts throughout different stages of their life. Those conflicts include:

• Trust vs. mistrust in infancy
• Autonomy vs. shame and doubt in early childhood
• Initiative vs. guilt in preschool age
• Industry vs. inferiority in school age
• Identity vs. role confusion in adolescence
• Intimacy vs. isolation in young adulthood
• Generativity vs. stagnation in middle adulthood
• Ego integrity vs. despair in maturity

Erikson’s theory suggests that if humans effectively navigate these tensions at each stage of their life, they can develop a healthy ego. Social workers may consider these conflicts when working with their clients. It is important to note that each stage correlates with an emotional stage which could also be in conflict with a developmental stage.

Introduced by Freud at the turn of the 20th century — and popularized by Carl Jung, Melanie Klein, and Anna Freud — psychodynamic theory argues that our personalities develop because of various internal forces. Freud wrote that our personalities are largely shaped during our early childhood, and our personality consists of three main parts: id (impulse), ego (decision-making), and superego (conscience). Psychodynamic theory also prioritizes a person’s unconscious thought process as the root of their behaviors.

Social workers may use psychodynamic theory to help clients examine the underlying causes of certain behaviors — often considering the clients’ childhood — to help explain why they act a certain way. Social workers may offer different types of therapies based on psychodynamic theory, including transference and dream analysis.

Transpersonal theory approaches humans with a holistic philosophy, and considers factors like spirituality, the relationship between the body and the mind, and consciousness. Psychologists generally do not consider transpersonal theory to be scientific, but many therapists or mental health professionals integrate elements of transpersonal theory into their practice. They might use meditation, mindfulness practices, or hypnotherapy on their patients.

Rational choice theory argues that people make decisions and carry out behaviors based on their own rational thought processes, especially if those decisions ultimately benefit the individual. This theory directly opposes some other clinical theories that suggest people make decisions on unconscious thought processes.

Although rational choice theory is often found within economic theory, social workers can also apply these principles to their job. To understand why clients make certain decisions, social workers can examine how those clients believed their choices would benefit them. Social workers also can develop solutions and suggest resources to assist clients with achieving their goals.

Common Practice Models in Social Work

While social workers integrate various clinical theories into their practice, they can also implement specific therapeutic models. The theories above may explain the causes of a person’s struggles; however, practice models allow social workers to carry out specific approaches to treat those struggles.

The section below outlines some of the most common practice models, including cognitive behavioral therapy, crisis intervention model, narrative therapy, problem-solving model, solution-focused therapy, and task-centered therapy. Some of these methods overlap or share characteristics with each other, but each serves a purpose for specific clients and circumstances.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) identifies unhealthy patterns of thinking and attempts to rewrite these patterns.

People often convince themselves that their frequently distorted thoughts are true. CBT forces individuals to question and confront these distortions. For instance, somebody might find themselves in fear of social situations, because they imagine a worst-case scenario that they will humiliate themselves. CBT pushes that person to examine these assumptions and instead consider new scenarios and outlooks.

People who struggle with anxiety and depression often find CBT helpful, and many clinical social workers incorporate CBT into their therapeutic practice.

Crisis intervention model is much what it sounds like: in times of acute psychological strain or distress, social workers and mental health professionals intervene before that crisis turns into harm. Albert Roberts and Allen Ottens propose seven steps to crisis intervention. These include conducting a safety assessment, establishing psychological contact, identifying the major problems, helping the patient explore their feelings, looking for new coping mechanisms, creating an action plan, and planning follow-ups.

Social workers can use the crisis intervention model for clients suffering from major trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder, or suicidal thoughts, among others. This model of crisis intervention works in a voluntary manner, which means that clients must be open to the process.

Narrative therapy is based on the theory that individuals turn their personal experiences into stories. In other words, they create narratives of their own lives. This type of therapy relies on four major principles: “objective truth” does not exist; reality is a social construct; language can influence how we view reality; and narratives help us organize our personal realities.

Narrative therapy encourages clients to distance themselves from their personal experiences by taking on the role of a narrator and rewriting the script. This can help them change harmful and disruptive thinking patterns, especially those shaped by trauma.

Helen Harris Perlman proposed the problem-solving model in the 1950s specifically for the field of social work. At the time, many social work theories and therapies relied on psychotherapy; Perlman instead argued that social workers could more effectively help clients by focusing on one problem at a time.

Focusing on smaller problems allows clients to develop and follow through with action plans to confront those issues in a manageable way. This method — also called “partializing” — would make therapies more manageable for social workers and clients alike, and professionals still use Perlman’s proposals.

Solution-focused therapy, or solution focused brief therapy, concentrates on an individual’s present and future situations. This therapy involves a departure from psychodynamic-influenced theories that focus on a person’s past and childhood.

Solution-focused therapy proposes immediate, manageable solutions that allow patients to better cope with their problems. A mental health professional or social worker employing this type of therapy might challenge a client to imagine their future life without their problem, or they might help individuals recognize and better harness copy mechanisms that they already use. Social workers might implement solution-focused therapy for adolescents with behavioral problems or families with conflicts, to name a couple of examples.

Task-centered practice shares many principles with the problem-solving model and solution-focused therapy, but it tends to follow an even more focused and quick approach. Task-centered practice usually only lasts 8-12 sessions, and clients concentrate on achieving measurable goals. Clients and social workers create action plans with specific tasks, and then clients carry out those tasks.

Social workers can integrate this type of therapy into many different types of settings. They might work with students with disruptive behavioral issues, soon-to-be-discharged hospital patients, or older clients at nursing homes.

Reviewed by:

Melissa Russiano, LCSW, LISW

Melissa Russiano is a licensed clinical social worker in private practice that has organically developed into a specialty working with helping professionals. Russiano has a proven track record helping professionals avoid burnout in a unique way that holds clinicians accountable through laughter, tears, blunt (yet very supportive) feedback and quirky analogies that are grounded in solid theoretical research. Russiano practices solely in a virtual setting in the states of California, Florida, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Tennessee. Additionally, Russiano is a professor imparting her experiences and knowledge in the field to future social workers in a graduate program through Simmons University online.

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A Case for the Case Study: How and Why They Matter

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• Volume 45 , pages 189–200, ( 2017 )

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In this special issue we have asked the contributors to make a case for the case study. The guest editors, Jeffrey Longhofer, Jerry Floersch and Eric Hartmann, intergrate ideas from across the disciplines to explore the complexties of case study methods and theory. In education, Gary Thomas explores the importance of ethnographic case studies in understanding the relationships among schools, teachers, and students. Lance Dodes and Josh Dodes use the case study to articulate a psychoanalytic approach to addiction. In policy and generalist practice, Nancy Cartwright and Jeremy Hardie elaborate a model for a case-by-case approach to prediction and the swampy ground prediction serves up to practitioners. Christian Salas and Oliver Turnbull persuasively write about the role of the case study in neuro-psychoanalysis and illustrate it with a case vignette. In political science, Sanford Schram argues for a bottom up and ethnographic approach to studying policy implementation by describing a case of a home ownership program in Philadelphia. Eric Hartman queers the case study by articulating its role in deconstructing normative explanations of sexuality. In applied psychology, Daniel Fishman describes a comprehensive applied psychology perspective on the paradigmatic case study. Richard Miller and Miriam Jaffe offer us important ways of thinking about writing the case study and the use of multi-media. Each contributor brings a unique perspective to the use of the case study in their field, yet they share practical and philosophical assumptions.

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Longhofer, J., Floersch, J. & Hartmann, E. A Case for the Case Study: How and Why They Matter. Clin Soc Work J 45 , 189–200 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-017-0631-8

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Theories Used in Social Work Practice & Practice Models

Social work theories are general explanations that are supported by evidence obtained through the scientific method. A theory may explain human behavior, for example, by describing how humans interact or how humans react to certain stimuli.

Social work practice models describe how social workers can implement theories. Practice models provide social workers with a blueprint of how to help others based on the underlying social work theory. While a theory explains why something happens, a practice model shows how to use a theory to create change.

Social Work Theories

There are many social work theories that guide social work practice. Here are some of the major theories that are generally accepted in the field of social work:

Systems theory  describes human behavior in terms of complex systems. It is premised on the idea that an effective system is based on individual needs, rewards, expectations, and attributes of the people living in the system. According to this theory, families, couples, and organization members are directly involved in resolving a problem even if it is an individual issue.

Social learning theory is based on Albert Bandura’s idea that learning occurs through observation and imitation. New behavior will continue if it is reinforced. According to this theory, rather than simply hearing a new concept and applying it, the learning process is made more efficient if the new behavior is modeled as well.

Psychosocial development theory  is an eight-stage theory of identity and psychosocial development articulated by Erik Erikson. Erikson believed everyone must pass through eight stages of development over the life cycle: hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom. Each stage is divided into age ranges from infancy to older adults.

Psychodynamic theory  was developed by Freud, and it explains personality in terms of conscious and unconscious forces. This social work theory describes the personality as consisting of the id (responsible for following basic instincts), the superego (attempts to follow rules and behave morally), and the ego (mediates between the id and the ego).

Transpersonal theory  proposes additional stages beyond the adult ego. In healthy individuals, these stages contribute to creativity, wisdom, and altruism. In people lacking healthy ego development, experiences can lead to psychosis.

Rational choice theory  is based on the idea that all action is fundamentally rational in character, and people calculate the risks and benefits of any action before making decisions.

Social Work Practice Models

There are many different practice models that influence the way social workers choose to help people meet their goals. Here are some of the major social work practice models used in various roles, such as case managers and therapists:

Problem solving  assists people with the problem solving process. Rather than tell clients what to do, social workers teach clients how to apply a problem solving method so they can develop their own solutions.

Task-centered practice  is a short-term treatment where clients establish specific, measurable goals. Social workers and clients collaborate together and create specific strategies and steps to begin reaching those goals.

Narrative therapy  externalizes a person’s problem by examining the story of the person’s life. In the story, the client is not defined by the problem, and the problem exists as a separate entity. Instead of focusing on a client’s depression, in this social work practice model, a client would be encouraged to fight against the depression by looking at the skills and abilities that may have previously been taken for granted.

Cognitive behavioral therapy  focuses on the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Social workers assist clients in identifying patterns of irrational and self-destructive thoughts and behaviors that influence emotions.

Crisis intervention model  is used when someone is dealing with an acute crisis. The model includes seven stages: assess safety and lethality, rapport building, problem identification, address feelings, generate alternatives, develop an action plan, and follow up. This social work practice model is commonly used with clients who are expressing suicidal ideation.

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• Interactive Cases

Sanchez Family Case Files

Celia sanchez, hector sanchez, junior sanchez, emilia sanchez, vicki sanchez, gloria sanchez, alejandro sanchez, carmen sanchez, joey sanchez, roberto salazar.

Woman, Wife, Mother, Sister, Aunt, Immigrant, Latina

Client History

Married to Hector for more than 30 years, Celia Sanchez has been in this country for about half her life. While there are aspects of the United States Celia appreciates—particularly the economic opportunities for her family—she never imagined that she would raise her children outside of Mexico. Indeed, coming to the United States was Hector’s dream—not hers. Devoted to her family, Celia has never worked outside the home and does not drive. She delights in cooking for her children and grandchildren, talking with her neighbors and by telephone with her sister and cousin, and taking care of the home.

Given her desire to stay close to home and family, Mrs. Sanchez has not developed the proficiency with English that her husband has. This has been a barrier to her efforts to care for the family. For example, in the relatively few instances that she has been so ill that she required the services of a physician, she needed one of her sons to interpret for her. She often struggled to advocate for her children in the school system, which seldom provided interpretation or bilingual educational staff. And when one of her children came in contact with the juvenile justice system, Celia was unable to understand fully the legal implications of the choices she faced.

Recently, the son of her sister Dolores came to the United States from Mexico (see Roberto’s history). Given her dedication to her family, there was no question Celia would welcome Roberto into her home; however, Hector does not fully support this decision.

Most of Mrs. Sanchez’s extended family still lives in Mexico. However, Celia has two cousins in California, and her ex-brother-in-law (Roberto’s father) was recently deported, after living in Chicago for several years. Celia returned to Mexico for a brief visit a few years ago for the funeral of her mother, but, given the expense and time involved, she mostly settles for telephone calls with her sister; when Alejandro can help her set it up and her sister has sufficient bandwidth, they video chat.

Mrs. Sanchez has been concerned with how to stretch their money to accommodate her family’s needs. After seeing how other neighbors stretch their budgets by utilizing some public resources, Celia wanted her husband to apply for financial assistance, but he is adamantly opposed. Unwilling to oppose Hector, Celia has secretly been obtaining commodities from her Church pantry. Since she is an active parishioner at the Our Lady of Guadalupe Church, her visits there do not raise her husband’s suspicions.

Client Concerns

• She is worried that there is not adequate income for the food the family needs, given the two extra mouths to feed and the variability in Hector’s employment, especially as his age advances.
• Mrs. Sanchez is unable to proficiently understand and communicate in English. The Sanchez family needs more information about the process of permanently adopting Celia’s grandson, Joey, especially if their daughter will contest this move.
• Celia is concerned about the tension between her husband and her over the presence of her nephew, Roberto, in their household.

Goals For Client

Keep these goals in mind throughout your analysis

• Find additional resources for food and possibly income support
• With Hector’s active involvement, seek clarification of the legal issues associated with the presence of Roberto in their home and the issues involved in Joey’s adoption
• Enroll in a class for persons learning English as a second language

Critical Questions to Consider

• How do Mrs. Sanchez’s identities—as a woman, Latina, immigrant, mother, wife—influence her experiences today? How might these dynamics affect her engagement with you, as a social worker, as you begin to work together?
• What are Mrs. Sanchez’s language rights, when, for example, she needs translation assistance within the court or school systems? Is the information available from Limited English Proficiency, an interagency federal website, helpful to you as you advocate for her language access ( www.lep.gov )?
• Does the fact that the Sanchez family is mostly Lawful Permanent Residents, not yet U.S. citizens, affect the kinds of income supports for which they might qualify? Check out the resources regarding non-citizen eligibility for means-tested benefits at the National Immigration Law Center ( www.nilc.org ).

Man, Husband, Father, Immigrant, Latino

Hector is the family patriarch of the Sanchez family. He came to this country in 1979 as a young, undocumented agricultural worker. For years, Hector endured long separations from his wife, who was also alone in Mexico, struggling to raise their young children—none of whose births Hector was able to witness. In 1986, encouraged by the passage of law allowing for a federal amnesty program, Hector applied for and was given a green card, making him a legal, permanent resident. He then applied for the same status on behalf of his wife and the children they had at the time. After waiting additional years for the processing, Celia and the children reunited with Hector in the United States. Their subsequent children were born in the U.S. after Hector left agricultural work, in pursuit of more stable employment in construction. Hector has never become a citizen. Although that has been a lifelong goal of his, Hector has never felt that he could take the time off work to study for the test, nor that the increasing application fee was something his family could readily afford. Hector often works six days per week, particularly as the housing market has experienced construction labor shortages and rising demand. However, Hector’s health is not what it once was (he now has diabetes and high blood pressure), and his job is physically demanding, which may limit the number of years he can expect to work. Having suffered much discrimination and having been victimized by hate crimes in his early years in the United States—when he was often subject to ugly slurs and accusations—Mr. Sanchez is deeply proud that he has never asked for public assistance. To get by on the family’s limited income, Mr. Sanchez skips lunch regularly, a serious problem for someone with diabetes.

• Hector is worried about what will happen to his family when he can no longer work at his physically demanding job, particularly because he has been working outside the Social Security system for much of his career.
• Even working full-time, Hector is unable to meet all his family’s needs in the way that he would like. Their house is small for the number of residents living there, and this adds to his stress.
• Roberto’s presence in the house, and his undocumented status, worries Hector. He is not sure what this could mean for his family, especially since the state in which the family lives has considered legislation that would empower local law enforcement, educators, social services, and other personnel to take on immigration enforcement duties.

Clearly review Hector’s strengths and talents and help him assess whether there is any employment available that might be less physically taxing for his health

Discuss with Celia his feelings about the crowded conditions of the house, with the goal of getting Celia to cooperate in finding a place where Roberto can safely stay

Assess the severity of his health concerns and discuss the importance of stress reduction and healthy nutrition

Begin the process of pursuing citizenship for Hector

• How might the Sanchez family’s lives have been different if he had come to the U.S. just a few years later than he did? How have immigration policies shaped their family’s journey? You can learn more about the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986—the policy under which Hector obtained his green card—from the Migration Policy Institute https://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/legalization-historical.pdf .
• How have experiences with discrimination and bias-fueled harassment affected Hector? How might the recent increases in hate crimes and anti-immigrant sentiment affect Hector’s mental and physical well-being, in light of this history? How could you explore these dynamics with him?
• How do the eligibility rules for means-tested income supports in the U.S.—like SNAP—contribute to the stigma that people like Hector feel when contemplating receiving such assistance? What messages has Hector absorbed about this kind of help, and what does this say about stereotypes about low-income people in the U.S.? Try searching for “stigma and SNAP” to see how organizations that address hunger in the U.S. are trying to combat these perceptions.

Son, Husband, Father, Latino

Junior is the oldest child, married to Lola, and the father of four children, aged two to ten. He lives close to his parents and works in the same job as his father. Junior was already in school when he, his mother, and his siblings reunited with their father in the U.S., and he took to school quickly, learning English and earning good grades. Encouraged by his successes, Junior and his parents expected he would be the first in his family to go to college. However, the tension between the need to bring honor to the family through his academic achievements and the reality that money was needed to support everyone prevented him from pursuing higher education. Although he is older now, and with responsibilities of his own, Jr. is still motivated to go to college and has been taking classes as he can at the local community college. When he graduates from there, he hopes to go to the university close by.

• While Junior’s job is secure for now, given the hot construction market and the desirability of his bilingual skills and high school diploma, he does not want to stay in manual labor, particularly as he sees the strains this has put on his father’s health.
• Junior lacks a college education, but increasing college costs and reductions in available student aid combine to make his goals of obtaining a four-year degree difficult. Additionally, he finds it hard to make time for studies, on top of his other responsibilities, and the college’s shift to online instruction was not a good fit for his learning needs.
• Learn more about college programs available in the area for Junior and the loan and grant programs that might finance his education
• Explore employment options for Lola, Junior’s wife, including childcare resources if Lola wants to work outside the home and/or home-based business options, if she wants to continue to stay home.
• How might Junior’s experiences with his family of origin influence his consideration of his future? How could you engage Lola in the helping process, as you support Junior?
• What types of policy changes would make college more affordable and, therefore, more within the reach of students like Junior? What ideas seem to have the most traction in today’s policy debates, and what would help Junior the most?
• What types of income supports might Junior’s family be eligible for—the Earned Income Tax Credit, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, expanded Child Tax Credits? What would you need to know about Junior’s family—income, state of residence, tax-filing status—in order to determine exactly what they could receive?

Daughter of Celia and Hector, Sister of Junior, Vicki, Gloria, Alejandro and Carmen

As the eldest daughter, Emilia spent a great deal of her childhood helping her mother take care of the siblings and helping with the housework. Until the age of 14, she was a quiet, compliant child. At that point, however, Emilia began to change. Her mother did not know why and was too overwhelmed by the care of the younger children and the difficulties of adjusting to a new country and new cultural context to pay close attention, and her father was working a great deal. However, this is the point at which Emilia began an involvement with drugs, which continues to the present. Emilia is the mother of Joey, described below. Following the birth of Joey, as she struggled with substance use disorder, Emilia became pregnant again. After much anguish, but with great resolve, Emilia had an abortion. This has resulted in an estrangement from her family: in particular, her parents believe that she has committed a mortal sin and do not want her around their home.

• Emilia has been unable to complete treatment for addiction, despite an authentic desire to stop using drugs. It is often difficult for Emilia to secure a treatment spot quickly, when she is motivated to change, and the few treatment programs she has experienced have seldom been culturally-consistent with her identities or fully evidence-based.
• Because of her substance use history, Emilia lacks consistent work history. She did finish high school, but she has rarely worked since.
• As a Lawful Permanent Resident, Emilia’s drug problems could result in her judgment as a person of ‘poor moral character’, which, under U.S. immigration law, could result in denial of an application for U.S. citizenship, or even her deportation. While Hector and Celia do not understand these risks well, Emilia’s siblings, especially Junior and Alejandro, have a better sense of the potential repercussions if Emilia is arrested for drug offenses, but they do not know how to help their sister.
• Emilia is separated from her family due to their rejection of her following her abortion, leaving her with a limited social support system.
• Emilia needs to find a drug treatment program that will provide the guidance and supervision required to enable her to get and remain sober.
• Emilia wants to reestablish a relationship with her family.
• In the future, Emilia needs to secure training that would allow her to find a job that pays enough to support Joey and herself.
• Emilia needs ongoing therapeutic support to manage her recovery and effectively parent.
• How have Emilia’s identities, as a woman, Latina, migrant, and mother, contributed to her unique experiences with substance use disorder and recovery? How might these dimensions be leveraged as strengths, to support Emilia’s pursuit of her goals?
• Substance use disorder treatment is expensive, and, unless an individual is court-ordered to attend, it is difficult to find affordable options. Since Emilia does not have health insurance coverage, how could she obtain the treatment she needs? What options are available, if Emilia was in your community? How might you use a case like Emilia’s to advocate for expansion of substance use disorder treatment options? What messages and arguments could convince policymakers of the importance of these investments?
• How have changing attitudes about drugs and drug use altered the landscape for someone like Emilia, who is struggling with substance use disorder? How might your work with Emilia be different today, compared to a few decades ago?
• Emilia has little contact with Joey’s father, who she runs into only sporadically. Is she entitled to child support to help meet Joey’s financial needs? As Joey’s guardians, are her parents entitled to such assistance? Who could you turn to for help navigating the court system?

Daughter, Sister, Latina, Person with a Disability

When Vicki was 11, social workers from Child Protective Services visited the Sanchez house. Their identified client was actually Emilia; her problems had been brought to their attention by the school. But during that visit, they noted that Vicki’s behavior, which included repetitive motions and a failure to respond to her environment, warranted further assessment. They spoke with Vicki’s school and discovered that Vicki had, in fact, been attending special classes for students with disabilities. However, Vicki had not received therapeutic or developmental intervention—in or outside of school—to support her optimal functioning. Mrs. Sanchez, while aware of a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder, seemed unaware of its ramifications. Speaking through Jr. at the time, she told the social workers that Vicki had been “touched,” but that she was still able to go to school and that “the other children help her.” As Vicki aged out of the school system, Celia directed her attention to Vicki’s care management, focusing on making her comfortable and keeping her content. This often means long hours in front of the television, although Vicki can also help with some household tasks and particularly enjoys working in her mother’s garden.

• Uncertainty about where Vicki will live when her parents are no longer able to take care of her
• Conflict between Vicki's parents over her ability to work (and little insight into Vicki’s preferences for how she spends her days)
• Lack of information about continuing educational or training services for Vicki as an adult
• Lack of companions outside her immediate family
• Develop a plan that will outline Vicki’s future and prepare for the time when her parents are no longer able to care for her.
• Move Vicki toward greater independence as she is able, involving Vicki as much as possible in these decisions.
• Find appropriate outside resources for Vicki, such as group homes, activity centers, and supported employment, to help her navigate adulthood and build strong relationships beyond her immediate family.
• Even if Mrs. Sanchez becomes convinced that Vicki could thrive in a group residential placement, these services for people who are developmentally disabled often have waiting lists. Since Mrs. Sanchez is unlikely to agree to group home placement for Vicki if there is uncertainty about whether the resources will be there to continue this going forward, investigate the status in your state. Is there a waiting list for these services?
• Early intervention is critical in supporting maximal functioning for those with autism, but, in Vicki’s case, services were delayed for a few years after initial diagnosis, because, as a non-citizen, Vicki was not eligible for Medicaid for her first five years as a Lawful Permanent Resident. This Medicaid change dates to 1996 and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act. What were the arguments for this legislation at the time? How might you respond, in a case like Vicki’s? How are similar arguments playing out today, about immigrants’ eligibility for essential services?
• What legislative changes have been made in recent years to provide greater support for individuals with autism and their families? See the Department of Health and Human Services’ resources regarding the Combating Autism Act ( https://www.hhs.gov/autism/factsheet_autism_support.html ) for more information.

Daughter, Sister, Wife, Latina, Survivor

Gloria lives near her parents, with her husband, Leo. Leo and Gloria have been together for so long that everyone thinks of him as part of the family. Gloria’s sister, Carmen (see below), visits Gloria often at her house. For some time, Carmen has been concerned because Leo hits Gloria, often in her presence. When this happens, Gloria will send Carmen home. When Carmen returns the next day, she often finds Gloria bruised and cut, and Leo in the house, as if nothing has happened. Since these episodes began, Gloria has come to her parents’ house less and less and has many excuses for not coming over. Carmen has confronted Gloria about the need to get help, but Gloria responds that her relationship with Leo will get better when she stops making him mad.

She has considered divorce, but believes that the Church would not allow it, and she knows that it would be hard on her parents if she defied the Church’s teachings. She is also afraid to call the police, even when Leo becomes violent, because Leo is undocumented. In their community, local law enforcement often collaborate with the Department of Homeland Security, especially in domestic violence cases. As a result, Gloria is afraid that, if she called the police, Leo could end up in deportation proceedings. She wants the violence to stop, but she does not want her husband permanently removed from the United States.

• There is domestic violence in the home, endangering Gloria’s physical, mental, and social health.
• Gloria fears that her parents would abandon her if she pursued a divorce from Leo.
• Without a job, education beyond high school, or job training, Gloria has few financial prospects without Leo’s income.
• As many of her high school friends are having their second child, Gloria very much wants to be a mother, as well, but she is too afraid to bring a child into the violence of her home with Leo.
• End the violence, either by getting Leo to enter a batterers’ intervention program or by securing safe housing alternatives for Gloria.
• Connect Gloria to community resources, including health care and social supports.
• Address the barriers and fears Gloria encounters as she contemplates her options if she leaves the relationship.
• What are the arguments in favor of policies that promote cooperation between law enforcement and immigration officials, and how do such policies cause problems for immigrants and for social workers working with them? The Immigration Policy Center and American Immigration Council have some information about these local/federal agreements. You may also find coverage of policy debates in your local area, as well, as policymakers and advocates consider the human rights implications of such enforcement tools.
• What strategies and resources might help domestic violence programs to work in culturally-sensitive ways with Latinas, such as Gloria? How would your own identities affect your engagement with Gloria?

Son, Brother, Student, Latino

Alejandro recently graduated high school and lives at home, where he goes to technical school and works weekends and evenings selling cars. In high school, he was quite popular but something of a loner, primarily excelling in art. Alejandro makes money purely on commissions at his job and works very hard. He is fully bilingual in English and Spanish and is known as a resource for those in the immigrant community looking to purchase a car. He feels deeply obligated to help his parents, who have worked so hard for all of them. Alejandro has always been able to “disappear” into the family because the others were always so focused on more acute problems requiring immediate attention. However, Alejandro has a sense of unhappiness that he has decided to talk about to one of the social workers at the Center that he really likes.

• Even prior to the pandemic and its effects on his stress and isolation, Alejandro struggled with decreased energy and increased irritability.
• While he makes a good income, Alejandro dislikes his job in car sales and wants to pursue a different career.
• Alejandro has relatively few friends and has never had a romantic relationship. He has questions about his sexuality but did not feel that he fit in on the few occasions he tried out a gay club a few towns away from home.
• Get a full physical, drawing on the insurance coverage he has through his place of business, to determine if there is any physical explanation for how he feels emotionally.
• Explore the possibility of pursuing his artistic interests professionally, including through the completion of additional training and/or preparation of portfolios that could be leveraged into employment.
• If Alejandro needs mental health treatment to address his emotional well-being, laws requiring insurance parity for physical and mental health treatment will be instrumental in governing the kind of coverage he has available. What are the federal regulations that require parity? What do parity requirements look like in your state?
• Alejandro is particularly worried about his parents’ economic situation, particularly as he sees his father struggle physically at his job. He knows a fair amount about the U.S. economy and social policy systems from his classes in high school and college, and he wonders if his parents will be eligible for Social Security and Medicare when they reach retirement age. What factors determine if Hector and Celia will receive these social insurance benefits?
• While increasing attention to intersectionality has contributed to more resources for people of color and immigrants who are LGBTQ+, it can be difficult for people to find strong supports at these intersections. In your community, what organizations are working on queer rights within immigrant communities, and vice versa? How might you help Alejandro connect to allies as he navigates his own sexuality?

Daughter, Sister, Latina, Deaf Person

As a result of rubella contracted by Celia when she was pregnant, Carmen has a profound hearing impairment. Diagnosed early on when a heavy pan clattered to the floor and she did not respond, social workers were able to assist the family in finding resources to support Carmen’s development. However, the School that Carmen attended taught her American Sign Language (ASL), which her parents do not understand much at all, and which few of her siblings know fluently. Nevertheless, Carmen is very close to her family. Carmen’s school prepared her well for a college curriculum, and Carmen’s teachers are unanimous that she is bright and well-equipped to succeed in higher education. After a great deal of anguish about leaving, Carmen has decided to go to college some distance away. She will be the first child to leave the family’s home community. Carmen is excited about the opportunities in her future and anxious about the changes and how she’ll manage them alone.

• There is still some uncertainty about the finances of Carmen’s higher education. She does not know the full financial aid package she’ll receive, and she does not know how she’ll afford to travel to and from the school she has chosen (largely for its success in working with and cultivating community around deaf students).
• While she has decided on a university, Carmen is uncertain about her career options. She has few role models of deaf professionals outside educators, and she wants to explore more possibilities.
• Carmen’s close connections to her family members are strained by her impending departure, particularly as they deal with their own anxieties about the distance and uncertainty.
• Help Carmen continue to develop her self-advocacy skills and connect with mentors who can guide her decision-making.
• Support Carmen’s investigation of career options, using your assessment skills to determine areas of strong interest, talent, and skills.
• Because Carmen’s parents are not citizens, is she eligible for federal financial aid? What are the rules regarding financial aid eligibility for immigrant students?
• What supports does your higher educational institution provide to first-generation college students like Carmen? For students with disabilities? What kinds of modifications and assistance could Carmen expect to receive if she enrolled at your college? How might these influence the likelihood of her college success?
• How could you engage with Carmen separately, Celia and Hector as her parents, and with the entire family unit, as they face this large change in their lives?

Child, Son, Grandson, Nephew

Joey Sanchez, age 4, is a happy, healthy child who loves Lego and stories about the Incredible Hulk. He loves it when his Uncle Alejandro (whom he calls Ayo) reads to him from the latest adventures of the Hulk and can often be found in front of the television, watching old reruns of the adventures of the Hulk. When Joey was born , he displayed signs of drug exposure. This prompted the social worker at the hospital to take Joey into custody. Until his first court hearing when he was three months old, Joey was in foster care. During this time, his mother, Emilia, was remanded to drug treatment, which she only partially completed. His father was nowhere to be found. Thus, Joey was placed in kinship care with his grandparents, where he remains. His grandparents are in the process of adopting Joey since, under the Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1998, there must be some disposition of Joey’s case. Joey’s mother (Emilia) understands that her life is too unstable for her to be a responsible parent, but she would still like to work towards regaining a parental role in Joey’s life. She has continued to seek regular visitations with Joey during the intervening months, and she is committed to continuing her recovery process so that she can reunite with Joey permanently.

• While still too young to understand all the dynamics, Joey is a bright, curious, loving child. He is happy at his grandparents’ house and thrives with Celia’s love, but he also feels a bond to Emilia, whose affection for him is authentic and evident.
• Joey will start school in the next several months, and he is anxious about being away from Celia during the school day.
• Joey’s grandparents have every intention of adopting him, while his mother would like to regain custody. These diverging aims create conflict in the Sanchez family.
• All the adults in Joey’s life want to see him have a strong start to his education.
• What considerations should the child welfare system take in deciding to whom to award custody of Joey? Does the Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1998 provide the child welfare system with guidelines for resolving these kinds of cases?
• What special services might Joey need in school, as he copes with his attachment instabilities and lack of formal pre-kindergarten preparation? How can Celia and Hector best navigate the school resources to advocate for Joey?
• What types of income and social supports would Hector and Celia be eligible for, if they take full custody of Joey? What resources are available to help them as custodial grandparents?

Son, Cousin, Nephew, Immigrant, Latino

Roberto is a cousin to the Sanchez children and a nephew to Celia. He came to the United States across the border in Texas and is undocumented. As a young boy, he learned enough English from conversing with English-speaking tourists that he has been able, with his uncle’s help, to find day work. Injured during the traumatic border crossing and without adequate medical care in childhood or today, Roberto is plagued by a host of medical problems, including debilitating back pain and poor eyesight. Recently, he fell off a roof he was working on. Had he been in the country legally, he would have certainly received worker’s compensation, but, as it was, he was not even paid for the day’s work he had put in, and he was afraid to say anything to the boss, who was paying him in cash. He worries now that these medical concerns will make it harder for him to secure and keep employment. The Sanchez family is worried too. They are harboring an undocumented worker and do not know what will happen if the immigration authorities find out. Their landlord is very strict about non-family living in the house and tells the family he can charge extra rent if he finds such persons in residence. He insists that this is in the rental contract, but Mrs. Sanchez does not read English, and the contract language is not comprehensible to Mr. Sanchez. At the same time, the Sanchez family cannot imagine putting Roberto out of their house.

• Roberto’s health makes it difficult for him to work regularly, but he is not eligible for income supports. Even when Roberto’s employers refuse to pay him for work that he has completed, which happens fairly frequently, he is afraid to complain, because he thinks that his employers know that he is in the country illegally and may report him.
• Roberto is unable to receive medical care except in the event of true life-threatening emergencies, due to his status as an undocumented worker.
• Roberto knows that he is increasing the crowding in the Sanchez household and he wants to take the pressure off them by finding his own place to live, but he does not know how he can afford this, or whether he can even sign a contract as an undocumented immigrant.
• Roberto would like to legalize his status in the U.S. He does not know if this is even possible, and he does not know how to start this process.
• Find a job that produces as little strain on his health as possible.
• Explore any options to pursue legal immigration status.
• Find some help for his medical problems, through a medical service that will not ask him questions about his immigration status.
• Stay out of the way of the landlord, who is unaware of his presence in the home, or, ideally, find alternative housing.
• What legal remedies does Roberto have when his employers fail to pay him? Does he have a right to be paid, since he does not have work authorization in the U.S.? What about his workplace injury; are undocumented workers entitled to the same health and safety protections as citizen workers? To workers’ compensation? What organizations might be able to help Roberto in these situations?
• What health care resources are available to immigrants, without regard to their immigration status? How have recent changes--including those catalyzed by the pandemic—affected immigrants’ eligibility for and experiences with health care services in the United States?
• How might someone like Roberto be affected by the passage of federal immigration reform? What types of policy changes would be most beneficial to someone in his situation?

Review each family member's social supports through their own ecomap.

Go to Ecomap

Critical Thinking Questions

These core questions, specific to each client, will help you better understand and assess your client. Refer back to your answers throughout your assessment.

View Questions

• What Is Social Work?
• How Long Does it Take to Become a Social Worker?
• LMSW vs. LCSW: What’s the difference?
• Macro, Mezzo, and Micro Social Work
• Associate Degree in Social Work (ASW)
• Online BSW Programs
• Online Clinical MSW Programs
• Advanced Standing Online MSW Programs
• Online MSW Programs with No GRE Required
• SocialWork@Simmons
• Howard University’s Online MSW
• OnlineMSW@Fordham
• Syracuse University’s Online MSW
• Online Social Work at CWRU
• Is an Online Master’s in Social Work (MSW) Degree Worth it?
• MSW Programs in California
• MSW Programs in Colorado
• MSW Programs in Massachusetts
• MSW Programs in New York
• MSW Programs in Ohio
• MSW Programs in Texas
• MSW vs LCSW
• What is a Master of Social Work (MSW) Degree?
• What Can I Do with an MSW Degree? MSW Career Paths
• HBCU MSW Programs – Online and On-Campus Guide
• DSW vs. Ph.D. in Social Work
• Ph.D. in Social Work
• Social Work Continuing Education
• Social Work Licensure
• How to Become a Licensed Clinical Social Worker (LCSW)
• Community Social Worker
• Child and Family Social Worker
• Forensic Social Worker
• Geriatric Social Worker
• Hospice Social Worker
• Medical Social Worker
• Mental Health Social Worker
• Resources for Military Social Workers
• Oncology Social Worker
• Psychiatric Social Worker
• Resources for School Social Workers
• Social Work Administrator
• Social Work vs. Therapy
• Social Work Salary
• Social Work Collaborations
• Social Work Career Pathways
• Social Work vs. Sociology
• Benefits of a Part-Time MSW Program
• MSW vs. MPH
• Social Work vs. Counseling
• Social Work vs. Psychology
• Bachelor’s in Psychology Programs Online
• Master’s Degree in Counseling
• Become a School Counselor
• School Counselor Salary
• Become a Mental Health Counselor
• Advantages of Veterinary Social Work
• Practicing Anti-Racism in Social Work: A Guide
• Social Work License Exam Prep
• Theoretical Approaches in Social Work: Systems Theory

Social Learning Theory

• Sarah Frazell on Racism
• Lisa Primm on Macro Social Work
• Jessica Holton on Working With Clients Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing
• Cornell Davis III on Misperceptions About the Child Welfare Field
• Morgan Gregg on Working with Law Enforcement
• Social Work Grants
• Social Work Scholarships
• Social Work Internships
• Social Work Organizations
• Social Work Volunteer Opportunities
• Social Worker Blogs
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• Social Workers on Twitter
• Ethnic and Minority Social Work Resources
• Resources for LGBTQIA Social Work
• Mental Health Resources List

Home / Social Work Resources / Theories & Practice Models Used in Social Work

Theories & Practice Models Used in Social Work

Private practices. Mental health clinics. Child welfare service agencies.  Occupying a variety of professional settings, social workers are united by a shared mission: helping others live better lives.

In order to do that, they must first understand what makes their clients tick. As a social worker, studying different social work theories and social work practice models can help to bring you closer to your clients — equipping you with actionable insights that inform empathetic, evidence-based service.

Inspired by the scientific method, social work theories uncover the why of human behavior, while social work practice models reveal how you can effect change for individuals, couples, families, and communities at large.

If you’re looking for Social Work Practice Models, jump down here.

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List of Theories Used in Social Work

As a social worker, more knowledge can lead to a more informed approach, and more effective client interactions. Here, we’ll dig into decades of research to share a comprehensive set of social work theories and practice models, including:

Systems Theory

Behaviorism and social learning theory, psychodynamic theory, developmental perspective, rational choice perspective, conflict theory, ecological systems theory, family systems theory, contingency theory.

The 1950s were a decade of global innovation. From barcodes to credit cards, commercial computers to video cassette records, cutting-edge inventions were taking the stage. Around the same time, a new social work development was making its debut: systems theory.

Inspired by major advancements in the fields of psychology, communication, and psychiatry,  systems theory is based on the belief that individuals don’t operate in isolation . Rather, the theory positions people as products of complex systems: influenced by a variety of external factors, including other individuals, families, communities, and organizations.

Learn more about System Theory in Social Work.

Developed by the  American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner , ecological systems theory emphasizes the importance of observing people in multiple environments, or systems, to fully understand their behavior. In his theory, Bronfenbrenner outlines five distinct systems:

• The  microsystem  is someone’s small, immediate environment. For a child, this usually includes direct family, teachers, peers, and caregivers. Relationships in the microsystem are bi-directional—for instance, a parent treating a child with kindness will likely affect how the child treats the parent in return. For this reason, some consider the microsystem to be the most influential level of the ecological systems theory.
• The  mesosystem  consists of interactions between the different parts of a person’s microsystem. For instance, between a child’s parent and teacher. A social worker using this theory in everyday practice might ask themselves: “Are the different parts of my client’s microsystem working together towards a positive impact or working against each other?”
• The  exosystem  is an individual’s indirect environment. Consider a child whose father is an active duty soldier. Though the military isn’t a part of that child’s direct environment, it still influences them mentally and emotionally, and can impact their thoughts, relationships, and behavior.
• The  macrosystem  is a society’s overarching set of beliefs, values, and norms. This system often has a cascading effect on behavior in all the other systems, serving as a filter through which an individual interprets their experiences. For instance, a child might grow up thinking their socioeconomic status is a limiting factor in life. This macrosystem-level belief may cause them to behave differently in school — for positive or for negative, depending on the individual.
• The  chronosystem  includes major changes that influence an individual’s development overtime. This could include changes in family structure, employment status, or address, as well as large societal changes like wars, civil rights movements, or economic flux.

Family systems theory was developed in the mid-1950s, while  American psychiatrist Murray Bowen was working at the National Institute of Mental Health . Based on his knowledge of family patterns and systems theory, Bowen believed that the personalities, emotions, and behaviors of grown individuals could be traced back to their family interactions. The family, he suggested, is an emotional unit and can therefore play a formative role in development.

Within social work, professionals may enable families to try out different ways of doing things, such as teaching a parent on how to maintain appropriate boundaries with their child. The family is identified as a social system and therapy engages that concept to support the growth of clients.

Contingency theory explains that individual outcomes are contingent on a variety of specific situational factors. In the realm of social work, contingency theory can inspire you to seek understanding by considering all of the internal and external influences that are contributing to a client’s problem.

Systems Theory Related Resources

• American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) – Systems-Based Practice
• Bronfenbrenner Center for Translational Research
• The Bowen Center
• The Ecology of Human Development by Urie Bronfenbrenner
• Effective Social Work with Children, Young People and Families: Putting Systems Theory into Practice
• GoodTherapy – Systems Theory/Therapy
• New England Association for Family and Systemic Therapy (NEAFAST) – What is Systems Theory?
• Psychology Today – Family Systems Theory
• Systems Theory in Social Work

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• Behaviorism
• Cognitive Theory

What drives human behavior?  It’s a question that’s been asked for decades on end — and one that’s particularly relevant to the field of social work. Both behaviorism and social learning theory provide social workers with a useful framework for understanding clients.

By learning how past experiences influence present-day behavior, you can develop a research-backed approach to providing targeted care.

Social learning theory was developed by the influential Stanford University psychologist Albert Bandura. In 1961, Bandura conducted his most widely known experiment: the  Bobo doll study . In this experiment, children watched an adult shout at and beat a Bobo doll on television.

Later that same day, the children were left to play in a room containing a Bobo doll — and those who’d seen the film were more likely to torment the doll, imitating the behavior they’d been exposed to earlier. As a result, social learning theory posits that learning occurs through observation and imitation.

Learn more about  Social Learning Theory in Social Work.

Behaviorism and Behavioral Theory

According to behaviorism, all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. By adding in a conditioned stimulus before an unconditioned stimulus that leads to an unconditioned response, the conditioned stimulus will lead to a new conditioned response. In his famous experiment,  Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov  conditioned dogs to produce saliva at the sound of a metronome. By consistently introducing the metronome before feeding time, he found that the sound alone would lead to salivation — in anticipation of feeding time.

Similarly, humans can be conditioned to respond to specific stimuli. For instance, a child may work harder in school if they are promised a reward for receiving good grades.

Cognitive Theory in Social Work

Cognitive theory  uncovers how a person’s thinking influences behavior. This theory places emphasis on dysfunctional thought patterns that influence problematic behaviors — what we tell ourselves after an event. Social works may utilize this approach in therapy sessions to link dysfunctional thoughts that occur after and before behaviors.

Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory Related Resources

• American Psychological Association (APA) – “Albert Bandura to receive National Medal of Science”
• Association for Psychological Science (APS) – What Happened to Behaviorism
• Berkeley Graduate Division: Graduate Student Instructor Teaching & Resource Center – Behaviorism
• BMC Medical Education – Using Social Learning Theory to Explore the Process of Learning from Role Models in Clinical Settings
• Psychology Today – Behaviorism
• Psychology Today – Social Learning Theory
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Behaviorism
• Social Learning Theory – By Albert Bandura
• Social Learning Theory in Social Work
• Youtube Video from The Curious Classroom – Bandura and Social Learning Theory

Drive Theory

Ego psychology, object relations theory, self psychology.

Originally introduced by Sigmund Freud,  psychodynamic theory  has a storied history within social work. This theory is based on Freud’s belief that humans are intra-psychologically driven to seek gratification and that these impulses largely influence our everyday behavior. Psychodynamic theory has four major schools of thought: drive theory, ego psychology, object relations theory and self-psychology.

This psychodynamic theory is based on Freud’s belief that humans are biologically driven to seek gratification of their endogenous drive — and that these impulses largely influence our everyday behavior. Per Freud, these primary drives include sex, self-preservation, and aggression. Impositions on these drives may be external or internal via superego and ego; psychic structures introduced by Freud. Social workers who approach clients with theoretical orientation on drive may posit that a client’s actions are based on an innate suppression of, otherwise, socially unacceptable actions.

According to the American Psychological Association (APA),  ego psychology  is an approach that emphasizes the functions of the ego in controlling impulses, planning, and dealing with the external environment. Freud believed that the ego is weak in relation to one’s id. Ego psychology combines biological and psychological views of development by understanding the influences of socio cultural impacts on function.

Object-relations theory is a branch of psychodynamic thought that suggests relationships are more critical to personality development than individual drives and abilities. Accordingly, social workers may want to study the interactions between a client and the people who played a significant role in their life in early childhood.

Self psychology was introduced by Austrian psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut in the early 1970s and has since become one of social work’s most significant analytic theories. According to self psychology, humans have a distinct set of development needs and transferences: mirroring, idealizing, and alter ego. If a parent fails to meet those needs in childhood, an individual may wind up unable to regulate self-esteem — and therefore, may be overly dependent on others to provide those functions. In the realm of social work, this calls for a careful understanding of early occurrences and shortcomings.

Psychodynamic Related Resources

• PsychCentral – Psychodynamic Therapy
• Psychodynamic Theory – By Kathleen Holtz Deal
• Psychology Today – Psychodynamic Therapy
• SAMSHA/CSAT Treatment Improvement Protocols – Brief Interventions and Brief Therapies for Substance Abuse – Brief Psychodynamic Therapy
• Psychosocial Development Theory

Transpersonal Theory

Growth. Change. Consistency.  By adopting a developmental perspective, social workers can start uncovering the patterns of a person’s life. A large portion of developmental theories focus on childhood, since this is such a formative time.

Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Inspired by the earlier work of Sigmund Freud, German psychoanalyst Erik Erikson developed an eight-stage theory of identity and psychosocial development. According to Erikson, everyone must pass through eight stages of development throughout their life cycle: hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom. As a social worker, you may find it useful to identify a client’s current stage to pinpoint what challenges they’re currently facing.

Transpersonal theory  suggests the existence of stages beyond the adult ego. These stages contribute to creativity, wisdom, and altruism in healthy individuals—but can lead to psychosis in those lacking healthy ego development. In social work, transpersonal theory may be used to treat anxiety, depression, addiction and other mental health concerns. Typically spiritual approaches as used such as meditation, guided visualization, hypnotherapy and more.

Developmental Perspective Related Resources

• A Lifespan Developmental Perspective on Psychosocial Development in Midlife – By Tara L. Kuther and Kaitlyn Burnell
• Liberty University – Theories of Psychosocial Development
• Midlife Eriksonian Psychosocial Development: Setting the Stage for Cognitive and Emotional Health in Late Life – By Johanna C. Malone, Sabrina R. Liu, George E. Vaillant, Dorene M. Rentz, and Robert J. Waldinger
• Psychosocial Theory: Erikson – By Doug Davis and Alan Clifton
• Psychology Today – Our Hierarchy of Needs
• Psychology Today – Transpersonal Therapy
• A Review of Transpersonal Theory and Its Application to the Practice of Psychotherapy – By Mark C. Kasprow, M.D. and Bryce W. Scotton, M.D.
• Social Work and Social Development – Edited By James Midgley and Amy Conley

Social Exchange Theory

Social constructionism, symbolic interactionism.

Rational choice perspective is based on the idea that people calculate risks and benefits before making any decision, since all actions are fundamentally rational in character. Studying this theory can help social workers better understand client behavior. For instance, an action that seems objectively irrational to some, may make more sense upon closer examination of the individual’s context.

Social exchange theory  dates back to 1958, when American sociologist George Homans published the paper “Social Behavior as Exchange.” According to Homans, any two-person relationship can be viewed in terms of cost-benefit analysis— what am I giving, and what am I getting in return?  The  APA defines social exchange theory  as a concern of social interactions in exchanges where all participants seek to maximize their benefits. Within social work, professionals may utilize their theory to better understand interactions with their client and others around them — diving into the intrinsic rewards they may receive.

True. False. Good. Bad. Right. Wrong.  In social constructionism, these are all relative concepts, entirely dependent on the person who is interpreting them. This concept abandons the idea that one’s mind represents a mirror of reality—rather, it suggests that each of us creates our own world from our individual perceptions and interactions with others in the community.

Symbolic interactionism positions communication as the central way in which people make sense of their social worlds. American psychologist Herbert Blumer introduced three premises of symbolic interactionism:

• Humans interact with objects, institutions, and other individuals based on ascribed meanings.
• These ascribed meanings are inspired by our interactions with others and society.
• The meanings are interpreted by individuals in specific circumstances.

Imagine, for example, that your client professes a love for baking. Adopting a lens of symbolic interactionism, you may dig deeper into the ascribed meaning behind this act. Perhaps your client makes meringues because they used to help their mother do so in childhood — and for them, escaping to the kitchen is an act of comfort and safety.

Rational Choice Perspective Related Resources

• Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) – Behavior Analysis and Social Constructionism: Some Points of Contact and Departure by Bryan Roche and Dermot Barnes-Holmes
• Cornell University ILR School – Social Exchange Theory of Emotions by Edward J. Lawler and Shane R. Thye
• Iowa State University – Social Exchange Theory by Mark V. Redmond
• Ontario Ministry of Children, Community and Social Services – Rational Choice and Routine Activities Theory
• Rational Choice Theory: Advocacy and Critique – Edited by James S. Coleman and Thomas J. Fararo
• What is Social Constructionism? – By Tom Andrews

Conflict theory explains how different power structures impact people’s lives. In this theory, life is characterized by conflict—whether that’s oppression, discrimination, power struggles, or structural inequality. In addressing these asymmetrical power relationships, social workers can strive to reduce tensions between different groups.

Practice Models Used in Social Work

Problem solving model.

• Task Centered Practice
• Solution Focused Therapy

Narrative Therapy

Cognitive-behavioral therapy, crisis intervention model.

Read on to discover how these practice models are used by social workers in a variety of settings.

Proposed by Helen Harris Perlman in her book Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process, the problem solving model. Ms. Perlman posited that “success could be achieved by partializing – or separating into manageable segments – a client’s intertwined problems and focusing on one specific issue the client and social worker agreed needed to be resolved at a given time”, according to  The University of Chicago School of Social Service Administration . Utilizing this model, social workers are employed to address one concern of a client as to be resolved, at any given time. This allows for therapy for clients to be more manageable.

Task-Centered Practice

Beginning at the University of Chicago’s School of Social Service Administration,  task-centered practice (TCP)  is a four step process that trains social workers to work with clients in establishing specific and achievable goals based upon their concern for therapy. Through this model, social workers empower clients to drive their therapy by asking what they most want to work on to address their problems.

Solution-Focused Therapy

Solution-focused therapy  was developed out of necessity, as a brief theory, in an inner city outpatient mental health setting bySteve de Shazer, Insoo Kim Berg and their colleagues. This approach focuses on finding solutions in the from the past, for the present — in hopes of achieving quicker problem resolution. Social workers may use this theory when focusing more on the present and future, asking questions like “What would you be doing this weekend that supports your therapy goals?”.

Narrative therapy can be an effective way of separating a client from their problems. By examining a person’s life story, this social work practice model externalizes struggles, allowing individuals to adopt a new perspective and see the bigger picture. From a distance, they may be able to reframe their situation—recognizing that their self-worth and purpose are separate from their problems. When told from a third-person perspective, a story of hardship may transform into a story of resilience.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is one of the leading treatments for many mental health conditions. This social work practice model focuses on the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors—encouraging clients to identify patterns of irrational and self-destructive thoughts and behaviors that impact emotions.

Crisis intervention includes seven stages: assess safety and lethality, rapport building, problem identification, address feelings, generate alternatives, develop a plan of action, and follow up. This social work practice model is used when someone is experiencing an acute crisis — and is commonly used with clients who are expressing suicidal intent.

If you would like to become a social worker, but are not sure what degree options are available for you, explore our list of  accredited masters in social worker online programs .

Social Work: Applying Behavioral Theory to Levi’s Case Study

The behavioral theory of social work posits that people learn behaviors through conditioning. This implies that individuals’ behavior results from their social interactions and what they learn from others through observations (Parker, 2020). Notably, people can benefit and suffer consequences depending on their specific interactions. This is because actions impact an individual to shape their behavior. Therefore, since individuals’ behaviors result in natural or negative consequences, social workers use reinforcement through natural or negative consequence behavioral conditioning techniques to help clients modify undesirable behaviors. Thus, behavioral theory is applied in various ways in assessment, intervention, and evaluation processes.

Social workers utilize behavioral theory to conduct assessments to understand clients’ current behaviors and the factors influencing those behaviors and establish desired goals. Some of the critical aspects social workers aim at are understanding, including behaviors a client has learned that influence how they behave. To do so, social workers collect data through observation, interviews, and standardized assessments to identify patterns and triggers from patient interactions that influence their problematic behaviors (Parker, 2020). In the case study of Levy, a 35-year-old male living with HIV/AIDS, this theory would guide social workers in examining Levi’s interactions within his environment and determining learned and observed aspects influencing his behavior, such as isolation. Social workers can then develop an intervention plan based on a client’s needs.

Intervention

According to the behavioral theory of social work, an individual’s behavior can be improved by modifying the environment they interact with to provide them with new learning experiences. Therefore, an assessment provides social workers with a guideline to develop intervention plans that focus on modifying behaviors and achieving desired outcomes in an individual. Normally, social workers use evidence-based interventions such as techniques that modify behaviors to replace negative behaviors with positive alternatives and promote self-efficacy (Hagger & Weed, 2019). In Levi’s case, social workers would focus on HIV/AIDs education plans and creating a supportive environment for people with HIV/AIDS. At an individual level, interventions such as improving access to resources and providing counseling services would be helpful.

Behavioral theory also guides the evaluation process by assessing individual outcomes and the impact of interventions. Evaluation establishes the effectiveness of interventions in promoting individual well-being and determining the need for modification. The process involves assessing progress toward goals, measuring behavior changes, determining the severity of risky behaviors, and adhering to treatment plans (Verbist et al., 2020). Depending on the findings, interventions are adjusted if they no longer respond to the client’s needs. Intervention effectiveness in Levi’s case would be characterized by improved overall well-being, including the reduced desire for isolation and showing less or no signs of depression.

Guiding Social Work Practice

Behavioral theory guides social work practice in helping social workers understand how their clients’ behavior within an at-risk population is influenced by the environment they interact with. Social workers acknowledge the impact of environments individuals interact with in shaping their learned and observed behavior. In Levi’s case, at-risk populations are individuals living with HIV/AIDs, and social workers would aim to establish how the individual’s behavior in response to their conditions is shaped by the treatment they receive from those around them. Social workers thus utilize the behavioral theory in social work to identify environmental factors contributing to risky behaviors among the at-risk population. In Levi’s case, social workers would be interested to know the factors that trigger him to isolate himself and have anxiety. The theory guides them in addressing the identified issues using evidence-based interventions that focus on modifying environmental factors that negatively impact the at-risk population to reinforce positive behaviors for positive outcomes (Hagger & Weed, 2019). These interventions, once effective, help the at-risk population develop healthy coping strategies and decision-making skills so their surrounding factors do not always influence them negatively. The interventions also strengthen relationships and support networks for the at-risk population for positive influence and provide adequate support the individuals need.

Critique and application of research-based knowledge and practice wisdom

Social workers need to evaluate research findings critically and if they apply to the specific needs of their clients. This is because research studies provide valuable evidence and guidelines, making it easier for social workers to develop fulfilling interventions likely to yield positive outcomes. However, social workers must consider research studies’ limitations, biases, and generalizability to make informed decisions about a research’s applicability to their client’s unique circumstances. In applying research-based knowledge, social workers should use previous research studies as guidance to inform their assessments, interventions, and evaluations when working with clients (Verbist et al., 2020). Notably, social workers should prioritize clients’ individual needs and preferences rather than focusing on applying knowledge from research findings. Also, practice wisdom is the knowledge and expertise social workers acquire through practical experience and engagement with clients, and it complements research-based knowledge by providing insights into the unique needs of different individuals (Verbist et al., 2020). It provides an in-depth understanding of situations and flexibility in addressing unique challenges.

Documented examples from the case study

Social workers can apply the behavioral theory in Levi’s case study in assessment, intervention, and evaluation processes. Social workers understand how environmental factors influence Levi’s behavior in the assessment process. In the first step, social workers would identify problematic behaviors in Levi. He has a high desire to be in isolation and has behaviors related to depression, such as anxiety and mood changes influenced by stigmatization. A social worker would then conduct a functional behavior analysis to understand triggers and reinforcement of Levi’s behavior, such as his family’s lack of social support. Identifying the environmental factors contributing to his anxiety and social isolation, such as stigma, lack of support, or past negative experiences, will help develop an effective intervention plan.

The social workers would then apply behavioral strategies as interventions to modify behaviors of Levi and those surrounding him for positive outcomes in his behavior. Using the principles of learning theory, a social worker would collaborate with Levi to develop strategies to address his anxiety and social isolation. These may include organizing for Levi to attend support groups for individuals with HIV/AIDS so he can get an opportunity to interact with HIV-positive individuals who have adopted healthy behaviors. Since individuals learn from others by observing, Levi would reinforce Levi’s desire to interact more and avoid being in isolation. A social worker could also recommend relaxation techniques to reduce his anxiety. Another intervention would be cognitive restructuring, which involves challenging and modifying negative thoughts and beliefs contributing to Levi’s anxiety and social isolation. In this practice, a therapist would help Levi identify self-defeating thoughts and encourage him to develop adaptive thinking patterns and self-perception. The last intervention practice would be reinforcing the importance of self-care and taking medication to encourage Levi’s desired behaviors and progress.

The last aspect the behavioral theory would apply in Levi’s case is evaluation. This could be done by regularly monitoring Levi’s progress in reducing anxiety and improving social engagement. Another practice would be measuring outcomes in relation to desired goals. A social worker could use social functioning and anxiety scales to evaluate Levi’s improvement. Finally, to ensure long-term outcomes in Levi’s behavior, a social worker would employ strategies to prevent triggers that negatively impact his behavior and provide support resources for Levi after therapy.

Hagger, M. S., & Weed, M. (2019). DEBATE: Do interventions based on behavioral theory work in the real world?  International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity ,  16 (1), 1-10. https://ijbnpa.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12966-019-0795-4

Parker, J. (2020). Social work practice: Assessment, planning, intervention, and review.  Social Work Practice , 1-264. https://www.torrossa.com/en/resources/an/5018572

Verbist, A. N., Winters, A. M., Antle, B. F., & Collins-Camargo, C. (2020). A review of treatment decision-making models and factors in mental health practice.  Families in Society ,  101 (4), 444-455. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044389420921069

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MA Global Social Development

Key Details

Course Overview

On our MA in Global Social Development, you'll explore key social development issues such as vulnerability, cultural complexity, resilience, gender inequality, social exclusion, justice and education policies for development. 

This dynamic programme offers a specific focus on gender analysis. You’ll study the relationship between economic growth and gender equity, household dynamics, and empowerment. These critical topics are at the forefront of global development goals, and on the agendas of key international development agencies such as Oxfam, the UN and the World Bank.   

On this rewarding Master’s course, you'll explore issues like the impact of micro-credit interventions on social inequality and the gendered dynamics of climate change politics. You'll study the significance of gender divisions in development practices and how income generation programmes can empower women. You'll delve into complex cultural topics, such as witchcraft accusations and honour-based violence against women, analysing how social development practitioners can design effective interventions to support community wellbeing. 

This course equips you to tackle local and global wellbeing challenges by examining successful development processes. You'll focus on community-level analysis, gaining insights into how people on the ground respond to interventions, which is crucial for assessing impact. 

At UEA, you'll learn from world-class academics who incorporate cutting-edge research into their teaching, ensuring your education will be both current and relevant. With a wide range of optional modules to choose from, you can tailor your degree to your specific interests and career aspirations, equipping you to make a unique impact in global social development. 

Study and Modules

Over the course of this Master’s programme, you’ll become familiar with key concepts from social and gender theory, notably from anthropology, sociology and political science, and how these are applied to broader development challenges, policies and practices. Examples you might examine include precarity and gambling, poverty and micro-finance interventions and their implications for women’s empowerment, environmental disaster and responsibility, the impacts of religious fundamentalism on women’s sexual and reproductive health, divisions of labour and gendered wellbeing or the structural drivers of HIV. Concepts of social structure, power and people’s agency are applied to all these key development issues.    You’ll explore relations between public policy, social development, and various forms of diversity and difference, including gender, race, ethnicity and disability. Taking both a practical and theoretical perspective you’ll analyse the importance of understanding intersecting identities and its relevance to social policy and practice at the local, national and international levels. You’ll explore a range of different approaches for addressing diversity and difference, for example targeting and rights-based approaches. 

You’ll also have the opportunity to develop your own profile of learning and expertise by choosing elective modules. You can choose from many modules, taught in-house, which help you build more applied and professional skills, research skills (especially if you're thinking of moving on to a PhD) as well as those offering further learning in the fields of politics, gender analysis, climate change, education or the use of media in global development. 

In the summer period, you’ll work on your dissertation or development work placement. The dissertation is a substantial piece of independent work undertaken with a supervisor's guidance. The development work placement is similar except that you'll gain work experience in a development organisation and then reflect on the experience in an extended essay in reference to academic debates. 

Compulsory Modules

Social analysis for global development, gender diversity and social development, research approaches for dissertation or analytical report - aut starters, optional a modules, dissertation - autumn starters, development work placement - autumn starters, optional b modules, welfare and evaluation in development, rural livelihoods and agrarian change, gender perspectives in global development, introduction to education for development, governance, democracy and development, optional c modules, globalisation, business and development, conflict, civil wars and peace, educational policy and practice for development, project design and management.

Whilst the University will make every effort to offer the modules listed, changes may sometimes be made arising from the annual monitoring, review and update of modules. Where this activity leads to significant (but not minor) changes to programmes and their constituent modules, the University will endeavour to consult with students and others. It is also possible that the University may not be able to offer a module for reasons outside of its control, such as the illness of a member of staff. In some cases optional modules can have limited places available and so you may be asked to make additional module choices in the event you do not gain a place on your first choice. Where this is the case, the University will inform students.

Teaching and Learning

Teaching 

In the School of Global Development, we excel at sharing our enthusiasm and subject knowledge in the classroom with our amazing and diverse postgraduate students from over 40 countries.  

You’ll be taught by leading academics in the field of social development. These academics are active in research, with disciplinary or inter-disciplinary specialist expertise from anthropology, sociology, politics, and social geography, and with research expertise in various social development issues such as health, education, conflict, urban livelihoods and migration. 

Your learning will be through lectures and participatory workshops and smaller group sessions. We encourage small group work, discussion, and active student-led sessions because these are often the most effective learning methods. 

In some modules there are key reading workshops each week, which help you build deeper understanding of the most important materials. We also have pre-assessment workshops to help you think through and prepare your essays or policy papers. 

Independent study  

In the summer semester, you’ll complete a dissertation where you focus your learning on a specific social development issue and research question. You’ll further develop your independent research and analytical skills, and develop a high level of expertise in one particular subject – expertise which potential employers will be interested in. You can work with published materials, secondary data or – if health and travel advice permit - do fieldwork in the UK or abroad. 

The modules you complete in the autumn and spring will be assessed through coursework, such as an essay, a seminar presentation or a policy brief. In some of these modules you might also take a test upon its completion. 

For each module, you’ll have the chance to practice your skills and ideas for the coursework with a ‘formative’ piece of work, for example the chance to get feedback on your essay plan or a mock test. The course exam is at the start of the summer semester and is based on the two main core modules. 

You’ll get feedback on your assignments from the academic staff, who will explain the marks you receive and support you to develop your skills for subsequent work. 

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UK and International fee-paying students. Choose UK or International above to see relevant information. The entry point is in September each year.

Degree classification

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Degree Subject

Social Science preferred.

Applicants should normally have a good undergraduate degree from a recognised higher education institution. The University will also take into account the employment experience of applicants where relevant.

Our  Admissions Policy applies to the admissions of all postgraduate applicants.

UK Bachelors degree - 2.1 or equivalent 

Applications from students whose first language is not English are welcome. We require evidence of proficiency in English (including writing, speaking, listening and reading):   

IELTS: 6.0 overall with minimum 6.0 in Writing & Speaking and 5.5 in Listening & Reading

We also accept a number of other English language tests. Review  our English Language Equivalencies  for a list of example qualifications that we may accept to meet this requirement.  

Test dates should be within two years of the course start date. 

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If you do not meet the academic requirements for this course, you may be able to study the International Pre-Masters programme offered by our partner INTO UEA. This programme guarantees progression to selected Master's degrees if students achieve the appropriate grade. For more details, please click here:  

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Tuition fees for the Academic Year 2025/26 are: 

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Please see Additional Course Fees for details of additional course-related costs. 

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Employability

After the course.

After the course you’ll have specialised academic skills, transferable skills and expertise or work experience in an area of social, in particular, gender development. You can return better qualified to your existing career or pursue a new career trajectory in various fields of social development, ranging from community development or project implementation work, to research or policy analysis. 

Previous graduates from the School of Global Development have gone on to work for the British High Commission in Ghana, British Civil Service, CARE International, European Union, Overseas Development Institute, Oxfam, Save the Children International, UNITAR in Japan, the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, UNDP, UNHCR, UNICEF and WaterAid. 

Upon completing your MA, you can pursue a variety of potential careers both in and beyond global development.  

Depending on your degree outcome, you'll also be well qualified to enter a PhD programme with a view to continuing to an academic career both in the UK and overseas.

Example of careers that you could enter include: 

• International organisations 
• Governmental and non-governmental organisations 
• Local governments 
• Charities 
• Private sector 

Discover more on our Careers webpages.  

Global Social Development starting September 2025 for 1 years