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How to Write a Short Story Research Paper

What Exactly Is A Story?

Our capacity for feeling and our ability to remember are both enhanced by the telling of stories, which are essentially built into our brains. But what is a story exactly? The more people you ask for definitions, the more you will obtain. The basic format of the majority of Hollywood dramas consists of one main character living her life until she meets a predicament. There will be ups and downs, culminating in a large event such as a fight or a party. The action begins when she seeks to resolve the issue. Things are ultimately resolved in some fashion. We observe how our protagonist’s life has changed as a result of the novel’s events.

Whether you are writing a research paper for a high school or college-level class, the process of researching a short story is generally the same, although a college instructor will likely want additional information. Before investigating the short story, thoroughly read it and make any necessary notes. Creating your research paper allows you to have a deeper understanding of the short story and share your discoveries with the reader.

Read any handouts or notes you’ve prepared on the particular requirements for the next research paper. Pay particular attention to the required word/page count and the type of works mentioned page in terms of both structure and quantity of sources. Additionally, you should keep track of whether your instructor requires a specified number of primary sources in addition to secondary sources. Determine which, if any, of your sources may be located online.

• Find a quiet place to read and reread the required short story . Take notes carefully as you read.
• Seek comments about the story you want to create. You should find a number of reviews on the subject at your institution’s library or at your community’s public library. Although various short story assessments are available online, be sure that any web resource you use to compose your research report is credible. In general, academic sources are reputable. Reference libraries that provide access to sources are useful while conducting research; however, you may need a university ID number to access these online resources.
• Examine the testimonials in detail. Occasionally, annotations appear beneath the actual text when an authority provides definitions and explanations of what a certain word or paragraph means. In general, a scholar of the author and the work will read the text from a broader perspective, drawing judgments about where the author drew inspiration from other writers’ works or in creating a particular character or the narrative’s main theme.
• Write your paper using the sources you’ve selected to support the assertions you intend to make in your research report. Utilize your own notes to recall what you observed while reading the tale.

If you have just been told that you need to write a research paper and are feeling apprehensive, we are confident that the following strategies will assist you. First and foremost, whether you are searching for or attempting to comprehend a topic, consult to your professor. Do not be concerned! You constantly undertake research. Consider the most recent time you made a significant purchase, selected a school, or went to the movies. You may have conversed with pals, read product or movie reviews, visited a college campus, or test-driven a car. Academic research is comparable; however, procedures and sources may vary.

A Guide to Writing a Short Story Research Paper

·â â â â â â â  select an engaging question.

Your instructor or professor will either allow you to select your own topic, provide you with a selection of topics to pick from or assign you one. In any case, select a topic or component of your topic that you find interesting. Approach your studies with a critical frame of mind. Critical does not mean “finding defects,” but rather a perceptive and discriminating attitude.

·        Be precise

Construct your question to extract information on the “who, what, where, why, and how” of your problem. Too general subjects should be avoided. An expansive topic will make it tough to limit your research. Consider your research question to be both an anchor and an umbrella: your “who” and “how” questions are your anchor, and it’s up to you to keep everything in control under the protection of your research umbrella.

·        Pay Close Attention to Your Thesis Statement

How has global warming harmed the earth is an example of a too-broad thesis statement. How has global warming impacted marine life in the Pacific Ocean? This is an example of a debatable thesis statement.

·        Make Your Question Challenging

Along with a specific question, your topic should be engaging enough to hold the reader’s interest. Individuals will only be compelled to continue reading if simply a yes or no response is required.

·        Primary and Secondary Data Collection

Begin your search for information that can assist you in answering your question. A research paper may need the utilization of both primary and secondary materials. Primary research requires working with genuine materials or obtaining data in the field. Secondary research is finding out what others have found out about a topic.

·        Support Your Question with a Choice of Sources

Secondary research materials can be acquired in a number of different methods. Utilize the databases within the library. Consider newspapers and periodicals. Visit websites with caution; be certain they are trustworthy. If the domain ends in “.org,” “.gov,” or “.edu,” this is a good (but not foolproof) indicator.

·        Conduct Refined Keyword Research

Although search engines vary, the following guidelines apply to the majority of them.

·        Take Notes While Reading

Using note cards to record pertinent quotations and paraphrases is an excellent method for organizing your thoughts. Make a note of the source’s title, author, and page number to avoid future citation problems!

·        Create a Draft

Create an outline and begin writing your first draught of the paper. The use of an outline might help you keep everything “under the umbrella.” Consider your introduction, the arguments you will make, the sequence in which you will make them, and your planned conclusion. Create a preliminary draught. Before beginning a rewrite, you should set the document aside for at least twenty-four hours and have someone else review it.

·        Finish With the Final Revision

Rewrite your paper in light of your reflection and comments. Remember to proofread carefully for spelling and punctuation errors. Check the correctness of your Works Cited (or References) page as well.

Purpose of Story Research Paper

Consequently, what is the objective of a story research paper ? This style of paper is meant to demonstrate the researcher’s capacity to comprehend, analyze, and interpret the subject matter. Here are some recommendations on how to begin preparing and writing an outstanding research paper on a story.

How to Write a Research Paper on a Story

1.â â â â  read the book twice.

Read the book attentively and have a dictionary and a notebook on hand, if required. Only take notes when something captures your attention or merits highlighting. Remember to record each note’s page number. Try to rest in between readings and record your initial impressions of the book when you’ve completed it. It might be useful in the future.

2.     Choose the Subjects You Will Emphasize In Your Paper

Ensure that your research piece concentrates on certain subjects. For instance, you may opt to emphasize the book’s characters or the plot’s content. This will make outlining your thoughts and writing your research report much simpler.

3.     Plan the Structure of Your Paper

It typically consists of an introductory paragraph, a body that highlights the book’s themes, and a conclusion that summarizes the last issues. Consider extending the main body to many paragraphs or chapters.

4.     Consider the Main Points of Each Paragraph

Before writing, choose a statement for each paragraph that emphasizes the key ideas and shows the approach you will emphasize in your own research paper.

In addition, include any citations or references you desire to emphasize while building paragraphs. Utilize headers and subheadings to simplify your work. Remember that these notes are intended just for your personal use, and organize your thoughts accordingly.

Now that we’ve discussed how to write a story-based research paper let’s examine the structure of your paper.

·        Introduction

The first paragraph explains the book and the major topics you uncovered throughout your research. In addition to a summary of the storyline and an introduction to the main characters, the introduction of a research paper should also include a brief synopsis of the plot and an overview of the main characters. In this section, you should introduce both your research topic and the essential concept of history.

·        The Report’s Primary Content

Make this the first paragraph in which you illustrate your thesis by focusing on one aspect or theme of the story. To illustrate the most crucial components of the story in relation to your plot, you may describe specific situations or include direct quotations. Include any relevant research you’ve conducted about the author, historical era, or gender to bolster your arguments.

Draw the major characters in the story and explain their origins and characteristics. Describe in a few sentences the tension that exists at the beginning of the tale. Discuss the character’s journey and the resolution of the dilemma. Focus on the significant events that shaped the story’s conclusion with little specifics. Consider any lessons or realizations the protagonist learned toward the end of the narrative.

·        Conclusions

Your book report should conclude with a summary of how your thorough method pertains to the entire plot. Three or four phrases that link the relevance of your detailed method to the overarching tale, conflict, and character stance should conclude your paper. Due to the fact that the broad viewpoint frequently involves analysis and critique, conclude the paper with a concluding statement that indicates what you gained from reading the book or a conclusive statement that reveals your ultimate opinion on the idea examined.

Bring the overview of the book to a close by discussing the conclusion and offering your comments or ideas about the text. You must demonstrate comprehension of the author’s message in three to five sentences. To explain the value of the book to you, describe a relationship between it and your personal experiences. The conclusion also affords you the chance to write a succinct evaluation of the book, indicating why you liked or hated it.

·        Go Over Your Paper Again

After you have completed your research paper , you should proofread it. Take a break and delegate your task to someone else. People who are reading the work for the first time typically discover errors that the authors should have made.

When asking a friend to critique your work, the question about his own impressions of the content. Ask direct inquiries and expect direct responses. Inquire as to whether the buddy liked or hated the work, whether reading the paper inspired them to read the book, whether the writing was flowing, etc.

The Bottom Line

We hope our suggestions were helpful. Internet searches for terms such as “ how to write a good research paper on a book ” might complement your understanding of writing a research paper on a story or a book.

Frequently Asked Questions

• How to write a short paper research?

The format of a normal five-paragraph short paper is as follows: introduction (1 paragraph), thesis, major body (3 paragraphs), and conclusion (1 paragraph). This allows your work to be more extensively organised and simpler to understand. Even if you’re writing a brief essay, first impressions are important.

• What should a short research paper include?

Typically, a complete APA-style research paper describing an experimental study would include a Title page, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References section. In addition to figures and tables, many will also include an appendix or appendices.

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How to Tell a Story in Your Research Paper

Why are stories so powerful? To answer this, we have to go back at least 100,000 years. This is when humans started to speak. For the following roughly 94,000 years, we could only use spoken words to communicate. Stories helped us survive, so our brains evolved to love them.

Paul Zak  of the Claremont Graduate University in California researches what stories do to our brain. He found that once hooked by a story, our brain releases oxytocin. The hormone affects our mood and social behaviour. You could say stories are a shortcut to our emotions.

There’s more to it; stories also help us remember facts.  Gordon Bower and Michal Clark  from Stanford University in California let two groups of subjects remember random nouns. One group was instructed to create a narrative with the words, the other to rehearse them one by one. People in the story group recalled the nouns correctly about six to seven times more often than the other group.

What is a story?

So, humans are wired to love stories, they make us emotional and boost our memory. But what is a story? It seems the more people you ask, the more definitions you’ll get. Zak also performed some experiments to find out which stories have the most effect on us. His conclusion? The stories that get us curious, excited, and emotionally involved have an element of tension. This can be a conflict, an accident, a problem. Something that just isn’t quite right.

If we glance over to Hollywood, you’ll notice that most dramas follow one simple structure: there is one main character who goes on with her life until she encounters a problem. The action kicks in when she tries to solve the problem, there will be some ups and downs, which will conclude in a big event like a fight or a party. Afterwards things get resolved in some way. We see how things have panned out for our protagonist, how the events of the story have changed her life.

Plot spirals

If a plot consists of the six essential elements of main character, setting, tension, action, climax, and resolution, the film has a good chance to become a hit. I illustrated this plot structure in a spiral, see the left panel in Figure 1, below. The circular form visualises that the protagonist is back where she started after the story has taken place. Now, a new story can start to wrap around again – hello, season two.

How the plot elements in a dramatic story translate into the story of a scientific paper.

So, how do we utilise these story elements for our paper and write a scientific story? Have a look at the right panel in Figure 1 and let me explain.

A scientific story

Let’s start with the characters and setting. The  main character  in your paper is not Jessica Jones (too bad) but your object of study. Perhaps a certain disease, reaction mechanism, theory, or historic document? The  setting  translates to the background that you should provide to your study. That sounds like the introduction section of your paper, right? You cite previous work and give the reader a feeling about where the state of the art is.

But – just as with any Hollywood success in the box office – your paper will not become a page-turner, if you don’t introduce an element of  tension  now. Your readers want to know what problem you are solving here. So, tell them what gap in the literature needs to be filled, why method X isn’t good enough to solve Y, or what still isn’t known about mechanism Z. To introduce the tension, words such as “however”, “despite”, “nevertheless”, “but”, “although” are your best friends. But don’t fool your readers with general statements, phrase the problem precisely.

If you’ve covered the main character, setting and tension, the  action  can start. Now you can present your plots, schemes, interpretations; i.e. your findings. Throughout the results section you should gradually solve the problem you started out with. Eventually you’ll arrive at the  climax  of your scientific story: the conclusions that you draw from your results.

But that’s not all. As in a drama, your reader will be curious about the  resolution : What do your findings mean in the context of the literature? How do you explain trend X and Y? How can your results be useful for application Z? What is the big picture? What should be further investigated? Often, I find, the discussion and outlook parts of papers are too short.

Take the reader by the hand

There are three more aspects that successful stories have in common. They are based on  one main theme , the events are in  chronological order , and everything in the story has a  purpose . These three elements directly apply to scientific papers too. If you can’t summarise your paper in one simple sentence you might not have a clear motif in mind. The main theme weaves through your narrative like a thread, bringing all the different things you mention together.

You rarely see films with a timeline jumping back and forth. Even if it does, the order in which the scenes have been arranged makes sense. So should your scientific story. Chronology doesn’t mean that you need to reiterate the thought process you went through when you performed the study. Just find the most logical arrangement of the different steps you took in order to come to your conclusion.

Purpose is linked to this. If you think in terms of a main theme and a logical order of arguments, you’ll quickly identify the bits of your research that either don’t quite fit in or provide additional detail. These may be better as part of the supporting information than the main text. Because your research is likely complicated stuff to anyone except you and your co-authors, take your reader by the hand and walk them through it.

That’s it. If you want to tell a story in your paper, think of the six plot elements (character, setting, tension, action, climax, resolution) and the other three story essentials (main theme, chronology, purpose). In no time you’ll have outlined the backbone of your narrative and be ready to create a paper that is concise, compelling, and easy to understand.

Anna Clemens

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Academic writing style: Telling a story in your research paper

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• 25 February, 2022

Academic writing can often be somewhat drab. Make no mistake – it isn’t supposed to entertain, it’s supposed to inform. However, that doesn’t mean that it can’t be engaging . Building your research paper around a narrative format can help the reader (from the editor who views your initial submission to the final reader) follow the ‘story’ of what you’re bringing across more easily, thus enabling them to absorb the information more readily. Here, we discuss the benefits of telling a story in your research paper and share some pointers for doing it well. 

Telling a story in your paper: Explained and exemplified

When we say ‘narrative’, we don’t necessarily mean ‘write in the style of your favourite author’. A narrative, in the context of academic writing, is a central thread that runs through each of your result pieces . The idea is to have a beginning, a middle and an end to your paper, thereby providing the reader with structure and a satisfying progression through the paper . 

Why is this important?

Consider the following example:

Western blot results suggested the presence of the protein of interest. Structural analysis confirmed the protein’s folded structure to include disulphide bonds. 

The above example is a matter-of-fact statement of results.

Now, consider this example:

To determine whether our protein of interest was present, a western blot was performed, suggesting its presence in the sample. Further structural analysis revealed the presence of disulphide bonds.

This example improves on the first statement by reframing it as a progression of events, giving the impression of a development occurring with every new piece of data generated , rather than a simple collection of data. By restructuring the information this way, the second example also ties the rationale into the sentence , giving the reader context for what they are about to read.

How to write your paper as a story: Basics

A complete illustration of writing your research paper as a story or narrative is beyond the scope of this article. So, here, we provide some basic tips.

What you need to do

You’ll need a beginning, a middle and an end . Oftentimes this can be a helpful way of structuring your paper when you are about to commence writing , as it can help you obtain an idea about the overall form that you think would be ideal for it.

Also, try not to simply retell your entire process chronologically, but rather in terms of rationale . For example…

One piece of data led you to another question, which would in turn have directed you towards interrogating yet another aspect, and so on.

This leads the reader through your process and will help them to understand why you progressed the way you did .

What you need to avoid

It is not uncommon to have to reappraise your data when the time comes to write your paper. However, be aware that using a narrative structure and voice could lead you to omit certain experiments because they might not fit with the ‘story’ . There are cases where this is fine, because perhaps a specific experiment or method isn’t particularly relevant. However, be aware that there can be a fine line between this and ‘cherry picking data’ , which can be regarded as misconduct and/or an unethical practice .

Also try to avoid using too many personal pronouns . There are instances, disciplines and journals in which this may be acceptable. Just ensure that your writing does not start coming across as too informal or even unprofessional, and that you still adhere to the overall tone of your chosen journal.

Integrating a narrative structure into your paper is a stylistic choice that can help your reader follow your thought processes and make sense of your overall progression, from forming the hypothesis through to testing that hypothesis. The more you are able to engage your audience using your writing and tools like this, the more they will engage with your work , which is the ultimate goal of publication .

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• Published: 14 September 2020

The art of scientific storytelling: framing stories to get where you want to go

• Rafael E. Luna 1 , 2  

Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology volume  21 ,  pages 653–654 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Storytelling provides a platform to learn, publish and share your science. Framing information into a compelling story can be a useful tool to disseminate your data and share your passion for science, to make a greater impact with your research and to advance your career.

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Acknowledgements

R.E.L. acts as an Associate Dean, Boston College; Director, Pre-Health Program, Director, Gateway Scholars Program for STEM; Faculty Advisor, STEM & Health Outreach for AHANA (SHOfA) student organization; Co-Chair, Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Committee at Boston College; Board Member, Biomedical Science Careers Program; Advisory Council member, National Postdoctoral Association; External Advisory Board member, LS-PAC MODELS Center-National Science Foundation Regional Center of Excellence; External Advisory Committee member, Louisiana Biomedical Research Network, which is funded by NIGMS-NIH. R.E.L. also thanks Profs. P.Q. Blair, M. Eichhorn, and J.S. Davis, along with Drs. L.E. Luna and M. El-Kouedi, and Ms. U.J. Luna, for helpful feedback on this article.

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Rafael E. Luna, Ph.D. is the Author of the Book, ‘The Art of Scientific Storytelling: Transform Your Research Manuscript with a Step-By-Step Formula’, 2013 Amado International; EAN-13: 978–0615821993; ISBN-10: 0615821995.

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The Art of Storytelling in Academic Writing: 5 Steps to a Better Research Paper

Life is about stories. We each have one. Humans use stories to create social connections, to share ideas, to entertain, and to inform. Communication takes place through stories, whether fictional, historical, or contextual. But what many people don’t know is that storytelling is just as important when it comes to academic writing.

Manuscripts submitted for publication, dissertations, and other research reports tell the story of a scientific investigation. Stories consist of five major components: setting, conflict, character, plot, and theme. Each component has its parallel in academic writing.

Since I don’t have time to dissect an entire manuscript or dissertation, I’m going to use an abstract to illustrate the concept of storytelling in academic writing. An abstract contains all the major elements of a research report: background, method, results, and conclusions.

Consider the following sample abstract:

The United States is currently facing a shortage of family practice physicians, resulting in fewer preventative health care options for patients and an increasing number of non-urgent visits to hospital emergency rooms. Despite a steady increase in medical school applications, student enrollment is limited due to a shortage of clinical faculty. Previous studies have identified high turnover rates among clinical faculty as a major challenge for medical schools. In the present study, the factors related to successful recruitment and retainment of clinical faculty were investigated by exploring the lived experiences of novice clinical faculty during the role transition from clinical practice to clinical educator. Three common themes associated with positive role transitions were identified: orientation, training, and ongoing support. The results of this study may assist human resources personnel in medical schools with the development of programs to improve recruitment and retention of novice clinical faculty.

1. The Setting

In a research report, the setting is provided by the background information, which is drawn from the scientific literature. The reader needs to understand the overall problem and how the research topic addresses the problem. A good introduction takes the reader from a broad description of the problem to the specific focus of the study in a series of logical, sequential steps.

In the example above, the abstract begins by describing a nationwide crisis: the shortage of family physicians. The shortage of physicians is due to a shortage of clinical faculty to teach medical students. The shortage of faculty is due to high turnover rates. The high turnover rates are due to issues with recruitment and retention of faculty, which is what the study aims to address. Thus, in a few sentences, the reader is taken from a broad problem (nationwide shortage of family physicians) to the focus of the study (recruitment and retainment of clinical faculty) in a series of logical steps that clearly explain the relevance of the study to the issue at hand.

2. The Conflict

In stories, the conflict is a struggle or an oppositional situation that involves the central character. In research reports, conflicts are based in the scientific literature. Two main types of conflict in research are discrepancies in results and gaps in the literature (i.e., unanswered questions).

When writing a paper or dissertation , a clear description of the conflict serves to engage the reader and imparts a degree of importance to the study. In the example above, the conflict is a gap in knowledge regarding the reasons for high turnover rates among clinical faculty in medical schools. The importance of the study is emphasized by connecting the gap in knowledge to the broader problem: the shortage of family physicians. Importantly, the consequences of the present situation are clearly identified: emergency rooms are being taxed by visits from patients who would be better served by a family physician, and family physicians often engage in preventative health measures to further reduce the need for hospitalization. Thus, in this case, the conflict is presented as a crisis situation with implications for healthcare costs and the health of U.S. citizens.

3. The Character

Once the background (setting) has been presented and the reader is made aware of the conflict, it is time to introduce the main character: the study. The study should be introduced to the reader as the solution to the conflict. I like to think of it as the hero swooping in to save the day.

In the above example, the problem has been clearly presented in the first three sentences. The fourth sentence introduces the study by presenting it as the potential solution to the conflict.

In the present study, the factors related to successful recruitment and retainment of clinical faculty were investigated…

The reader has already been made to understand how the successful recruitment and retainment of clinical faculty relates to the overall problem (the shortage of family physicians). The study is introduced as a means to resolve the problem (by identifying the factors involved in successful recruitment and retainment of clinical faculty). This introduction not only emphasizes the importance of the study to the reader, but also continues to engage the reader and maintain interest. Importantly, the reader is clear about the role of the study in resolving the conflict, and the need for the study is apparent.

Aside from presenting the role of the main character (to resolve the conflict), the reader also needs to be introduced to the main character. The sentence fragment above ends with the following brief description of the methodology that not only explains how the study aims to resolve the conflict, but also describes the nature of the study itself:

…by exploring the lived experiences of novice clinical faculty during the role transition from clinical practice to clinical educator.

The qualitative nature of the study is made apparent by the description of the method (exploring the lived experiences of novice faculty). In addition, the reader learns that the phenomenon of role transition provides an outcome measure for the study. In other words, factors that are associated with successful recruitment and retention of clinical faculty are assumed to be associated with a positive role transition. Thus, the study is also phenomenological in nature.

With this information, the reader can create a framework, a mental context in which all the information that follows will be interpreted. Once again, this technique serves to engage the reader and reinforce the importance of the study.

4. The Plot

The plot consists of the events that happen in a story that relate to the central conflict. In a research report, the plot is simply the description of the study and the results. However, as with fictional writing, the connection to the central conflict must be made clear to the reader throughout the manuscript or dissertation. Confusing plotlines are the bane of any writer.

The purpose of the methods section is to provide a context in which the reader can interpret the findings and to allow other researchers to reproduce the study. Ideally, the methods section is written in a logical order that follows the sequence of events that comprise the method, beginning with sampling and followed by data collection, sorting or filtering (if applicable), and data analysis.

Results should be presented in a format that is easy to follow using visual aids such as tables, graphs, and illustrations as appropriate. The goal should be to make it easy for the reader to access the results. For example, lengthy textual descriptions of measures or statistical data should be avoided. No matter how groundbreaking the research, nobody wants to slog through paragraphs filled with numbers.

Results should be presented in a way that clearly connects them with the research topic. One of the more common mistakes I find when editing a dissertation is the presentation of results that have no clear connection to the research topic. Like a plotline that has no clear connection to the main conflict in the story, such tactics leave the reader with the impression that the material was added to provide bulk rather than substance.

5. The Theme

The theme of a story is the central idea or belief that the author wishes to convey. In a research report, the theme is largely found in the discussion of the results and the conclusions drawn from the findings, including implications for future research.

In the sample abstract above, the findings are necessarily brief. However, they convey a central message: novice clinical faculty need proper training, orientation, and support in order to be successful in their transition from practice to teaching. The implications are clear: implementing these practices will help retain novice faculty, which will boost the number of medical students and increase the number of family physicians.

The theme of a study is important: it emphasizes the contribution of the study to the body of knowledge in the field, it offers explanations for unexpected or potentially conflicting results, and it provides the reader with a sense of direction for future studies. In the sample abstract, the last sentence leaves the reader with a sense of future directions for the research.

The results of this study may assist human resources personnel with the development of programs to improve recruitment and retention of novice clinical faculty.

There is an art to writing about results. The researcher must be honest about what the study found (or did not find), point out limitations while not making the study appear weak, and draw conclusions that are clearly supported by the data. While major findings are easier to present in a positive light, the reality of scientific investigation is that studies often yield negative or conflicting results. The ability to demonstrate the importance of such findings is the mark of good academic writing.

I’ve mentioned reader interest and engagement frequently in this article, and you may ask yourself why, as a researcher publishing a study, these things should matter. The truth is that scientists, like many other professionals, succeed by convincing others of the importance and relevance of their work. This is achieved through clear communication that engages the reader.

Storytelling has been a method of information exchange for humans since we first began to communicate ideas. Thus, applying the concepts of storytelling to academic writing can promote the conditions that are necessary for success. Grants are awarded, promotions are granted, and presentations are well attended all on the basis of clear, engaging communication. There are thousands of scientists out there who possess a high degree of intelligence and are doing work in important areas of research. To stand out among the crowd, you’ll need clear and effective communication. The best way to do that? Tell a good story.

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Research Stories

Research stories share your research in a way that is understandable and interesting to a non-expert, public audience. Unlike a research report, a research story focuses on telling the narrative of your process, the significance of your research to others, and your personal engagement with your research. This handout will help you frame your research in an engaging way.

Story Structure

The overall structure of a research story is slightly different than a general research report. Scientific reports usually summarize a completed research project, which is why they emphasize the methods and results as separate sections. A research story, however, can describe completed research or research that is still in process. As such, the methods and results are briefly described in one section called the research process. Instead, a story format emphasizes the introduction and discussion, where most of your story will take place.

Catchy Introductions

Your introduction should be catchy to establish a story-like tone that can be carried throughout the rest of the document. A good research story introduction establishes the importance and relevance of the topic and gradually incorporates the scientific aspects. The next two examples are from Napoleon's Buttons: 17 Molecules that Changed History , which discusses scientific concepts in an engaging, story form.

Consider the opening sentences from Napoleon's Buttons :

In June 1812, Napoleon's army was 600,000 strong. By early December, however, the once proud Grande Armee numbered fewer than 10,000. The tattered remnants of Napoleon's forces had crossed the Berezina River, near Borisov in western Russia, on the long road of retreat from Moscow. —Jay Burreson and Penny Le Couteur, Napoleon's Buttons: 17 Molecules that Changed History

You'll notice that the story does not jump into the science immediately. Instead, it uses history to identify the topic's significance and draw the reader in. Two paragraphs later, the authors draw the audience towards the science of the book:

What caused the downfall of the greatest army Napoleon had led? Why did Napoleon's soldiers, victorious in previous battles, falter in the Russian campaign? One of the strangest theories to be advanced can be captured by paraphrasing an old nursery rhyme: "all for the want of a button." Surprising as it may seem, the disintegration of Napoleon's army may be traceable to something as small as the disintegration of a button - a tin button, to be exact, the kind that fastened everything from the greatcoats of Napoleon's officers to the trousers and jackets of his foot soldiers. When temperatures drop, shiny metallic tin starts to change into a crumbly nonmetallic gray powder - still tin, but with a different structural form. —Jay Burreson and Penny Le Couteur, Napoleon's Buttons: 17 Molecules that Changed History

Here is an additional example from the first-place winner of the 2015 Science Writing Contest. The author vividly describes a scene that immediately establishes the importance of studying acid rain and draws the reader into their story.

Dead fish. Blistered skin. Statues with their faces grotesquely weathered. For many Americans, these are the images that come to mind when we hear the words "acid rain." Many of us are vaguely aware of the danger of this phenomenon—yet few people fully understand how acid rain forms and why it has such devastating effects. Recently, scientists have found that acid rain is even changing the way microbes interact with their soil environment, altering nutrient cycles and changing ecosystems from the ground up. —Hannah Devens, "Unearthing a Legacy: Acid Rain's Effects on Nutrient Cycles in Forest Ecosystems," 1st Place Winner of the 2015 Science Writing Contest

Research Process

Whether your research has been completed or not, describing your research process makes your topic and hypotheses/conclusions more clear to readers. The process can include the methods you have used or are considering, your results if they have been collected, or the types of results you are hoping to collect based on your methodology or hypotheses.

The following example describes the research process in a story format:

We are using several techniques to test the effects of calcium levels on microbial respiration. To measure the amount of carbon respiration in each sample, we are using a method in which the carbon dioxide emitted from the soil microbes reacts with a solution so we can capture it in solid form. We are also distinguishing between leaf litter and soil organic matter as carbon sources for the microbes by analyzing chemical signatures in the captured solid. More carbon emitted from a sample would indicate that its microbes respired at a higher rate, recycling more rapidly from the organic form. When we compare the amounts of carbon with the amounts of calcium in the soil samples, we hope to see a relationship that will tell us more about how calcium is affecting microbial respiration of organic matter in the soil. —Hannah Devens, "Unearthing a Legacy: Acid Rain's Effects on Nutrient Cycles in Forest Ecosystems," 1st Place Winner of the 2015 Science Writing Contest

The author had not completed their research, but they described their methodology for conducting research, articulating their goals for analysis and the potential results. You can be at any stage of your research as long as you creatively and engagingly tell the story of your research and its significance.

Your discussion, then, can discuss your results (if you have already analyzed your data), or the next steps for your research and the information they might reveal. The discussion should still inform your general audience about the importance of such research (and potential future research).

The following example is a discussion section from a research story:

This experiment has important implications for the future of ecology. Many people believe that acid rain's effects have been largely reversed by the passage of the Clean Air Acts of 1970 and 1990 (Hubbard Brook Research Foundation, 2001). These acts required a reduction in emissions of sulfur dioxide, an important contributor to acid rain. However, nutrients continue to be depleted from soils in the Northeast (such as those tested in the HBEF). While rates of depletion have slowed substantially, results show that acid rain's nutrient leaching abilities have continued decades after such environmental legislation was passed. A legacy of acid deposition has been left in soils because the depletion of calcium and other nutrients from soils has not been reversed even where deposition has been markedly reduced. If we can better pin down the dynamics of nutrient-microbial relationships, we may be one step closer to understanding how to help damaged ecosystems recover from the ravages of acid rain and other human-caused disturbances. —Hannah Devens, "Unearthing a Legacy: Acid Rain's Effects on Nutrient Cycles in Forest Ecosystems," 1st Place Winner of the 2015 Science Writing Contest

The author discusses why we should care about this research, why it matters to us. While the author had not yet finished their experiment, they were still able to discuss the potential implications of their work.

Audience and Tone

A research story is written for a general (rather than scientific) audience, so pay attention to your language choices. Note the differences in language use and audience awareness in the next two examples on acid rain.

The first example is from a scientific article published in the journal Science. The author takes a formal approach in order to appear professional and credible with other specialists in their field. The writer uses terms like "biogeochemistry of sulfur," "nitrogen," and "sulfuric acid" without explanation or context, because their audience is already familiar with these concepts. They also dive right into the problem at hand.

Research on the effects of acid rain in the United States and Europe has focused primarily on the biogeochemistry of sulfur, and to a lesser extent on that of nitrogen. The emphasis was because sulfuric acid is the dominant acid in precipitation throughout the eastern United States and Europe where acid rain is a serious environmental problem. —G.E. Likens, C.T Driscoll, and D.C. Buso, "Long-Term Effects of Acid Rain: Response and Recovery of a Forest Ecosystem" .

The second example is from a research story on acid rain. The author uses first-person "we" to relate to audiences unfamiliar with the topic and uses familiar or creative words to catch readers' interest, such as "business," "noxious," and "spew," while still incorporating the science aspects of "acid rain," "water," "oxygen," and "acidic compounds." This writer begins with background information on her topic by clearly and simply explaining what acid rain is and how it forms.

One of the main contributors to acid rain is a business we can't live without: the fossil fuel industry. The issue begins with the noxious gases that coal-burning power plants spew into the air (Hubbard Brook Research Foundation, 2001). Once in the atmosphere, these emissions interact with water and oxygen to form acidic compounds that eventually fall to the earth as acid rain. —Hannah Devens, "Unearthing a Legacy: Acid Rain's Effects on Nutrient Cycles in Forest Ecosystems," 1st Place Winner of the 2015 Science Writing Contest

As mentioned earlier, you want to establish an engaging tone in the beginning that will last throughout the rest of the story. Tone can have an important effect on your audience's experience with and interpretation of your voice and story. Consider the following types of tone:

• Conversational

The following examples model what different kinds of tone look like; it's up to you to write in a tone that works for the story you are telling.

The excerpt below from a New York Times article on Global Warming adopts a serious and stern tone. The seriousness of death statistics attempts to draw compassion from the audience and persuade them to take a stance on global warming. A stern tone reinforces the seriousness of this issue and its effect on others.

The question is important because while a gradual increase in average temperatures can have profound ecological consequences, it is weather extremes that have the greatest effect on human society. A 1995 heat wave in Chicago killed hundreds of people, and a 2003 heatwave in Europe killed an estimated 70,000. Scientists believe both were made more likely by the human emissions that are warming the planet, and heat on that scale will become commonplace if emissions are allowed to continue unabated. For now, though, such heat extremes — Chicago temperatures were near or above 100 degrees for four days running that July — are still rare, which makes them difficult to study in a statistical sense. —Justin Gillis, "New Study Links Weather Extremes to Global Warming"

For those familiar with Edgar Allen Poe, the next passage establishes an excited yet terrified tone. Phrases such as "I gasped for breath" and "as if excited to fury by the observations of the men" establishes an excitable, frantic tone, while "they were making a mockery of my horror" establishes the feeling of terror.

No doubt I now grew very pale; --but I talked more fluently, and with a heightened voice. Yet the sound increased --and what could I do? It was a low, dull, quick sound --much such a sound as a watch makes when enveloped in cotton. I gasped for breath --and yet the officers heard it not. I talked more quickly --more vehemently; but the noise steadily increased. I arose and argued about trifles, in a high key and with violent gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased. Why would they not be gone? I paced the floor to and fro with heavy strides, as if excited to fury by the observations of the men --but the noise steadily increased. Oh God! what could I do? I foamed --I raved --I swore! I swung the chair upon which I had been sitting, and grated it upon the boards, but the noise arose over all and continually increased. It grew louder --louder --louder! And still the men chatted pleasantly, and smiled. Was it possible they heard not? Almighty God! --no, no! They heard! --they suspected! --they knew! --they were making a mockery of my horror!-this I thought, and this I think. But anything was better than this agony! Anything was more tolerable than this derision! I could bear those hypocritical smiles no longer! I felt that I must scream or die! and now --again! --hark! louder! louder! louder! louder! —Edgar Allen Poe, "The Tell-Tale Heart"

The next piece by Hemingway is sparsely written, so the tone is very calm, reserved, and content. It does not raise alarm; rather, it describes and clearly paints a picture for readers. However, it is not as exciting as the previous example.

It was very late and everyone had left the cafe except an old man who sat in the shadow the leaves of the tree made against the electric light. In the day time the street was dusty, but at night the dew settled the dust and the old man liked to sit late because he was deaf and now at night it was quiet and he felt the difference. The two waiters inside the cafe knew that the old man was a little drunk, and while he was a good client they knew that if he became too drunk he would leave without paying, so they kept watch on him. —Ernest Hemmingway, "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place"

This next example by Dickens also implies a darker, more terrified tone with words such as "evil," "forlorn," "clammy," and "unwholesome."

There was a steaming mist in all the hollows, and it had roamed in its forlornness up the hill, like an evil spirit, seeking rest and finding none. A clammy and intensely cold mist, it made its slow way through the air in ripples that visibly followed and overspread one another, as the waves of an unwholesome sea might do. It was dense enough to shut out everything from the light of the coach-lamps but these its own workings, and a few yards of road; and the reek of the labouring horses steamed into it, as if they had made it all. —Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities

Use Active Voice and Get Personal

Take action in your writing! Don't let "the passive voice be avoided by good writers": let "good writers avoid passive voice." Active voice can help drive your story along and keep your reader intrigued. It can show action being done, progress being made, and the persons contributing to scientific efforts. Here are some examples of how passive voice might be revised in active voice:

My first lab report will always be remembered by me. (passive) I'll always remember my first lab report. (active)

Examination of patients was accomplished by me. (passive) I examined patients. (active)

Here's a way to remember active versus passive voice: if you can insert "by zombies" after the verb, then you're using passive voice. For example:

I was run over by a truck. (You could say "I was run over by zombies" so this sentence is passive.) A truck ran me over. (It would not make sense to say "A truck ran me over by zombies" so this sentence is active.)

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Writing about Design

Principles and tips for design-oriented research.

Writing a good storyline for a thesis or an article

TL;DR: This article contains a recommended step-by-step storyline for academic texts. Click here to directly jump to a table that presents this storyline.

Introduction

It is a big undertaking to write a thesis or an article. When the writer finally sends the text for examination or review, they can only wish that the reader – whoever that may be – can grasp what the writer has wanted to say, that the readers finds it credible, and gets a positive vibe about its findings. If that succeeds the text may receive a favourable evaluation (in the case of a thesis) or peer review (in the case of an academic article), leading to a good grade or a publication.

Ensuring that the reviewer or examiner is happy and satisfied is however difficult because of many reasons, at least the following:

• The reader is often unknown, and yet this person’s opinion is critical for the favourable review. One has to make the text understandable for a rather wide audience, as it cannot be tailored for a particular individual.
• The author may have little prior experience on writing theses or academic articles. To do anything for the first time is difficult, yet in this case this person should manage to perform well even if having very little practice.
• There are often lots of things that one wants to say. It is difficult to say all of that so that it makes sense.

Yet many people succeed in this task, despite the challenges. One of the crucial factors of success is that the text has an understandable storyline, or “narrative”. The prerequisite for “good vibes” is that the text is presented in a logical order so that the reader never wonders why they are reading a certain part of it. That is because a logical order removes the effort from the reader to make sense of the research, and makes even the difficult topics easy to digest.

In this article, I will study and answer what a successful storyline of an academic text should be like. I will present a formula, called IMRaD, that is consistently followed in almost all academic writing. It is well-tried and tested, and most readers have learned to expect that a text will follow it, small deviations notwithstanding. Being truthful to what this article seeks to suggest, also this text has been written following the same formula.

After reviewing some of the options that are available for narrative planning, the suggestion will be presented in the Results section.

Review of canonical storyline structures

Requirements for the narratives of academic texts, such as theses and articles, can be found from several places. Taylor & Francis – one of the leading publishers of academic research – emphasises the following rules: i) stick to the point, ii) create a logical framework, iii) don’t be afraid to explain, iv) clarity is key, v) be aware of the other literature in your field (and reference it), vi) make your references current and relevant and vii) be original (Taylor & Francis, n.d.). Of these, points i–iv are particularly related to the narrative. The same requirements of parsimony (i.e., saying only what is essential), being logical and clear, and providing explanations when appropriate, are echoed also in Springer’s – another big publisher – recommendations for giving a logical flow to the content and making the manuscript consistent and easy to read (Springer, n.d.). Similar recommendations can be found throughout academic community, and they echo the norm that should be followed.

With these requirements in mind, it is possible to analyse some canonical non-academic plot structures in order to find out how they serve the above-stated requirements. They are presented in the following.

Three-section narrative is Aristotle’s classical suggestion where story is divided into three sections. However it is rather unspecific. In Poetics, he suggests that in a tragedy, “a whole is what has a beginning and middle and end” (Aristotle, 335 BCE/1932). Wikipedia (n.d.) describes that these three stages should describe one causal chain of actions, where a stream of events is put into motion in the beginning where the protagonist faces a challenge. The middle part describes the protagonist’s attempts for resolution that also becomes a story of learning and personal growth. The end, finally, reveals how the protagonist fares in their question. While Aristotle described the structure of a classical tragedy, the need to have a causal chain of actions and a clear arch that starts from a challenge and concludes with a resolution provides one example of a structure that is logical and easy to read.

Classic thriller plot is another example used in literature. It involves three stages where things are set in motion from an event such as a murder, and the plot ends with a resolution, such as the revelation of the murderer’s identity. By having a question to be answered already in the beginning, the thriller plot structure has some level of suitability for academic texts that also usually seek to answer a research question or verify a hypothesis. However, this structure does not obey the principle of clarity. This is because it prolongs the revelation of the solution purposely.

Pyramid structure is common in news articles. Here the most important news is announced already in the heading, and it is incrementally substantiated with more background information in a layered manner. This is an economic method that optimizes the amount of information provided to the level of interest that a reader has for the content. The structure is clear, parsimonious and logical, yet it lacks a means to present a research question. It also lacks a causal narrative: a structure that repeatedly presents the facts in a deepening order does not allow the authors explain their reasoning and how they arrive at their conclusions.

IMRaD, finally, is the academic world’s own narrative recommendation. It refers to Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion. It is also mentioned as the recommended narrative in Springer’s and Taylor & Francis’s instruction pages that were cited above. IMRaD has the Aristotlean structure where the challenge is presented in the Introduction in a form of a hypothesis or research question. In the Method section, this is followed with an incremental development of an answer, consisting of presentation of a research method and how the result has been obtained. The Aristotlean end is offered in the Results section. The Discussion, interestingly, is an element that previous structures have not mentioned, and is therefore unique to academic tradition. It resembles an epilogue where the author distances themselves from the immediate plot and reflects the narrative and its resolution “from above”. This allows the author for suggesting improvements and further thoughts about the story.

The recommendations stated above can be summarized as follows. A good academic article is parsimonious by sticking to the point, presents its contents in a logical order and explains issues to ensure clarity. Except for the pyramid structure used in news journalism, all the structures that were presented above emphasise that a good storyline starts with a puzzle or a problem, which is then developed, until a resolution is offered in the end of the paper. The IMRaD structure additionally includes a discussion, where the story is lifted to a meta-level reflection to provide the reader an understanding about the wider perspective of the research work.

How the principles of a good storyline can be identified

Having concluded the main elements of a good storyline based on recommendations in the literature, the question remains how such instructions should be “operationalized”, i.e., changed into actionable guidelines. This question is complicated by the fact that different  research fields may have their own particular practices and preferences.

While for other fields of research, a Google search reveals readymade guidelines for authors (e.g., for health care research, see a nice guideline by Perneger and Hudelson, 2004), for research in the fields of design and human–computer interaction (HCI) – main topics of the Writing about Design blog – I have failed to find a similar guideline. In the absence of written guidelines, in my personal case, the method for learning how to write academic texts has developed through practice. The most useful part of this practice for me has been the constant attempt to publish research papers in journals and conferences, especially when writing together with more experienced co-authors.

Another method is to read other authors’ papers and to review them. Especially reviewing and acting as an associate editor/chair develops the critical but constructive eye for narrative structures that are important in good papers. It is easy to learn to notice, for example, when a paper does not answer to the problem that has been defined in the beginning, or when important matters are missing from the paper, leaving the logical order unexplicated.  

This section seeks to answer the original research question of this article – what a successful storyline of an academic text should be like. Based on personal experience and reflection on the different narrative structures in literature, Table 1 below presents a common and recommended storyline that can be identified in most texts in design and HCI research.

Table 1. Detailed pieces of an academic text.

This long and detailed structure follows the IMRaD format but is tailored for the needs of design and HCI related writing, and to applied research in general. It emphasizes the following principles in particular:

• “Holding the reader by the hand”: Throughout the text, the reader feels never being lost. This is because the text contains intermediate summaries and recognizes all the decision points in the path from the motivation to the summary of findings.
• Funnel-like structure: the narrative structure narrows down the problem to its most important elements in several stages. Some of the most important refocusing points are the presentation of the RQs, the reiteration of the RQs in light of existing knowledge, and the choice of the methods. Through these stages that are well explained in the structure, the reader is able to understand in all the points why the text “dives” into particular topics more deeply than in other ones.

This article itself has been written following the principles stated in the table. It may be a useful learning exercise to compare the contents in the table to the contents in this article overall.

This text has addressed an important problem that especially inexperienced writers face when they are writing their first academic text, such as a thesis, or their first academic article, if they are PhD students. Even if the research itself may have been solid and well conducted, and therefore having interesting findings, the unclear narrative may make it impossible for a reader to appreciate this work.

With the proposal for a storyline presented in this paper, writers can adopt some of the rarely explicated principles in design and HCI literature and use them in their own writing. This decreases unnecessary stress in the writing process, which in itself is always a highly contentious experience.

Another implication from knowing what order to use in explaining the research process, and in checking that no parts are omitted from the text is that it helps in carrying out better research. Awareness of components that are expected from an academic text helps taking them into account when the research process is still ongoing.

However, it has to be emphasized that the structure presented in the Results section is not suitable for all texts. It works best in cases where the work involves an empirical part, such as a case study, interviews, an experiment, or an exploratory process. It is less suitable for essays, manifestos and commentaries, all of which are also academic genres. A critical reader may notice that this text has a weak Methods section. This is because I have used IMRaD to structure an essay-like paper where no clear method has been applied. A result of this has been that there have been difficulties to write anything about research methods. The text has also become longer than one would assume, which violates the call for avoiding anything that is not absolutely necessary. On the other hand, at the same time, important matters have been explained whenever needed – therefore meeting another goal of recommended academic writing (Taylor & Francis, n.d.).

With a clear guidance that is properly explained, even a challenging project such as thesis or article writing can become an insightful experience. Academic writing is a creative activity that gives an opportunity for the author to synthesise and make sense of their work, and crystallize it in a format that they can also later apply in future occasions. By putting down such reflections in a written format, they can also convince others about the rigour of their work, leading them to achieve life goals, be recruited to jobs, and pursue explorations that offer high levels of intellectual satisfaction.

Acknowledgments

I want to thank the participants of HelsinCHI clinic on CHI paper writing in 4 September 2020, where I presented the storyline the first time, and I received useful feedback. Heidi Paavilainen and Severi Uusitalo provided several crucial observations – both detailed and general ones – to the first draft of this blog post, which have now been taken into account.

Aristotle (335 BCE/1932). Poetics. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.

Perneger T.V. and Hudelson, P.M. (2004). Writing a research article: advice to beginners. International Journal for Quality in Health Care 16(3), 191–192. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzh053

Springer (n.d.). https://www.springernature.com/gp/authors/campaigns/writing-a-manuscript/structuring-your-manuscript (retrieved 26 October 2020).

Taylor & Francis (n.d.). Writing a journal article. https://authorservices.taylorandfrancis.com/writing-a-journal-article/# (retrieved 26 October 2020).

Wikipedia (n.d.). Three-act structure. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-act_structure (retrieved 26 October 2020).

Further reading

Academic writing in English. Aalto University Language Centre’s pages on academic writing. http://sana.aalto.fi/awe/

Strategies for Essay Writing. Harvard College Writing Center, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University.  https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/strategies-essay-writing

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EH -- Researching Short Stories: Find Articles

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This page provides a list of databases for searching for articles in scholarly journals and other periodicals.  A brief description is provided for each database to help researchers choose the most appropriate one for their purpose.  The advantages and disadvantages of different levels of database searching also are discussed,

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There are a number of electronic resources you can use to research your area. The databases on this page are some of the more useful ones.  You can also search for a specific journal using the search box below. If you cannot find what you need, please contact the Subject Specialist using the contact information under the Home tab of this Guide.

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How Do I Access These Resources?

Access is granted through the same credentials you use for MyJSU.  When you select any of our electronic resources, databases or journals, you will be routed to MyJSU.

It is important to note that users will still be verified through the Library's system, so if there is a problem with your record in the Library’s System, you will be prompted to contact us at 256.782.5758 or 1-800-231-5291.

Electronic Databases

Levels of Database Searching

Levels of electronic database searching

Electronic databases may be searched on three levels:

• singly (native database)
• in groups, provided they all are products of the same vendor (database cluster)
• Gemfinder Discovery Search, which can simul-search multiple databases across different vendor platforms. 

Advantages of searching a native (single) database

• smaller, more manageable number of search results
• allows for more precise subject focusing, particularly in discipline-specific databases

Disadvantages of searching a native database

• fewer search results and therefore fewer article abstracts and full text
• greater possibility of missing useful articles because they are not published in a journal indexed in the database being searched

Advantages of simul-searching multiple databases by provider

• more journals included in the search
• larger number of search results
• more article abstracts
• more full text

Disadvantages of simul-searching multiple databases by provider

• larger number of search results to evaluate
• repetition of records in search results

Advantages of Gemfinder Discovery Search

• permits simul-searching databases provided by multiple vendors 
• includes more books in search results than native databases do
• useful for finding information on very obscure topics
• useful for finding a native database launch point when the location of needed information is unknown

Disadvantages of Gemfinder Discovery Search

• not well suited for searching broad, heavily-researched topics (e.g., George Washington) 
• number of search results harvested can be overwhelming
• results harvested may have little or no relevance to the search performed
• to both reduce results and improve relevance, may require more sophisticated search techniques than needed for native databases                                                                                                                
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• Tags: Fiction Research , Fiction Writing

The most basic understanding of “fiction” in literature is that it is a written piece that depicts imaginary occurrences. There is this unspoken assumption that fiction, because it is of imagined events, has nothing to do with reality (and therefore researching for a novel is not important). This is far from the truth. 

The history of fiction writing presents an inherent paradox: the most gripping of novels require you to write of imagined events in a realistic way. If we accept literature as a reflection of the world around us, then we must also acknowledge that the best of fiction stems from reality. It may be an account of imaginary events, but is still heavily rooted in the real. 

Elevate your novel after research and writing. Learn more

For a writer, this means in-depth research about various aspects of novel writing , including cultural and social context, character behavior, and historical details. 

Your task is (ever so slightly) easier if you are writing about situations contemporary to you. But the further you go back, through the annals of history, the harder it becomes to strive for such authenticity.

Grammar mistakes are jarring, but so are plot holes. An inconsistent story is off-putting to even the most immersed reader. So, here’s the bottom line: do n’t assume, and get your research down.

Why is research important for fiction?

Because even William Shakespeare, one of the most iconic figures of literature, erred in making anachronisms. One of the most famous literary anachronisms is in his play Julius Caesar , in Cassius’ line:

“The clock has stricken three.” (Act II, Scene 1)

The error is that clocks that “struck” were invented almost 14 centuries after the play was set! 

But Shakespeare was a giant. We have forgiven these misgivings because Shakespearean literature is rich even with such minuscule errors. As for us foolish mortals, it’s probably best to do our research thoroughly. 

Having a detailed understanding of the landscape that you are writing about is one of the most effective ways to draw your reader into the story world. Your extensive knowledge of your chosen topic will also give you a stable and authoritative voice in your writing.

What should you be researching?

As you might have realized by now, there are various aspects of your novel you should be researching. To start with, we’ve split fiction writing research into two categories: content and form. By content, we mean the details and elements you should focus on within your story. By form, we mean the style and genre of writing you wish to eventually adopt.

Needless to say, these two categories will overlap with each other as you make your story more streamlined.  

A story’s setting is one of the most important elements of fiction writing. It is essentially the time and space that your narrative is set in or the story’s backdrop. A story might have a gripping narrative and well-rounded characters, but it is incomplete if the reader doesn’t have a sense of where it’s all happening. As part of your setting, you can include geographical, cultural, social, and political details that you feel are relevant to the story.

In other words, you are essentially creating a “world” for your story . These may seem like tiny details to add to your otherwise imaginary story, but they provide depth and plausibility to your story.

One cool way to get a lowdown on these intricate spatial details like roads, mountains, hills, monuments, and other geographical landmarks is through tools like Google Maps and Street View . This is especially useful if you have to write about a place you can’t visit or you simply want to get geographical descriptions right.

The worst thing you could do as a writer is to assume things. This is a misstep that is quite unnecessary and can easily be avoided with some research. The information you have already gathered while researching your setting is a good enough start. What you now need to do with all these seemingly scattered pieces of information is to make sure they do not contradict each other.

Character details and human behavior

In plotting your story, you will also automatically gain an understanding of the intention and goals of your characters. In order to flesh them out and ensure that they are dynamic and interesting, research is required.

An understanding of human behavior and nature is a very important skill for a good writer. The stereotype of a perceptive and observant writer is, in fact, due to quite a practical need! Even if your characters do not exist in reality, they should seem real enough for your readers to be able to relate to them.

Historical and social background 

Your story world is not just the time, place, and immediate surroundings of your characters. Irrespective of what setting your story has, it also has the larger context of the world that your characters reside in. This could be from a real point in history (like Victorian England, 1920s jazz era, etc.) or it could be completely made up (Oceania from 1984, or Panem).

But irrespective of whether you’re writing historical fiction or creating a new world altogether, it must be thorough and consistent in supporting your plot. As a writer, you must clearly understand the culture and systems that your characters are a part of. A well-rooted universe also gives readers an insight into a character’s identity.

Writing style and genre 

If you are writing a novel in a particular genre, it’s important to be aware of writing conventions and tropes commonly used in that genre. The best, and most obvious, way to do this is to read novels and stories in your genre of choice. Look at the top-rated and critically acclaimed books and study them carefully. Be critical in your study, try to understand the author’s creative writing process, and look at the style and tone they try to evoke. 

Aside from this, you could also take a look at books about novel writing in general. These will give you general, but useful information about novel writing, like when to write long descriptions and when to cut straight to the action.

How should you be researching?

• Read about what you are researching. Books, articles, and other forms of print media are great ways to gather information on culture, history, and society. Biographies and memoirs are great for character insight (especially if you’re basing your book on a real person). If you’re basing your novel in the real world, you know what to do next. If you’re creating your own world, this is still a good basis for whatever you cook up within your world.
• Films and TV are great sources for helping you develop your character as they help you understand character traits and motivation in your story. Additionally, they might also help you visualize your story.
• If you are writing about characters with a niche profession (for example), take interviews with people who are in that field. For instance, if you are writing a detective story, talk to people in your police precinct and observe their behavior.
• If you are writing about specific locations, read up about that. In the age of the internet, there are many resources and forums where you can interact with people around the world.
• Try to visit the locations you are writing about and spend some time there , to gain an insight into what life in that place is like.

Incorporating research into fiction

Be selective about your details. Whether or not you actually incorporate the details that you have researched, knowing your world well will make your writing infinitely better. 

Because of all the information you have amassed, there is a certain bias you acquire as an “expert” on the subject of your story. So if you include a lot of information, there is a danger of your work sounding too technical.

Make sure that every detail you include is directly relevant to the plot. Keep it simple: and avoid unnecessary plot holes.

You can use these practical tips to research for your next story. Once you research and complete your story, the next step is to edit and publish your work.  As a trusted brand offering editing and proofreading services , we’d love to help you refine your work. 

Here are some other articles you might find interesting: 

• 5 Elements of a Short Story & 6 Stages of a Plot
• What is Flash Fiction? Definition, Examples & Types

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LIT 2020 - Introduction to the Short Story - Professor Elisa Albo: Short Story Research Paper

Short story research paper.

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How to Do a Research Paper on a Short Story

Daniel ketchum.

Whether you are writing a research paper on a short story for a high school or college level class, the process of researching the story is essentially the same, though an instructor in a college course will likely expect more. Read the short story thoroughly, making notes when necessary, before you begin researching it. Creating your research paper allows you to explore more about the short story and present that information to your reader.

Read any handout or notes that you have taken on the specific requirements for the research paper you will be writing. Take special note of the word/page count required as well as the type of works cited page required, both in terms of format as well as how many sources you must have. You should also note if your instructor asks for a particular number of primary sources in addition to secondary sources. Determine how many, if any, of your sources can be from websites.

Find a quiet place to read, and reread, the short story you have been assigned. Take detailed notes as you read.

Look for reviews of the story you will be writing about. You should be able to locate several different reviews on the story in your campus or local public library. While you can find reviews of many short stories online, make certain that any online resource you use to assist you in writing your research paper is a credible source. Generally, academic sources are credible. Reference libraries that provide access to sources like Proquest and MUSE are useful when conducting research, but you may need a university ID number to access these types of online resources.

Study the reviews carefully. Often times you will find annotations below the actual text where an authority will offer definitions as well as insight on what a particular line or passage means. Generally, a scholar on the author and work itself will also explain the text in a broader context, drawing conclusions as to where the author drew inspiration from others' works, or in developing a particular character or the overall theme of the story itself.

Write your paper using the references you selected to support the statements you want to make in your research paper. Also use your own notes to remind you of observations you made when reading the story.

• 1 The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: Literature

About the Author

Daniel Ketchum holds a Bachelor of Arts from East Carolina University where he also attended graduate school. Later, he taught history and humanities. Ketchum is experienced in 2D and 3D graphic programs, including Photoshop, Poser and Hexagon and primarily writes on these topics. He is a contributor to sites like Renderosity and Animotions.

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Dialogues: The Science and Power of Storytelling

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Skillful storytelling helps listeners understand the essence of complex concepts and ideas in meaningful and often personal ways. For this reason, storytelling is being embraced by scientists who not only want to connect more authentically with their audiences, but also want to understand how the brain processes this powerful form of communication. Here we present part of a conversation between a group of scientists actively engaged with the practice and/or the science of storytelling. We highlight the brain networks involved in the telling and hearing of stories and show how storytelling is being used well beyond the realm of public communication to add a deeper dimension to communication with our students and colleagues, as well as helping to make our profession more inclusive.

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• Introduction

It is now more urgent than ever that scientists take an active role in engaging with and educating the public about what they do as scientists, why they do it, and why it matters. It is in this context that many scientists hear about the craft of storytelling. The personal narrative detail that is often at the heart of a good story is one of the most powerful forms of communication that exists. Indeed, the craft of storytelling has enjoyed a renaissance of sorts with storytelling-based approaches being used in everything from promoting new startups, to inspiring creativity in the workplace, to business leadership strategy. This is because stories, and in particular personal stories, have the ability to illuminate fault lines, highlight oddities, and paint a picture of the past, present, and future that is both compelling and easily understandable.

The science community has also started to embrace the power of storytelling, as illustrated by the popularity of science storytelling organizations, such as The Story Collider, science storytelling socials at the Annual Society for Neuroscience (SFN) meeting, and SFN minisymposia devoted to the topic of storytelling. What follows here is part of a larger conversation among some of the members of the 2018 SFN minisymposium entitled “Telling stories of science.” In anticipation of that minisymposium event, we present part of an interview-style conversation led by the chair of that session, Wendy Suzuki, and several of the symposium participants. The theme of the conversation is the science and power of storytelling. We start with what we know about the pattern of brain activation seen when we hear, view, or tell stories, based on the work of Prof. Uri Hasson. We then address the variety of ways that bench scientists (Prof. Rachel Yehuda) and science professionals (Dr. Mónica I. Feliú-Mójer and Dr. Jean Mary Zarate) have used storytelling in their professional lives. It is clear that storytelling is not only the focus of a growing body of cognitive neuroscientific exploration, but is already being used in a myriad of ways not only to educate the general public about the value of science, but to effectively convey essential information to our colleagues and students and, more broadly, to help improve the way science is done.

The science of storytelling

WS: Prof. Uri Hasson, why did you start looking at the brain activation associated with stories?

UH: I am interested in the neural mechanism underlying human communication. On a daily basis, I am able to communicate my thoughts, feeling, and intentions, using words, to other brains while at the same time being able to comprehend other brains' own spoken words. It occurred to us that stories are one of the most effective ways to communicate, so we started to look at what is going on in the listeners' brains as they listen to real-life spoken stories, and how their brains' responses relate to the responses observed in the storyteller's brain as she tells the story.

WS: What did you find?

UH: To my great surprise, we found that the neural activity in many cortical and subcortical areas was similar across all listeners, ranging from early auditory areas, to linguistic areas, to high-order areas in the parietal and frontal cortices. As expected, the intersubject neural similarity in early auditory areas was coupled to the acoustic properties of the spoken words. In contrast, the intersubject neural similarity in high-order areas, which mainly overlap with the default mode network (DMN), was decoupled from the acoustic features and was coupled to the story's narrative.

Further studies showed, for example, that the neural responses in the DMN were similar across Russian listeners who listened to a Russian story and English listeners who listened to a translated version of the same story, demonstrating that the same narrative can evoke similar responses, regardless of the linguistic system used to convey it ( Honey et al., 2012 ).

WS: Given that the same story can be understood in many different ways, how can all listeners exhibit similar brain responses when listening to a story?

UH: Excellent point! We hypothesized that the level of similarity in high-order areas across subjects is mediated by the level of shared understanding. To test this idea, we manipulated the level of shared understanding to the exact same narrative. Here we presented an ambiguous story to subjects. Then we ruined the ambiguity of the story, by telling half of the subjects one version of the story and the other half a different version ( Yeshurun et al., 2017 ). We then measured the similarity in brain responses in the same high-order brain areas across subjects and found that the responses were more similar between subjects who had similar interpretation of the narrative relative to subjects with the opposing interpretation. Indeed, we could classify, with about 85% confidence, the subjects' interpretation based on the similarity of their brain responses to other subjects who were given the same version.

WS: So far, you've only told us about the listeners' brains. What is happening with the speaker's brain?

UH: When we compared the responses in the speaker's brain as she told a story to the responses in the listeners' brain as they listened to it, we found that the responses in the listeners' brain are coupled (correlated with a lag) to the responses in the speaker's brain ( Stephens et al., 2010 ). Furthermore, the stronger the correlation (neural alignment) between the speaker's brain and listener's brain, the better the communication, as assessed with postscan comprehension tests.

WS: Fascinating! What do you think are the implications of these findings?

UH: We gather our ideas and belief from other brains we are connected to—show me your friends and I will tell you who you are—and from the social media we consume. Sadly, in this current time, there are forces that try to set us apart. We are living in a polarized world, in which people in our society are losing its common ground and drifting apart. Our task, as scientists and as storytellers, is to see how we can re-create and rebuild our common uniting story, while at the same time, preserving our personal stories and allowing each and every one of our unique voices to be heard.

The power of storytelling

We now turn to insights from some of our seasoned science storytellers. It seems that learning and sharing your science stories have affected and inspired all of them in both similar and unique ways. We often think about storytelling in the context of public speaking, but Prof. Rachel Yehuda explicitly uses it when giving regular science talks.

WS: How has storytelling helped you communicate with fellow scientists?

RY: I have always used storytelling to communicate science to my science colleagues because the backstory behind how a scientific question gets asked and answered is as interesting as the data generated. Engaging listeners in the scientific journey creates a stronger, more meaningful transfer of knowledge because it elicits participation and creates an intellectual investment and emotional bond between the speaker and the audience.

Details about the scientists' personal life can also be relevant to the scientific journey and questions being asked. Autobiographical and personal reflections may seem like the opposite of objective scientific data, but since I have started including more of these in presentations, I have been surprised by the synergy between anecdote and fact. Their combination appears to increase the salience of information to the public who are the ultimate consumers, and also funders through their tax dollars, of scientific information.

WS: Dr. Jean Zarate, how has science storytelling helped in your role as an editor?

JZ: I found that science storytelling changed the way I interact with my science colleagues in my role as editor at Nature Neuroscience . For my editorial duties, I tend to focus only on the science and determine whether the overarching messages in the paper are impactful and properly supported by the data and the interpretations. But by actually preparing and presenting at a science storytelling event myself, I was reminded about the human side to the science I read every day: that there are at least one or two personal stories motivating scientists' research interests and their career trajectories. And in sharing a story about my own scientific path, I slowly realized that revealing some details about my personal science trajectory, including sharing with the scientists my science passions, allowed the investigators and trainees to see a more human side to someone who was often regarded simply as “the editor.” I think remembering that these more personal stories exist, on both sides, has influenced the way I interact with researchers when discussing their work and when helping them to communicate their findings and their implications more clearly to our readers.

WS: Dr. Zarate, has storytelling also affected the way you help your authors shape their introductions? If so, how?

JZ: Absolutely. As I prepared my story, I learned how to engage the audience quickly and tweak the text to avoid alienating people with statements that I thought were harmless. For scientific papers, the introduction is a perfect opener to engage the audience and get them excited to read your research or your review paper. If it takes nearly two pages to reach the research question or thesis statement or if the introduction is filled with technical jargon or casts certain work in an unfavorable light, then you will lose your audience quickly. So, I work with authors to present their ideas in a clear, succinct manner that communicates their ideas in a balanced and appropriate tone, so that the readers will keep reading.

WS: Dr. Mónica Feliú-Mójer, can you share your unique perspective on the power of storytelling and how you have used it in your career?

MF-M: As a kid, I devoured storybooks. When I wasn't reading, or making up my own stories, I was out and about in my rural home, catching lizards and finding rocks. Although I have always loved science and storytelling, I didn't connect the two until I was about to start my PhD.

After completing my undergraduate degree, I moved from Puerto Rico to Boston. Far from home, I longed for an opportunity to stay connected and give back to my community. I stumbled upon that opportunity in science storytelling, when I volunteered to write and edit popular science stories for Puerto Rico's main newspaper. During graduate school, telling the stories of Puerto Rican science and scientists empowered me to bring my whole self into research, and unapologetically connect my culture and science. Now, as a professional science communicator, I use storytelling as a tool for inclusion and social justice.

Originally, I thought that by leaving lab research to be a communicator, I would miss out on one of my favorite things about science: using my creativity to help me solve problems. But surprisingly, science storytelling has unleashed my creativity in unexpected ways. As a storyteller, I get to apply the process of discovery to find ways to make science compelling, or work with an animator to translate a concept into visuals.

Today, I combine storytelling with my scientific and cultural backgrounds to make science more accessible and inclusive to communities that are underrepresented in, and excluded from, science. For example, I coproduce a series called “Background to Breakthrough” that is flipping the narrative about the value of diversity in science. Instead of telling the typical underdog story, the series looks at how the identities, culture, and background of underrepresented scientists fuel their ingenuity and approaches to problem solving. I also get to share my expertise by training young underrepresented scientists in science communication. Science storytelling has allowed me to meaningfully connect with myself and my communities. Telling science stories changed the course of my career, and I am a better scientist for it.

WS: Why do you think that personal element is so powerful especially when we as scientists speak to the public?

RY: Personal stories are not only humanizing, but if the scientist takes the time to convey potentially technical information in a more accessible manner, it is easier for the public to understand how the information is directly relevant to them. For example, my work is on the long-lasting impact of trauma exposure on oneself and possibly even one's descendants and involves neurobiological and molecular mechanisms. I have found that telling the story of how this work developed and presenting the work simply provides a greater reach and resonance than if the observations were presented as they are in scientific journals.

Storytelling is both a useful and fascinating topic to scientists from a multitude of perspectives. From a cognitive neuroscience perspective, it is of great interest to understand how this ancient form of communication engages and even entrains our brains in reproducible ways. From a practical perspective, it is of great interest to understand how storytelling can be used to help us improve both how we engage in science and expand who engages in science. There is much more we have to learn about how we as scientists can incorporate storytelling into our professional lives as we strive to make science more understandable, more inclusive, and ultimately, more beneficial to the world.

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

• Correspondence should be addressed to Dr. Wendy A. Suzuki, Department of Neural Science and Psychology, New York University, 4 Washington Place, Room 809, New York, NY 10003. ws21{at}nyu.edu
• Thompson CR ,
• Stephens GJ ,
• Silbert LJ ,
• Yeshurun Y ,
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Many authors start with the figures when writing a scientific paper, but it is easier to tell a good story if you start with the Introduction and the Results, and leave the figures to later.

Think back to when you were a little girl or boy, going on a long drive or getting ready for bed. From time to time, you probably asked a parent to tell you a story or read you a storybook. I know I did and so did my children. Well, we’re big boys and girls now, but we still love stories. Scientists can take advantage of this basic human desire by incorporating elements of storytelling when they prepare articles for submission to scientific journals: articles that tell a story will be better understood by and have a greater impact on readers.

Of course, scientific story telling is not easy. Aside from the fact that few scientists are trained in writing, there are two major problems. First, we have to tell the truth, a restriction story-tellers do not face. Second, we have to deal with restrictive formats, such as length limits, figure limits, and mandated order of sections. Nonetheless, it can be done and done well.

I think that the key is to prepare your paper in the sequence that a storyteller would. The three most important parts of a paper are the figures, the Results and the Introduction, probably in that order. It is therefore no surprise that authors often begin by preparing the figures, then move on to Results, and save the Introduction for near the end. In this article I will explain why I think it is better to reverse this sequence.

Maybe the histogram could go under the micrograph

Starting with the text is not as strange as it might seem. Take operas for example: even though they are all about the music, the libretto is usually written before the score. That said, I do understand why it has become common practice to prepare figures before writing the text. It is easier and more fun to make figures than to think or write. After a day of cropping micrographs, adjusting font sizes, and arranging the panels in perfect rectangles, you feel like you’ve gotten something done. But all this is a displacement activity (definition: an unnecessary activity that you do because you are trying to delay doing a more difficult or unpleasant activity).

This is not to say that you should ignore your data at this stage: you absolutely need to know what you have and don’t have before you write. A simple expedient is to collect rough versions of panels with minimal editing on a digital bulletin board – PowerPoint slides work well. Then write the text and revise it a few times before arranging and polishing the figures. In my lab, and despite my pleas, people often bring me excellent figures along with fragments of text or no text at all. As we go through draft after draft, panels are often added, removed or altered – and always rearranged. It makes me feel bad to think about the wasted time and effort.

Don’t think I’m trying to overturn long-held dogma. The 'figure first' strategy is a product of Photoshop and Illustrator. Back in the day, when micrographs were generated with an enlarger and graphs with Letraset, it was necessary to have a definitive plan before starting to print and draw. I have no nostalgia for those cumbersome methods – but they did help make sure that thought preceded action.

Our aim was to test…

So if not with the figures, where should you start? With the plot. You likely began your study with a question in mind. What does gene w do? How does cell x develop? Can method y help us understand disease z? At some point, you feel that you have gained enough insight to begin writing a paper – but more often than not, the data don’t provide an answer to the precise question you began with. If you try to fit the answer to the question, you risk ending up with a compendium of results that is less cohesive than it could be. Instead, start with the answer, figure out what the question should have been, and build on that. This seems counterintuitive, but it works. It is the first step in crafting a story.

The key is to prepare your paper in the sequence that a storyteller would

Once you have the question and answer in mind, write a rough draft of the Introduction, treating it as what is now called an elevator-pitch – a succinct statement meant to convince the listener/reader of your product’s value. What was the gap in knowledge you wanted to fill? What is the question to which you will provide an answer? Why is it important? What was your strategy? What did you find out? What conclusions did you draw? Why did they matter?

Next we asked…

Using the introduction as a guide, move on to the results. Think hard about the best order in which to present them, feeling free to take advantage of what is, to my knowledge, the only fiction that is fully allowable in a scientific paper: you don’t need to present experiments in the sequence in which they were done or explain why they were actually done. Put another way, a scientific paper is not an autobiography; the story you tell should be about the science, not about you. The order of presentation can be, and often should be, quite different from the order of execution.

To organize the results, begin with a detailed outline in which you take account of the data you have. Your PowerPoint repository will be valuable here. As the outline takes shape, you will likely find some holes that you need to fill. If you’re lucky, you’ll also find some datasets that seemed worrisomely incomplete but don’t matter now, because they are not essential to the story you are going to tell. Revise the outline to take account of these realizations.

Next, write a draft of the Results section. Then read it over and reconsider whether you’ve made it easy for the reader to understand how the results lead to the conclusions you want to draw. If they don’t, you can rearrange sections, consider changing the plot, or even come to grips with the possibility that you’re not as close to finished as you had hoped to be.

The whole truth

In presenting your results, you have to tell the truth and nothing but the truth. What you don’t have to do is tell the whole truth. In other words, you can select the results you present, as well as the order in which you present them, to shape your narrative. There is one crucial caveat: if you have results that call your conclusions into question, you need to present them, and explain why your (possibly modified) conclusions are still justified. My point is that you don’t need to describe everything you did. Think about whether each group of results makes the story more compelling or serves as a distraction. If it is the latter, be ruthless in omitting it. On occasion, you may have spent so much time on a set of experiments that you just can’t bear to cut it out completely. Try to resist temptation, but if you can’t, make it short.

Even when describing the most relevant results, work on being concise. This is difficult, as noted long ago by Blaise Pascal in an aphorism generally credited to Mark Twain: “I would have written a shorter letter but I didn’t have the time.” Just as it takes effort to omit distracting results, it takes effort to edit out needless detail. A few weeks ago, I tried to read an article in my field that seemed like a lightly edited lab notebook. I bet it was full of useful information, but I’ll never know. There was no story there so I quickly put it aside.

Our main conclusions are…

Next comes the Discussion, which provides an opportunity for you to highlight what you want the reader to remember – the key results and principal conclusions. This is conventionally done by summarizing the results in a paragraph, following with sections devoted to major points, and finishing with a brief concluding paragraph. This format works well if you keep the story in mind as you write.

Think about whether each group of results makes the story more compelling or serves as a distraction. If it is the latter, be ruthless in omitting it.

To that end, remember that just as you don’t have to include marginally relevant data in the Results section, you don’t have to rehash all of the results in the Discussion. Instead, plan a small number of subsections (between two and five) within the Discussion, in each of which you state a conclusion, summarize the results that support it, and relate it to previous work in the field. By citing key papers, you acknowledge your debt to your predecessors and avoid being accused of claiming more novelty than is justifiable. This is not the place, though, for a literature review. For example, if you have implicated a gene in a process, you need to be clear on whether this has been done before – but you don’t have to talk about unrelated roles of the gene or its mechanisms of action in other contexts.

These sections can also serve other purposes. You should consider uncertainties and note critical questions that remain unanswered. Acknowledging weaknesses in your argument is not only honest but can be helpful: it is harder for a reviewer to be harshly critical if you have already been self-critical. You can also point out the broader implications of your work and speculate on what the future might hold. Be sparing, though, in claiming that experiments to test your speculations are in progress, as the reviewer or editor might be temped to ask you to resubmit once you’ve done these experiments. And as elsewhere, keep it concise and make sure it furthers the plot.

The end is near

At this point you have a full draft of the main sections. Once you are fairly satisfied, you’re ready to turn it into a complete manuscript by polishing the figures, writing Figure Legends, Methods and Abstract, and completing the reference list.

Finally, it is time to get feedback from your colleagues. In my lab, we have a practice called 'paper bashing' in which we devote a long lab meeting to going over a paper line by line. Here’s the main lesson I have learned from this painful but invaluable process: almost every time a lab member or other reader points out a problem with a word, sentence, section or conclusion, they are right, and something needs to be done. On the other hand, the particular improvements they suggest are often not the best ones. You have thought about the work more deeply than they have, and are more familiar with the results and the literature, so you are probably better than they are at coming up with useful solutions. In short, use the criticism to highlight points that need attention, but don’t be afraid to use your own judgment in deciding what to do.

It is, after all, your story to tell.

Author details

Joshua R Sanes is in the Center for Brain Science and the Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States

For correspondence

Competing interests.

Publication history

• Received: July 30, 2019
• Accepted: July 30, 2019
• Version of Record published : August 6, 2019

© 2019, Sanes

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use and redistribution provided that the original author and source are credited.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

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Reading a Scholarly Article or Research Paper

Identifying a research problem to investigate requires a preliminary search for and critical review of the literature in order to gain an understanding about how scholars have examined a topic. Scholars rarely structure research studies in a way that can be followed like a story; they are complex and detail-intensive and often written in a descriptive and conclusive narrative form. However, in the social and behavioral sciences, journal articles and stand-alone research reports are generally organized in a consistent format that makes it easier to compare and contrast studies and interpret their findings.

General Reading Strategies

W hen you first read an article or research paper, focus on asking specific questions about each section. This strategy can help with overall comprehension and with understanding how the content relates [or does not relate] to the problem you want to investigate. As you review more and more studies, the process of understanding and critically evaluating the research will become easier because the content of what you review will begin to coalescence around common themes and patterns of analysis. Below are recommendations on how to read each section of a research paper effectively. Note that the sections to read are out of order from how you will find them organized in a journal article or research paper.

1.  Abstract

The abstract summarizes the background, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions of a scholarly article or research paper. Use the abstract to filter out sources that may have appeared useful when you began searching for information but, in reality, are not relevant. Questions to consider when reading the abstract are:

• Is this study related to my question or area of research?
• What is this study about and why is it being done ?
• What is the working hypothesis or underlying thesis?
• What is the primary finding of the study?
• Are there words or terminology that I can use to either narrow or broaden the parameters of my search for more information?

2.  Introduction

If, after reading the abstract, you believe the paper may be useful, focus on examining the research problem and identifying the questions the author is trying to address. This information is usually located within the first few paragraphs of the introduction or in the concluding paragraph. Look for information about how and in what way this relates to what you are investigating. In addition to the research problem, the introduction should provide the main argument and theoretical framework of the study and, in the last paragraphs of the introduction, describe what the author(s) intend to accomplish. Questions to consider when reading the introduction include:

• What is this study trying to prove or disprove?
• What is the author(s) trying to test or demonstrate?
• What do we already know about this topic and what gaps does this study try to fill or contribute a new understanding to the research problem?
• Why should I care about what is being investigated?
• Will this study tell me anything new related to the research problem I am investigating?

3.  Literature Review

The literature review describes and critically evaluates what is already known about a topic. Read the literature review to obtain a big picture perspective about how the topic has been studied and to begin the process of seeing where your potential study fits within the domain of prior research. Questions to consider when reading the literature review include:

• W hat other research has been conducted about this topic and what are the main themes that have emerged?
• What does prior research reveal about what is already known about the topic and what remains to be discovered?
• What have been the most important past findings about the research problem?
• How has prior research led the author(s) to conduct this particular study?
• Is there any prior research that is unique or groundbreaking?
• Are there any studies I could use as a model for designing and organizing my own study?

4.  Discussion/Conclusion

The discussion and conclusion are usually the last two sections of text in a scholarly article or research report. They reveal how the author(s) interpreted the findings of their research and presented recommendations or courses of action based on those findings. Often in the conclusion, the author(s) highlight recommendations for further research that can be used to develop your own study. Questions to consider when reading the discussion and conclusion sections include:

• What is the overall meaning of the study and why is this important? [i.e., how have the author(s) addressed the " So What? " question].
• What do you find to be the most important ways that the findings have been interpreted?
• What are the weaknesses in their argument?
• Do you believe conclusions about the significance of the study and its findings are valid?
• What limitations of the study do the author(s) describe and how might this help formulate my own research?
• Does the conclusion contain any recommendations for future research?

5.  Methods/Methodology

The methods section describes the materials, techniques, and procedures for gathering information used to examine the research problem. If what you have read so far closely supports your understanding of the topic, then move on to examining how the author(s) gathered information during the research process. Questions to consider when reading the methods section include:

• Did the study use qualitative [based on interviews, observations, content analysis], quantitative [based on statistical analysis], or a mixed-methods approach to examining the research problem?
• What was the type of information or data used?
• Could this method of analysis be repeated and can I adopt the same approach?
• Is enough information available to repeat the study or should new data be found to expand or improve understanding of the research problem?

6.  Results

After reading the above sections, you should have a clear understanding of the general findings of the study. Therefore, read the results section to identify how key findings were discussed in relation to the research problem. If any non-textual elements [e.g., graphs, charts, tables, etc.] are confusing, focus on the explanations about them in the text. Questions to consider when reading the results section include:

• W hat did the author(s) find and how did they find it?
• Does the author(s) highlight any findings as most significant?
• Are the results presented in a factual and unbiased way?
• Does the analysis of results in the discussion section agree with how the results are presented?
• Is all the data present and did the author(s) adequately address gaps?
• What conclusions do you formulate from this data and does it match with the author's conclusions?

7.  References

The references list the sources used by the author(s) to document what prior research and information was used when conducting the study. After reviewing the article or research paper, use the references to identify additional sources of information on the topic and to examine critically how these sources supported the overall research agenda. Questions to consider when reading the references include:

• Do the sources cited by the author(s) reflect a diversity of disciplinary viewpoints, i.e., are the sources all from a particular field of study or do the sources reflect multiple areas of study?
• Are there any unique or interesting sources that could be incorporated into my study?
• What other authors are respected in this field, i.e., who has multiple works cited or is cited most often by others?
• What other research should I review to clarify any remaining issues or that I need more information about?

NOTE:   A final strategy in reviewing research is to copy and paste the title of the source [journal article, book, research report] into Google Scholar . If it appears, look for a "cited by" reference followed by a hyperlinked number under the record [e.g., Cited by 45]. This number indicates how many times the study has been subsequently cited in other, more recently published works. This strategy, known as citation tracking, can be an effective means of expanding your review of pertinent literature based on a study you have found useful and how scholars have cited it. The same strategies described above can be applied to reading articles you find in the list of cited by references.

Reading Tip

Specific Reading Strategies

Effectively reading scholarly research is an acquired skill that involves attention to detail and an ability to comprehend complex ideas, data, and theoretical concepts in a way that applies logically to the research problem you are investigating. Here are some specific reading strategies to consider.

As You are Reading

• Focus on information that is most relevant to the research problem; skim over the other parts.
• As noted above, read content out of order! This isn't a novel; you want to start with the spoiler to quickly assess the relevance of the study.
• Think critically about what you read and seek to build your own arguments; not everything may be entirely valid, examined effectively, or thoroughly investigated.
• Look up the definitions of unfamiliar words, concepts, or terminology. A good scholarly source is Credo Reference .

Taking notes as you read will save time when you go back to examine your sources. Here are some suggestions:

• Mark or highlight important text as you read [e.g., you can use the highlight text  feature in a PDF document]
• Take notes in the margins [e.g., Adobe Reader offers pop-up sticky notes].
• Highlight important quotations; consider using different highlighting colors to differentiate between quotes and other types of important text.
• Summarize key points about the study at the end of the paper. To save time, these can be in the form of a concise bulleted list of statements [e.g., intro provides useful historical background; lit review has important sources; good conclusions].

Write down thoughts that come to mind that may help clarify your understanding of the research problem. Here are some examples of questions to ask yourself:

• Do I understand all of the terminology and key concepts?
• Do I understand the parts of this study most relevant to my topic?
• What specific problem does the research address and why is it important?
• Are there any issues or perspectives the author(s) did not consider?
• Do I have any reason to question the validity or reliability of this research?
• How do the findings relate to my research interests and to other works which I have read?

Adapted from text originally created by Holly Burt, Behavioral Sciences Librarian, USC Libraries, April 2018.

Another Reading Tip

When is it Important to Read the Entire Article or Research Paper

Laubepin argues, "Very few articles in a field are so important that every word needs to be read carefully." * However, this implies that some studies are worth reading carefully if they directly relate to understanding the research problem. As arduous as it may seem, there are valid reasons for reading a study from beginning to end. Here are some examples:

• Studies Published Very Recently .  The author(s) of a recent, well written study will provide a survey of the most important or impactful prior research in the literature review section. This can establish an understanding of how scholars in the past addressed the research problem. In addition, the most recently published sources will highlight what is known and what gaps in understanding currently exist about a topic, usually in the form of the need for further research in the conclusion .
• Surveys of the Research Problem .  Some papers provide a comprehensive analytical overview of the research problem. Reading this type of study can help you understand underlying issues and discover why scholars have chosen to investigate the topic. This is particularly important if the study was published recently because the author(s) should cite all or most of the important prior research on the topic. Note that, if it is a long-standing problem, there may be studies that specifically review the literature to identify gaps that remain. These studies often include the word "review" in their title [e.g., Hügel, Stephan, and Anna R. Davies. "Public Participation, Engagement, and Climate Change Adaptation: A Review of the Research Literature." Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 11 (July-August 2020): https://doi.org/10.1002/ wcc.645].
• Highly Cited .  If you keep coming across the same citation to a study while you are reviewing the literature, this implies it was foundational in establishing an understanding of the research problem or the study had a significant impact within the literature [either positive or negative]. Carefully reading a highly cited source can help you understand how the topic emerged and how it motivated scholars to further investigate the problem. It also could be a study you need to cite as foundational in your own paper to demonstrate to the reader that you understand the roots of the problem.
• Historical Overview .  Knowing the historical background of a research problem may not be the focus of your analysis. Nevertheless, carefully reading a study that provides a thorough description and analysis of the history behind an event, issue, or phenomenon can add important context to understanding the topic and what aspect of the problem you may want to examine further.
• Innovative Methodological Design .  Some studies are significant and should be read in their entirety because the author(s) designed a unique or innovative approach to researching the problem. This may justify reading the entire study because it can motivate you to think creatively about also pursuing an alternative or non-traditional approach to examining your topic of interest. These types of studies are generally easy to identify because they are often cited in others works because of their unique approach to examining the research problem.
• Cross-disciplinary Approach .  R eviewing studies produced outside of your discipline is an essential component of investigating research problems in the social and behavioral sciences. Consider reading a study that was conducted by author(s) based in a different discipline [e.g., an anthropologist studying political cultures; a study of hiring practices in companies published in a sociology journal]. This approach can generate a new understanding or a unique perspective about the topic . If you are not sure how to search for studies published in a discipline outside of your major or of the course you are taking, contact a librarian for assistance.

* Laubepin, Frederique. How to Read (and Understand) a Social Science Journal Article . Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research (ISPSR), 2013

Shon, Phillip Chong Ho. How to Read Journal Articles in the Social Sciences: A Very Practical Guide for Students . 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2015; Lockhart, Tara, and Mary Soliday. "The Critical Place of Reading in Writing Transfer (and Beyond): A Report of Student Experiences." Pedagogy 16 (2016): 23-37; Maguire, Moira, Ann Everitt Reynolds, and Brid Delahunt. "Reading to Be: The Role of Academic Reading in Emergent Academic and Professional Student Identities." Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice 17 (2020): 5-12.

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How to Start a Research Paper: A Step-by-Step Guide

Starting a research paper can seem overwhelming, but breaking it down into manageable steps can make the process much easier. This guide will walk you through each stage, from choosing a topic to finalizing your paper, ensuring you stay organized and focused. Whether you're new to research or looking to improve your skills, these steps will help you create a strong, well-structured paper.

Key Takeaways

• Select a topic that interests you and has enough available resources.
• Formulate a clear and focused research question to guide your study.
• Conduct a thorough literature review to understand existing research and identify gaps.
• Develop a detailed research plan with a timeline and methodology.
• Ensure proper formatting and citation to maintain academic integrity.

Choosing a Research Topic

Choosing a research topic is a crucial first step in writing a research paper. It sets the stage for your entire project, so it's important to choose wisely. Here are some steps to help you select a topic that is both interesting and feasible.

Identifying Your Interests

Start by thinking about what excites you. Pick a topic that you find fun and fulfilling. This will keep you motivated throughout your research. Make a list of subjects you enjoy and see how they can relate to your field of study. Your job will be more pleasant if you choose a topic that holds your interest.

Evaluating the Scope of the Topic

Once you have a few ideas, check if they are too broad or too narrow. A good topic should be manageable within the time you have. Ask yourself if you can cover all aspects of the topic in your thesis. For example, exploring the link between technology and mental health could be narrowed down to how WhatsApp use impacts college students' well-being.

Ensuring Availability of Resources

Before finalizing your topic, ensure that there are enough resources available. Conduct preliminary research to see if there is sufficient data and literature on your chosen topic. This step is vital as you may discover issues with your original idea or realize you have insufficient resources to explore the topic effectively. This key bit of groundwork allows you to redirect your research topic in a different, more feasible, or more relevant direction if necessary.

Formulating a Research Question

Understanding the importance of a research question.

A well-defined research question is the cornerstone of any successful research paper. It provides a clear focus and direction for your study, ensuring that your efforts are both relevant and meaningful. A strong research question helps you stay on track and avoid unnecessary detours. It also makes it easier to communicate the purpose and significance of your research to others.

Techniques for Crafting a Strong Research Question

To develop a compelling research question, start by identifying your interests and the gaps in the existing literature. Use the 5 W's: who, what, where, when, and why , to explore different aspects of your topic. This approach will help you narrow down your focus and create a question that is both specific and researchable. Additionally, consider the feasibility of your question by evaluating the availability of resources and the scope of your study.

Aligning Your Question with Objectives

Your research question should align with the objectives of your study. This means that it should be directly related to what you aim to achieve through your research. Clearly defined objectives will guide your research process and ensure that your question remains relevant throughout your study. By aligning your question with your objectives, you can produce a coherent and focused research paper that effectively addresses the problem at hand.

Conducting a Literature Review

Gathering Relevant Sources

Start by collecting sources that are related to your research topic. Use libraries, online databases, and academic journals to find books, articles, and papers. Skimming sources initially can save you time; set aside those that seem useful for a more thorough read later.

Analyzing Existing Research

Once you have gathered your sources, read through them carefully. Take notes on key points and different viewpoints. This will help you understand the current state of research in your field. Look for common themes and debates that can inform your own work.

Identifying Research Gaps

As you analyze the existing research, look for areas that haven't been explored or questions that haven't been answered. These gaps can provide a direction for your own research and make your thesis more valuable. Identifying these gaps is crucial for crafting a strong research question and ensuring your work contributes new knowledge to the field.

Developing a Research Plan

Creating a solid research plan is crucial for the success of your thesis. It helps you stay organized and ensures that you cover all necessary aspects of your research.

Writing the Thesis Introduction

Establishing context.

Starting your thesis introduction can be daunting, but it's crucial for setting the stage for your research. Establishing the context for your study helps readers understand the background and significance of your work. This section should provide a clear overview of what your thesis will cover, making it easier for readers to follow your arguments.

Crafting a Thesis Statement

Your thesis statement is the heart of your introduction. Typically, it is placed at the end of the introductory paragraph. This statement should succinctly present the main argument or focus of your thesis, guiding the reader on what to expect.

Justifying the Research Problem

Once you have your research question, you need to justify why it is important. Explain the significance of your research problem in the context of existing literature. Highlight the gaps your research aims to fill and how it will contribute to the field. This step is crucial for crafting a bachelor thesis that stands out.

Structuring the Research Paper

Organizing sections.

A well-structured research paper is essential for clarity and coherence. Start by dividing your paper into key sections: Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Each section should serve a specific purpose and contribute to the overall argument of your paper. Organize your research by identifying main topics and subtopics, gathering relevant sources, and summarizing key points. This will help you maintain a logical flow throughout your paper.

Ensuring Logical Flow

Ensuring a logical flow between sections and paragraphs is crucial. Use transitions to connect ideas and guide the reader through your arguments. Each paragraph should begin with a clear topic sentence that introduces the main idea, followed by supporting evidence and analysis. This approach not only enhances readability but also strengthens your argument.

Maintaining Coherence

Coherence is achieved when all parts of your paper work together to support your thesis statement. To maintain coherence, make sure each section and paragraph aligns with your research objectives. Regularly review your work to ensure that your ideas are presented logically and that your voice remains dominant. Cite sources carefully to avoid plagiarism and to give credit to the original authors.

Data Collection and Analysis

Choosing data collection methods.

Selecting the right data collection methods is crucial for the success of your research. Data collection is the process of gathering, measuring, and analyzing accurate data. Consider methods such as surveys, interviews, or experiments based on your research needs. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses, so choose the one that best fits your study.

Analyzing Data Accurately

Once you have collected your data, the next step is to analyze it accurately. Use statistical tools and software to help you interpret the data. Create tables and graphs to illustrate your findings clearly. This will help you present your results in a structured and understandable way.

Interpreting Results

Interpreting your results is an essential part of your thesis. Discuss how your findings relate to your research questions and the existing literature. Highlight the significance of your analyses and the reliability of your findings. This will help you draw meaningful conclusions and provide valuable insights into your research topic.

Drafting and Revising the Paper

Writing the First Draft

Start by writing your first draft without worrying too much about perfection. Focus on getting your ideas down on paper. This initial draft is your chance to explore your thoughts and structure your argument. Remember, the goal is to create a foundation that you can build upon.

Incorporating Feedback

Once you have a draft, it's time to incorporate feedback. Share your work with your thesis supervisor and peers. Their insights can help you see your work from different perspectives and identify areas for improvement. Revising is a continuous process of re-seeing your writing. It involves considering larger issues like focus, organization, and audience.

Polishing the Final Draft

Finally, polish your final draft. Pay attention to grammar, punctuation, and formatting. Ensure that your thesis is clear, concise, and free of errors. This step is crucial for making a strong impression and effectively communicating your research findings.

Proper Formatting and Citation

Adhering to style guides.

When formatting your research paper, it's crucial to follow the specific style guide recommended by your institution. Common styles include APA, MLA, and Chicago. Each style has its own set of rules for formatting headings, tables, and references. Adhering to these guidelines ensures your paper meets academic standards and is easy to read.

Citing Sources Correctly

Citing your sources correctly is essential to avoid plagiarism and give credit to the original authors. Typically, a citation can include the author's name, date, location of the publishing company, journal title, or DOI (Digital Object Identifier) . Use the citation style specified by your university, such as APA or MLA . For example, in APA format, an in-text citation might look like this: (Smith, 2020).

Avoiding Plagiarism

Plagiarism is a serious academic offense. To avoid it, always cite the sources you use in your research. This not only gives credit to the original authors but also adds credibility to your work. Use tools like Grammarly’s Citation Generator to ensure your citations are flawless and your paper is free from plagiarism.

Maintaining Academic Integrity

Understanding academic integrity.

Academic integrity is the foundation of any scholarly work. It involves being honest and responsible in your research and writing. Maintaining academic integrity ensures that your work is credible and respected. It also means giving proper credit to the original authors of the sources you use. This practice not only helps you avoid plagiarism but also strengthens your arguments by backing them up with credible sources.

Strategies to Avoid Plagiarism

To avoid plagiarism, always cite your sources correctly. Use a consistent citation style, such as APA or MLA, and make sure to include all necessary information. Here are some tips to help you:

• Paraphrase information in your own words and cite the source.
• Use quotation marks for direct quotes and include a citation.
• Keep track of all the sources you consult during your research.
• Use plagiarism detection tools to check your work before submission.

Ensuring Originality

Ensuring the originality of your work is crucial. This means that your ideas and findings should be your own, even if they are based on existing research. Here are some ways to ensure originality:

• Conduct thorough research to understand what has already been done in your field.
• Identify gaps in the existing research and focus on filling those gaps with your work.
• Develop your own unique perspective or approach to the topic.
• Regularly review and revise your work to ensure it reflects your original ideas.

By following these steps, you can maintain academic integrity and produce a research paper that is both credible and original.

Finalizing the Research Paper

Proofreading and editing.

Before submitting your research paper, it's crucial to proofread and edit your work thoroughly. Start by reviewing the content for clarity and coherence. Ensure that each section flows logically and that your arguments are well-supported. Pay close attention to grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors, as these can detract from the professionalism of your paper. Consider reading your paper aloud or using a text-to-speech tool to catch mistakes you might have missed.

Preparing for Submission

Once you have polished your paper, it's time to prepare it for submission. Make sure you adhere to the specific formatting guidelines provided by your institution or the journal you are submitting to. This includes checking the font style and size, margins, and page numbering. Ensure that all citations and references are correctly formatted according to the required style guide, such as APA or MLA. Double-check that your paper meets all the submission requirements, including word count and any additional documents that need to be included.

Seeking Peer Review

Before finalizing your research paper, seek feedback from peers or mentors. A fresh set of eyes can provide valuable insights and help identify areas for improvement that you might have overlooked. Share your paper with colleagues or use online platforms to get constructive criticism. Incorporating feedback from others can enhance the quality of your work and ensure that your arguments are clear and compelling.

Wrapping up your research paper can be a daunting task, but it doesn't have to be. Our step-by-step Thesis Action Plan is here to guide you through every stage, making the process smoother and less stressful. Ready to conquer your thesis challenges? Visit our website now and discover how we can help you achieve your academic goals.

Starting a research paper can seem overwhelming, but breaking it down into manageable steps makes the process much easier. By choosing a topic that interests you, conducting thorough research, and organizing your findings, you lay a strong foundation for your paper. Remember to create a clear thesis statement to guide your writing and keep your arguments focused. Drafting, revising, and seeking feedback are crucial steps to refine your work. Finally, ensure your paper is well-formatted and free of errors. With dedication and careful planning, you can successfully navigate the research paper writing process. Good luck!

Frequently Asked Questions

How do i choose a research topic.

Start by thinking about what interests you. Pick a topic that you find fun and fulfilling. This will keep you motivated throughout your research. Also, make sure there are enough resources available on the topic.

Why is a research question important?

A research question guides your study, helping you focus on a specific issue. It makes your research more organized and meaningful.

What is the purpose of a literature review?

A literature review helps you understand what has already been studied about your topic. It shows gaps in the research that your study can fill.

How do I create a research plan?

Outline your methodology, create a timeline, and allocate resources. This helps you stay organized and ensures you cover all necessary aspects of your research.

What should be included in the thesis introduction?

Your thesis introduction should establish the context, present your thesis statement, and justify the research problem. This sets the stage for your study.

How do I ensure my research paper is well-structured?

Organize your sections logically, ensure a smooth flow of ideas, and maintain coherence throughout the paper. Each part should connect well with the others.

What are the best methods for data collection and analysis?

Choose methods that best suit your research needs, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments. Use statistical tools to analyze data accurately and interpret your results.

How can I avoid plagiarism in my research paper?

Always cite your sources correctly and follow the citation style recommended by your institution. Use plagiarism checkers to ensure your work is original.

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UMass Amherst Feature Story Examines Innovative Research to Promote Health Equity

Three faculty-led teams, including two from the SPHHS, are featured on the UMass Amherst website in a story on the innovative ways UMass Amherst researchers are working to promote health equity. The teams, each of which received a 2024 Large-Scale Integrative Research Award (LIRA) from the Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research and Engagement, are seeking to close societal health disparities by studying social determinants, engaging communities, and harnessing the power of the arts.

Professor of Community Health Education Susan Shaw 's work in community-based, participatory research as Director of the Center for Community Health Equity Research (CCHER) is highlighted. “Community-based participatory research requires that research partnerships be based on community needs, grounded in understanding the community, and aligned with the mission and goals of the community partner organization,” Shaw explains. “This approach helps rebuild trust in communities that have often experienced extensive research but little investment and can help generate community-led solutions to achieve health equity.”

With funding from the LIRA grant, Shaw and collaborators plan to expand on CCHER’s work by developing a proposal for a National Institutes of Health-supported Center of Excellence in Investigator Development and Community Engagement. Shaw’s collaborators include Kathryn Derose , professor of community health education; Airín Martínez , associate professor of health policy and management; Daniel López-Cevallos , associate professor of community health education; and Linnea Evans , assistant professor of community health education.

The Center of Excellence would provide funding for pilot awards for new investigators—especially those from underrepresented groups—whose research focuses on health equity. The center would also offer hands-on training in participatory approaches; opportunities for individual and peer mentoring; a monthly seminar series and workshops featuring experts on health equity research topics; and opportunities for collaborative research on questions of interest to community members. Participants would learn about proposal development, participatory research approaches, broad dissemination of findings, and how to turn results into community-led action.

The story also examines the work by another group of UMass Amherst researchers to catalyze existing energy and expertise on campus around using Arts-Based Research (ABR) to address inequities in health and the environment. The story notes that ABR is a fast-growing research methodology that uses the systematic process of artmaking as a primary way of understanding and examining experiences—both of researchers and the people they involve in their studies, who are sometimes one and the same.

“Arts-based research is a powerful methodology because of its visceral nature, which aligns nicely with the goals of creating on-the-ground research, intervention, and action in health and environmental research,” explains Professor of Community Health Education Aline Gubrium , who is leading the project. “Art also communicates sensibilities in ways that can’t always be conveyed through text or numbers. Art is also socially connecting. It channels joy and care.”

The team includes Marla Miller , distinguished professor of history; Sally Pirie , professor of child and family studies and director of the CBR Lab ; Elizabeth Krause , professor of anthropology; Sarah Goff , professor of health promotion and policy; and Sandy Litchfield , associate professor of architecture. They have individually conducted arts-based work on health and environmental topics ranging from reproductive justice, population politics, and LGBTQ+ youth mental health to aging and environmental humanities. Now they aim to nurture a network of faculty from around campus—including those in fields like engineering, chemistry, or veterinary sciences that may not, on their face, appear to lend themselves to ABR—to build community and generate ideas around arts-based approaches to research.

Read the full feature here.

Focus on racial and ethnic health disparities, structural racism and health, gender and sexuality, community-based and participatory research.

Aline Gubrium

Focus on sexual and reproductive health, rights, and justice; participatory digital, visual, and narrative research methodologies; health promotion

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Spurring biotechnology innovation

Article by Tracey Bryant Photo by Evan Krape August 29, 2024

UD scoping a biofoundry with NSF support

Biotechnology has proven to be a real problem-solver for some big challenges in our lives — from producing the insulin that people with diabetes need to regulate their blood sugar to manufacturing sustainable chemicals.  

And now the University of Delaware is poised to take the tools of biotechnology to the next level for researchers in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions. 

UD is one of five institutions that the U.S. National Science Foundation is funding to advance a network of biofoundries, where researchers will be able to rapidly design, create, test and streamline tools and products that will accelerate research and workforce training for the emerging “bioeconomy” based on sustainable, renewable resources.

Mark Blenner, Thomas and Kipp Gutshall Career Development Associate Professor in UD’s Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and affiliated faculty member with the Microbiology Graduate Program, is the principal investigator on the project, which involves researchers at UD, Penn State and Worcester Polytechnic Institute. 

The recipients of a $2 million grant from NSF, the UD-led team is creating the NSF Center for Robust, Equitable and Accessible Technology (CREATE) for Next-Generation BioFoundries to democratize access to the tools of modern biotechnology. The project team aims to provide users from academia and industry with automation and design tools to rapidly produce proteins, biosensors and bacteriophage products commonly used in biotechnology research. 

“Our team is excited about training the next generation of scientists and engineers who will address our society’s most important problems — from sustainability to energy to therapeutics,” Blenner said. “This work will put Delaware squarely at the forefront of enabling the bioeconomy.” 

Key audiences for the project include academic institutions such as primarily undergraduate institutions, Historically Black Colleges and Universities and other minority-serving institutions, and women’s colleges in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic.

“Bioscience is a significant driver of our regional economy, and this project will further accelerate the research and workforce training capabilities of our UD faculty and students in this expanding area,” said Miguel Garcia-Diaz, UD’s vice president for research, scholarship and innovation.

“This project also will have great synergy with other major initiatives underway at UD and in partnership with our collaborators, from NIIMBL and the Delaware Biotechnology Institute to the new CURB NSF Engineering Research Center in St. Louis.” 

Each biofoundry will focus on a different area of biology or biotechnology, but all will advance both in-house and user-initiated projects, train the next generation of the scientific workforce, engage with consumers and users of the products developed and continually enhance workflows and processes to accelerate the translation of ideas. 

“Across all fields of science and engineering, including biology, answering grand challenges requires sustained development of technologies, sophisticated instrumentation, and workflows, but not every researcher at every institution can access those critical capabilities,” said NSF Director Sethuraman Panchanathan. 

“The new BioFoundries will help democratize access, helping to spur opportunities everywhere so innovation can come from anywhere. Not only will these BioFoundries advance biology, but they will spur developments in artificial intelligence, data storage, health, climate resilience and more.”

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Does AI help humans make better decisions?

Professor Samuel Gershman and postdoc Momchil Tomov had volunteers play Atari-style video games while hooked up to fMRI scanners. Based on the results, they learned the directional flow of information was top-down during game play, the opposite of their original hypothesis.

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Making algorithm used in AI more human-like

Christy DeSmith

Harvard Staff Writer

Researchers used fMRI to test ideas about complex decision-making

How does the human brain navigate complex circumstances — say, driving through Harvard Square traffic at 5 p.m.?

One theory gaining support with psychologists and neuroscientists is that the brain creates causal models of the world that help with planning and execution. It’s akin to running mental simulations to see which outcomes are good or bad. “You learn this internal model of the environment, which you can use to predict what will happen if you take different courses of action,” explained Momchil Tomov, an associate in psychology Professor Samuel Gershman ’s Computational Cognitive Neuroscience Lab .

In recent decades, computer scientists have developed these ideas into a system dubbed Reinforcement Learning (or RL for short). Researchers such as Tomov who work at the intersection of psychology and technology have even introduced computational models that attempt to capture how RL plays out in the brain. In a new paper published in Neuron , Tomov and his co-authors used functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) to compare their algorithmic theory against real-world imaging .

Why craft algorithms that attempt to formalize human thinking and decision-making? “It’s difficult to study cognitive processes without having a precise computational model that maps inputs to outputs,” said Tomov, who earned his Ph.D. in neurobiology at Harvard in 2019 and worked with Gershman as a postdoc until 2021.

Researchers also hope their work leads to advances in RL, which can navigate complex environments and is considered one of the biggest success stories in artificial intelligence. It has, in fact, bested humans in realms including board and video games, but until recently has proven a somewhat slow learner. “ Algorithms that are more human-like can perform better in certain domains than traditional machine-learning,” Tomov said.

The group’s experiment leans on the prior work of two of the study co-authors. Thomas Pouncy , another doctoral researcher in Gershman’s lab , outlined in 2021 a more complex, theory-based RL system. A computational theory-based RL model was introduced in a subsequent paper by MIT postdoctoral researcher Pedro Tsividis . It proved much faster than previous iterations in learning new video games. In terms of speed, Tomov said, it’s far closer to the human ability to pick up on such a task.

The whole process led the researchers to hypothesize on the neural architecture of human decision-making and learning. In the new study, the researchers tested their algorithm on 32 volunteers who played and eventually mastered Atari-style video games while hooked up to fMRI scanners , which measure the small changes in blood flow that come with brain activity.

As the researchers expected, this yielded evidence of activity theory-based models in the prefrontal cortex at the front of the brain with theory updates occurring in the posterior cortex, or back of the brain. Where their hypotheses — and their algorithm — diverged was in the details. The researchers specifically expected to find evidence of theory-based models in the orbitofrontal cortex. Instead they found them in the inferior frontal gyrus. This makes sense in hindsight, Tomov said, as previous research out of Gershman’s lab found the inferior frontal gyrus involved with learning “causal rules that govern the world.”

More surprises were found at the back of the brain, where the occipital cortex and the ventral pathway — both central to visual processing — appear to be involved when those models require updating. “Whenever you get surprising information that is inconsistent with your current theory, that’s when we see not just an update signal in the ventral pathway, but also, that’s when the theory becomes activated in the inferior frontal gyrus,” Tomov summarized.

Finally, fMRI scans revealed the directional flow of information in the brain. Tomov and his co-authors had hypothesized that information flows bottom-up. Instead, it seems to flow top-down during game play.

“It’s almost as if it’s coming from the model, stored somewhere in the prefrontal cortex, flowing down to the posterior visual regions,” he said. “But then when there’s a discrepancy — when an update happens — the pattern of information flow flips. Now information flows bottom-up, from posterior regions to frontal regions.”

Tomov has been studying theory-based RL with Gershman for four years. Two years ago, he started applying these ideas to self-driving cars as a full-time employee with a Boston venture. “How do you get from here to the next intersection and make a left turn without hitting anyone?” he asked. “Basically, there’s this internal model of the world with other drivers and predictions about what they’re going to do.”

The research described in this report was funded in part by the National Science Foundation.

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Integrating AI into research may revolutionize outcomes

Health Sciences researchers encourage its use, but caution that it takes quality data and human supervision to keep “hallucinations” at bay.

Using artificial intelligence in research can help make some tedious tasks easier but ensuring the data is free of biases and misinformation can aid in accuracy.

Photo by Getty Images

Researchers in the field of health sciences are harnessing the power of artificial intelligence to revolutionize their approach to understanding and combating diseases. Across laboratories and institutions worldwide, AI algorithms are now not only assisting but often leading the charge in analyzing vast datasets, predicting patient outcomes and even uncovering novel therapeutic targets. This transformative partnership between human ingenuity and machine learning promises to reshape the landscape of health care, offering unprecedented insights and potential solutions to some of the most challenging medical mysteries of our time.

Brian Ahn, PhD, dean of the U of A College of Nursing

Photo by Kris Hanning, U of A Health Sciences Office of Communications

I did not write that paragraph. The artificial intelligence application in ChatGPT did. And while allowing a large language model like ChatGPT to sort through my interviews and synthesize the key points of everyone I interviewed would make my job much easier, is it the ideal or ethical way to present research to an audience?

“AI has the potential to revolutionize teaching, research and problem-solving by enhancing education, advancing research capabilities and improving patient care outcomes,” said Brian Ahn, PhD, dean of the University of Arizona College of Nursing . “Embracing AI responsibly and ethically can lead to significant advancements in nursing practice and health care as a whole.”

Ahn is uniquely positioned to understand this impact. In addition to his extensive nursing research, he has a Bachelor of Engineering degree in electrical engineering from the University of Seoul College of Engineering and a Master of Science degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering from the University of Florida College of Engineering. Ahn currently leads an NIH R01 study that integrates brain AI digital technology into pain and symptom management in older adults.

“The rapid advancement of health care technology, such as machine learning and artificial intelligence, requires the integration of these new technologies into our education and research programs,” Ahn said. “Our college is in the process of establishing a new nursing engineering program and ‘Center for Health and Technology’ to incorporate computer technology into nursing education and research.”

It all starts with good data

AI is a part of computer science that uses computers to do tasks that have historically required a human to complete, like problem-solving or simulating human capabilities, such as analyzing data or translating language. For researchers, sorting large data sets can be onerous work. But utilizing AI can cut that effort drastically. 

Janine Hinton, PhD, an associate clinical professor and director of the Steele Innovative Learning Center in the College of Nursing

While images of Skynet might come to mind for some people when the words “AI” and “simulating human capabilities” are combined in one sentence, the ability to sort through large amounts of information, seeking patterns or even holes in the data, can free up researchers to focus on other parts of problems. 

“Most of our research has been focused on assessing the current capabilities of AI or large language models,” said Christopher Edwards , PharmD,  an associate clinical professor at the R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy .

Edwards and his colleagues Bernadette Cornelison, PharmD,  and Brian Erstad, PharmD , recently worked on a project that examined the accuracy of Chat GPT in providing patient-facing information, particularly on common questions patients should ask their pharmacist when they fill a new prescription. The research assessed the output of the model for accuracy and completeness to see if it was generating quality information. It was looking to see if the AI was “hallucinating,” which is when an AI provides inaccurate or misleading information. The AI may have incomplete or incorrect data; there may be biases in the data or the old “garbage in, garbage out” with false information in the data set. 

“It can be very helpful writing learning objectives, test questions and editing,” said Janine Hinton, PhD, an associate clinical professor and director of the Steele Innovative Learning Center in the College of Nursing. “But you have to be very careful. It’ll give you a reference that doesn’t make sense. It’s just hallucinating. 

Christopher Edwards, PharmD, an associate clinical professor at the R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy

“But it will also present ideas that maybe I hadn’t originally thought of and just help me get my work done faster. I know that there are people who really want to get it moving in health care, but there are challenges with confidentiality, with clinical decision-making. But I do think there are a lot of ways to blend it with other tools and our expertise to get our work done.”

Hinton, who is also a member of the   BIO5 Institute, explained that the College of Nursing uses AI to model a patient in simulation training at the Gilbert campus . The AI monitors and provides cues and clues to students to help them recognize interventions faster. 

AI is much like gold mining

Travis Wheeler, PhD, an associate professor at the Coit College of Pharmacy whose doctoral degree is in computer science from the U of A, compared AI to mining.

“The power of AI comes from combining lots of training data with advanced techniques for learning to extract patterns from the data,” he said. “It’s a bit like mining. You might have a process that sifts through the dirt to extract big pieces of gold or minerals, but if there’s nothing valuable in the dirt, you won’t get anything out of it. That’s like feeding bad data to an AI model, and is what we mean by ‘garbage in.’ But if the dirt has a ton of really useful stuff and your method only extracts the gold, there are still some useful rare earth materials that you tossed away because you were using bad technology. You would be missing other things that are in there. 

“With better methods, you can extract more material out of that dirt. As AI methods advance, it’s like building better mining methods, where you can extract more information out of the data you are given. It’s not only the quality of the data but also the tools used to extract the information out of that data.”

Wheeler is a lynchpin at the Health Sciences for AI work. He designs AI architectures   able to ingest data while accounting for biases or missing data, to allow the artificial intelligence models to learn to tell the difference between that hypothetical gold-painted rock and a real gold nugget. He has spent more than 25 years in research in designing algorithms, statistical models, and software for problems motivated by biological data.

“The key idea behind AI and machine learning is that these models learn to perform classification or prediction tasks based on patterns extracted from the training data,” he said. “The challenge of the whole thing is both developing these large data sets that will provide the necessary information and then developing the kind of neat computational architectures that are capable of learning from those data.”

Beyond Chat GPT and crunching numbers

Travis Wheeler, PhD, an associate professor at the R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy

But much like mining, recognizing when you have a gold nugget versus a gold-painted rock is important for researchers using AI.

“You’re taking data that is not completely vetted, not completely curated, so we have to learn how to mitigate bad-quality data,” said Nirav Merchant , director of the Data Science Institute and a member of the university’s AI Access & Integrity Working Group.

Any chef can tell you that your dinner is only as good as the ingredients you use. It’s the same with using AI in research. But AI can move beyond crunching large data sets. 

Allan Hamilton , MD,  the executive director of the Arizona Simulation Technology and Education Center , is researching how AI can be used as a coaching tool .

“AI should move the educational experience up almost to real time. It’s coaching each individual exactly how they need to be coached,” he said.

One way Hamilton uses AI is through a bot that can respond in real time, using a variety of emotions, to help coach new physicians. The second part of his research is finding ways AI can free up physicians.

Nirav Merchant, director of the Data Science Institute

Photo by Noelle Haro-Gomez, U of A Health Sciences Office of Communications

“Thirty percent of a doctor’s time is paperwork,” Hamilton said. “We know AI can do a lot of paperwork for us. How do we reapply that time? Hopefully the answer would be, You put it to good human use!” 

For instance, he described a scenario in an intensive care unit where AI is monitoring a patient.

“AI could make predictions about which patients were more likely to need rapid response, but it might also say the whole ICU team doesn’t need to respond; you can send just two people,” Hamilton said. “It ended up being 245% better at identifying who was likely to need rapid response than the hospital teams determined.

“It’s like, is it safer for me to be on the road with GPS and not looking around trying to figure out where I am going? Yeah, it is.”

Hamilton, though, cautions against health-care providers relying too much on AI.

“I always say to students, ‘Bots don’t go to jail. Doctors do.’ So, if a patient dies because a physician did precisely what a bot told them to do rather than what their training guided them toward, the human will be held responsible,” he said.

A good tool when used properly

The researchers agreed that being transparent when AI or chatbots have been used in research is necessary for research integrity. As useful as it is to have AI write a draft of an abstract or study results, researchers need to be up front that it was utilized. 

Allan Hamilton, MD, the executive director of the Arizona Simulation Technology and Education Center

Justin Starren, MD, PhD , the director of the   Center for Biomedical Informatics and Biostatistics at the University of Arizona Health Sciences , compared relying on AI to his time in New York, where he lived on a wooded lot.

“That meant I had a chain saw,” he said. “A chain saw is a great tool, but if you don’t really understand how it works, you’re probably going to get the nickname ‘Stubby.’ The current AI tools are like chain saws – they can cut through a huge amount of data really fast. And they can figuratively take an arm off equally as fast. They can be profoundly powerful, but profoundly stupid. The risk is that we know very well that people tend to believe computers, even when they are wrong. It’s an extremely powerful tool.”

The issues of ensuring that good-quality data is being used, what the AI has been trained on and what tweaks were put into the system after it was trained are critical to minimizing racial bias or made-up answers.

“These tools can be great proofreaders, great hypothesis generators and do universe matrix analysis to find the hole in the data, but we need to be transparent about their use,” Starren added.

“I prefer to look at it as augmented intelligence rather than artificial intelligence,” said Merchant. “If you know how to use it, you’re going to be productive with it, but if you don’t know how to engage with it, you’re going to always try and find a nail for that hammer. So, stop thinking of AI as the hammer and just look where you can use it. Where can you use the automation that comes with some AI components?”

“The power of AI comes from combining lots of training data with advanced techniques for learning to extract patterns from the data.” Travis Wheeler, PhD, an associate professor at the R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy

So much more to come with AI

Merchant cautioned researchers that chat tools and large language models are only the tip of the iceberg when it comes to using AI in research.

“People are building really purposeful analysis methods and tools that are constantly coming out,” he said. “Pay attention to those and see how we can use them because they will readily improve your science.”

Justin Starren, MD, PhD, the director of the Center for Biomedical Informatics and Biostatistics at the University of Arizona Health Sciences

For most of the Health Sciences researchers, however, AI, or more specifically, Chat GPT, can’t replace the human touch when “swimming in the sea of language,” as Starren put it. Often, AI-written content just doesn’t read “human.”

“I tried to use it to help write my wedding vows,” Edwards said. “And then I read it, and thought, ‘This is mechanical garbage.’ I don’t want to sound like this, because this is terrible. It gave me a starting point, though, and spurred my creative juices.”

Much like the start of this story, I asked ChatGPT to wrap it up as if it were writing it:

As AI continues to evolve and integrate into health sciences, its role as both a tool and a collaborator will only expand. The potential benefits are immense, from streamlining data analysis to enhancing patient care and education. However, the conversation around its ethical use and integration is equally crucial. As researchers and practitioners navigate this new frontier, they must balance the efficiency AI offers with the nuanced human touch that remains indispensable in healthcare. The ongoing challenge will be to harness AI’s capabilities responsibly, ensuring that it complements rather than compromises the human elements of empathy, creativity and critical thinking.

To learn more about the University of Arizona’s artificial intelligence resources and tools, a website outlining standards, usage and AI-related courses is available. The AI working group holds regular meetings on AI-related topics.