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• What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples

What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples

Published on January 27, 2023 by Tegan George . Revised on January 12, 2024.

Table of contents

Types of action research, action research models, examples of action research, action research vs. traditional research, advantages and disadvantages of action research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about action research.

There are 2 common types of action research: participatory action research and practical action research.

• Participatory action research emphasizes that participants should be members of the community being studied, empowering those directly affected by outcomes of said research. In this method, participants are effectively co-researchers, with their lived experiences considered formative to the research process.
• Practical action research focuses more on how research is conducted and is designed to address and solve specific issues.

Both types of action research are more focused on increasing the capacity and ability of future practitioners than contributing to a theoretical body of knowledge.

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Action research is often reflected in 3 action research models: operational (sometimes called technical), collaboration, and critical reflection.

• Operational (or technical) action research is usually visualized like a spiral following a series of steps, such as “planning → acting → observing → reflecting.”
• Collaboration action research is more community-based, focused on building a network of similar individuals (e.g., college professors in a given geographic area) and compiling learnings from iterated feedback cycles.
• Critical reflection action research serves to contextualize systemic processes that are already ongoing (e.g., working retroactively to analyze existing school systems by questioning why certain practices were put into place and developed the way they did).

Action research is often used in fields like education because of its iterative and flexible style.

After the information was collected, the students were asked where they thought ramps or other accessibility measures would be best utilized, and the suggestions were sent to school administrators. Example: Practical action research Science teachers at your city’s high school have been witnessing a year-over-year decline in standardized test scores in chemistry. In seeking the source of this issue, they studied how concepts are taught in depth, focusing on the methods, tools, and approaches used by each teacher.

Action research differs sharply from other types of research in that it seeks to produce actionable processes over the course of the research rather than contributing to existing knowledge or drawing conclusions from datasets. In this way, action research is formative , not summative , and is conducted in an ongoing, iterative way.

As such, action research is different in purpose, context, and significance and is a good fit for those seeking to implement systemic change.

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Action research comes with advantages and disadvantages.

• Action research is highly adaptable , allowing researchers to mold their analysis to their individual needs and implement practical individual-level changes.
• Action research provides an immediate and actionable path forward for solving entrenched issues, rather than suggesting complicated, longer-term solutions rooted in complex data.
• Done correctly, action research can be very empowering , informing social change and allowing participants to effect that change in ways meaningful to their communities.

Disadvantages

• Due to their flexibility, action research studies are plagued by very limited generalizability  and are very difficult to replicate . They are often not considered theoretically rigorous due to the power the researcher holds in drawing conclusions.
• Action research can be complicated to structure in an ethical manner . Participants may feel pressured to participate or to participate in a certain way.
• Action research is at high risk for research biases such as selection bias , social desirability bias , or other types of cognitive biases .

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Action research is conducted in order to solve a particular issue immediately, while case studies are often conducted over a longer period of time and focus more on observing and analyzing a particular ongoing phenomenon.

Action research is focused on solving a problem or informing individual and community-based knowledge in a way that impacts teaching, learning, and other related processes. It is less focused on contributing theoretical input, instead producing actionable input.

Action research is particularly popular with educators as a form of systematic inquiry because it prioritizes reflection and bridges the gap between theory and practice. Educators are able to simultaneously investigate an issue as they solve it, and the method is very iterative and flexible.

A cycle of inquiry is another name for action research . It is usually visualized in a spiral shape following a series of steps, such as “planning → acting → observing → reflecting.”

Sources in this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

George, T. (2024, January 12). What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved June 28, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/action-research/

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2017). Research methods in education (8th edition). Routledge.

Naughton, G. M. (2001).  Action research (1st edition). Routledge.

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What is OD and the Action Research Model (ARM)?

• Dr. Nancy Zentis
• October 31, 2019

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The Action Research Model (ARM) was introduced by Kurt Lewin in the late 1930’s.  As a social scientist, his approach involved the researcher as a social change expert who helps the client by supporting and conducting research to help organizations bring about positive, sustainable change. The ARM process encourages collaboration and cooperation among leaders and employees to improve their relationships and communication. According to Lewin, change is best achieved when the researcher (OD Professional) and the client (Senior Leaders) cooperate together to identify needs and implement solutions.

The Action Research Model is the gold standard for organizational change. Through Action Research, the OD Practitioner gains a deeper understanding of the system at hand, while the client group takes ownership of their living system. The OD Professional and the client join forces to achieve the goals of the change process.

Action research is problem centered, client focused, and action oriented . It involves the client system and an OD change agent in conducting a diagnostic, active-learning, problem-finding, and problem-solving process. The client and the change agent collaborate together to identify and prioritize specific problems, analyze data to find the root causes, and develop action plans for coping with problems realistically and practically.

OD change agents use scientific methodology to plan and collect data, form and test hypotheses, and measure results. Although not pursued as rigorously as in a laboratory, it is nevertheless an integral part of the process.

Action research also sets in motion a long-range, cyclical, self-correcting mechanism for maintaining and enhancing the effectiveness of the client’s system by leaving the system with practical and useful tools for self-analysis and self-renewal.  This is called the maintenance, separation, and termination phase, which involves defining a new process, implementing the change, and measuring results.

For the Action Research Model to be successful, several conditions must be established:

• The problem must be owned by two or more members of the organization and tied to organizational goals
• An internal or external change agent (OD Expert) helps lead the change
• Employees must be involved in the feedback process
• Senior leaders must be involved in leading the change and provide resources, support, and involvement

When launching a change initiative, the OD Professional relies on the scientific approach of the Action Research Model to guide them to lead the change and create a customized approach to implement the change.

The OD Professional serves as more of a “helper” role than an “expert” role, although the role can also be a blend between these two. In most cases, the OD Professional leads the client group in every aspect of the project, including:

• Establishing change priorities
• Collecting and interpreting data
• Disseminating and making sense of the results
• Creating action plans based on the results
• Implementing the action plans

The OD Professional demonstrates a wide range of competencies in order to effectively help the client through the change management process.  Some of the competencies include: Organization Systems, Human Interaction, Facilitation, Influence Skills, Planning and Organizing, Problem Solving and Decision Making, Process Improvement, Change Management, Behavioral Science, Research Methodology, Strategic Action Planning, Measurement, Communication, Business Acumen and Strategy, Designing Interventions, and Contracting.

Developing OD competencies can be learned through experience, however, learning from other OD professionals can provide you with the support, advice, guidelines, examples and tools needed to be successful.

To learn more about becoming an OD Professional and the Action Research Model, visit www.instituteod.com .

Dr. Nancy Zentis is the CEO of Institute of OD, offering online certification programs for those interested in Organization Development, Talent Management, Leadership Development and Executive Coaching, and OD Advanced Skills Workshops for ongoing learning.  She can be reached at  [email protected] .  For more information about our certification programs and professional development workshops, please visit our website www.instituteod.com .

Institute of Organization Development

IOD offers online Organization Development Certification Programs to help participants gain skills to advance in their career in the field of OD.  If you are new to OD, you will benefit from the OD Process Consulting Certification Program (ODPC).  If you have been in the field for several years but lack formal OD training, the Organization Development Certification Program (ODCP) will provide you with the tools and skills needed to advance in the field of OD.

IOD’s OD Certification Programs are offered online over 8 months, meeting 3 hours per month.  Each session is delivered through Go-to-training.  Our expert faculty provide interactive discussions, examples, tools, guidelines, and resources to enrich your learning experience.

Testimonies:

This certification program provided me with the resources and tools I needed to practice OD.  The structure and process helped me to be more confident and focus on helping the client achieve their goals.

The practical experience I learned during this program gave me the confidence to support organization change management initiatives.  I used the skills to transfer my knowledge immediately after each session.

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DE&I consulting services focus on helping organizations foster a diverse, equitable, and inclusive workplace. Consultants assess the organization's current DE&I initiatives, develop DE&I strategies and policies, conduct training on unconscious bias and cultural competence, establish employee resource groups, and guide leaders in creating inclusive leadership practices. They work with organizations to attract and retain diverse talent, create inclusive hiring processes, and implement programs that promote diversity, equity, and inclusion at all levels. DE&I consultants aim to create an environment where all employees feel valued, respected, and have equal opportunities for growth.

Organizational Development Consulting

Organizational development (OD) consulting services focus on helping leaders lead change initiatives to improving organizational effectiveness and results. Consultants work closely with leaders to assess the organization's current state, identify areas for improvement, create action plans and design interventions, and implement changes to enhance employee engagement, teamwork, leadership development, and organizational culture. They facilitate strategic planning, conduct organizational assessments, and implement initiatives such as talent management, succession planning, performance management, and employee training and development programs. OD consultants aim to align people, processes, and systems to drive sustainable organizational growth and change.

Mentoring Program

Mentoring Programs involve establishing formal or informal relationships between experienced employees (mentors) and less experienced employees (mentees) within an organization. Consultants assist organizations in designing and implementing mentoring programs that facilitate knowledge transfer, skill development, and career growth. They establish mentoring guidelines, match mentors and mentees based on specific criteria, provide training and resources for mentors, and monitor the progress of the mentoring relationships. Mentoring programs aim to enhance employee development, engagement, and retention by leveraging the expertise and wisdom of experienced professionals.

Performance Management

Performance Management involves establishing systems and processes to monitor, assess, and improve employee performance. Consultants work with organizations to design and implement performance management frameworks that align with organizational goals and values. This includes setting clear performance expectations, defining key performance indicators (KPIs), establishing regular feedback and coaching mechanisms, conducting performance evaluations, and linking performance outcomes to rewards and recognition. Performance management systems aim to drive individual and team performance, align employee efforts with organizational objectives, and support employee development.

Job Redesign/Analysis

Job Redesign/Analysis is the process of reevaluating and modifying job roles and responsibilities to optimize efficiency, productivity, and employee satisfaction. Consultants analyze existing job descriptions, tasks, and workflows to identify opportunities for improvement. They may conduct job analyses to determine essential skills, competencies, and qualifications required for each role. Based on these findings, consultants provide recommendations for job redesign, such as clarifying roles and responsibilities, redistributing tasks, and implementing automation or technology solutions to streamline processes and enhance job satisfaction.

Executive Coaching, Competency Development, 360° Feedback

Executive Coaching, Competency Development, and 360 Feedback are individual-focused strategies that aim to enhance leadership and professional effectiveness. Consultants provide executive coaching services to senior leaders, offering personalized guidance, support, and feedback to help leaders develop their strengths, address developmental areas, and enhance their leadership capabilities. Competency development involves identifying and developing specific skills and competencies required for success in particular roles or functions. 360-degree feedback involves collecting feedback from multiple sources, including peers, subordinates, and superiors, to provide a comprehensive assessment of an individual's strengths and areas for improvement.

Culture Strategies

Culture Strategies focus on shaping and transforming the organizational culture to create a positive and productive work environment. Consultants assist organizations in assessing their current culture, identifying areas for improvement, and developing strategies to align the culture with the desired values, behaviors, and goals. This may involve initiatives such as defining core values, establishing cultural norms, enhancing communication and collaboration practices, promoting diversity and inclusion, and fostering a culture of continuous learning and innovation.

Talent Management Strategies

Talent Management Strategies involve designing and implementing initiatives to attract, develop, engage, and retain top talent within an organization. Consultants work with organizations to develop comprehensive talent management strategies that encompass recruitment and selection processes, onboarding programs, performance management systems, career development frameworks, succession planning, and employee retention strategies. The goal is to ensure the organization has the right people in the right roles, with opportunities for growth and development that align with their skills and aspirations.

Career Planning/High Potentials

Career Planning/High Potentials initiatives involve designing strategies and programs to support employees in planning and advancing their careers within the organization. Consultants work with organizations to establish career development frameworks, provide guidance on career paths and progression opportunities, and assist in identifying and nurturing high-potential employees. They may offer career counseling, development planning, and training programs to enhance employees' skills, competencies, and knowledge needed for career growth. Career planning initiatives aim to engage and retain talented individuals by providing them with a clear path for advancement and professional development.

Change Management

Change management consulting services support organizations in managing and implementing significant organizational changes. Consultants help identify change management strategies and plans, assess the impact of change, and design effective communication and training programs to support employee adoption and buy-in. They work with leaders and teams to overcome resistance, address cultural and behavioral challenges, and foster a positive change culture. Change management consultants provide guidance throughout the change process, ensuring a smooth transition and successful adoption of new processes, systems, or structures.

Organization Change (OCM) Strategy

Organization Change Management (OCM) Strategy refers to the planned approach or roadmap that an organization follows to implement and manage changes within its structure, processes, technologies, or culture. OCM strategies involve identifying the need for change, setting goals, creating a plan, and executing and evaluating the change process. Organization Change Consulting involves developing and implementing effective strategies to manage and navigate organizational change. The consultant focuses on helping organizations transition smoothly from their current state to a desired future state, considering various factors such as technology advancements, market shifts, mergers and acquisitions, or internal restructuring. Consultants specializing in OCM work closely with organizational leaders to identify OCM processes and help implement a consistent approach to change management, and train internal consultants to lead change management projects and provide support throughout the change process. Consultants may develop assessments, develop communication and training programs, and provide guidance on change implementation to ensure successful organizational transitions. OCM design typically includes steps such as stakeholder analysis, communication and training plans, risk assessment, and monitoring progress to ensure a smooth transition and successful adoption of the changes.

Human Resources Strategies

Human resources (HR) consulting services assist organizations in optimizing their HR practices and processes. Consultants work with HR departments to enhance talent acquisition and retention strategies, develop compensation and benefits programs, design performance management systems, implement employee engagement initiatives, and ensure compliance with labor laws and regulations. They may also provide guidance on organizational restructuring, workforce planning, employee relations, and HR technology implementation. HR consultants help organizations align their HR practices with business objectives and create a positive and productive work environment.

Team Development Strategies

Team Development Strategies focus on improving the effectiveness and performance of teams within an organization. Consultants work with teams to enhance communication, collaboration, and decision-making processes. They facilitate team-building activities, provide training on effective teamwork and conflict resolution, and help establish clear roles and responsibilities. Team development strategies may also involve conducting assessments to identify team dynamics and strengths, and designing interventions to improve team cohesion, trust, and productivity.

Employee Engagement Strategies

Employee Engagement Strategies aim to create a work environment where employees feel motivated, committed, and connected to the organization. Consultants assist organizations in measuring employee engagement levels, identifying factors that influence engagement, and developing strategies to enhance it. These strategies may include initiatives such as fostering a positive work culture, improving communication and recognition practices, providing opportunities for growth and development, promoting work-life balance, and empowering employees to contribute their ideas and opinions. The goal is to create a work environment that fosters high employee morale, satisfaction, and productivity.

Leadership Development Strategies

Leadership Development Strategies focus on cultivating effective leaders within an organization. Consultants work with organizations to assess leadership capabilities, identify leadership gaps, and design leadership development programs that enhance leadership skills, competencies, and behaviors. These strategies may include executive education, coaching and mentoring programs, leadership training workshops, and succession planning initiatives. The aim is to build a strong leadership pipeline and foster a culture of leadership excellence throughout the organization.

Organization Design/Redesign

Organization Design or Redesign refers to the process of structuring an organization to align its structure, roles, processes, and systems with its strategic objectives. It involves reviewing and potentially revising elements such as reporting lines, departmental structure, job roles and responsibilities, decision-making processes, and overall organizational hierarchy to optimize efficiency, coordination, and effectiveness within the organization, ensuring that it is well-positioned to achieve its goals. Organization Systems Design or Redesign consulting focuses on designing or restructuring the systems and processes within an organization to optimize efficiency, effectiveness, and overall performance. This service involves analyzing existing organizational systems, such as workflows, communication channels, decision-making processes, and information management systems, to identify areas for improvement. Consultants work closely with organizational leaders to redesign these systems, incorporating best practices, automation, and streamlining processes to enhance productivity and achieve organizational goals. They may also provide recommendations on implementing new technologies or software to support the redesigned systems and ensure successful integration within the organization.

Organization Culture Change/Transformation

Organization Culture Change or Transformation involves deliberately altering the beliefs, values, behaviors, and norms that define the culture of an organization. Organization Culture Change consulting involves assisting organizations in transforming their existing culture or establishing a new desired culture within the organization. The organizational culture encompasses shared values, beliefs, behaviors, and norms that shape the way people work and interact within an organization. Culture change consultants help organizations identify their current culture, define the desired culture, and create strategies to bridge the gap between the two. They may conduct cultural assessments, facilitate workshops and training programs, develop communication strategies, and provide guidance to leaders and employees on how to align their behaviors and practices with the desired culture. This change is typically aimed at aligning the organizational culture with the company's vision, mission, and strategic objectives. Culture change initiatives often require a shift in leadership style, employee engagement, communication practices, and organizational practices to create a new cultural environment that supports desired outcomes such as increased collaboration, innovation, or adaptability.

Systems Design

Systems Design refers to the process of creating or modifying the systems and processes within an organization to optimize efficiency, productivity, and effectiveness. It involves analyzing the existing systems, identifying areas for improvement, and designing new systems or reconfiguring existing ones to meet organizational goals. Systems design may include aspects such as technology infrastructure, software applications, data management, workflow processes, and automation to enhance operational performance and streamline organizational activities.

Strategic Planning

Strategic Planning is the process of defining an organization's direction, setting goals, and formulating action plans to achieve those goals. It involves assessing the organization's current state, identifying opportunities and challenges, and developing strategies to effectively allocate resources and achieve the desired outcomes. Strategic planning typically includes analyzing the external environment, conducting internal assessments, setting objectives, formulating strategies, and establishing a framework for monitoring and adapting to changes in the business landscape. Strategy consulting services focus on assisting organizations in formulating and implementing strategic plans to achieve their long-term objectives. Strategy consultants also help organizations align their vision, mission, values, processes, and organizational structure with the strategic goals.

Succession Planning

Succession Planning is the process of identifying and developing internal talent to fill key leadership positions within an organization when they become vacant. Consultants work with organizations to create succession planning strategies that align with the organization's long-term goals. They assess the current talent pool, identify high-potential employees, and design development programs to groom them for future leadership roles. Succession planning may involve creating development plans, providing leadership training, and implementing strategies to ensure a smooth transition when key positions need to be filled.

the encyclopaedia of pedagogy and informal education

What is action research and how do we do it?

In this article, we explore the development of some different traditions of action research and provide an introductory guide to the literature., contents : what is action research ·  origins · the decline and rediscovery of action research · undertaking action research · conclusion · further reading · how to cite this article . see, also: research for practice ., what is action research.

In the literature, discussion of action research tends to fall into two distinctive camps. The British tradition – especially that linked to education – tends to view action research as research-oriented toward the enhancement of direct practice. For example, Carr and Kemmis provide a classic definition:

Action research is simply a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own practices, their understanding of these practices, and the situations in which the practices are carried out (Carr and Kemmis 1986: 162).

Many people are drawn to this understanding of action research because it is firmly located in the realm of the practitioner – it is tied to self-reflection. As a way of working it is very close to the notion of reflective practice coined by Donald Schön (1983).

The second tradition, perhaps more widely approached within the social welfare field – and most certainly the broader understanding in the USA is of action research as ‘the systematic collection of information that is designed to bring about social change’ (Bogdan and Biklen 1992: 223). Bogdan and Biklen continue by saying that its practitioners marshal evidence or data to expose unjust practices or environmental dangers and recommend actions for change. In many respects, for them, it is linked into traditions of citizen’s action and community organizing. The practitioner is actively involved in the cause for which the research is conducted. For others, it is such commitment is a necessary part of being a practitioner or member of a community of practice. Thus, various projects designed to enhance practice within youth work, for example, such as the detached work reported on by Goetschius and Tash (1967) could be talked of as action research.

Kurt Lewin is generally credited as the person who coined the term ‘action research’:

The research needed for social practice can best be characterized as research for social management or social engineering. It is a type of action-research, a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action, and research leading to social action. Research that produces nothing but books will not suffice (Lewin 1946, reproduced in Lewin 1948: 202-3)

His approach involves a spiral of steps, ‘each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action’ ( ibid. : 206). The basic cycle involves the following:

This is how Lewin describes the initial cycle:

The first step then is to examine the idea carefully in the light of the means available. Frequently more fact-finding about the situation is required. If this first period of planning is successful, two items emerge: namely, “an overall plan” of how to reach the objective and secondly, a decision in regard to the first step of action. Usually this planning has also somewhat modified the original idea. ( ibid. : 205)

The next step is ‘composed of a circle of planning, executing, and reconnaissance or fact-finding for the purpose of evaluating the results of the second step, and preparing the rational basis for planning the third step, and for perhaps modifying again the overall plan’ ( ibid. : 206). What we can see here is an approach to research that is oriented to problem-solving in social and organizational settings, and that has a form that parallels Dewey’s conception of learning from experience.

The approach, as presented, does take a fairly sequential form – and it is open to a literal interpretation. Following it can lead to practice that is ‘correct’ rather than ‘good’ – as we will see. It can also be argued that the model itself places insufficient emphasis on analysis at key points. Elliott (1991: 70), for example, believed that the basic model allows those who use it to assume that the ‘general idea’ can be fixed in advance, ‘that “reconnaissance” is merely fact-finding, and that “implementation” is a fairly straightforward process’. As might be expected there was some questioning as to whether this was ‘real’ research. There were questions around action research’s partisan nature – the fact that it served particular causes.

The decline and rediscovery of action research

Action research did suffer a decline in favour during the 1960s because of its association with radical political activism (Stringer 2007: 9). There were, and are, questions concerning its rigour, and the training of those undertaking it. However, as Bogdan and Biklen (1992: 223) point out, research is a frame of mind – ‘a perspective that people take toward objects and activities’. Once we have satisfied ourselves that the collection of information is systematic and that any interpretations made have a proper regard for satisfying truth claims, then much of the critique aimed at action research disappears. In some of Lewin’s earlier work on action research (e.g. Lewin and Grabbe 1945), there was a tension between providing a rational basis for change through research, and the recognition that individuals are constrained in their ability to change by their cultural and social perceptions, and the systems of which they are a part. Having ‘correct knowledge’ does not of itself lead to change, attention also needs to be paid to the ‘matrix of cultural and psychic forces’ through which the subject is constituted (Winter 1987: 48).

Subsequently, action research has gained a significant foothold both within the realm of community-based, and participatory action research; and as a form of practice-oriented to the improvement of educative encounters (e.g. Carr and Kemmis 1986).

Exhibit 1: Stringer on community-based action research

A fundamental premise of community-based action research is that it commences with an interest in the problems of a group, a community, or an organization. Its purpose is to assist people in extending their understanding of their situation and thus resolving problems that confront them….

Community-based action research is always enacted through an explicit set of social values. In modern, democratic social contexts, it is seen as a process of inquiry that has the following characteristics:

• It is democratic , enabling the participation of all people.

• It is equitable , acknowledging people’s equality of worth.

• It is liberating , providing freedom from oppressive, debilitating conditions.

• It is life enhancing , enabling the expression of people’s full human potential.

(Stringer 1999: 9-10)

Undertaking action research

As Thomas (2017: 154) put it, the central aim is change, ‘and the emphasis is on problem-solving in whatever way is appropriate’. It can be seen as a conversation rather more than a technique (McNiff et. al. ). It is about people ‘thinking for themselves and making their own choices, asking themselves what they should do and accepting the consequences of their own actions’ (Thomas 2009: 113).

The action research process works through three basic phases:

Look -building a picture and gathering information. When evaluating we define and describe the problem to be investigated and the context in which it is set. We also describe what all the participants (educators, group members, managers etc.) have been doing.

Think – interpreting and explaining. When evaluating we analyse and interpret the situation. We reflect on what participants have been doing. We look at areas of success and any deficiencies, issues or problems.

Act – resolving issues and problems. In evaluation we judge the worth, effectiveness, appropriateness, and outcomes of those activities. We act to formulate solutions to any problems. (Stringer 1999: 18; 43-44;160)

The use of action research to deepen and develop classroom practice has grown into a strong tradition of practice (one of the first examples being the work of Stephen Corey in 1949). For some, there is an insistence that action research must be collaborative and entail groupwork.

Action research is a form of collective self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social or educational practices, as well as their understanding of those practices and the situations in which the practices are carried out… The approach is only action research when it is collaborative, though it is important to realise that action research of the group is achieved through the critically examined action of individual group members. (Kemmis and McTaggart 1988: 5-6)

Just why it must be collective is open to some question and debate (Webb 1996), but there is an important point here concerning the commitments and orientations of those involved in action research.

One of the legacies Kurt Lewin left us is the ‘action research spiral’ – and with it there is the danger that action research becomes little more than a procedure. It is a mistake, according to McTaggart (1996: 248) to think that following the action research spiral constitutes ‘doing action research’. He continues, ‘Action research is not a ‘method’ or a ‘procedure’ for research but a series of commitments to observe and problematize through practice a series of principles for conducting social enquiry’. It is his argument that Lewin has been misunderstood or, rather, misused. When set in historical context, while Lewin does talk about action research as a method, he is stressing a contrast between this form of interpretative practice and more traditional empirical-analytic research. The notion of a spiral may be a useful teaching device – but it is all too easy to slip into using it as the template for practice (McTaggart 1996: 249).

Further reading

This select, annotated bibliography has been designed to give a flavour of the possibilities of action research and includes some useful guides to practice. As ever, if you have suggestions about areas or specific texts for inclusion, I’d like to hear from you.

Explorations of action research

Atweh, B., Kemmis, S. and Weeks, P. (eds.) (1998) Action Research in Practice: Partnership for Social Justice in Education, London: Routledge. Presents a collection of stories from action research projects in schools and a university. The book begins with theme chapters discussing action research, social justice and partnerships in research. The case study chapters cover topics such as: school environment – how to make a school a healthier place to be; parents – how to involve them more in decision-making; students as action researchers; gender – how to promote gender equity in schools; writing up action research projects.

Carr, W. and Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming Critical. Education, knowledge and action research , Lewes: Falmer. Influential book that provides a good account of ‘action research’ in education. Chapters on teachers, researchers and curriculum; the natural scientific view of educational theory and practice; the interpretative view of educational theory and practice; theory and practice – redefining the problem; a critical approach to theory and practice; towards a critical educational science; action research as critical education science; educational research, educational reform and the role of the profession.

Carson, T. R. and Sumara, D. J. (ed.) (1997) Action Research as a Living Practice , New York: Peter Lang. 140 pages. Book draws on a wide range of sources to develop an understanding of action research. Explores action research as a lived practice, ‘that asks the researcher to not only investigate the subject at hand but, as well, to provide some account of the way in which the investigation both shapes and is shaped by the investigator.

Dadds, M. (1995) Passionate Enquiry and School Development. A story about action research , London: Falmer. 192 + ix pages. Examines three action research studies undertaken by a teacher and how they related to work in school – how she did the research, the problems she experienced, her feelings, the impact on her feelings and ideas, and some of the outcomes. In his introduction, John Elliot comments that the book is ‘the most readable, thoughtful, and detailed study of the potential of action-research in professional education that I have read’.

Ghaye, T. and Wakefield, P. (eds.) CARN Critical Conversations. Book one: the role of the self in action , Bournemouth: Hyde Publications. 146 + xiii pages. Collection of five pieces from the Classroom Action Research Network. Chapters on: dialectical forms; graduate medical education – research’s outer limits; democratic education; managing action research; writing up.

McNiff, J. (1993) Teaching as Learning: An Action Research Approach , London: Routledge. Argues that educational knowledge is created by individual teachers as they attempt to express their own values in their professional lives. Sets out familiar action research model: identifying a problem, devising, implementing and evaluating a solution and modifying practice. Includes advice on how working in this way can aid the professional development of action researcher and practitioner.

Quigley, B. A. and Kuhne, G. W. (eds.) (1997) Creating Practical Knowledge Through Action Research, San Fransisco: Jossey Bass. Guide to action research that outlines the action research process, provides a project planner, and presents examples to show how action research can yield improvements in six different settings, including a hospital, a university and a literacy education program.

Plummer, G. and Edwards, G. (eds.) CARN Critical Conversations. Book two: dimensions of action research – people, practice and power , Bournemouth: Hyde Publications. 142 + xvii pages. Collection of five pieces from the Classroom Action Research Network. Chapters on: exchanging letters and collaborative research; diary writing; personal and professional learning – on teaching and self-knowledge; anti-racist approaches; psychodynamic group theory in action research.

Whyte, W. F. (ed.) (1991) Participatory Action Research , Newbury Park: Sage. 247 pages. Chapters explore the development of participatory action research and its relation with action science and examine its usages in various agricultural and industrial settings

Zuber-Skerritt, O. (ed.) (1996) New Directions in Action Research , London; Falmer Press. 266 + xii pages. A useful collection that explores principles and procedures for critical action research; problems and suggested solutions; and postmodernism and critical action research.

Action research guides

Coghlan, D. and Brannick, D. (2000) Doing Action Research in your own Organization, London: Sage. 128 pages. Popular introduction. Part one covers the basics of action research including the action research cycle, the role of the ‘insider’ action researcher and the complexities of undertaking action research within your own organisation. Part two looks at the implementation of the action research project (including managing internal politics and the ethics and politics of action research). New edition due late 2004.

Elliot, J. (1991) Action Research for Educational Change , Buckingham: Open University Press. 163 + x pages Collection of various articles written by Elliot in which he develops his own particular interpretation of action research as a form of teacher professional development. In some ways close to a form of ‘reflective practice’. Chapter 6, ‘A practical guide to action research’ – builds a staged model on Lewin’s work and on developments by writers such as Kemmis.

Johnson, A. P. (2007) A short guide to action research 3e. Allyn and Bacon. Popular step by step guide for master’s work.

Macintyre, C. (2002) The Art of the Action Research in the Classroom , London: David Fulton. 138 pages. Includes sections on action research, the role of literature, formulating a research question, gathering data, analysing data and writing a dissertation. Useful and readable guide for students.

McNiff, J., Whitehead, J., Lomax, P. (2003) You and Your Action Research Project , London: Routledge. Practical guidance on doing an action research project.Takes the practitioner-researcher through the various stages of a project. Each section of the book is supported by case studies

Stringer, E. T. (2007) Action Research: A handbook for practitioners 3e , Newbury Park, ca.: Sage. 304 pages. Sets community-based action research in context and develops a model. Chapters on information gathering, interpretation, resolving issues; legitimacy etc. See, also Stringer’s (2003) Action Research in Education , Prentice-Hall.

Winter, R. (1989) Learning From Experience. Principles and practice in action research , Lewes: Falmer Press. 200 + 10 pages. Introduces the idea of action research; the basic process; theoretical issues; and provides six principles for the conduct of action research. Includes examples of action research. Further chapters on from principles to practice; the learner’s experience; and research topics and personal interests.

Action research in informal education

Usher, R., Bryant, I. and Johnston, R. (1997) Adult Education and the Postmodern Challenge. Learning beyond the limits , London: Routledge. 248 + xvi pages. Has some interesting chapters that relate to action research: on reflective practice; changing paradigms and traditions of research; new approaches to research; writing and learning about research.

Other references

Bogdan, R. and Biklen, S. K. (1992) Qualitative Research For Education , Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Goetschius, G. and Tash, J. (1967) Working with the Unattached , London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

McTaggart, R. (1996) ‘Issues for participatory action researchers’ in O. Zuber-Skerritt (ed.) New Directions in Action Research , London: Falmer Press.

McNiff, J., Lomax, P. and Whitehead, J. (2003) You and Your Action Research Project 2e. London: Routledge.

Thomas, G. (2017). How to do your Research Project. A guide for students in education and applied social sciences . 3e. London: Sage.

Acknowledgements : spiral by Michèle C. | flickr ccbyncnd2 licence

How to cite this article : Smith, M. K. (1996; 2001, 2007, 2017) What is action research and how do we do it?’, The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education. [ https://infed.org/mobi/action-research/ . Retrieved: insert date] .

© Mark K. Smith 1996; 2001, 2007, 2017

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Action Research model (Lewin)

Action Research model: this article explains the concept of Action Research (AR) , developed by Kurt Lewin in a practical way. It covers what AR is, what steps should be taken, based on the model and example and what conditions should be met. After reading you will understand the basics of this research method. Enjoy reading!

Background of Action Research theory

The German-American professor Kurt Lewin was mainly concerned with child psychology.

He became known for his contributions to “ Gestalt psychology ” and in 1951 he carried out ground breaking research into the way in which human behaviour could be changed towards democratic values and leadership. This is why he is considered to be the founder of Action Research .

What is the Action Research model? The theory

Kurt Lewin ’s approach of Action Research is a research method in which the researcher intervenes in and during the research. This serves two purposes: firstly, according to Kurt Lewin , it will bring about positive change and secondly, knowledge and theory will be generated.

It is important that the researcher acts as a social change expert who helps and encourages employees to change their behaviour towards democratic values and leadership. A cooperation between fundamental and applied research is essential in this.

According to Lewin scientific research is best achieved through cooperation between the researcher (academic) and the people in the work field (practitioners).

The definition of Action Research

The term was first suggested by Kurt Lewin . He described the practice as ‘a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action’ that uses ‘a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action’ .

Participatory action research in education

AR is also called Participatory Action Research (PAR). This concerns an individual method of this research method. Other working methods are community-based participatory research and school-wide action research.

Other names for the methodology are action cycle or research cycle . In education, action research refers to various evaluative, investigative, and analytical research methods, which are especially designed to study organizational, academic or educational problems or deficiencies.

In addition, these methods help teachers to develop practical solutions to address the aforementioned problems.

Action Research model and steps, an example of education

It is referred to as a cycle because the method usually consists of a predefined process that is repeated over time. Below is an action research example of what the cycle might look like. The model is aimed at education.

Figure 1 – the steps of action research example in education

1. Selecting focus

The AR-process starts with a reflective action aimed at discerning one or more topics worthy of the teacher’s or researcher’s time. Since different actions and teachers in the classroom are in high demand, all activities should be worthwhile for the researcher.

Therefore, focus selection is considered the first step in the action research process. Focus selection begins with the researcher or team asking questions about which elements of the research benefit practice or learning.

2. Clarifying and establishing theory

The next stage in the AR process is to identify and discern the values, beliefs and theoretical perspectives the researchers have about the focus they have chosen in the first step.

When researchers or teachers are concerned about a particular development in the classroom, it is helpful to first clarify which approach or method would work best. For example, should the teacher set up a reward system? Or should the students experience the consequences of their behavior in a natural way?

3. Identifying research questions

Now that the selection of focus areas has been completed and the perspectives of the researchers or lecturers have been clarified, the next step is to generate research questions that are intended to shape the research.

4. Collecting data

Accurate data and information is important because everyone bases decisions on it. This is also the case for researchers or teachers. Action researchers ensure that the data used to base decisions on is reliable and valid at the same time. Valid in this context means that the information accurately represents and conveys the researchers’ message.

Typically, researchers ensure that they get their information from multiple data sources. Many of them use triangulation. This is a process to increase the reliability and validity of data.

Triangulation is explained as studying or observing an object or information by looking at it from multiple perspectives. This helps a researcher to compare things and look at a topic from multiple angles.

Data collection is one of the trickiest parts of the action research process.

5. Analyzing data

Data analysis usually refers to complex statistical calculations and relationships. However, this is not always the case for teachers and researchers. There are easy-to-use procedures and best practices that help the user identify patterns and trends in the data.

6. Reporting

Although it may sound contradictory, many teachers consider their profession to be lonely. Many teachers spend every day teaching others, designing lessons and doing this on their own. Reporting action research is therefore very important. This usually takes place in an informal setting, unlike the formal setting where scientific research is shared.

7. Action planning

Action planning is also referred to as informed action. This is the final step in the research method process. When a teacher or researcher writes a plan or develops a program, he or she is usually also involved in the planning process. Action planning is more of an approach than a method.

It is a statement of what someone wants to achieve in a certain period of time. Drawing up and executing an action plan is an effective way to achieve goals.

Examples of AR

Different tools are used to support AR, depending on the working method and the problem to be studied. Examples of these methods are:

• Observation of groups or individuals;
• By means of audio and video recordings;
• Through interviews;
• Monitoring and taking notes;
• By means of photos or questionnaires.

Action Research and Intervention

Besides the research of social systems, Action Research is all about solving problems in order to bring about social change. During the research method, the researcher does not merely observe and interpret information but he is also an active participant in the process.

This allows him to intervene faster and better and bring about change. One major advantage is that he will have a better understanding of the problems. Close cooperation with the field will increase the perceptions of the researcher and the practitioners. During research method the focus can be centred on the activities or the research itself.

Conditions for Action Research

For this research method to be successful, Kurt Lewin established a number of conditions must meet:

• the research must be problem-oriented
• the employee (client) must be at the centre
• the current situation (status quo) must be included in the discussion
• the research must produce empirically demonstrable propositions (direct and indirect observations)
• propositions and findings must systematically fit into a useful theory.

Cyclical approach

Changes in accordance with the Action Research approach have the nature of an exception, in which stability (Freeze) is the standard, change the deviation from that standard and behaviour modification (Unfreezing) a response.

This research method is a cyclical process of change and is connected in his change model . During the Unfreezing stage a period of problem awareness takes places (Planning), during the change stage new forms of behaviour are tested (Action) and during the refreezing stage this new behaviour is reinforced and will become a habit over time (Results).

Action Research in practice

Action Research is a form of collective self-reflective enquiry, undertaken by participants in social situations such as employees within an organization.

Because of the research they are able to analyze and improve their own social and/ or educational skills. Research that produces nothing but books will not suffice according to Kurt Lewin .

It’s Your Turn

What do you think? Do you conduct Action research? If so, what are your experiences? If not, which new insights did you get by reading this post? What are in your opinion success factors for conducting Action research?

Share your experience and knowledge in the comments box below.

More information

• Coghlan, D. &amo; Brannick, T. (2014). Doing Action Research in Your Own Organization . Sage Publications Ltd.
• Dickens, L., & Watkins, K. (1999). Action research: rethinking Lewin. Management Learning , 30(2), 127-140.
• Lewin, K. , & Gold, M. E. (1999). Group decision and social change .
• Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems , in: G.W. Lewin (Ed) (1948) Resolving Social conflict. Harper & Row.

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What is action research?

Last updated

26 April 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

This research approach is often used in education, social work, healthcare, and community development.

Analyze action research

Dovetail streamlines action research analysis to help you uncover and share actionable insights

• What are the main types of action research?

Technical action research

This type of action research focuses on improving the efficiency and effectiveness of a system or process. It is often used in organizational contexts, such as businesses or government agencies, to address specific issues or improve operations. 

In technical action research, the research process typically involves a systematic analysis of the existing system or process to identify areas of inefficiency or opportunity for improvement. This analysis may include collecting and analyzing data, observing work practices, conducting interviews with employees or other stakeholders, and/or reviewing documentation.

Collaboration action research

Collaborative action research seeks to empower stakeholders and give them a voice in the research process. It’s about working together to identify issues, create solutions, and implement change. This approach is typically used in community-based research, where community members and organizations are actively involved in the research process.

Collaborative action research is characterized by a high degree of participation, communication, and cooperation between researchers and stakeholders. The goal is to create a sense of ownership and commitment among all participants, leading to more sustainable and effective outcomes.

Critical reflection action research

This type of action research aims to create a space for marginalized voices to be heard and to address the power imbalances that exist between different stakeholders . It seeks to challenge the dominant power structures and social injustices that exist within a particular context. 

This research also emphasizes the importance of reflecting on the underlying assumptions and values that drive research and decision-making processes.

Critical reflection action research involves a continuous process of questioning and reflection. This helps researchers gain a deeper understanding of the complexities and nuances of the context they are working in.

Through this research process, researchers can identify and challenge assumptions, beliefs, and practices that perpetuate social inequalities and injustices.

• What is the main purpose of action research?

The primary purpose of action research is to drive change and improvement within a particular context or situation. It aims to address real-world problems and challenges by involving stakeholders in the research process, encouraging collaboration and reflection, and using data to inform decision-making.

Action research emphasizes practical solutions over theoretical abstractions, and its goal is to create meaningful and sustainable change that benefits everyone involved.

Using a cyclical process of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting, action research enables stakeholders to learn and adapt continually and to make ongoing improvements based on their experiences and insights.

Overall, action research is a powerful tool for driving positive change and promoting continuous learning and improvement in various contexts.

• What are the tools of action research?

Action research typically involves a range of tools and techniques that help researchers gather and analyze data. 

Here are some commonly used tools for action research:

Surveys and questionnaires

These are structured and often include closed-ended questions with predetermined response options. These tools help understand a population's experiences, opinions, and attitudes toward a particular issue or topic.

Document analysis

This involves analyzing written documents such as reports, policies, and procedures to gather qualitative data .

Observations

This involves systematically watching and recording phenomena, such as behaviors or interactions, in their natural setting to collect data.

Asking people questions during interviews is one way to gather qualitative information about their perspectives or experiences.

Case studies

This method deeply understands a particular person, group, or situation. It involves collecting data through various sources, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to form a comprehensive picture of the situation being studied.

• How is action research different from other methods?

Action research is distinct from other research methodologies because it focuses on producing actionable insights that lead to practical solutions.

Unlike other forms of research that tend to emphasize the generation of abstract theories or empirical models, action research emphasizes the active engagement of stakeholders in problem-solving activities that can result in a substantial change in real-world situations.

This approach strongly emphasizes collaboration, co-creation, and participatory processes to empower individuals and organizations to take ownership of their challenges and work towards sustainable, impactful solutions. 

By prioritizing the needs and perspectives of those directly affected by a problem, action research can help bridge the gap between theory and practice and create meaningful, impactful, and sustainable change.

• What research method is used in action research?

Action research uses a process that allows researchers to implement changes and observe the effects of those changes in real-life situations.

This research methodology is grounded in the idea that the best solutions come from those who are most impacted by the issue. The participants are actively involved in the research process, collaborating with the researcher to develop solutions that work in their unique context.

Using participatory methods and data collection tools ensures that the data gathered is accurate and reflects the participants' perspectives. This can include surveys , questionnaires , interviews, and observations .

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Action Research

Action research can be defined as “an approach in which the action researcher and a client collaborate in the diagnosis of the problem and in the development of a solution based on the diagnosis” [1] . In other words, one of the main characteristic traits of action research relates to collaboration between researcher and member of organisation in order to solve organizational problems.

Action study assumes social world to be constantly changing, both, researcher and research being one part of that change. [2] Generally, action researches can be divided into three categories: positivist, interpretive and critical.

Positivist approach to action research , also known as ‘classical action research’ perceives research as a social experiment. Accordingly, action research is accepted as a method to test hypotheses in a real world environment.

Interpretive action research , also known as ‘contemporary action research’ perceives business reality as socially constructed and focuses on specifications of local and organisational factors when conducting the action research.

Critical action research is a specific type of action research that adopts critical approach towards business processes and aims for improvements.

The following features of action research need to be taken into account when considering its suitability for any given study:

• It is applied in order to improve specific practices.  Action research is based on action, evaluation and critical analysis of practices based on collected data in order to introduce improvements in relevant practices.
• This type of research is facilitated by participation and collaboration of number of individuals with a common purpose
• Such a research focuses on specific situations and their context

Advantages of Action Research

• High level of practical relevance of the business research;
• Can be used with quantitative, as well as, qualitative data;
• Possibility to gain in-depth knowledge about the problem.

Disadvantages of Action Research

• Difficulties in distinguishing between action and research and ensure the application of both;
• Delays in completion of action research due to a wide range of reasons are not rare occurrences
• Lack of repeatability and rigour

It is important to make a clear distinction between action research and consulting. Specifically, action research is greater than consulting in a way that action research includes both action and research, whereas business activities of consulting are limited action without the research.

Action Research Spiral

Action study is a participatory study consisting of spiral of following self-reflective cycles:

• Planning in order to initiate change
• Implementing the change (acting) and observing the process of implementation and consequences
• Reflecting on processes of change and re-planning
• Acting and observing

Kemmis and McTaggart (2000) do acknowledge that individual stages specified in Action Research Spiral model may overlap, and initial plan developed for the research may become obselete in short duration of time due to a range of factors.

The main advantage of Action Research Spiral model relates to the opportunity of analysing the phenomenon in a greater depth each time, consequently resulting in grater level of understanding of the problem.

Disadvantages of Action Research Spiral model include its assumption each process takes long time to be completed which may not always be the case.

My e-book,  The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance  offers practical assistance to complete a dissertation with minimum or no stress. The e-book covers all stages of writing a dissertation starting from the selection to the research area to submitting the completed version of the work within the deadline.

References 

[1] Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2011) “Business Research Methods” 3 rd  edition, Oxford University Press

[2] Collis, J. & Hussey, R. (2003) “Business Research. A Practical Guide for Undergraduate and Graduate Students” 2nd edition, Palgrave Macmillan

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Action Research: What it is, Stages & Examples

The best way to get things accomplished is to do it yourself. This statement is utilized in corporations, community projects, and national governments. These organizations are relying on action research to cope with their continuously changing and unstable environments as they function in a more interdependent world.

In practical educational contexts, this involves using systematic inquiry and reflective practice to address real-world challenges, improve teaching and learning, enhance student engagement, and drive positive changes within the educational system.

This post outlines the definition of action research, its stages, and some examples.

Content Index

What is action research?

Stages of action research, the steps to conducting action research, examples of action research, advantages and disadvantages of action research.

Action research is a strategy that tries to find realistic solutions to organizations’ difficulties and issues. It is similar to applied research.

Action research refers basically learning by doing. First, a problem is identified, then some actions are taken to address it, then how well the efforts worked are measured, and if the results are not satisfactory, the steps are applied again.

It can be put into three different groups:

• Positivist: This type of research is also called “classical action research.” It considers research a social experiment. This research is used to test theories in the actual world.
• Interpretive: This kind of research is called “contemporary action research.” It thinks that business reality is socially made, and when doing this research, it focuses on the details of local and organizational factors.
• Critical: This action research cycle takes a critical reflection approach to corporate systems and tries to enhance them.

All research is about learning new things. Collaborative action research contributes knowledge based on investigations in particular and frequently useful circumstances. It starts with identifying a problem. After that, the research process is followed by the below stages:

Stage 1: Plan

For an action research project to go well, the researcher needs to plan it well. After coming up with an educational research topic or question after a research study, the first step is to develop an action plan to guide the research process. The research design aims to address the study’s question. The research strategy outlines what to undertake, when, and how.

Stage 2: Act

The next step is implementing the plan and gathering data. At this point, the researcher must select how to collect and organize research data . The researcher also needs to examine all tools and equipment before collecting data to ensure they are relevant, valid, and comprehensive.

Stage 3: Observe

Data observation is vital to any investigation. The action researcher needs to review the project’s goals and expectations before data observation. This is the final step before drawing conclusions and taking action.

Different kinds of graphs, charts, and networks can be used to represent the data. It assists in making judgments or progressing to the next stage of observing.

Stage 4: Reflect

This step involves applying a prospective solution and observing the results. It’s essential to see if the possible solution found through research can really solve the problem being studied.

The researcher must explore alternative ideas when the action research project’s solutions fail to solve the problem.

Action research is a systematic approach researchers, educators, and practitioners use to identify and address problems or challenges within a specific context. It involves a cyclical process of planning, implementing, reflecting, and adjusting actions based on the data collected. Here are the general steps involved in conducting an action research process:

Identify the action research question or problem

Clearly define the issue or problem you want to address through your research. It should be specific, actionable, and relevant to your working context.

Review existing knowledge

Conduct a literature review to understand what research has already been done on the topic. This will help you gain insights, identify gaps, and inform your research design.

Plan the research

Develop a research plan outlining your study’s objectives, methods, data collection tools, and timeline. Determine the scope of your research and the participants or stakeholders involved.

Collect data

Implement your research plan by collecting relevant data. This can involve various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, document analysis, or focus groups. Ensure that your data collection methods align with your research objectives and allow you to gather the necessary information.

Analyze the data

Once you have collected the data, analyze it using appropriate qualitative or quantitative techniques. Look for patterns, themes, or trends in the data that can help you understand the problem better.

Reflect on the findings

Reflect on the analyzed data and interpret the results in the context of your research question. Consider the implications and possible solutions that emerge from the data analysis. This reflection phase is crucial for generating insights and understanding the underlying factors contributing to the problem.

Develop an action plan

Based on your analysis and reflection, develop an action plan that outlines the steps you will take to address the identified problem. The plan should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART goals). Consider involving relevant stakeholders in planning to ensure their buy-in and support.

Implement the action plan

Put your action plan into practice by implementing the identified strategies or interventions. This may involve making changes to existing practices, introducing new approaches, or testing alternative solutions. Document the implementation process and any modifications made along the way.

Evaluate and monitor progress

Continuously monitor and evaluate the impact of your actions. Collect additional data, assess the effectiveness of the interventions, and measure progress towards your goals. This evaluation will help you determine if your actions have the desired effects and inform any necessary adjustments.

Reflect and iterate

Reflect on the outcomes of your actions and the evaluation results. Consider what worked well, what did not, and why. Use this information to refine your approach, make necessary adjustments, and plan for the next cycle of action research if needed.

Remember that participatory action research is an iterative process, and multiple cycles may be required to achieve significant improvements or solutions to the identified problem. Each cycle builds on the insights gained from the previous one, fostering continuous learning and improvement.

Explore Insightfully Contextual Inquiry in Qualitative Research

Here are two real-life examples of action research.

Action research initiatives are frequently situation-specific. Still, other researchers can adapt the techniques. The example is from a researcher’s (Franklin, 1994) report about a project encouraging nature tourism in the Caribbean.

In 1991, this was launched to study how nature tourism may be implemented on the four Windward Islands in the Caribbean: St. Lucia, Grenada, Dominica, and St. Vincent.

For environmental protection, a government-led action study determined that the consultation process needs to involve numerous stakeholders, including commercial enterprises.

First, two researchers undertook the study and held search conferences on each island. The search conferences resulted in suggestions and action plans for local community nature tourism sub-projects.

Several islands formed advisory groups and launched national awareness and community projects. Regional project meetings were held to discuss experiences, self-evaluations, and strategies. Creating a documentary about a local initiative helped build community. And the study was a success, leading to a number of changes in the area.

Lau and Hayward (1997) employed action research to analyze Internet-based collaborative work groups.

Over two years, the researchers facilitated three action research problem -solving cycles with 15 teachers, project personnel, and 25 health practitioners from diverse areas. The goal was to see how Internet-based communications might affect their virtual workgroup.

First, expectations were defined, technology was provided, and a bespoke workgroup system was developed. Participants suggested shorter, more dispersed training sessions with project-specific instructions.

The second phase saw the system’s complete deployment. The final cycle witnessed system stability and virtual group formation. The key lesson was that the learning curve was poorly misjudged, with frustrations only marginally met by phone-based technical help. According to the researchers, the absence of high-quality online material about community healthcare was harmful.

Role clarity, connection building, knowledge sharing, resource assistance, and experiential learning are vital for virtual group growth. More study is required on how group support systems might assist groups in engaging with their external environment and boost group members’ learning. 

Action research has both good and bad points.

• It is very flexible, so researchers can change their analyses to fit their needs and make individual changes.
• It offers a quick and easy way to solve problems that have been going on for a long time instead of complicated, long-term solutions based on complex facts.
• If It is done right, it can be very powerful because it can lead to social change and give people the tools to make that change in ways that are important to their communities.

Disadvantages

• These studies have a hard time being generalized and are hard to repeat because they are so flexible. Because the researcher has the power to draw conclusions, they are often not thought to be theoretically sound.
• Setting up an action study in an ethical way can be hard. People may feel like they have to take part or take part in a certain way.
• It is prone to research errors like selection bias , social desirability bias, and other cognitive biases.

LEARN ABOUT: Self-Selection Bias

This post discusses how action research generates knowledge, its steps, and real-life examples. It is very applicable to the field of research and has a high level of relevance. We can only state that the purpose of this research is to comprehend an issue and find a solution to it.

At QuestionPro, we give researchers tools for collecting data, like our survey software, and a library of insights for any long-term study. Go to the Insight Hub if you want to see a demo or learn more about it.

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Frequently Asked Questions(FAQ’s)

Action research is a systematic approach to inquiry that involves identifying a problem or challenge in a practical context, implementing interventions or changes, collecting and analyzing data, and using the findings to inform decision-making and drive positive change.

Action research can be conducted by various individuals or groups, including teachers, administrators, researchers, and educational practitioners. It is often carried out by those directly involved in the educational setting where the research takes place.

The steps of action research typically include identifying a problem, reviewing relevant literature, designing interventions or changes, collecting and analyzing data, reflecting on findings, and implementing improvements based on the results.

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1 What is Action Research for Classroom Teachers?

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS

• What is the nature of action research?
• How does action research develop in the classroom?
• What models of action research work best for your classroom?
• What are the epistemological, ontological, theoretical underpinnings of action research?

Educational research provides a vast landscape of knowledge on topics related to teaching and learning, curriculum and assessment, students’ cognitive and affective needs, cultural and socio-economic factors of schools, and many other factors considered viable to improving schools. Educational stakeholders rely on research to make informed decisions that ultimately affect the quality of schooling for their students. Accordingly, the purpose of educational research is to engage in disciplined inquiry to generate knowledge on topics significant to the students, teachers, administrators, schools, and other educational stakeholders. Just as the topics of educational research vary, so do the approaches to conducting educational research in the classroom. Your approach to research will be shaped by your context, your professional identity, and paradigm (set of beliefs and assumptions that guide your inquiry). These will all be key factors in how you generate knowledge related to your work as an educator.

Action research is an approach to educational research that is commonly used by educational practitioners and professionals to examine, and ultimately improve, their pedagogy and practice. In this way, action research represents an extension of the reflection and critical self-reflection that an educator employs on a daily basis in their classroom. When students are actively engaged in learning, the classroom can be dynamic and uncertain, demanding the constant attention of the educator. Considering these demands, educators are often only able to engage in reflection that is fleeting, and for the purpose of accommodation, modification, or formative assessment. Action research offers one path to more deliberate, substantial, and critical reflection that can be documented and analyzed to improve an educator’s practice.

Purpose of Action Research

As one of many approaches to educational research, it is important to distinguish the potential purposes of action research in the classroom. This book focuses on action research as a method to enable and support educators in pursuing effective pedagogical practices by transforming the quality of teaching decisions and actions, to subsequently enhance student engagement and learning. Being mindful of this purpose, the following aspects of action research are important to consider as you contemplate and engage with action research methodology in your classroom:

• Action research is a process for improving educational practice. Its methods involve action, evaluation, and reflection. It is a process to gather evidence to implement change in practices.
• Action research is participative and collaborative. It is undertaken by individuals with a common purpose.
• Action research is situation and context-based.
• Action research develops reflection practices based on the interpretations made by participants.
• Knowledge is created through action and application.
• Action research can be based in problem-solving, if the solution to the problem results in the improvement of practice.
• Action research is iterative; plans are created, implemented, revised, then implemented, lending itself to an ongoing process of reflection and revision.
• In action research, findings emerge as action develops and takes place; however, they are not conclusive or absolute, but ongoing (Koshy, 2010, pgs. 1-2).

In thinking about the purpose of action research, it is helpful to situate action research as a distinct paradigm of educational research. I like to think about action research as part of the larger concept of living knowledge. Living knowledge has been characterized as “a quest for life, to understand life and to create… knowledge which is valid for the people with whom I work and for myself” (Swantz, in Reason & Bradbury, 2001, pg. 1). Why should educators care about living knowledge as part of educational research? As mentioned above, action research is meant “to produce practical knowledge that is useful to people in the everyday conduct of their lives and to see that action research is about working towards practical outcomes” (Koshy, 2010, pg. 2). However, it is also about:

creating new forms of understanding, since action without reflection and understanding is blind, just as theory without action is meaningless. The participatory nature of action research makes it only possible with, for and by persons and communities, ideally involving all stakeholders both in the questioning and sense making that informs the research, and in the action, which is its focus. (Reason & Bradbury, 2001, pg. 2)

In an effort to further situate action research as living knowledge, Jean McNiff reminds us that “there is no such ‘thing’ as ‘action research’” (2013, pg. 24). In other words, action research is not static or finished, it defines itself as it proceeds. McNiff’s reminder characterizes action research as action-oriented, and a process that individuals go through to make their learning public to explain how it informs their practice. Action research does not derive its meaning from an abstract idea, or a self-contained discovery – action research’s meaning stems from the way educators negotiate the problems and successes of living and working in the classroom, school, and community.

While we can debate the idea of action research, there are people who are action researchers, and they use the idea of action research to develop principles and theories to guide their practice. Action research, then, refers to an organization of principles that guide action researchers as they act on shared beliefs, commitments, and expectations in their inquiry.

Reflection and the Process of Action Research

When an individual engages in reflection on their actions or experiences, it is typically for the purpose of better understanding those experiences, or the consequences of those actions to improve related action and experiences in the future. Reflection in this way develops knowledge around these actions and experiences to help us better regulate those actions in the future. The reflective process generates new knowledge regularly for classroom teachers and informs their classroom actions.

Unfortunately, the knowledge generated by educators through the reflective process is not always prioritized among the other sources of knowledge educators are expected to utilize in the classroom. Educators are expected to draw upon formal types of knowledge, such as textbooks, content standards, teaching standards, district curriculum and behavioral programs, etc., to gain new knowledge and make decisions in the classroom. While these forms of knowledge are important, the reflective knowledge that educators generate through their pedagogy is the amalgamation of these types of knowledge enacted in the classroom. Therefore, reflective knowledge is uniquely developed based on the action and implementation of an educator’s pedagogy in the classroom. Action research offers a way to formalize the knowledge generated by educators so that it can be utilized and disseminated throughout the teaching profession.

Research is concerned with the generation of knowledge, and typically creating knowledge related to a concept, idea, phenomenon, or topic. Action research generates knowledge around inquiry in practical educational contexts. Action research allows educators to learn through their actions with the purpose of developing personally or professionally. Due to its participatory nature, the process of action research is also distinct in educational research. There are many models for how the action research process takes shape. I will share a few of those here. Each model utilizes the following processes to some extent:

• Plan a change;
• Take action to enact the change;
• Observe the process and consequences of the change;
• Reflect on the process and consequences;
• Act, observe, & reflect again and so on.

Figure 1.1 Basic action research cycle

There are many other models that supplement the basic process of action research with other aspects of the research process to consider. For example, figure 1.2 illustrates a spiral model of action research proposed by Kemmis and McTaggart (2004). The spiral model emphasizes the cyclical process that moves beyond the initial plan for change. The spiral model also emphasizes revisiting the initial plan and revising based on the initial cycle of research:

Figure 1.2 Interpretation of action research spiral, Kemmis and McTaggart (2004, p. 595)

Other models of action research reorganize the process to emphasize the distinct ways knowledge takes shape in the reflection process. O’Leary’s (2004, p. 141) model, for example, recognizes that the research may take shape in the classroom as knowledge emerges from the teacher’s observations. O’Leary highlights the need for action research to be focused on situational understanding and implementation of action, initiated organically from real-time issues:

Figure 1.3 Interpretation of O’Leary’s cycles of research, O’Leary (2000, p. 141)

Lastly, Macintyre’s (2000, p. 1) model, offers a different characterization of the action research process. Macintyre emphasizes a messier process of research with the initial reflections and conclusions as the benchmarks for guiding the research process. Macintyre emphasizes the flexibility in planning, acting, and observing stages to allow the process to be naturalistic. Our interpretation of Macintyre process is below:

Figure 1.4 Interpretation of the action research cycle, Macintyre (2000, p. 1)

We believe it is important to prioritize the flexibility of the process, and encourage you to only use these models as basic guides for your process. Your process may look similar, or you may diverge from these models as you better understand your students, context, and data.

Definitions of Action Research and Examples

At this point, it may be helpful for readers to have a working definition of action research and some examples to illustrate the methodology in the classroom. Bassey (1998, p. 93) offers a very practical definition and describes “action research as an inquiry which is carried out in order to understand, to evaluate and then to change, in order to improve educational practice.” Cohen and Manion (1994, p. 192) situate action research differently, and describe action research as emergent, writing:

essentially an on-the-spot procedure designed to deal with a concrete problem located in an immediate situation. This means that ideally, the step-by-step process is constantly monitored over varying periods of time and by a variety of mechanisms (questionnaires, diaries, interviews and case studies, for example) so that the ensuing feedback may be translated into modifications, adjustment, directional changes, redefinitions, as necessary, so as to bring about lasting benefit to the ongoing process itself rather than to some future occasion.

Lastly, Koshy (2010, p. 9) describes action research as:

a constructive inquiry, during which the researcher constructs his or her knowledge of specific issues through planning, acting, evaluating, refining and learning from the experience. It is a continuous learning process in which the researcher learns and also shares the newly generated knowledge with those who may benefit from it.

These definitions highlight the distinct features of action research and emphasize the purposeful intent of action researchers to improve, refine, reform, and problem-solve issues in their educational context. To better understand the distinctness of action research, these are some examples of action research topics:

Examples of Action Research Topics

• Flexible seating in 4th grade classroom to increase effective collaborative learning.
• Structured homework protocols for increasing student achievement.
• Developing a system of formative feedback for 8th grade writing.
• Using music to stimulate creative writing.
• Weekly brown bag lunch sessions to improve responses to PD from staff.
• Using exercise balls as chairs for better classroom management.

Action Research in Theory

Action research-based inquiry in educational contexts and classrooms involves distinct participants – students, teachers, and other educational stakeholders within the system. All of these participants are engaged in activities to benefit the students, and subsequently society as a whole. Action research contributes to these activities and potentially enhances the participants’ roles in the education system. Participants’ roles are enhanced based on two underlying principles:

• communities, schools, and classrooms are sites of socially mediated actions, and action research provides a greater understanding of self and new knowledge of how to negotiate these socially mediated environments;
• communities, schools, and classrooms are part of social systems in which humans interact with many cultural tools, and action research provides a basis to construct and analyze these interactions.

In our quest for knowledge and understanding, we have consistently analyzed human experience over time and have distinguished between types of reality. Humans have constantly sought “facts” and “truth” about reality that can be empirically demonstrated or observed.

Social systems are based on beliefs, and generally, beliefs about what will benefit the greatest amount of people in that society. Beliefs, and more specifically the rationale or support for beliefs, are not always easy to demonstrate or observe as part of our reality. Take the example of an English Language Arts teacher who prioritizes argumentative writing in her class. She believes that argumentative writing demonstrates the mechanics of writing best among types of writing, while also providing students a skill they will need as citizens and professionals. While we can observe the students writing, and we can assess their ability to develop a written argument, it is difficult to observe the students’ understanding of argumentative writing and its purpose in their future. This relates to the teacher’s beliefs about argumentative writing; we cannot observe the real value of the teaching of argumentative writing. The teacher’s rationale and beliefs about teaching argumentative writing are bound to the social system and the skills their students will need to be active parts of that system. Therefore, our goal through action research is to demonstrate the best ways to teach argumentative writing to help all participants understand its value as part of a social system.

The knowledge that is conveyed in a classroom is bound to, and justified by, a social system. A postmodernist approach to understanding our world seeks knowledge within a social system, which is directly opposed to the empirical or positivist approach which demands evidence based on logic or science as rationale for beliefs. Action research does not rely on a positivist viewpoint to develop evidence and conclusions as part of the research process. Action research offers a postmodernist stance to epistemology (theory of knowledge) and supports developing questions and new inquiries during the research process. In this way action research is an emergent process that allows beliefs and decisions to be negotiated as reality and meaning are being constructed in the socially mediated space of the classroom.

Theorizing Action Research for the Classroom

All research, at its core, is for the purpose of generating new knowledge and contributing to the knowledge base of educational research. Action researchers in the classroom want to explore methods of improving their pedagogy and practice. The starting place of their inquiry stems from their pedagogy and practice, so by nature the knowledge created from their inquiry is often contextually specific to their classroom, school, or community. Therefore, we should examine the theoretical underpinnings of action research for the classroom. It is important to connect action research conceptually to experience; for example, Levin and Greenwood (2001, p. 105) make these connections:

• Action research is context bound and addresses real life problems.
• Action research is inquiry where participants and researchers cogenerate knowledge through collaborative communicative processes in which all participants’ contributions are taken seriously.
• The meanings constructed in the inquiry process lead to social action or these reflections and action lead to the construction of new meanings.
• The credibility/validity of action research knowledge is measured according to whether the actions that arise from it solve problems (workability) and increase participants’ control over their own situation.

Educators who engage in action research will generate new knowledge and beliefs based on their experiences in the classroom. Let us emphasize that these are all important to you and your work, as both an educator and researcher. It is these experiences, beliefs, and theories that are often discounted when more official forms of knowledge (e.g., textbooks, curriculum standards, districts standards) are prioritized. These beliefs and theories based on experiences should be valued and explored further, and this is one of the primary purposes of action research in the classroom. These beliefs and theories should be valued because they were meaningful aspects of knowledge constructed from teachers’ experiences. Developing meaning and knowledge in this way forms the basis of constructivist ideology, just as teachers often try to get their students to construct their own meanings and understandings when experiencing new ideas.  

Classroom Teachers Constructing their Own Knowledge

Most of you are probably at least minimally familiar with constructivism, or the process of constructing knowledge. However, what is constructivism precisely, for the purposes of action research? Many scholars have theorized constructivism and have identified two key attributes (Koshy, 2010; von Glasersfeld, 1987):

• Knowledge is not passively received, but actively developed through an individual’s cognition;
• Human cognition is adaptive and finds purpose in organizing the new experiences of the world, instead of settling for absolute or objective truth.

Considering these two attributes, constructivism is distinct from conventional knowledge formation because people can develop a theory of knowledge that orders and organizes the world based on their experiences, instead of an objective or neutral reality. When individuals construct knowledge, there are interactions between an individual and their environment where communication, negotiation and meaning-making are collectively developing knowledge. For most educators, constructivism may be a natural inclination of their pedagogy. Action researchers have a similar relationship to constructivism because they are actively engaged in a process of constructing knowledge. However, their constructions may be more formal and based on the data they collect in the research process. Action researchers also are engaged in the meaning making process, making interpretations from their data. These aspects of the action research process situate them in the constructivist ideology. Just like constructivist educators, action researchers’ constructions of knowledge will be affected by their individual and professional ideas and values, as well as the ecological context in which they work (Biesta & Tedder, 2006). The relations between constructivist inquiry and action research is important, as Lincoln (2001, p. 130) states:

much of the epistemological, ontological, and axiological belief systems are the same or similar, and methodologically, constructivists and action researchers work in similar ways, relying on qualitative methods in face-to-face work, while buttressing information, data and background with quantitative method work when necessary or useful.

While there are many links between action research and educators in the classroom, constructivism offers the most familiar and practical threads to bind the beliefs of educators and action researchers.  

Epistemology, Ontology, and Action Research

It is also important for educators to consider the philosophical stances related to action research to better situate it with their beliefs and reality. When researchers make decisions about the methodology they intend to use, they will consider their ontological and epistemological stances. It is vital that researchers clearly distinguish their philosophical stances and understand the implications of their stance in the research process, especially when collecting and analyzing their data. In what follows, we will discuss ontological and epistemological stances in relation to action research methodology.

Ontology, or the theory of being, is concerned with the claims or assumptions we make about ourselves within our social reality – what do we think exists, what does it look like, what entities are involved and how do these entities interact with each other (Blaikie, 2007). In relation to the discussion of constructivism, generally action researchers would consider their educational reality as socially constructed. Social construction of reality happens when individuals interact in a social system. Meaningful construction of concepts and representations of reality develop through an individual’s interpretations of others’ actions. These interpretations become agreed upon by members of a social system and become part of social fabric, reproduced as knowledge and beliefs to develop assumptions about reality. Researchers develop meaningful constructions based on their experiences and through communication. Educators as action researchers will be examining the socially constructed reality of schools. In the United States, many of our concepts, knowledge, and beliefs about schooling have been socially constructed over the last hundred years. For example, a group of teachers may look at why fewer female students enroll in upper-level science courses at their school. This question deals directly with the social construction of gender and specifically what careers females have been conditioned to pursue. We know this is a social construction in some school social systems because in other parts of the world, or even the United States, there are schools that have more females enrolled in upper level science courses than male students. Therefore, the educators conducting the research have to recognize the socially constructed reality of their school and consider this reality throughout the research process. Action researchers will use methods of data collection that support their ontological stance and clarify their theoretical stance throughout the research process.

Koshy (2010, p. 23-24) offers another example of addressing the ontological challenges in the classroom:

A teacher who was concerned with increasing her pupils’ motivation and enthusiasm for learning decided to introduce learning diaries which the children could take home. They were invited to record their reactions to the day’s lessons and what they had learnt. The teacher reported in her field diary that the learning diaries stimulated the children’s interest in her lessons, increased their capacity to learn, and generally improved their level of participation in lessons. The challenge for the teacher here is in the analysis and interpretation of the multiplicity of factors accompanying the use of diaries. The diaries were taken home so the entries may have been influenced by discussions with parents. Another possibility is that children felt the need to please their teacher. Another possible influence was that their increased motivation was as a result of the difference in style of teaching which included more discussions in the classroom based on the entries in the dairies.

Here you can see the challenge for the action researcher is working in a social context with multiple factors, values, and experiences that were outside of the teacher’s control. The teacher was only responsible for introducing the diaries as a new style of learning. The students’ engagement and interactions with this new style of learning were all based upon their socially constructed notions of learning inside and outside of the classroom. A researcher with a positivist ontological stance would not consider these factors, and instead might simply conclude that the dairies increased motivation and interest in the topic, as a result of introducing the diaries as a learning strategy.

Epistemology, or the theory of knowledge, signifies a philosophical view of what counts as knowledge – it justifies what is possible to be known and what criteria distinguishes knowledge from beliefs (Blaikie, 1993). Positivist researchers, for example, consider knowledge to be certain and discovered through scientific processes. Action researchers collect data that is more subjective and examine personal experience, insights, and beliefs.

Action researchers utilize interpretation as a means for knowledge creation. Action researchers have many epistemologies to choose from as means of situating the types of knowledge they will generate by interpreting the data from their research. For example, Koro-Ljungberg et al., (2009) identified several common epistemologies in their article that examined epistemological awareness in qualitative educational research, such as: objectivism, subjectivism, constructionism, contextualism, social epistemology, feminist epistemology, idealism, naturalized epistemology, externalism, relativism, skepticism, and pluralism. All of these epistemological stances have implications for the research process, especially data collection and analysis. Please see the table on pages 689-90, linked below for a sketch of these potential implications:

Again, Koshy (2010, p. 24) provides an excellent example to illustrate the epistemological challenges within action research:

A teacher of 11-year-old children decided to carry out an action research project which involved a change in style in teaching mathematics. Instead of giving children mathematical tasks displaying the subject as abstract principles, she made links with other subjects which she believed would encourage children to see mathematics as a discipline that could improve their understanding of the environment and historic events. At the conclusion of the project, the teacher reported that applicable mathematics generated greater enthusiasm and understanding of the subject.

The educator/researcher engaged in action research-based inquiry to improve an aspect of her pedagogy. She generated knowledge that indicated she had improved her students’ understanding of mathematics by integrating it with other subjects – specifically in the social and ecological context of her classroom, school, and community. She valued constructivism and students generating their own understanding of mathematics based on related topics in other subjects. Action researchers working in a social context do not generate certain knowledge, but knowledge that emerges and can be observed and researched again, building upon their knowledge each time.

Researcher Positionality in Action Research

In this first chapter, we have discussed a lot about the role of experiences in sparking the research process in the classroom. Your experiences as an educator will shape how you approach action research in your classroom. Your experiences as a person in general will also shape how you create knowledge from your research process. In particular, your experiences will shape how you make meaning from your findings. It is important to be clear about your experiences when developing your methodology too. This is referred to as researcher positionality. Maher and Tetreault (1993, p. 118) define positionality as:

Gender, race, class, and other aspects of our identities are markers of relational positions rather than essential qualities. Knowledge is valid when it includes an acknowledgment of the knower’s specific position in any context, because changing contextual and relational factors are crucial for defining identities and our knowledge in any given situation.

By presenting your positionality in the research process, you are signifying the type of socially constructed, and other types of, knowledge you will be using to make sense of the data. As Maher and Tetreault explain, this increases the trustworthiness of your conclusions about the data. This would not be possible with a positivist ontology. We will discuss positionality more in chapter 6, but we wanted to connect it to the overall theoretical underpinnings of action research.

Advantages of Engaging in Action Research in the Classroom

In the following chapters, we will discuss how action research takes shape in your classroom, and we wanted to briefly summarize the key advantages to action research methodology over other types of research methodology. As Koshy (2010, p. 25) notes, action research provides useful methodology for school and classroom research because:

Advantages of Action Research for the Classroom

• research can be set within a specific context or situation;
• researchers can be participants – they don’t have to be distant and detached from the situation;
• it involves continuous evaluation and modifications can be made easily as the project progresses;
• there are opportunities for theory to emerge from the research rather than always follow a previously formulated theory;
• the study can lead to open-ended outcomes;
• through action research, a researcher can bring a story to life.

Action Research Copyright © by J. Spencer Clark; Suzanne Porath; Julie Thiele; and Morgan Jobe is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Methodology
• What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples

What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples

Published on 27 January 2023 by Tegan George . Revised on 21 April 2023.

Table of contents

Types of action research, action research models, examples of action research, action research vs. traditional research, advantages and disadvantages of action research, frequently asked questions about action research.

There are 2 common types of action research: participatory action research and practical action research.

• Participatory action research emphasises that participants should be members of the community being studied, empowering those directly affected by outcomes of said research. In this method, participants are effectively co-researchers, with their lived experiences considered formative to the research process.
• Practical action research focuses more on how research is conducted and is designed to address and solve specific issues.

Both types of action research are more focused on increasing the capacity and ability of future practitioners than contributing to a theoretical body of knowledge.

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Action research is often reflected in 3 action research models: operational (sometimes called technical), collaboration, and critical reflection.

• Operational (or technical) action research is usually visualised like a spiral following a series of steps, such as “planning → acting → observing → reflecting.”
• Collaboration action research is more community-based, focused on building a network of similar individuals (e.g., college professors in a given geographic area) and compiling learnings from iterated feedback cycles.
• Critical reflection action research serves to contextualise systemic processes that are already ongoing (e.g., working retroactively to analyse existing school systems by questioning why certain practices were put into place and developed the way they did).

Action research is often used in fields like education because of its iterative and flexible style.

After the information was collected, the students were asked where they thought ramps or other accessibility measures would be best utilised, and the suggestions were sent to school administrators. Example: Practical action research Science teachers at your city’s high school have been witnessing a year-over-year decline in standardised test scores in chemistry. In seeking the source of this issue, they studied how concepts are taught in depth, focusing on the methods, tools, and approaches used by each teacher.

Action research differs sharply from other types of research in that it seeks to produce actionable processes over the course of the research rather than contributing to existing knowledge or drawing conclusions from datasets. In this way, action research is formative , not summative , and is conducted in an ongoing, iterative way.

As such, action research is different in purpose, context, and significance and is a good fit for those seeking to implement systemic change.

Action research comes with advantages and disadvantages.

• Action research is highly adaptable , allowing researchers to mould their analysis to their individual needs and implement practical individual-level changes.
• Action research provides an immediate and actionable path forward for solving entrenched issues, rather than suggesting complicated, longer-term solutions rooted in complex data.
• Done correctly, action research can be very empowering , informing social change and allowing participants to effect that change in ways meaningful to their communities.

Disadvantages

• Due to their flexibility, action research studies are plagued by very limited generalisability  and are very difficult to replicate . They are often not considered theoretically rigorous due to the power the researcher holds in drawing conclusions.
• Action research can be complicated to structure in an ethical manner . Participants may feel pressured to participate or to participate in a certain way.
• Action research is at high risk for research biases such as selection bias , social desirability bias , or other types of cognitive biases .

Action research is conducted in order to solve a particular issue immediately, while case studies are often conducted over a longer period of time and focus more on observing and analyzing a particular ongoing phenomenon.

Action research is focused on solving a problem or informing individual and community-based knowledge in a way that impacts teaching, learning, and other related processes. It is less focused on contributing theoretical input, instead producing actionable input.

Action research is particularly popular with educators as a form of systematic inquiry because it prioritizes reflection and bridges the gap between theory and practice. Educators are able to simultaneously investigate an issue as they solve it, and the method is very iterative and flexible.

A cycle of inquiry is another name for action research . It is usually visualized in a spiral shape following a series of steps, such as “planning → acting → observing → reflecting.”

Sources for this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

George, T. (2023, April 21). What Is Action Research? | Definition & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 24 June 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/action-research-cycle/

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2017). Research methods in education (8th edition). Routledge.

Naughton, G. M. (2001).  Action research (1st edition). Routledge.

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• Organizational Behaviour
• Change Management
• Action Research for Successful Organizational Change

Action Research is a useful method for facilitating organizational change by collaborating and involving the client in the entire process of diagnostic, problem identification, experiential learning, and problem-solving process.

The entire process of action research is action oriented with the objective of making the change happen successfully. The process equally involves experimentation with the various frameworks in practical situation and application of various theories in various contexts which require change.

In other words, the process of Action Research requires three distinctive stages which are consistent with the Lewin’s Model which describes the three stages of change.

The most commonly used model of action research which is used in the contemporary scenario is Warner Burke’s 7 Step Action Research Model. These 7 steps are Stage of Entry, Contracting, Data Collection, Providing Feedback, Strategic Planning, Planning & Designing Interventions and Evaluating the success of Interventions.

Advantages of Action Research Model

They involve the top management professionals as well as the stakeholders in the process, as without their consent and involvement the objectives of change implementation cannot be achieved.

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The Most Successful Approaches to Leading Organizational Change

• Deborah Rowland,
• Michael Thorley,
• Nicole Brauckmann

A closer look at four distinct ways to drive transformation.

When tasked with implementing large-scale organizational change, leaders often give too much attention to the what of change — such as a new organization strategy, operating model or acquisition integration — not the how — the particular way they will approach such changes. Such inattention to the how comes with the major risk that old routines will be used to get to new places. Any unquestioned, “default” approach to change may lead to a lot of busy action, but not genuine system transformation. Through their practice and research, the authors have identified the optimal ways to conceive, design, and implement successful organizational change.

Management of long-term, complex, large-scale change has a reputation of not delivering the anticipated benefits. A primary reason for this is that leaders generally fail to consider how to approach change in a way that matches their intent.

• Deborah Rowland is the co-author of  Sustaining Change: Leadership That Works , Still Moving: How to Lead Mindful Change , and the Still Moving Field Guide: Change Vitality at Your Fingertips . She has personally led change at Shell, Gucci Group, BBC Worldwide, and PepsiCo and pioneered original research in the field, accepted as a paper at the 2016 Academy of Management and the 2019 European Academy of Management. Thinkers50 Radar named as one of the generation of management thinkers changing the world of business in 2017, and she’s on the 2021 HR Most Influential Thinker list. She is Cambridge University 1st Class Archaeology & Anthropology Graduate.
• Michael Thorley is a qualified accountant, psychotherapist, executive psychological coach, and coach supervisor integrating all modalities to create a unique approach. Combining his extensive experience of running P&L accounts and developing approaches that combine “hard”-edged and “softer”-edged management approaches, he works as a non-executive director and advisor to many different organizations across the world that wish to generate a new perspective on change.
• Nicole Brauckmann focuses on helping organizations and individuals create the conditions for successful emergent change to unfold. As an executive and consultant, she has worked to deliver large-scale complex change across different industries, including energy, engineering, financial services, media, and not-for profit. She holds a PhD at Faculty of Philosophy, Westfaelische Wilhelms University Muenster and spent several years on academic research and teaching at University of San Diego Business School.

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• Published: 23 June 2024

Mapping and predicting open defecation in Ethiopia: 2021 PMA-ET study

• Natnael Kebede 1 ,
• Amare Mebrat Delie 2 ,
• Eyob Ketema Bogale 3 ,
• Tadele Fentabel Anagaw 3 ,
• Misganaw Guadie Tiruneh 4 ,
• Eneyew Talie Fenta 2 ,
• Destaw Endeshew 5 ,
• Habitu Birhanu Eshetu 6 ,
• Ousman Adal 7 &
• Abiyu Abadi Tareke 8  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1671 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Introduction

There has been extensive research conducted on open defecation in Ethiopia, but a notable gap persists in comprehensively understanding the spatial variation and predictors at the household level. This study utilizes data from the 2021 Performance Monitoring for Action Ethiopia (PMA-ET) to address this gap by identifying hotspots and predictors of open defecation. Employing geographically weighted regression analysis, it goes beyond traditional models to account for spatial heterogeneity, offering a nuanced understanding of geographical variations in open defecation prevalence and its determinants. This research pinpoints hotspot areas and significant predictors, aiding policymakers and practitioners in tailoring interventions effectively. It not only fills the knowledge gap in Ethiopia but also informs global sanitation initiatives.

The study comprised a total weighted sample of 24,747 household participants. ArcGIS version 10.7 and SaT Scan version 9.6 were used to handle mapping, hotspots, ordinary least squares, Bernoulli model analysis, and Spatial regression. Bernoulli-based model was used to analyze the purely spatial cluster detection of open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia. Ordinary Least Square (OLS) analysis and geographically weighted regression analysis were employed to assess the association between an open defecation and explanatory variables.

The spatial distribution of open defecation at the household level exhibited clustering (global Moran’s I index value of 4.540385, coupled with a p-value of less than 0.001), with significant hotspots identified in Amhara, Afar, Harari, and parts of Dire Dawa. Spatial analysis using Kuldorff’s Scan identified six clusters, with four showing statistical significance (P-value < 0.05) in Amhara, Afar, Harari, Tigray, and southwest Ethiopia. In the geographically weighted regression model, being male [coefficient = 0.87, P-value < 0.05] and having no media exposure (not watching TV or listening to the radio) [coefficient = 0.47, P-value < 0.05] emerged as statistically significant predictors of household-level open defecation in Ethiopia.

The study revealed that open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia varies across the regions, with significant hotspots identified in Amhara, Afar, Harari, and parts of Dire Dawa. Geographically weighted regression analysis highlights male participants lacking media exposure as substantial predictors of open defecation. Targeted interventions in Ethiopia should improve media exposure among males in hotspot regions, tailored sanitation programs, and region-specific awareness campaigns. Collaboration with local communities is crucial.

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Open defecation refers to the practice of defecating outside in the open environment, rather than in a designated toilet or latrine. It is a significant public health issue as it contributes to the spread of diseases and poses environmental and social challenges [ 1 ]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 892 million people globally practice open defecation, representing about 11% of the global population [ 2 ]. The prevalence of open defecation in Africa was estimated at 24%, with significant variations between countries and regions [ 3 ]. In sub-Saharan Africa, the prevalence of open defecation was higher than the regional average, with an estimated 27% of the population practicing open defecation in 2019 [ 3 , 4 ]. In Ethiopia, the prevalence of open defecation at the household level was reported to be around 35–40% based on recent community-based studies [ 5 , 6 ].

Open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia has been linked to numerous adverse consequences, including an increased prevalence of waterborne diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, and typhoid fever, leading to significant public health burdens [ 6 ]. Additionally, the economic impact of open defecation is substantial, as it contributes to healthcare costs, decreased productivity due to illness, and the expense of addressing environmental contamination [ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 ].

The causes of open defecation variation among areas can be attributed to a combination of factors including socio-economic status, cultural beliefs, access to sanitation facilities, and geographic location. In some areas, lack of awareness about the health risks associated with open defecation may contribute to its prevalence, while in others, limited resources and infrastructure play a significant role. Additionally, social norms and taboos around sanitation practices can also influence the prevalence of open defecation in different communities. Understanding these variations is crucial for developing targeted interventions to address the issue at the household level [ 10 , 11 , 12 ].

Previous Studies Highlight Age, Gender, Occupation, Education, Media Exposure, Residence, Wealth Status, and Other Factors as Key Predictors of Open Defecation [ 9 , 13 , 14 ]. Despite existing research [ 15 , 16 ] on open defecation in Ethiopia, there is a gap in understanding spatial variation and predictors at the household level. Despite ongoing efforts to improve sanitation, open defecation remains prevalent in Ethiopia and similar countries, such as Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. Studies indicate significant health risks, including increased incidence of diarrheal diseases and malnutrition [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. This study addresses a critical gap in the literature on open defecation in Ethiopia by identifying hotspots and predictors at the household level using 2021 Performance Monitoring for Action Ethiopia data. While previous research has explored open defecation in Ethiopia, there is limited understanding of its spatial distribution and specific household-level drivers. Employing geographically weighted regression analysis, this study accounts for spatial heterogeneity, offering a nuanced understanding of geographical variations in open defecation prevalence and determinants. This research pinpoints hotspot areas with heightened open defecation rates and identifies significant predictors within these regions, aiding policymakers in designing effective, targeted interventions.

Materials and methods

Study design.

In the PMA-ET 2021 study, a community-based cross-sectional design was employed.

The study utilized a two-stage cluster approach with residential areas (urban and rural) and sub-regions as strata, ensuring representation across all 12 geographic regions of Ethiopia. Notably, 95% of the target population resides in four key regions: Addis Ababa, Amhara, Oromia, and SNNP. To address regions with less than 5% of the target population, a sixth synthetic region denoted as “other” was created. Due to population distribution and resource constraints, regional representative samples were taken exclusively in the four major regions.

Data source

The sampling design comprised 321 Enumeration Areas, aiming to achieve a national-level margin of error below 2%, below 3% for urban and rural estimates, and below 5% at each of the four regional levels. This ensured robust and precise estimates of open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia. The secondary data for this analysis were obtained from PMA-ET of 2021 which was found in the PMA portal ( https://www.pmadata.org/ _ 2021) (Fig.  1 ).

Map of the study area (Ethiopia) Shapefile source: CSA, 2021; URL: https://africaopendata.org/dataset/ethiopia- shapefiles

The study population comprised all households in Ethiopia. A weighted total of 24,747 participants in households were included in the analysis, encompassing all variables of interest. Participants in households whose age below 18 with missing information on open defecation were excluded,

Study variables

Dependent variable.

The outcome variable in this study was open defecation at the household level, classified dichotomously as “Yes/No”. Individuals who reported defecating in an open area during the interview were categorized as “Yes”, while those who did not were categorized as “No”. This classification provided a clear distinction between households practicing open defecation and those employing alternative sanitation methods, facilitating the analysis of factors associated with this open defecation behavior.

Independent variables

Age was considered a continuous variable to assess its influence on open defecation behaviors. Education status, categorized as no education, primary, secondary, or higher education, aimed to evaluate the impact of educational attainment on sanitation practices. Residence, categorized as urban or rural, was explored to understand how the living environment influences open defecation prevalence. Additionally, the wealth index, categorized as poor, middle, or rich, provided insights into socioeconomic factors associated with open defecation practices. Finally, media exposure, labeled as Yes or No, was included to assess the role of mass media in shaping attitudes and behaviors towards sanitation, contributing to understanding the complex interplay between socio-demographic factors and open defecation at the household level [ 9 , 13 , 14 ].

Data management and statistical analysis

Spatial autocorrelation analysis.

The data underwent cleaning using STATA version 17.0 software and Microsoft Excel. For data analysis, Arc GIS 10.7 and SaTScan 9.6 were utilized. To assess the spatial distribution of open defecation at the household level, the Global Moran’s I statistic was employed [ 20 , 21 ]. A Moran’s I value nearing − 1 indicates dispersed open defecation in Ethiopia, close to + 1 suggests clustering and a value of zero signifies a random distribution, and if Moran’s I value zero shows randomly distributed and a statistically significant Moran’s I ( p  < 0.05) leads to rejection of the hypothesis [ 22 ].

Incremental autocorrelation analysis

A line graph was generated to evaluate spatial autocorrelation across various distances, illustrating Z-scores and their corresponding distances. Z-scores indicate both the extent of spatial clustering and its statistical significance. Peaks in Z-scores pinpoint distances where clustering-promoting spatial processes are most pronounced. These peak distances provide crucial guidance for tools incorporating Distance Band or Distance Radius parameters, assisting in selecting an optimal threshold or radius. This information proves valuable for tools, including those utilized in hotspot analysis, that rely on such parameters for effective spatial analysis [ 23 ].

Hotspot and cold spot analysis

The study utilized Gettis-Ord Gi* statistics to analyze spatial autocorrelation differences in the study area, specifically targeting open defecation. These statistics helped identify hotspot areas, indicating significant spatial clustering. The z-score was calculated to confirm the statistical significance of clustering, with the p-value set at < 0.05, considering 90%, 95%, and 99% confidence intervals. [ 24 , 25 , 26 ].

Spatial interpolation

The spatial interpolation technique is used to predict open defecation for unsampled areas based on sampled clusters [ 27 ]. Deterministic and geostatistical interpolation methods were applied in this study. To evaluate these interpolation methods, we conducted a geostatistical analysis, identifying the technique with the lowest mean predicted error (MPE) and root mean square predicted error (RMSPE) as the most fitting for predicting open defecation. Smaller MPE and RMSPE values suggest a closer alignment between predicted and observed values, indicating the precision and efficacy of the selected interpolation technique [ 28 ].

Spatial scan statistics

This study employed Bernoulli-based spatial Kuldorff’s Scan statistics within SaTScan version 9.6.1 software to identify the geographical locations with statistically significant spatial windows for open defecation [ 29 ].

The scanning window, moving across the study area identified cases with open defecation as well as controls with no open defecation, fitting the Bernoulli model. The default maximum spatial cluster size, set at < 50% of the population, served as an upper limit [ 30 ]. Identification of the most likely clusters relied on p-values and likelihood ratio tests derived from 999 Monte Carlo replications. Secondary clusters were generated using non-overlapping options in SaTScan version 9.6.1, and the mapping of clusters and attributes of open defecation, produced by SaTScan, was accomplished using ArcGIS software version 10.7.

Spatial regression

Exploratory Regression was employed to identify a model adhering to the assumptions of the Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method, focusing on models with high Adjusted R 2 values. The OLS regression model, being global, estimates a single coefficient per explanatory variable across the entire study region. The explanatory regression is utilized to verify the assumptions of spatial regression, incorporating specific tests. The Jarque-Bera test assessed normality assumptions for residuals, and the statistically significant Koenker (BP) statistic indicated inconsistencies in the modeled relationships, possibly attributable to non-stationarity or heteroscedasticity. Multicollinearity, assessed through the Variance Inflation Factor, ensured the absence of redundancy among predictor variables, with coefficients displaying the expected sign and statistical significance, along with robust Adjusted R2 values.

A geographically weighted regression model

Gives local parameter estimates to reflect variations over space in the association between an outcome and predictor variables [ 31 ]. The geographically weighted regression model utilized the aggregated proportion of open defecation and all relevant predictor variables for each cluster. The evaluation of geographical heterogeneity for each coefficient involved comparing the AIC between the GWR model and the global OLS regression model. Model comparison, utilizing the corrected Akaike Information Criteria (AIC) and Adjusted R-squared, was performed for both the OLS (global model) and GWR (local) model. The determination of the best-fit model for local parameter estimates hinged on selecting the model with the lowest value and a higher adjusted R-squared (Ref).

Socio-demographic characteristics and proportion of open defecation

The mean age of participants was mean ± SD (24.29 + 19.23). The majority of the participants resided in rural areas, accounting for 17,567 (70.99%). Regarding educational background, 20,361(82.8%) had no primary education, and 9,423 (38.08%) belonged to the poor wealth status category. Furthermore, over half of the study participants 12,863 (51.98%), reported having no media exposure through watching TV or listening to the radio. The overall prevalence of open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia was 20.08% (19.59, 20.58) (Table  1 ).

Spatial analysis result

Spatial autocorrelation (global moran’s i) and incremental spatial autocorrelation analysis.

At a distance of 346,550 m, the presence of statistically significant z-scores indicates a pronounced influence of spatial factors promoting clustering. The incremental spatial autocorrelation analysis revealed ten distance bands, with clustering becoming apparent starting at 207,048 m. This suggests that the spatial distribution of open defecation is not random and is influenced by geographic proximity (Fig.  2 ). The global Moran’s I index value of 4.540385, coupled with a p-value of less than 0.001, indicates a statistically significant clustering of the data. The Z-score of 6.9 further supports this, suggesting that the probability of this clustering occurring by random chance is less than 1%. This robust statistical evidence confirms the presence of a spatial pattern in the data, highlighting the need for further investigation into the underlying factors driving this clustering phenomenon (Fig.  3 ).

Incremental spatial autocorrelation of open defecation at household level in Ethiopia using 2021 PMA-ET

Spatial autocorrelation of open defecation at household level in Ethiopia using 2021 PMA-ET

Hot spot and cold spot regions for open defecation at household level in Ethiopia

The hotspot analysis conducted reveals distinct regions characterized by either high or low statistically significant coverage of open defecation. Hotspot regions, indicating high-risk areas for open defecation, include Amhara, Afar, Harari, and certain parts of Dire_Dawa. These areas exhibit a concentration of households engaging in open defecation, highlighting the urgent need for targeted interventions to address sanitation issues in these regions., Conversely, cold spot regions, identified as areas with statistically significant lower rates of open defecation, encompass Addis Ababa, certain parts of the Oromia region, some areas in southwest Ethiopia, and certain parts of the South Nation Nationality and People Region (SNNP). Understanding the factors contributing to the lower prevalence of open defecation in these areas could offer valuable insights for developing strategies to replicate success elsewhere (Fig.  4 ).

Hot spot analysis of open defecation at household level in Ethiopia using 2021 PMA-ET

This study utilized the ordinary Kriging spatial interpolation method to predict open defecation in unobserved areas due to its lower Mean and root-mean-square error compared to other interpolation methods. Inverse distance weighted spatial interpolation emerged as the optimal method, displaying the lowest mean predicted error (MPE: -1.30322) and Root Mean Square predicted Error (RMSP: 0.32558) in comparison to other methods. The analysis using inverse distance weighted in the 2021 PMA-ET predicted an increase in open defecation, transitioning from green to red-colored areas. (Table  2 ). Illustrate that Somali, Afar, Tigray, and some parts of Amhara regions were predicted as areas with higher open defecation compared to other regions (Fig.  5 ).

Interpolation of open defecation at household level in Ethiopia PMA-ET 2021. Red represents areas with high predicted open defecation, while green indicates areas with lower predicted open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia

The spatial Kuldorff’s Scan analysis revealed the identification of 6 spatial clusters, with 4 clusters proving statistically significant at a p-value < 0.05. The primary cluster, represented by the green-colored ring spatial window, was predominantly situated in the Afar region and the eastern part of Amhara (Fig.  6 ). This spatial window, located at 11.514995 N, 41.570628 E with a radius of 199.77 km and a Log-Likelihood ratio (LLR) of 28.124204, exhibited a relative risk (RR) of 91.86 at p  < 0.001. This indicates that areas within the spatial window were 91.86 times more likely to have open defecation compared to those outside the window.

In addition, the remaining three spatial windows with tourmaline yellow, blue, and red colors were secondary clusters. The tourmaline yellow color spatial window covers the northern part of southwest Ethiopia region this spatial window was centered at 7.341302 N, 35.348832 E with a 23.12 km radius and Log-Likelihood ratio (LLR) of 10.31 relative risk (RR: 307.85), at p  < 0.001. The spatial Kuldorff’s Scan analysis showed that the area within the spatial window had a 307.85 times higher risk of open defecation outside the window. The blue color spatial window covers the Harari region this spatial window was centered at 9.165198 N, 42.082079 with a 46.97-kilometer radius and Log-Likelihood ratio (LLR) of 10.18 relative risk (RR: 20.63), at p  < 0.001. The spatial Kuldorff’s Scan analysis also showed that areas within the spatial window had 20.63 times higher risk of open defecation outside the window. Whereas, The red color spatial window covers Tigray and the western part of Amhara regions this spatial window was centered at 13.261531 N, 36.464257 E with 212.98 km radius and Log-Likelihood ratio (LLR) of 8.51 relative risk (RR: 8.72), at p  < 0.05. It showed that areas within the spatial window had an 8.72 times higher risk of open defecation outside the window (Table  3 ).

Spatial SaTScan analysis of open defecation at household level in Ethiopia, PMA-ET 2021

Spatial regression analysis

Factors affecting spatial variation in open defecation were assessed. The Ordinary Least Square (OLS) model accounted for approximately 25.0% of the variation (Adjusted R square = 0.25) in open defecation, and all assumptions of the OLS method were satisfied.

The robust probability was employed to assess the statistical significance of coefficients, considering the significant Koenker (BP) statistic and observing that all coefficients were statistically significant ( p  < 0.01). Additionally, the Joint Wald statistic was found to be statistically significant ( p  < 0.01), indicating the overall significance of the entire model. Notably, there is no evidence of multicollinearity among explanatory variables, as the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) < 10) (Table  4 ). The Koenker test yielded statistical significance (Koenker (BP) Statistics = 20.33, p-value < 0.001).

Geographically weighted regression (GWR) analysis

In the Geographically weighted Regression model predictor variables male participants who had no media exposure (not watching either TV or radio) were statistically significant predictors spatially for open defecation at the household level. Moreover, it would be beneficial to assess the interaction effects between the predictor variable and other contextual factors to gain a comprehensive understanding of the drivers of open defecation in different geographical contexts.

The coefficients associated with male participants who had no media exposure exhibited spatial variation, ranging from − 2.81 to 1.26. This range signifies both negative and positive effects on open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia. Notably, areas such as some parts of Addis Ababa, Harari, some part of Amhara, some parts of Oromia, some parts of SNNP, and some parts of Gambella and Afar regions displayed a robust and positive relationship, male participants, had no media exposure, and increased open defecation (Figs.  7 and 8 ).

Geographically varying values of coefficients per cluster for predictor male participants, PMA-ET 2021

Geographically varying values of coefficients per cluster for predictor participants had no media exposure, PMA-ET 2021

The Geographically Weighted Regression emerged as the superior model, with an AIC of -7.97, surpassing the 57.53 of the OLS model. The GWR model provided a better explanation by the predictor variables for open defecation, achieving an adjusted R2 value of 49.0%, compared to the OLS adjusted R2 value of 25.0% (Tables  4 and 5 ).

Open defecation is the act of excreting outdoors, away from designated sanitation facilities such as toilets or latrines. This practice poses significant public health concerns due to its role in disease transmission and its impact on environmental and social factors. This study aimed to explore spatial variation and predictors of open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia. This study revealed the overall proportion of open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia was 20.08% (19.59, 20.58). Comparable studies in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania report similar trends, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions. Common predictors include poverty, rural residency, and lack of education [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Divergences arise in the effectiveness of sanitation policies and community engagement efforts across countries. These findings can guide regional policymakers in designing tailored strategies to combat open defecation, promoting better health outcomes. A study conducted in India found that the prevalence of open defecation was much higher at around 40% [ 11 ], indicating a greater challenge in addressing this issue compared to Ethiopia. On the other hand, some African countries such as Rwanda have made significant progress in reducing open defecation through targeted interventions and community engagement [ 32 ]. These variations underscore the importance of considering regional nuances and tailoring interventions to specific cultural and socioeconomic contexts when addressing open defecation challenges globally. In addition, a contrast study in Nigeria found a higher prevalence of open defecation at 25.5% [ 33 ]and a study in Ghana reported a lower prevalence of open defecation at 15% [ 34 ]. The differences in open defecation rates between countries can be attributed to various factors such as socio-economic conditions, cultural practices, access to sanitation facilities, and government policies. Furthermore, studies in countries like Rwanda and Senegal documented lower prevalence rates, with household-level open defecation ranging from 5–10% [ 35 ]. These variations may be attributed to differences in sanitation infrastructure, cultural practices, and socioeconomic factors across countries. However, despite these differences, all studies underscore the persistent challenge of open defecation across Africa and emphasize the importance of targeted interventions to improve sanitation practices [ 36 , 37 ].

The Getis-Ord Gi* hotspot analysis identified significant hotspots, indicating high levels of open defecation in specific regions found in Amhara, Afar, Harari, and some parts of Dire Dawa. The Kriging spatial interpolation predicted higher open defecation in Somali, Afar, Tigray, and some parts of Amhara regions. Comparisons with previous studies indicate similarities between identified hotspots within Ethiopia and those reported globally or within African countries [ 3 , 7 , 9 , 38 ]. The validation of identified hotspots within Ethiopia through comparisons with previous studies not only highlights the urgency and importance of addressing sanitation challenges in these regions but also draws parallels with global and African trends. This emphasizes the need to improve public health outcomes and promote sustainable development. [ 39 ]. However, the presence of these consistencies also underscores the complexity of factors contributing to open defecation, necessitating further research to unravel the underlying dynamics comprehensively.

The geographically weighted regression model revealed that predictor variables male participants who had no media exposure (not watching either TV or radio) were statistically significant predictors spatially for open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia. The findings from this study align with previous research conducted worldwide on open defecation determinants. Studies conducted in other African countries have also identified socio-cultural factors such as gender roles and access to information as influential predictors of open defecation [ 4 , 40 , 41 ]. Studies in Ghana [ 42 ] and Nigeria [ 43 ] utilized similar methodologies, indicating consistent findings regarding the influence of gender and media exposure on open defecation practices. Conversely, research in India [ 7 ] highlighted different predictors, such as income levels and access to sanitation facilities, showcasing contextual variations in determinants of open defecation.

These findings emphasize the necessity of context-aware approaches in tackling global sanitation challenges. While some predictors remain consistent internationally, others display significant variation, indicating the need for tailored solutions. Addressing gender dynamics and enhancing media accessibility emerge as pivotal strategies for reducing open defecation rates, resonating not only in Ethiopia but also worldwide. This aligns with prior research highlighting socio-cultural factors’ influence, reinforcing the importance of interventions promoting gender equality and information accessibility, as advocated by the World Health Organization. [ 44 , 45 ]. This finding resonates with global research, including studies in other African countries, emphasizing socio-cultural factors like gender roles and access to information as influential determinants. Addressing these factors through targeted interventions aligns with WHO’s sanitation policy, advocating for promoting gender equality and enhancing information accessibility to reduce open defecation rates globally.

Limitations of the study

The “Mapping and Predicting Open Defecation in Ethiopia: 2021 PMA-ET Study” has several limitations, including potential biases in self-reported data, limited geographic coverage, and the challenge of accounting for seasonal variations. Additionally, the predictive model may not fully capture local cultural and socioeconomic factors influencing sanitation practices.

The study revealed that open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia varies across the region’s regions, with significant hotspots identified in Amhara, Afar, Harari, and parts of Dire Dawa. Geographically weighted regression analysis highlights male participants lacking media exposure as significant predictors of open defecation. To address the issue of open defecation in Ethiopia, targeted interventions should focus on improving media exposure among male participants in hotspot regions. Tailored sanitation programs and region-specific awareness campaigns are essential to effectively combat open defecation in these areas. Collaboration with local communities is crucial for implementing sustainable sanitation solutions and fostering behavior change initiatives.

The practical implication of the study

The study’s findings emphasize the need for targeted sanitation policies in Ethiopia, focusing on regions like Amhara, Afar, Harari, and Dire Dawa. Geographically weighted regression analysis reveals that male participants and media exposure are key predictors. Thus, gender-sensitive approaches and media campaigns are crucial for addressing open defecation in these hotspots.

Data availability

All the necessary data are included in the manuscript. The detailed information was found within the PMA report and the data set was by requesting permission through the website https://datalab.pmadata.org/dataset.

Abbreviations

Adjusted Odds Ratio

Enumeration Areas

Mean predicted error

South Nation and Nationalities people

Root mean square predicted error

Performance Monitoring for Action Ethiopia

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the Performance Monitoring for Action Ethiopia organization for giving the PMA datasets and authorizing us to conduct this research.

No funding was received for this study.

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Department of Health Promotion, School of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia

Natnael Kebede

Department of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Injibara University, Injibara, Ethiopia

Amare Mebrat Delie & Eneyew Talie Fenta

Department of Health Promotion and Behavioral Science, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Eyob Ketema Bogale & Tadele Fentabel Anagaw

Department of Health System and Policy, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Science, University of Gonder, Gonder, Ethiopia

Misganaw Guadie Tiruneh

Department of Adult Health Nursing, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Destaw Endeshew

Department of Health Promotion and Health Behaviour, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Science, University of Gonder, Gonder, Ethiopia

Habitu Birhanu Eshetu

Department of Emergency Nurse, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Ousman Adal

COVID-219 Vaccine/EPI Technical Assistant at West Gondar Zonal Health Department, Amref Health Africa, Gonder, Ethiopia

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Natnael Kebede, Amare Mebrat Delie, Eyob Ketema Bogale, Tadele Fentabil Anagaw, Misganaw Guadie Tiruneh, Eneyew Talie Fenta, Destaw Endeshew, Habitu Birhanu Eshetu, Ousman Adal, and Abiyu Abadi Tareke contributed to the Conceptualizations of the study, Methodology, and, Statistical analysis. The author(s) read and approved the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Natnael Kebede .

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Ethical approval was obtained from the ethical committee of the Performance Monitoring for Action Ethiopia (PMA-ET) organization dataset for research. The nationally representative survey, conducted by the Addis Ababa University School of Public Health and the Bill & Melinda Gates Institute for Population and Reproductive Health at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, provided data accessible through the website https://datalab.pmadata.org/dataset . Authorization was obtained via an approval letter, and the data were used exclusively for this study, maintaining confidentiality and adhering to IRB-approved procedures. No personal or household identifiers were disclosed, and ethical guidelines were strictly followed, as outlined in the PMA report. Informed consent from all subjects and/or their legal guardian. Permission was sought from all levels for the study involving individuals under 18 years old. The legal guardian received comprehensive information about the study’s purpose, data collection procedures, and potential risks/benefits. Informed written consent was obtained from caretakers, representing each student’s family. A child participated only with caretaker agreement, and if a child opted out, their decision was respected, irrespective of caretaker consent. Participants were informed that participation was voluntary. All methods and materials were carried out under relevant guidelines and regulations.

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Kebede, N., Delie, A.M., Bogale, E.K. et al. Mapping and predicting open defecation in Ethiopia: 2021 PMA-ET study. BMC Public Health 24 , 1671 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19222-1

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Published : 23 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19222-1

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Supernode Fusion Model Based on Bimodal Action Recognition

• Published: 28 June 2024

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• Haifeng Sang 1 &
• Yumeng Liu 1  

Skeleton action recognition based on graph convolutional neural networks (GCNs) has become a hot research topic in recent years. Existing graph convolutional networks have limitations in interacting with high-order node information due to the constraint of convolution kernels in graph convolutions. Additionally, sparse representation of skeleton data makes it difficult to capture subtle motion information. Multi-modal approaches have been used to complement skeleton data, but communication between different modalities is challenging due to differences in data formats. This paper proposes a skeleton-optical flow supernode-based action recognition model called 2 S-SNGCN. On one hand, it utilizes the supernode features to learn spatial relationships between high-order nodes and aggregate long-term temporal context. On the other hand, it shares the supernode features across different modalities to enhance the information correlation and improve action recognition accuracy. The proposed model achieves a Top-1 accuracy of 94.3% on the NTU RGB+D dataset and 90.5% on the NTU RGB+D120 dataset under the X-sub protocol. This is a 0.5% and 2.9% improvement, respectively, compared to the JOLO-GCN model.

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Data Availability

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This work was support by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (62173078) and the Natural Science Foundation of Liaoning Province (2022-MS-268).

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Yumeng Liu is mainly responsible for the design of the overall model and the writing of the paper. Haifeng Sang is mainly responsible for providing ideas on the feasibility of model methods and correcting any imperfections in the paper.

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Sang, H., Liu, Y. Supernode Fusion Model Based on Bimodal Action Recognition. J Sign Process Syst (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11265-024-01922-x

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Received : 28 November 2023

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11265-024-01922-x

SME definition

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) represent 99% of all businesses in the EU. The definition of an SME is important for access to finance and EU support programmes targeted specifically at these enterprises.

What is an SME?

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are defined in the EU recommendation 2003/361 .

The main factors determining whether an enterprise is an SME are

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These ceilings apply to the figures for individual firms only. A firm that is part of a larger group may need to include staff headcount/turnover/balance sheet data from that group too.

Further details include

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What help can SMEs get?

There are 2 broad types of potential benefit for an enterprise if it meets the criteria

• eligibility for support under many EU business-support programmes targeted specifically at SMEs: research funding, competitiveness and innovation funding and similar national support programmes that could otherwise be banned as unfair government support ('state aid' – see block exemption regulation )
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Monitoring of the implementation of the SME definition

The Commission monitors the implementation of the SME definition and reviews it in irregular intervals. Pursuant to the latest evaluation, the Commission concluded that there is no need for a revision.

On 25 October 2021, we informed stakeholders by holding a webinar with presentations on the SME evaluation's results and next steps.

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• Study to map, measure and portray the EU mid-cap landscape (2022)
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