literature review of jatropha curcas

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Therapeutic biology of Jatropha curcas: a mini review

Affiliation.

1 School of Biotechnology, Rajiv Gandhi Technological University, Airport Bypass Road, Gandhi nagar, Bhopal-462036, India.
PMID: 18691091
DOI: 10.2174/138920108785161505

Jatropha curcas is a drought resistant, perennial plant that grows even in the marginal and poor soil. Raising Jatropha is easy. It keeps producing seeds for many years. In the recent years, Jatropha has become famous primarily for the production of biodiesel; besides this it has several medicinal applications, too. Most parts of this plant are used for the treatment of various human and veterinary ailments. The white latex serves as a disinfectant in mouth infections in children. The latex of Jatropha contains alkaloids including Jatrophine, Jatropham and curcain with anti-cancerous properties. It is also used externally against skin diseases, piles and sores among the domestic livestock. The leaves contain apigenin, vitexin and isovitexin etc. which along with other factors enable them to be used against malaria, rheumatic and muscular pains. Antibiotic activity of Jatropha has been observed against organisms including Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. There are some chemical compounds including curcin (an alkaloid) in its seeds that make it unfit for common human consumption. The roots are known to contain an antidote against snake venom. The root extract also helps to check bleeding from gums. The soap prepared from Jatropha oil is efficient against buttons. Many of these traditional medicinal properties of Jatropha curcas need to be investigated in depth for the marketable therapeutic products vis-à-vis the toxicological effects thereof. This mini review aims at providing brief biological significance of this plant along with its up-to-date therapeutic applications and risk factors.

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Int J Mol Sci

Assessment of Antioxidant and Cytoprotective Potential of Jatropha ( Jatropha curcas ) Grown in Southern Italy

Teresa papalia.

1 Department of Agricultural Science, “Mediterranea” University, Feo di Vito, 89124 Reggio Calabria, Italy; ti.eminu@ailapapt (T.P.); ti.crinu@oiccunapm (M.R.P.)

Davide Barreca

2 Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy

Maria Rosaria Panuccio

Jatropha ( Jatropha curcas L.) is a plant native of Central and South America, but widely distributed in the wild or semi-cultivated areas in Africa, India, and South East Asia. Although studies are available in literature on the polyphenolic content and bioactivity of Jatropha curcas L., no information is currently available on plants grown in pedoclimatic and soil conditions different from the autochthon regions. The aim of the present work was to characterize the antioxidant system developed by the plant under a new growing condition and to evaluate the polyphenol amount in a methanolic extract of leaves. Along with these analyses we have also tested the antioxidant and cytoprotective activities on lymphocytes. RP-HPLC-DAD analysis of flavonoids revealed a chromatographic profile dominated by the presence of flavone C -glucosydes. Vitexin is the most abundant identified compound followed by vicenin-2, stellarin-2, rhoifolin, and traces of isovitexin and isorhoifolin. Methanolic extract had high scavenging activity in all antioxidant assays tested and cytoprotective activity on lymphocytes exposed to tertz-buthylhydroperoxide. The results highlighted a well-defined mechanism of adaptation of the plant and a significant content of secondary metabolites with antioxidant properties, which are of interest for their potential uses, especially as a rich source of biologically active products.

1. Introduction

Jatropha curcas L. also known as physic nut (family Euphorbiaceae ) can be classified as a large shrub or a small perennial tree able to reach a height between three and ten meters [ 1 ]. This plant is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions of Southeast Africa, Central and Latin America, Asia and India. Jatropha curcas L. is a species that is able to grow in dry and hot conditions, as, for instance, in fringe areas of semi-arid regions, where many species do not survive [ 2 , 3 ].

The result of adaptations to living in relatively harsh environmental conditions is a crop that is useful for the study of key physiological mechanisms adopted by plant to overcome multiple stresses [ 3 ].

The main interest for this plant is in regards to its great potential for biodiesel production. In fact, the high content of oil in Jatropha curcas L. seeds (up to 60% dependent on geographical and climatic conditions) can be used directly or in transesterified form as a biodiesel [ 4 , 5 ]. In addition, this plant is gaining a lot of attention because of its multipurpose and noteworthy economic potential [ 6 ]. The coagulant capacity, for instance, of industrial effluent obtained by grounded seeds is well known for the control of environmental pollution [ 7 ]. For centuries preparations of all parts of the plant (such as seed, leaf, stem bark, fruit, and latex) have found wide utilization in traditional medicine and for veterinary purposes. Detoxified oil of Jatropha curcas L. represents a rich protein supplement in animal feed [ 8 ]. In the literature, several biological effects were reported for the plant such as wound-healing, anti-inflammatory, antimalaria, antiparasitic, antimicrobial, insecticidal, antioxidant, and anticancer activity [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Literature data are available on the composition and biomedical applications of Jatropha curcas L. leaves and the identified compounds include cyclic triterpenes, alkaloids, and flavonoids [ 17 ]. The leaves were used as remedy for malaria, rheumatic, and muscular pains [ 18 , 19 ].

In vivo studies on antihyperglycemic activity of methanolic extract of leaves of Jatropha curcas . L were also reported [ 20 ]. Knnappan et al. [ 21 ], demonstrated the in vivo antiulcer activity of alcoholic extract of leaves. Furthermore, methanolic and aqueous extracts of leaves of Jatropha curcas L. have been found to inhibit drug-resistant HIV strains and hemagglutinin protein of influenza virus [ 22 , 23 ].

The present study is part of a research project, funded by the Calabria Region, aimed to promote the cultivation of Jatropha curcas L. in Calabrian marginal areas, for agriculture and bioenergy purposes. The considerable potential of this plant, the low input requirements, and its lower CO 2 footprint in comparison with other oil-bearing crops, as well as the ability to prevent soil erosion problems, are the main advantages and the main reasons to promote Jatropha curcas L. cultivation in Calabrian marginal soils [ 24 , 25 ]. Jatropha curcas L. plants, originating from seeds of Kenyan trees were grown in hot and arid climatic conditions in Melito di Porto Salvo (Reggio Calabria, Italy) on a sandy-loam moderately alkaline soil. The objective was to evaluate phytochemical content and enzymatic mechanisms carried out by Jatropha curcas L. as strategies for its environmental adaptability. In order to improve the knowledge and to valorize this Calabrian population as a source of natural bioactive molecules, we have performed RP-HPLC-DAD analysis of a leaf methanol extract to evaluate polyphenol amount and, jointly, we have also tested antioxidant and cytoprotective activities on lymphocytes and erythrocyte membranes treated with tert-butylhydroperoxide (t-BOOH).

2. Results and Discussion

Jatropha curcas L. has a life expectancy of up to 50 years and is able to grow under a wide range of soil regimes (such as in deep, fertile, and loose soil), but it does not tolerate sticky, impermeable, and waterlogged soils. This plant requires sufficient sunshine, and cannot grow well under shade [ 2 ]. In this study we investigated how Jatropha curcas L. plants, originating from seeds of Kenyan trees, have adapted in Southern Italy, precisely in Melito Porto Salvo (Reggio Calabria). In this country the climate is warm, with an average temperature of about 18 °C and annual average rainfall of 767 mm. Chemical and physical characteristics of Melito soil evidenced a sandy-loam, moderately alkaline soil, with a low content of carbonates and a low salinity ( Table 1 ). The amount and composition of soil organic matter (SOM) is strictly related to the performance of soil, in terms of quality and fertility, and a two percent SOM content ( Table 1 ) is considered sufficient in these soils. The ratio of total organic carbon and total nitrogen (C/N ratio) is a traditional indicator to quantify the nature and the humification level of the organic matter present in soil. In general, in soils with a C/N ratio between 9 and 11, organic matter is well humified and quantitatively fairly stable over time. Results showed a C/N ratio lower than 9–10 indicating in Melito soil a prevalence of oxidation reactions leading to a decrease of the content of organic substance and in nitrogen release ( Table 1 ).

Chemical and physical characteristics of field for Jatropha curcas L. cultivation.

Texture	pH	E.C. (mS/cm)	Total Carbonates (%)	TOC (%)	SOM (%)	N (g/kg)	C/N
Loam-sandy	8.20	1.65	2.00	14.06	2.60	1.82	7.73

Electrical conductivity (E.C.); Soil organic matter (SOM); total organic carbon (TOC); Nitrogen (N); ratio of total carbon and total nitrogen (C/N).

2.1. Phytochemical Screening and Antioxidant Activity

In order to assess the degree of adaptation of Jatropha curcas L. plants located in Melito Porto Salvo, a phytochemical screening was performed. Since photosynthesis is one of the primary processes most affected by abiotic stresses [ 26 , 27 ], the evaluation of photosynthetic pigments and reactive oxygen species (ROS) content are considered traditional parameters to evaluate the performance and adaptation degree of a species. The high detected level of chlorophylls confirmed a good adaptation of plants in these soil and climatic conditions. ROS are generated as natural products of plant cellular photosynthetic and aerobic metabolism. Chloroplasts are a major site of ROS produced by energy transfer in photosynthetic electron transfer chains [ 28 ]. Peroxisomes and glyoxysomes also generate reactive oxygen species during metabolic pathways of photorespiration and fatty acid oxidation [ 29 ]. ROS have different roles in the organism and, at low concentration, for example, they behave as signal molecules for the activation/block of metabolic processes [ 30 , 31 ]. This mechanism of ROS homeostasis is maintained by enzymatic components such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and catalase (CAT), and non-enzymatic compounds like ascorbic acid (ASA), reduced glutathione, a-tocopherol, carotenoids, phenolics, and flavonoids [ 32 ]. SODs are the only plant enzymes able to scavenge the superoxide anion. Moreover, in different cell compartments, Cat or APX (which utilize ascorbate as a reductant) eliminate H 2 O 2 produced in the reaction catalyzed by SOD [ 33 ]. Catalase is unique among antioxidant enzymes in not requiring a reducing equivalent [ 34 ]. H 2 O 2 , being moderately reactive, does not cause extensive damage by itself; it can cross membranes and traverse considerable distance within the cell. At low concentration, H 2 O 2 acts as regulatory signal for essential physiological processes, cell cycle, growth, and development [ 35 ]. Results on antioxidant enzymes showed significant modifications of dehydroascorbate reductase (DHA Rd), peroxidases (POX), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) enzymes. Moreover, APX activity and ascorbate-glutathione cycle have a fundamental role in several cellular compartments such us peroxisomes, cytosol, chloroplasts, and mitochondria [ 33 ]. DHA Rd enzyme is responsible for the regeneration of ascorbic acid from an oxidized state in a reaction requiring glutathione. CAT activity in fresh leaves of Jatropha curcas L. was very low compared to other enzymes. However, CAT activity is generally low under normal growth conditions and it increases only at relatively high H 2 O 2 concentrations or under stress conditions to support APX, SOD, and other peroxidases primarily involved in ROS homeostasis. The values obtained for APX and DHA Rd activities are in line with a high content of reduced glutathione and ascorbic acid detected in leaves of Jatropha curcas L. ( Table 2 ). The amount of carotenoids, anthocyanins, and glutathione, and also a high ascorbic acid content with respect to the dehydroascorbic acid concentration ( Table 2 ), indicate how the plant has developed its antioxidative defense system in the acclimation process for controlling ROS homeostasis. Plant phenolics constitute one of major groups of compounds acting as primary antioxidant or free radical terminators [ 32 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ]. The leaf extracts of Jatropha curcas L. are also rich in phenolic compounds and tartaric acid ester derivatives ( Table 2 ), which further contribute to the health promoting properties of this plant. The total amount of phenolic compounds are in line with the amounts detected in other water extracts of jatropha plants collected in different seasons [ 47 ], but are obviously inferior to the one obtained in organic solvent, where the total amount is notoriously higher than water extract [ 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 ]. The analyses of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants results show that in Jatropha curcas L. leaves there are remarkable amounts of these active components, allowing us to hypothesize a direct role in the ability of the plant to resist environmental stresses and improve survival potentiality in the new habitat.

Analysis of phytochemical composition and enzymatic antioxidants of leaves of Jatropha curcas L. Value were expressed as mean ± standard error ( n = 3).

Phytochemical Screening of L. Leaf	Value
Chlorophyll a (mg·g Fresh Weight)	1.60 ± 0.10
Chlorophyll b (mg·g Fresh Weight)	0.90 ± 0.03
Catalase (CAT) activity (nmol H O ·g Fresh Weight)	14.75 ± 1.20
Peroxidases (POX) activity (µmol guaiacol·g Fresh Weight)	1.06 ± 0.04
Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activity (µmol H O ·g Fresh Weight)	1.30 ± 0.04
Dehydroascorbate reductase (DHA-Rd) activity (µmol ASA·g Fresh Weight)	0.77 ± 7.10
Ascorbic acid (ASA) (µmol ascorbic acid/g Dry Weight)	3.78 ± 0.19
Dehydroascorbic acid (µmol dehydroascorbic acid/g Dry Weight)	2.34 ± 0.20
Reduced glutathione (µmol GSH/g Dry Weight)	1.75 ± 0.14
Total phenols (mg tannic acid/g Dry Weight)	7.36 ± 0.60
Total carotenoids (mg/g Fresh Weight)	0.20 ± 0.03
Anthocyanins (µg anthocyanin·g Fresh Weight)	9.42 ± 2.30
Tartaric acid esters derivatives (µg caffeic acid·g Fresh Weight)	23.00 ± 0.10

2.2. Analysis of Anti-Peroxidative and Cytoprotective Activity

The health promoting properties of the compounds present in the methanol extract were also analyzed to check their anti-peroxidative and cytoprotective ability on erythrocyte membranes and lymphocytes treated with tert-butylhydroperoxide (t-BOOH). Erythrocyte membrane lipid peroxidation has been performed by TBARS assay, analyzing the amount of malondialdehyde formation. t-BOOH (100 µM) is able to induce a remarkable amount of damage corresponding to the formation of ~1.22 ± 0.1 µM of malondialdehyde. The compounds present in the methanol extract of jatropha are able to reduce ~40, 33, 10, and 1% the formation of this compound utilizing 1.0, 0.5, 025, and 0.1 µM gallic acid equivalents (GAE), respectively ( Figure 1 ). This activity is most probably due to the flavanone structure identified by chromatographic separation and in particular to the presence of apigenin derivatives. These results have been further supported by the analysis of cytoprotective activity of the extract against lymphocyte- t-BOOH treatment. A preliminary evaluation, obtained via incubating the cells with the same final gallic acid equivalent of methanol extract utilized in our work, shows no effects on lymphocytes (data not shown). As can be seen in Figure 2 , the incubation of lymphocytes for 24 h at 37 °C in the presence of this strong oxidant (100 µM) induced a decrease of cellular vitality by up to 62%. The presence of methanol extract (at the final concentration of 1.0 and 0.5 µM GAE) remarkably improved cell survival with an increase of viable cells by ~1.9 and 1.3-fold, respectively, following treatment with t-BOOH. It was observed that 0.25–0.1 µM GAE have few or no effects on the process, resulting in values almost completely superimposable to the one obtained with cells incubated in the presence of only t-BOOH in the case of 0.1 µM GAE. The cytoprotective effects of the compounds present in the extract have been further analyzed taking into account the release of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) from lymphocytes and the inhibition of caspase 3 activation. As can be seen in Figure 2 , we highlight a decrease in the amount of LDH released in the samples incubated with t-BOOH in the presence of 1.0 and 0.5 µM GAE of methanol extract, as well as in the activation of caspase 3 in the same samples. Lower concentrations (0.25 and 0.1 µM GAE) were not able to induce statistically significant changes in the two enzymes analyzed. LDH is a marker of cell survival and compound toxicity due to its release outside the cells upon membrane damage, while caspases are one of the main markers of apoptosis onset. The decrease in the LDH release supports the hypothesis that the compounds present in the extract can directly act on t-BOOH by decreasing its strong oxidant activity, well evident at level of fatty acids peroxidation, and scavenging the reactive species that originated at the membrane level. This action is further confirmed by the process of caspase 3 activation, where the elimination of reactive species cannot be the trigger for its activation.

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Inhibition (%) of erythrocyte membranes lipid peroxidation by Jatropha curcas L. methanol extract. Hemolysates plus 100 µM of tert-butylhydroperoxide (t-BOOH) were incubated for 30 min in the absence (a) or in the presence of 1.0, 0.5, 0.25, and 0.1 µM GAE (c–f). To check the possible influence of the solvent present in the extract, we incubated the hemolysates in the presence of the same amounts of methanol present in the samples (b). The values are expressed as mean ± SD ( n = 3). The ** shows significant statistical differences ( p < 0.05) with respect to erythrocyte membranes treated in the presence of only t-BOOH.

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Cytoprotective effects of Jatropha curcas L. methanol extract on lymphocytes. Lymphocytes plus 100 µM of t-BOOH were incubated for 24 h in the absence (b) or in the presence of 1.0, 0.5, 0.25, and 0.1 µM GAE (c–f). To check the possible influence of the solvent present in the extract, we incubated the lymphocytes in the presence of the same amounts of methanol present in the samples (a). Cell vitality, integrity, and apoptotic events were analyzed by trypan blue staining ( A ); lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release ( B ) and caspase 3 activation ( C ), respectively. The samples were analyzed by one-way ANOVA, followed by Tukey’s test. Asterisks ** indicate significant differences ( p < 0.05) with respect to lymphocytes treated in the presence of only t-BOOH. Each value represents mean ± SD ( n = 3).

2.3. RP-DAD-HPLC Separation and Identification of Flavonoids Derivatives

In order to shed some light on the compounds that are present in the extract and responsible of such activities, we have performed a RP-DAD-HPLC separation to identify the presence of flavone and flavanone derivatives. The methanol extract was characterized by the presence of several well defined peaks belonging to flavonoids, as shown in the chromatograms recorded at 280 and 325 nm ( Figure 3 ). This first approach let us to perform a preliminary screening based on the intense absorptions in the 270–280 nm region (Band II) of flavanone derivatives and the absorbance at the 320–330 nm region (Band I) where, principally, flavones and flavonols have remarkable absorption. The analyses of UV/visible spectrum of each peak show the presence of only flavone derivatives. Moreover, the identification of the compounds has been performed by means of acid hydrolysis and subsequent analysis of the aglycones and sugars. The chromatogram recorded for crude extracts after acidic hydrolysis (not shown) revealed that compounds 1–4 were resistant to HCl treatment, whereas 5–6 were hydrolyzed, providing evidence that the former flavonoids possessed C-linked saccharide moieties, whereas the latter bear O-linked glycosyl substituents. Moreover, the presence of a single aglycon molecule in the chromatograms revealed a pattern characterized by the presence of apigenin derivatives with the presence of glucose and rhamnose. The characteristic UV spectra, their retention time and co-elution with authentication standard let us to identify compounds as vicenin-2 ( 1 ); stellarin-2 ( 2 ); vitexin ( 3 ); isovitexin ( 4 ); isorhoifolin ( 5 ); and rhoifolin ( 6 ). Several of these compounds have already been reported in other leaves of Jatropha curcas L. (although grown in conditions different from the one tested in our experiment) and Jatropha genus suggesting a common pattern of flavonoids that are conserved in the species and may represent an indication of the endogenous adaptation of the plant to Calabrian marginal areas [ 17 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ].

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Representative HPLC chromatograms of flavonoids derivatives of Jatropha curcas L. methanol extract: absorbance at 278 nm ( A ) and 325 nm ( B ). Peak identification was performed by matching retention time and UV spectra against commercially available reference compounds. Peaks: vicenin-2 ( 1 ); stellarin-2 ( 2 ); vitexin ( 3 ); isovitexin ( 4 ); isorhoifolin ( 5 ); and rhoifolin ( 6 ).

The quantifications of the identified flavonoids are depicted in Table 3 .

Flavonoids content in methanol extract of Jatropha curcas L. leaves.

Compounds	mg/kg F.W.
Vicenin-2	3.7 ± 0.41
Stellarin-2	1.2 ± 0.23
Vitexin	6.0 ± 0.52
Isovitexin	0.13 ± 0.04
Isorhoifolin	Trace
Rhoifolin	2.2 ± 0.25

2.4. Antioxidant Capacity

On the basis of the remarkable content of flavonoids and the presence of substituted flavone structures in the methanolic extract obtained from the leaves, we performed an in vitro biological assay in order to evaluate the antioxidant (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, Ferrozine assay) and the cytoprotective activity of this extract. The DPPH is a stable radical frequently used to examine radical scavenging activity of natural compounds, and it is one of the starting points to check propensity of compounds or extracts to react with radicals. It has a strong absorbance at 517 nm due to its unpaired electron, giving the radical a purple color. Upon reduction with an antioxidant, its absorption decreases due to the formation of its non-radical form, DPPH-H. The activities of crude methanolic extracts in the scavenging of DPPH radical were concentration dependent. For instance ( Figure 4 A), the samples with 10 µL of methanol extract were able to reach up to ~65% of inhibition, corresponding to 14.7 µM trolox equivalents (TE). These results (IC 50 = 58.8 TE µg/mL) are in line with the one obtained from ethanolic extract from the leaves of plants grown in Java, inferior to the ones obtained from the methanolic extract of leaves collected from plants grown in Malaysia and Egypt, but higher than the one obtained with plants grown in Iraq [ 48 , 49 , 50 , 59 ]. According to the ability of compounds present in methanolic extract to scavenge DPPH, ABTS radical formation was also inhibited with an activity corresponding to 16.25 ± 0.68 µM TE. These results suggest that the methanolic extract of Jatropha curcas L. leaves contains compounds capable of donating hydrogen to a free radical to eliminate its reactivity. Iron has a pivotal role in the wellness of organisms and it is also one of the main elements involved in the formation of radical species, so we tested the capability of the compounds present in the methanol extract while maintaining it in ferrous state and chelating it. The Fe 3+ –Fe 2+ reducing power method is usually used in the determination of reducing power. The amount of Fe 2+ can be determined by measuring the generation of Perl’s Prussian blue at 593 nm. The reducing power of 2.5 µL of the extract corresponds to 15.48 ± 2.9 µM of ascorbic acid equivalent. The chelating power of the extract was also tested using the ferrozine assay. Free transition metals can give rise to the generation of several ROS, in living organisms, through the oxidation of lipids, proteins and genetic materials; The presence of chelating agents can help organisms to stabilize and decrease the reactivity of these elements. As can be seen in Figure 4 B, the decrease of the ferrozine–Fe 2+ complex is influenced by the presence of the extract, although its activity is clearly lower than that of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) utilized as positive control able to chelate all the ferrous present in the solution. The calculation of Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC), utilizing a calibration curve obtained with trolox, showed a value of 7.71 ± 0.68 µmol TE/mg. This value is comparable to the one obtained for acetate, ethanol, and water extracts of Jatropha curcas L. seed shell [ 60 ].

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DPPH ( A ) and ferrozine assay ( B ) obtained with different amounts of Jatropha curcas L. methanol extract of Jatropha curcas L. leaves. Ferrozine assay without (a) or with 10 µL of methanol extract (b) or EDTA (c).

By four different methods of antioxidant activity determination, we can see that the extract of J. curcas leaves exhibited relatively strong antioxidant activities, which may be due, at least in part, to their high phenolic content. In particular, the flavone derivatives characterized by the presence of a double bond at the 2, 3 position of the C ring conjugated with the 4-oxo group in position 4 may have a pivotal role in the process [ 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 ]. Recent studies indicate that all parts of this plant are valuable for multiple purposes, improving its valorization for large-scale plantation.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. reagents, chemicals, and instrumentation.

HPLC-grade acetonitrile and methanol, as well as vicenin-2, vitexin, isovitexin, roipholin, isorhoifolin, and apigenin, were supplied by Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA), while dimethylformamide (DMF) was supplied by Carlo Erba (Milano, Italy). All the other reagents and chemicals used in this study were of analytical grade and were purchased from Sigma (Sigma-Aldrich GmbH, Sternheim, Germany).

3.2. Chlorophyll and Carotenoid Pigments

Fresh leaves (0.050 g) were mixed with 2.5 mL of 100% ethanol in the dark for 24 h at 4 °C. Upon the conclusion of the incubation time the samples were centrifuged for 10 min at 7000 rpm. Lichtenthaler’s equation was employed to analyze the concentration of chlorophyll and carotenoid, based on absorbance at 649, 665, and 470 nm.

3.3. Anthocyanins

Fresh leaves (0.02 g) were extracted with 0.5 mL of a methanol:HCl solution (99:1, v:v ) and centrifuged at 4 °C for 10 min at 7000 rpm. The absorbance of the supernatant was recorded at 530 and 657 nm and anthocyanin concentration was calculated according to the Equation (1):

3.4. Tartaric Acid Esters and Total Phenols

Tartaric acid esters were tested by monitoring the absorbance change at 320 nm based on the procedure described by Romani et al. [ 61 ]. Fresh leaves (0.5 g) were extracted with 2 mL of methanol and centrifuged at 4 °C for 15 at 14,000 g . An aliquot of 25 µL of supernatant was diluted with 225 µL of 10% ethanol and 250 µL of 0.1% HCl in 95% ethanol, and 1 µL of 2% HCl was then added. The solution was mixed and tartaric acid ester were calculated at 320 nm as micrograms of caffeic acid/g fresh weight.

Total phenolic compounds have been analyzed by the Folin–Ciocalteu colorimetric method based on the procedure of Singleton et al. [ 62 ]. Dry leaves were extracted in water and the absorbance was recorded against blank at 765 nm and total phenols were expressed as mg tannic acid/g dry weight.

3.5. Reduced Glutathione

Reduced glutathione (GSH) level was determined by the method described by Jollow et al. [ 63 ]. Fresh leaf (0.5 g) homogenates in 3% of trichloroacetic acid were centrifugated at 3000 rpm at 4 °C. The supernatant was mixed with Ellman’s reagent and the absorbance of supernatant recorded at 412 nm and related to a calibration curve of GSH solutions (0–500 µg/mL).

3.6. Ascorbic and Dehydroascorbic Acid

Fresh leaves (0.5 g) were extracted in a chilled mortar with 5% metaphosphoric acid at 4 °C. After centrifugation at 18,000 rpm at 4 °C the supernatant was used for the determination of dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) and ascorbic acid (ASC) according to Law et al. [ 64 ].

3.7. Enzyme Assays

Fresh leaves were ground using a chilled mortar and pestle and homogenized in 0.1 M phosphate buffer solution (pH 7.0) containing 100 mg soluble polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (PVPP) and 0.1 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). The homogenate was filtered through two layers of muslin cloth and centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 20 min at 4 °C. The resulting supernatant was used for all assays.

Catalase (CAT, EC 1.11.1.6). The disappearance of H 2 O 2 at 240 nm was determined according to Beaumont et al. [ 65 ] by using extinction coefficient (ε) = 0.036 mM −1 ·cm −1 . The reaction mixture contained 1 mL potassium phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 7.0), 40 µL enzyme extract, and 5 µL H 2 O 2 .

Peroxidase (POX, EC 1.11.1.7). The reduction in guaiacol concentration was determined by reading the absorbance at 436 nm continuously for 90 s. POX activity was quantified by the amount of tetraguaiacol formed using its extinction coefficient (ε) = 25.5 mM −1 ·cm −1 according to Panda et al. [ 66 ].

Dehydroascorbate reductase (DHA-Rd, EC 1.8.5.1). The reaction mixture contained 0.1 M K-phosphate buffer pH 6.5, 1 mM GSH, and 1 mM DHA. The activity was assayed following the increase in absorbance at 265 nm due to the production of ASC [ 67 ].

Ascorbate peroxidase (APX, EC 1.11.1.11). The decrease in absorbance at 290 nm, due to oxidation of ascorbate was determined according to Amako et al. [ 68 ]. The reaction mixture was 0.1 M K-phosphate buffer pH 6.5, 90 mM H 2 O 2 , and 50 mM ascorbate. Absorbance was recorded continuously for 90 s and APX activity was quantified by using the extinction coefficient, 14 mM −1 ·cm −1 .

3.8. Preparation of Methanol Extract

The fresh leaves of Jatropha curcas L., harvested in summer 2013, were frozen at −20 °C. The frozen leaves were ground to a powder with a frozen mortar and ~10.0 g were extracted at room temperature under continuous stirring for 6 h with methanol (1:20 w : v ). The samples were then centrifugated at 2500 rpm for 10 min and the supernatants were filtered with filter paper and evaporated to dryness in a rotavapor. This procedure was repeated three times and the powders obtained were resuspended in methanol to obtain a w : v ratio with the starting fresh leaves material of 1:1, with the end product utilized for RP-HPLC-DAD separation, antioxidant, and cytoprotective assays.

3.9. DPPH Radical Scavenging Assay

The antioxidant activity against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl DPPH radical was performed according to Molineux [ 69 ]. The assays were carried out by adding fixed amounts of extracts (0–60 µL) with DPPH solution (80 µM), resulting in the final volume of 1.0 mL. The reaction mixture was incubated for 30 min at 37 °C and, upon finishing the incubation time, the absorbance changes were recorded at 517 nm. The decrease in absorbance in percentage was analyzed utilizing the following equation:

where A c is the absorbance of the control and A s is the absorbance of the sample. Results have been expressed as Trolox equivalent (TE).

3.10. ABTS Radical Scavenging Assay

The 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid ABTS free radical-scavenging activity was carried out by a decolorization assay according to Re et al. [ 70 ]. Fixed amounts of the samples were added with the radical cation ABTS + and the absorbance changes at 734 nm were recorded in a spectrophotometer after 6 min. The activity was expressed as inhibition in percentage at 734 nm using Trolox (1.1, 1.7, 2.3, 2.9, 3.5 µg/mL) as the reference compound.

3.11. Ferric-Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Assay

The ferric reducing antioxidant power assay was performed according to the method described by Benzie and Strain [ 71 ]. The samples were repeated in triplicate and the absorbance recorded at 593 nm after 4 min incubation at 37 °C. The antioxidant abilities of the extracts were expressed as equivalents of ascorbic acid utilizing a calibration curve obtained with fresh solutions of known ascorbic acid concentrations (0.005–0.02 mM).

3.12. Ferrozine Assay

The potential chelating activity of the extracts toward ferrous ions was analyzed by the method of Dorman et al. [ 72 ] with little modifications. As a reference compound we utilized EDTA (0.1 mM final concentration). The activity of the extract was performed by adding 10 µL to a solution of 0.5 mM FeSO 4 (0.01 mL). After the addition of 5.0 mM ferrozine (0.4 mL) solution, the samples were shaken and left for 10 min at room temperature (RT). Finally, the absorbance at 562 nm was recorded with a spectrophotometer. The inhibition (%) of ferrozine Fe 2+ complex formation was obtained using the following equation:

where A c is the absorbance of the control and A s is the absorbance of the samples in the presence of the extracts.

3.13. Flavonoids Profile Identification

The identification of flavonoids present in the methanol extract was performed by utilizing a Shimazu Reverse Phase–Diode Array Detection–High Performance Liquid Chromatography (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) with injection loop of 20 µL. The column was a BioDiscovery C18 (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA) of 250 mm × 4.6 mm i.d., 5 µm and equipped with a 20 mm × 4.0 mm guard column. The temperature was set at 30 °C and flow-rate at 1.0 mL/min. The separation was performed utilizing a linear gradient of acetonitrile in H 2 O as mobile phase. The gradient was: 0–15 min (5%–20% of acenitrile), 15–20 min (20%–30% of acetonitrile), 20–35 min (30%–100% of acetonitrile), 35–40 min (100% of acetonitrile), 40–45 min (100%–5% of acetonitrile), and 45–55 min (5% of acetonitrile). The chromatograms were recorded at 278 and 325 nm and UV/visible spectra of each peak were between 200 and 450 nm. The identification of the compounds were performed according to retention time, UV spectra, and co-elution with authentication standards. Quantitative analysis was carried out by integration of the areas of the peaks from the chromatogram at 325 nm and comparison with calibration curves obtained with the known concentration of a commercially available standard (0.1–10 mg/L).

3.14. Acid Hydrolysis

Acid hydrolysis of the samples was performed according to Hertog et al. [ 73 ].

3.15. Erythrocytes Lipid Peroxidation Assay

Hemolysates were prepared according to Barreca et al. [ 38 ] and lipid peroxidation was analyzed by thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) assay [ 74 ].

3.16. Lymphocyte Isolation

Lymphocytes were isolated according to Barreca et al. [ 42 , 44 , 45 ] and utilized in the following tests.

3.17. Cytotoxicity Assays

To perform the cytotoxicity assay, we treated cells (1 × 10 6 /mL) with 100 µM of t-BOOH in the absence or in the presence of 1.0, 0.5, 0.25, and 0.1 µM gallic acid equivalents (GAE) of the extracts for 24 h. Parallel controls were performed without t-BOOH, but in the presence of the same final gallic acid equivalents of methanol extract utilized during experimentation. Moreover, in all experiments blanks, without t-BOOH, were performed [ 38 , 75 ]. The cell viability, after finishing the incubation period were established with trypan blue staining. The cells were diluted 1:1 ( v:v ) with 0.4% trypan blue and counted with an haemocytometer. Results are expressed as the percentage of live or dead cells (ratio of unstained or stained cells to the total number of cells, respectively). To check cytotoxicity we also analyzed lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release from damaged cells into culture medium with a commercially available kit from BioSystems (Barcelona, Spain). Extracts did not show interference with the determination of LDH at the concentration utilized in the experiments. For caspase activity determination, we followed the procedures described by Bellocco et al. [ 45 ].

3.18. Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) Assay

The ORAC assay was performed according to Dàvalos et al. [ 76 ] with few modifications. Twenty microliters of methanol extract were added to 120 µL of fresh fluorescein solution (117 nM). After a preincubation time of 15 min at 37 °C, we added 60 µL of freshly prepared 2,2′-Azobis(2-methylpropionamidine)dihydrochloride (AAPH) solution (40 mM). Fluorescence was recorded every 30 s for 90 min ( λ ex : 485; λ em : 520). A blank using 20 µL of methanol instead of the sample was also analyzed, along with a reference calibration curve with Trolox (10–100 µM). The ORAC value was expressed as µmoles of Trolox Equivalent (TE)/mg of fresh weight (F.W.) sample. All assays were carried out in triplicate.

3.19. Statistical Analysis

The values of the data are expressed as means ± standard deviation. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the obtained results. Tukey’s test was run to check the significance of the difference between the samples and the respective controls. A p < 0.05 value indicates statistically significant difference.

4. Conclusions

In this study the obtained results concerning a phytochemical and enzymatic screening suggested that the Jatropha curcas L. plants, originated from Kenya and grown in Melito Porto Salvo, are well suited to the typical Mediterranean climate of Southern Italy. Moreover, the methanolic extract of the leaves shows very interesting antioxidant and cytoprotective activities, which can be attributed also to its flavonoids profile, which is dominated by the presence of flavone compounds, one of the most studied and promising forms of secondary metabolites for potential use as nutraceuticals. Therefore, methanolic extracts of Jatropha curcas L. leaves could represent a promising source of natural antioxidants compounds to employ in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the regional project entitled “Si. Re. Ja.” POR Calabria FESR 2007/2013.

Author Contributions

Teresa Papalia, Davide Barreca and Maria Rosaria Panuccio contributed in equal manner to the design and execution of experiments, data analysis, writing, and revision of the work.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The Floral Biology of Jatropha curcas L.—A Review

Published: 12 January 2013
Volume 6 , pages 1–15, ( 2013 )

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J. Fresnedo-Ramírez 1

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Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) has attracted considerable recent attention as a potential horticultural crop based on the quality of its oil seed for biodiesel production, and its ability to grow in unproductive subtropical or subdesert soils. Additionally, several characteristics of the species make it a good model for a more thorough understanding of the reproductive biology of a species undergoing the domestication process. To date, there is limited information about its reproductive patterns and the genetics involved. Such information is necessary for developing efficient agronomic practices and for guiding the research needed to more fully understand the species’ reproduction processes. J. curcas has an inconsistent mating system, which presents both opportunities and challenges in developing breeding strategies and agronomic practices. Unraveling the mating system of J. curcas can increase our understanding of the evolution of reproduction systems in monoecious plants. The influences of environmental factors on flowering and floral organ development have not been reported under either field or controlled conditions. Moreover, no genetic mechanisms controlling the characteristics of the flowering (architecture, sex expression and sex ratios) have been proposed. The present review assesses and synthesizes the current knowledge of the floral biology of J. curcas . It provides a description of the species, its reproductive organs and reproductive patterns, and discussing the factors influencing them.

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Acknowledgments

Thanks to Dr. Dan Parfit, Dr. Sham Goyal, for their comments and suggestions. Thanks to Helen Chan for her valuable discussion about the species. Also, I am very grateful with Daniel S. Park, PhD student at UC Davis, for his valuable suggestions about the manuscript. Special thanks to Palma Lower, writing specialist at UC Davis, for her valuable comments and corrections during the improvement of this paper. I want to express my gratitude to the reviewers and editors for their constructive suggestions and comments to improve this review. Jonathan Fresnedo Ramírez (the author) is supported by a CONACYT-UCMEXUS (Mexican Council of Science and Technology and University of California Institute for Mexico and the United States) doctoral fellowship at University of California, Davis.

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Fresnedo-Ramírez, J. The Floral Biology of Jatropha curcas L.—A Review. Tropical Plant Biol. 6 , 1–15 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12042-012-9113-x

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Rana, Jagriti
Rana, Jyoti

Jatropha curcas L. has a longstanding history of utilization in traditional medical practices worldwide for many generations. The present investigation looked into the antibacterial and antioxidant effects as well as conducted phytochemical analyses of extracts derived from the roots and stems of Jatropha curcas L., using methanol and acetone as solvents. The antibacterial efficacy against both Gram-positive bacteria, namely Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes, as well as Gram-negative bacteria, specifically Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, was assessed using the agar well diffusion technique. The evaluation of antioxidant capability was conducted through the utilization of the (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) DPPH-free radical scavenging test and the reducing power assay. To identify phytochemical constituents, preliminary phytochemical screening and GC-MS analysis were employed in the study. In antibacterial testing, stem extracts inhibited Staphylococcus aureus more effectively. In both extracts examined, root extracts inhibited Listeria monocytogenes with greater efficacy (34.27 mm in acetone and 24.68 mm in methanol). In the DPPH scavenging assay, the acetone root extract outperformed the methanol root extract, exhibiting an IC 50 value of 360.52 µg/ml. Additionally, in the reducing power analysis, it showed an EC 50 value of 998.4 µg/ml. The alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, carbohydrates, and proteins presence was identified during preliminary phytochemical screening. The GC-MS study of methanol stem extract identified eleven different bioactive compounds and thirty-nine in acetone root extract. Most of the aforementioned phytocomponents have been reported to have medical qualities; therefore, this study indicates that Jatropha curcas L. might possess a role in the manufacture of therapeutic medications as antibacterial and antioxidants adhering to further investigations.

Antibacterial;
Antioxidant;
Phytochemical;
Medicinal plants

Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology

Editor-in-Chief: Nikolaos Labrou School of Food, Biotechnology and Development Department of Biotechnology Agricultural University of Athens Athens Greece

ISSN (Print): 1389-2010 ISSN (Online): 1873-4316

Therapeutic Biology of Jatropha curcas: A Mini Review

School of Biotechnology, Rajiv Gandhi Technological University, Airport Bypass Road, Gandhi nagar, Bhopal–462 036 India.,India

Volume 9, Issue 4, 2008

Page: [315 - 324] Pages: 10

DOI: 10.2174/138920108785161505

Keywords: Jatrophine , anti-cancer , Latex , Toxalbumin , Ethnomedicine , Alkaloid , curcain , Biodiesel

Title: Therapeutic Biology of Jatropha curcas: A Mini Review

Volume: 9 Issue: 4

Author(s): Reena Thomas, Nand K. Sah and P. B. Sharma

Affiliation:

Abstract: Jatropha curcas is a drought resistant, perennial plant that grows even in the marginal and poor soil. Raising Jatropha is easy. It keeps producing seeds for many years. In the recent years, Jatropha has become famous primarily for the production of biodiesel; besides this it has several medicinal applications, too. Most parts of this plant are used for the treatment of various human and veterinary ailments. The white latex serves as a disinfectant in mouth infections in children. The latex of Jatropha contains alkaloids including Jatrophine, Jatropham and curcain with anti-cancerous properties. It is also used externally against skin diseases, piles and sores among the domestic livestock. The leaves contain apigenin, vitexin and isovitexin etc. which along with other factors enable them to be used against malaria, rheumatic and muscular pains. Antibiotic activity of Jatropha has been observed against organisms including Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. There are some chemical compounds including curcin (an alkaloid) in its seeds that make it unfit for common human consumption. The roots are known to contain an antidote against snake venom. The root extract also helps to check bleeding from gums. The soap prepared from Jatropha oil is efficient against buttons. Many of these traditional medicinal properties of Jatropha curcas need to be investigated in depth for the marketable therapeutic products vis-à-vis the toxicological effects thereof. This mini review aims at providing brief biological significance of this plant along with its up-to-date therapeutic applications and risk factors.

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Thomas Reena, Sah K. Nand and Sharma B. P., Therapeutic Biology of Jatropha curcas: A Mini Review, Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology 2008; 9 (4) . https://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138920108785161505

	1389-2010
Bentham Science Publisher	1873-4316

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Jatropha curcas : a review on biotechnological status and challenges

2011, Plant Biotechnology Reports

Plant tissue culture and molecular biology techniques are powerful tools of biotechnology that can complement conventional breeding, expedite crop improvement and meet the demand for availability of uniform clones in large numbers. Jatropha curcas Linn., a non-edible, eco-friendly, non-toxic, biodegradable fuel-producing plant has attracted worldwide attention as an alternate sustainable energy source for the future. This review presents a consolidated account of biotechnological interventions made in J. curcas over the decades and focuses on contemporary information and trends of future research.

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Environmental pollution is one of the most pressing challenges in today’s world. The main cause of this pollution is fuel emissions from automobiles and other sources. As industrialization progresses, we will be unable to compromise on the use of energy to power heavy machines and will be forced to seek out the best options. As a consequence, utilizing green fuel, such as biodiesel derived from natural sources, is a realistic option. Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) is recognized as the greatest feedstock for biodiesel production throughout the world, and it has gained a huge market value in the recent years. Conventional cultivation alone will not be sufficient to meet the global need for the plant’s biomass for the production of biodiesel. Adoption of plant tissue culture techniques that improve the biomass availability is an immediate need. The present review provides detailed information regarding in-vitro plant propagation (direct and indirect organogenesis), somatic embryoge...

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Abstract: The genus Jatropha is distributed through out the tropics and sub-tropics growning in marginal lands and is a potential biodiesel crop world wide. The plants can prevent soil erosion, grown as a live fence and used as an alternate commercial crop. The seed oil can be used as a feed stock for biodiesel. Alternatively Jatropha oil is used in soap, glue or dye industry. The seed cake is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, and can be used as manure. All parts of the plant including seeds have medicinal properties.

Ahmed Attaya

The last decade witnessed a blooming interest in the development of in vitro culturing technology for the energy crop Jatropha curcas. As a result, a series of papers were published reporting on callus induction, somatic embryogenesis and micropropagation. This study aim to give an overview about reliable and highly efficient tissue culture protocols for direct and callus mediated shoot regeneration and somatic embryogenesis are established for J. curcas which indicates potential for widening the genetic base through biotechnological tools. A variety of explants have been used that produced callus in the presence of different auxins and cytokinins and conclude that J. curcas gave better growth of callus in medium with high concentrations of auxin and cytokinin. Shoot tips have been used to propagate Jatropha successfully, however, the quality of the shoots and their capacity to regenerate roots are not yet sufficiently robust to allow commercial implementation. We also point out the...

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Comfortable life, economic growth, industrialisation, global warming, energy security and sustainable environment are burning issues facing modern civilisation. The availability of adequate renewable energy is in demand. Jatropha is being explored as a potential biofuel crop candidate because of its biodiesel production potential, high oil content, rapid growth, easy propagation, drought tolerant nature, relatively less irrigation and agricultural inputs, insect and pest resistance. However, previous programmes for Jatropha plantation did not satisfy the expectation because of the absence of a good commercial variety, large scale propagation without evaluating the planting material, knowledge gap and consideration as low a impute crop. Lack of systematic breeding programmes, the inexistence of a collaboration between scientists in this field, the unavailability of desired germplasm and more importantly less variability within the species are the constraints for the conventional breeding for a Jatropha improvement programme. Biological techniques have proven records for the improvement of many crops. Jatropha " organogenesis " , which has insignificant contribution to genetic improvement, is studied. Several genomic and transgenic studies have been reported, but it is still far behind in comparison to other crops. It is time to investigate somaclonal variation, in vitro selection and haploid breeding for Jatropha improvement. Resequencing and transcriptom analysis are necessary for high dance linkage map and a good reference genome. Genome wide association studies (GWAS) and genomic selection (GS) are pending. Genetic engineering, particularly to increase female flowers in inflorescence, eliminates the toxic component and increases tolerance to diseases, insects and pests should be given priority.

Journal of Crop Science and Biotechnology

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Relationship of nanomaterials’ structure based on their application in the food industry: physicochemical and techno-functional characteristics, biosynthesis, characterization, and antibacterial activity of gold nanoparticles., jatropha curcas l. seed cake residue as an alternative source for obtaining curcin: a type 1 ribosome-inactivating protein, gold nanoparticles: can they be the next magic bullet for multidrug-resistant bacteria, preparation and antibacterial properties of gold nanoparticles: a review, surface chemistry of gold nanoparticles determines interactions with bovine serum albumin., systematic ftir spectroscopy study of the secondary structure changes in human serum albumin under various denaturation conditions, pegylated gold nanoparticles: stability, cytotoxicity and antibacterial activity, technical options for valorisation of jatropha press-cake: a review, food safety in the 21st century, related papers.

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Comparison of emission properties of sustainable aviation fuels and conventional aviation fuels: a review, 1. introduction, 2. aviation fuel emissions, 2.1. lca of co 2 emissions, 2.2. aviation no x emissions, 2.3. aviation co emissions, 2.4. aviation so 2 emissions, 2.5. aviation pm emissions, 2.6. aviation uhc emissions, 2.7. comprehensive comparison of emissions performance between safs and conventional aviation fuels, 3. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest, abbreviations.

IATA	International Air Transport Association
SAFs	Sustainable aviation fuels
FT-SPK	Fischer–Tropsch hydroprocessed synthesized paraffinic kerosine
ATAG	Air Transport Action Group
CAGR	Compound annual growth rate
HEFA SPK	Synthesized paraffinic kerosene hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids
SIP	Synthesized iso-paraffins
ATJ-SPK	Alcohol-to-jet synthetic paraffinic kerosene
HC-HEFAs	Hydroprocessed hydrocarbons, esters, and fatty acids
APUs	Auxiliary power units
LCA	Life cycle analysis
RF	Radiative forcing
ERF	Effective radiative forcing
EI-CO	CO emission indices
EI-NO	NO emission indices
EI-CO	CO emission indices
EI-SO	SO emission indices
PM/EI-PM	Particulate matter/PM emission indices
GHGs/EI-GHGs	Greenhouse gases/GHGs emission index
UHC/EI-UHC	Unburnt hydrocarbons/UHC emission indices
WTWa	Well-to-wake
HRJ	Hydroprocessed renewable jet
NG	Natural gas
FER	Fossil energy ratio
HDCJ	Hydroprocessed depolymerized cellulosic jet
DSHC	Direct sugar to hydrocarbons
O	Ozone
CH	Methane
SWV	Stratospheric water vapor
RCP	Representative concentration pathways
MBJ	Medium-chain fatty acids to biojet
TTT	Turbine-inlet temperatures
CLD	Chemiluminescence detector
CDC	Colorless distributed combustion
SMD	Sauter mean diameter
FAME	Fatty acid methyl ester
AAFX	Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment
BC	Black carbon
EGT	Exhaust gas temperature
FAEE	Fatty acids ethyl esters
LTO	Landing-take-off
BD	Biodiesel
nvPM	Non-volatile particulate matter
vPM	Volatile particulate matter
PM	Particulate matter with a dry diameter less than 2.5 µm
aCAE	Aerosol cloud albedo effect
FSC	Fuel sulfur content
ULSJ	Ultra-low sulfur jet fuel
RE	Radiative effect
GMD	Geometric mean diameter
GSD	Geometric standard deviation
VOCs	Volatile organic compounds
PAHs	Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
MES	Main engine start
ECS	Environmental control system
NL	No load
HCHJ	Hydrothermal-condensation-hydrotreating jet
AFR	Air to fuel ratio
PPBB	Premixed pre-evaporated Bunsen burner
GTL	Gas to liquid
JME	Jatropha methyl ester
CTME	Cotton methyl ester
CRME	Corn methyl ester

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Ref.	Fuel	Sulfur Content (ppm)	Method/Burning Platform	SO Emissions
ASTM D7566 [ ]	FT-SPK	<15	D5453/D2622	-
	HEFA-SPK	<15
	SIP	<2
	FT-SPK/A	<15
	ATJ-SPK	<15
	CHJ	<15
	HC-HEFA SPK	<15
ASTM D1655 [ ]	Jet A or Jet A-1	<3000	D3227/IP 342	-
Corporan et al. (2007) [ ]	JP-8	600	T63 Engine	SO emissions of JP8, 25% synjet, 50% synjet and 75% synjet were approximately 34, 23, 15, and 7 ppm, respectively.
	25% synjet	500
	50% synjet	400
	75% synjet	200
	synjet	<100
Bulzan et al. (2010) [ ]	JP-8	1148	CFM56-2C1 Engine Garrett GTC 85-98CK (APU)	50:50, the emissions of SO from blended fuels are approximately half that of pure JP-8.
	FT1	19
	FT1 Blend	699
	FT2	22
	FT2 Blend	658
Yakovlieva et al. (2019) [ ]	Jet A-1	250	Calculating	10% FAEE blend fuel reduced SO emissions by nearly 57%.
Yakovlieva et al. (2019) [ ]	FAEE of RO	85	Calculating	10% FAEE blend fuel reduced SO emissions by nearly 57%.
Cican et al. (2019) [ ]	Jet A	-	JETCAT P80 Microengine	With a 20% blend of BD, the EI-SO decreases to around 10 ppm.
Cican et al. (2019) [ ]	Biodiesel	-	JETCAT P80 Microengine
Tran et al. (2020) [ ]	Jet A-1	500	GE CF700-2D2 Engine	The increase in fuel sulfur content correlates with elevated emissions of volatile particulate matter.
	JP-5	200
	ATJ-SPK Blend	0
	ATJ-SPK Neat	0.96
Corporan et al. (2010) [ ]	JP-8a	800	F117-PW-100 engine	Percentage of engine max thrust = 4, 33, 45, 54, 63%, JP-8/HRJ and JP-8a/HRJ/FT exhibit a reduction in EI-SO exceeding 40%.
	JP-8b	800
	JP-8b/HRJ	500
	JP-8a/HRJ/FT	500

Ref.	Fuel	Aromatics	Method/Burning Platform	PM Emissions
ASTM D7566 [ ]	FT-SPK	<0.5 m%	D2425	-
	HEFA-SPK	<0.5 m%
	SIP	<0.5 m%
	FT-SPK/A	<20 m%
	ATJ-SPK	<0.5 m%
	CHJ	8.4–21.2 m%	D2425 or D6379/IP 436
	HC-HEFA SPK	<0.5 m%	D2425
ASTM D1655 [ ]	Jet A or Jet A-1	<25/26.5 v%	D1319, etc.	-
Durdina et al. (2021) [ ]	Jet A	18.1 v%	CFM56-7B26 engine	nvPM number decreased by 60% and 10% during ground idle and take-off phases, respectively. nvPM mass and nvPM number decreased by 20% and 25% over a standardized LTO cycle, respectively.
Durdina et al. (2021) [ ]	32% HEFA-SPK blend	11.3 v%	CFM56-7B26 engine
Schripp et al. (2019) [ ]	Jet A-1	15.6 v%	CFM56-5C4 engine	70% reduction in particle mass for ATJ fuel compared with Jet A-1.
	ReadiJet	20.9 v%
	ATJ	<1 v%
Kurzawska et al. (2021) [ ]	Jet A-1	17.3 v%	GTM-120 engine	Total particle number and mass by approximately 18% and 53%, respectively
Kurzawska et al. (2021) [ ]	50% ATJ-SPK blend	8.8 v%	GTM-120 engine
Chan et al. (2016) [ ]	Jet A-1	18.3 v%	GE CF-700-2D-2 turbofan engine	100% CH-SKA, 50% HEFA-SPK, and 100% FT-SPK respectively reduce EI-PM by 7–25%, 40–60%, and 70–95%.
	CH-SKA	17 v%
	FT-SPK	0.5 v%
	HEFA-SPK	10.4 v%
Tran et al. (2020) [ ]	Jet A-1	18.5 v%	GE CF700-2D2 Engine	ATJ-SPK blend reduced total particle number emissions by up to 97% compared with Jet A-1
	JP-5	20.1 v%
	ATJ-SPK Blend	8 v%
	ATJ-SPK Neat	0 v%
Voigt et al. (2021) [ ]	Jet A-1	18.8/17.2/18.6/ 16.5 v%	Airbus A320 equipped with two V2527-A5 engines	Semisynthetic jet fuels lead to a 50% to 70% reduction in both soot and ice number concentrations
	41% FT-SPK blend	11.4 v%
	49% HEFA-SPK blend	8.5 v%
	30% HEFA-SPK blend	9.5 v%
Lobo et al. (2015) [ ]	Jet A-1	15.55 wt%	Garrett GTCP85 (APU)	50% UCO-HEFA blend fuel reduced nvPM number and mass emissions by approximately 35% and 60%, respectively.
Lobo et al. (2015) [ ]	UCO-HEFA	1.91 wt%	Garrett GTCP85 (APU)
Moore et al. (2017) [ ]	Medium-sulfur-content Jet A fuel	21.1 ± 0.7 v%	DC-8 aircraft equipped with four CFM56-2-C1 engines	Compared with medium-sulfur-content Jet A fuel, the 50% HEFA blend fuel reduced the number of vPM and nvPM by 52% and 45%, respectively, while decreasing vPM volume, nvPM volume, and total PM volume by approximately 50%.
	Low-sulfur-content Jet A fuel	21.4 ± 1.4 v%
	50:50 HEFA: Low-sulfur-content Jet A fuel	12.9 ± 1.2 v%

Ref.	Fuel	Method/Burning Platform	UHC Emissions
Undavalli et al. (2022) [ ]	Jet A-1	GTCP85 aircraft APU	With the increase in HEFA proportion, there is no clear trend of change; the UHC emissions of HEFA-blended fuel slightly decrease.
Undavalli et al. (2022) [ ]	18 different ratios of HEFA and Jet A-1 blend fuels	GTCP85 aircraft APU
Liu et al. (2023) [ ]	RP-3	ZF850 jet engine	The impact of HCHJ doping on the EI-UHC of RP-3 shows no clear trend.
Liu et al. (2023) [ ]	5% and 10% HCHJ blend fuels	ZF850 jet engine
Badami et al. (2014) [ ]	Jet-A	SR-30 turbojet workbench	GTL fuel > Jet-A > 30% JME blend fuel (50,000–60,000 rpm).
	GTL fuel
	30% JME blend fuel
Sundararaj et al. (2019) [ ]	Jet A-1	High enthalpy rig with combustor	EI-UHC decreases with the increase of Camelina or the decrease of Jatropha in the fuel mixture.
	Biofuel (Camelina)
	Biofuel (Jatropha)
Ali et al. (2017) [ ]	Jet A-1	Olympus E-start HP turbojet engine	50% CTME blend fuel and 50% CRME blend fuel respectively reduced EI-UHC by 36.5% and 30.8%.
	50% CTME blend fuel
	50% CRME blend fuel
Rehman et al. (2011) [ ]	Diesel	IS/60 Rovers gas turbine	Diesel > 15% Jatropha biodiesel > 25% Jatropha biodiesel
	15% Jatropha biodiesel
	25% Jatropha biodiesel
GE [ ]	Conventional aviation fuel	GE engine	The emissions of UHC increase by 20–45%.
GE [ ]	Bio-SPK	GE engine	The emissions of UHC increase by 20–45%.
Rolls Royce [ ]	JP-8	Annular rig	Not much difference.
Rolls Royce [ ]	FT fuel	Annular rig	Not much difference.
Pratt and Whitney [ ]	Jet A-1	a Pratt and Whitney Canada small turbofan engine	Not much difference.
	Neste oil
	50% Neste oil blend fuel

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Song, Z.; Li, Z.; Liu, Z. Comparison of Emission Properties of Sustainable Aviation Fuels and Conventional Aviation Fuels: A Review. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 5484. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135484

Song Z, Li Z, Liu Z. Comparison of Emission Properties of Sustainable Aviation Fuels and Conventional Aviation Fuels: A Review. Applied Sciences . 2024; 14(13):5484. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135484

Song, Zehua, Zekai Li, and Ziyu Liu. 2024. "Comparison of Emission Properties of Sustainable Aviation Fuels and Conventional Aviation Fuels: A Review" Applied Sciences 14, no. 13: 5484. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135484

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(PDF) Jatropha curcas: an overview
Almost every year 2-3 much the same review articles are published highlighting the importance of Jatropha and curcas oil [11, 12]. Prastiyanto ME, et al. [13] reported the antibacterial potential ...
(PDF) A REVIEW ON THE MEDICINAL USES AND TOXICOLOGICAL ...
Jatropha curcas seed i ntoxication in brown H isex chicks w as ch aracterized by growth depression, hepatic n ephropathies, b leeding, and congesti on when forced-fe d with 0.1 or 0.5 percent of ...
(PDF) Chapter 2 Jatropha curcas: A Review
The seeds (i) are 1580-1600 seeds/kg of fruit, (ii) weigh 600-640 mg each, (iii) account for 4980 cal/g (20.85 MJ/kg) with an oil content of 35% and an. energy content of 9036 cal/g (37.83 MJ ...
Jatropha curcas: a review on biotechnological status and challenges
The disadvantages of conventional propagation in J. curcas. Jatropha is a seed-bearing plant and can produce 1-2 kg of seed per plant/year when the plant is 2-3 years old. The production amount may increase with increasing age of the plant. The edaphic factors also play a role in the rate of seed production.
Therapeutic biology of Jatropha curcas: a mini review
Abstract. Jatropha curcas is a drought resistant, perennial plant that grows even in the marginal and poor soil. Raising Jatropha is easy. It keeps producing seeds for many years. In the recent years, Jatropha has become famous primarily for the production of biodiesel; besides this it has several medicinal applications, too.
A Systematic Review of the Bioactivity of Jatropha curcas L
The use of botanical extracts of the plant Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae) represents a valuable alternative to control insect pests and avoid the detrimental effects on the environment and health that arise due to synthetic chemical insecticides. Thus, we conducted a systematic review to summarize the published evidence on the bioactivity of J. curcas against insect pests. Electronic ...
JCDB: a comprehensive knowledge base for Jatropha curcas, an emerging
Background. Jatropha curcas is an oil-bearing plant, and has seeds with high oil content (~ 40%). Several advantages, such as easy genetic transformation and short generation duration, have led to the emergence of J. curcas as a model for woody energy plants. With the development of high-throughput sequencing, the genome of Jatropha curcas has been sequenced by different groups and a mass of ...
Chapter 2 Jatropha curcas: A Review
J. curcas or "physic nuts," which will be called "Jatropha" below, is a small tree or large shrub that normally reaches a height of 3-5 m, but can reach a height of 8-10 m under favorable conditions (Fig. 1).. Download : Download full-size image Fig. 1. Structure of a native Jatropha tree—in the middle (courtesy from N. Tominaga, Biojan, Brazil).
Assessment of Antioxidant and Cytoprotective Potential of Jatropha
Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.) is a plant native of Central and South America, but widely distributed in the wild or semi-cultivated areas in Africa, India, and South East Asia.Although studies are available in literature on the polyphenolic content and bioactivity of Jatropha curcas L., no information is currently available on plants grown in pedoclimatic and soil conditions different from the ...
Biology and genetic improvement of Jatropha curcas L.: A review
Very little is known about Jatropha genome. Chromosomes are of very small size (bivalent length 1-3.67 μm) with most species having 2n = 22 and base number of x = 11 [39].It is attractive candidate for genome sequencing with genome size (1C) to be 416 Mbp [40]. J. curcas is an introduced plant to many countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America and there have not been many systematic ...
The Floral Biology of Jatropha curcas L.—A Review
Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) has attracted considerable recent attention as a potential horticultural crop based on the quality of its oil seed for biodiesel production, and its ability to grow in unproductive subtropical or subdesert soils. Additionally, several characteristics of the species make it a good model for a more thorough understanding of the reproductive biology of a species ...
[PDF] A Review on JATROPHA CURCAS
The effectiveness of different parts of Jatropha curcas plant against some selected human pathogens as antimicrobic agent and antioxidant and phytochemicals from different plant sections of J. curcas were discovered to discover. : Jatropha curcas L. commonly known as "physic nut" is an unusual species that shows aggressive characters. Plantation of Jatropha species is being undertaken at a ...
Agriculture
Jatropha curcas is a woody-shrub species of the Euphorbiaceae family that is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical areas. The great interest in its cultivation lies in the potential for achieving elevated yields of a high-quality oil. Another characteristic that makes J. curcas promising is its ability to produce green energy even in high-salinity soils. For a commercial cultivation ...
Jatropha curcas: A review on biotechnological status and challenges
Jatropha curcas Linn., a non-edible, eco-friendly, non-toxic, biodegradable fuel-. producing plant has attracted worldwide attention as an. alternate sustainable energy source for the future. This ...
Jatropha Curcas L.: A Comprehensive Study on Antibacterial ...
Jatropha curcas L. has a longstanding history of utilization in traditional medical practices worldwide for many generations. The present investigation looked into the antibacterial and antioxidant effects as well as conducted phytochemical analyses of extracts derived from the roots and stems of Jatropha curcas L., using methanol and acetone as solvents. The antibacterial efficacy against ...
A review of Jatropha curcas: an oil plant of unfulfilled promise
Abstract. Jatropha curcas is a multipurpose plant with many attributes and considerable potential. It is a tropical plant that can be grown in low to high rainfall areas and can be used to reclaim land, as a hedge and/or as a commercial crop. Thus, growing it could provide employment, improve the environment and enhance the quality of rural life.
Therapeutic Biology of Jatropha curcas: A Mini Review
Jatropha curcas L. Barbados nut, purging nut tree, is a bush or small tree and belongs to euphorbiaceae family. This plant has been used traditionally for medicinal purposes. The plant possesses anti-inflammatory, antimetastatic, antitumor, coagulant and anti-coagulant (dose dependent), disinfectant, antiparasitic, wound healing, insecticidal ...
Therapeutic Biology of Jatropha curcas: A Mini Review
Jatropha curcas is a drought resistant, perennial plant that grows even in the marginal and poor soil. Raising Jatropha is easy. It keeps producing seeds for many years. In the recent years, Jatropha has become famous primarily for the production of biodiesel; besides this it has several medicinal applications, too. Most parts of this plant are used for the treatment of various human and ...
(PDF) Jatropha curcas : a review on biotechnological status and
Plant Biotech Rep 2:93-112 Kumar N, Reddy MP (2010) Plant regeneration through the direct induction of shoot buds from petiole explants of Jatropha curcas: a biofuel plant. Ann Appl Biol 156:367-375 Kumar A, Sharma S (2008) An evaluation of multipurpose oil seed crop for industrial uses (Jatropha curcas L.). A review.
Therapeutic Biology of Jatropha curcas: A Mini Review
Abstract. Jatropha curcas is a drought resistant, perennial plant that grows even in the marginal and poor soil. Raising Jatropha is easy. It keeps producing seeds for many years. In the recent ...
Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles by curcin from Jatropha curcas
DOI: 10.1557/s43580-024-00876-3 Corpus ID: 270332891; Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles by curcin from Jatropha curcas: Characterization and antibacterial activity @article{GmezGmez2024GreenSO, title={Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles by curcin from Jatropha curcas: Characterization and antibacterial activity}, author={Ana Luisa G{\'o}mez-G{\'o}mez and Alma Leticia Mart{\'i}nez-Ayala ...
Factors affecting the potential of Jatropha curcas for sustainable
This review is, therefore, all-inclusive and critically examined and discussed all factors that are affecting the sustainable biodiesel production potential of Jatropha; thus, the suitability and potential of Jatropha for large-scale biodiesel production were evaluated against the ecological, economic, social, technological, and legislative ...
Jatropha curcas
Jatropha curcas is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, that is native to the American tropics, most likely Mexico and Central America. It is originally native to the tropical areas of the Americas from Mexico to Argentina, and has been spread throughout the world in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, becoming naturalized or invasive in many areas.
(PDF) Jatropha curcas: A systemic review on pharmacological
PDF | Jatropha curcas L. Barbados nut, purging nut tree, is a bush or small tree and belongs to euphorbiaceae family. This plant has been used... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ...
Applied Sciences
In order to achieve the International Air Transport Association's (IATA) goal of achieving net-zero emissions in the aviation industry by 2050, there has been a growing emphasis globally on the technological development and practical application of sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs). Discrepancies in feedstock and production processes result in differences in composition between SAFs and ...
Biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas: A review
The fuel properties of Jatropha biodiesel are comparable to those of fossil diesel and. confirm to the American and European stand ards. The objective of this review is to giv e an upd ate on. the ...

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Assessment of Antioxidant and Cytoprotective Potential of Jatropha ( Jatropha curcas ) Grown in Southern Italy

Davide Barreca

Maria Rosaria Panuccio

1. Introduction

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. Phytochemical Screening and Antioxidant Activity

2.2. Analysis of Anti-Peroxidative and Cytoprotective Activity

2.3. RP-DAD-HPLC Separation and Identification of Flavonoids Derivatives

2.4. Antioxidant Capacity

3. Materials and Methods

3.2. Chlorophyll and Carotenoid Pigments

3.3. Anthocyanins

3.4. Tartaric Acid Esters and Total Phenols

3.5. Reduced Glutathione

3.6. Ascorbic and Dehydroascorbic Acid

3.7. Enzyme Assays

3.8. Preparation of Methanol Extract

3.9. DPPH Radical Scavenging Assay

3.10. ABTS Radical Scavenging Assay

3.11. Ferric-Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Assay

3.12. Ferrozine Assay

3.13. Flavonoids Profile Identification

3.14. Acid Hydrolysis

3.15. Erythrocytes Lipid Peroxidation Assay

3.16. Lymphocyte Isolation

3.17. Cytotoxicity Assays

3.18. Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) Assay

3.19. Statistical Analysis

4. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Author Contributions

Conflicts of Interest

The Floral Biology of Jatropha curcas L.—A Review

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Jatropha Curcas L.: A Comprehensive Study on Antibacterial, Antioxidant, and Phytochemical Properties

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