mental benefits of exercise essay

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Physical Exercise: An Overview of Benefits From Psychological Level to Genetics and Beyond

Yucong wang, kalaiselvan ashokan.

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Edited by: Anand Thirupathi, Ningbo University, China

Reviewed by: Shibu Marthandam Asokan, The Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Taiwan; Paulo Cesar Lock Silveira, Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, Brazil

*Correspondence: Yucong Wang, [email protected]

Kalaiselvan Ashokan, [email protected]

This article was submitted to Exercise Physiology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Physiology

Received 2021 Jun 28; Accepted 2021 Jul 21; Collection date 2021.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

Any form of physical activity, including exercise, is linked with preventing several diseases including metabolic disorders, cancer, and mood disorders. Beyond benefits, its therapeutic activity is inconclusive in terms of types, intensity, and individual training status, and this could be a major research for prescribing exercise as a therapeutic strategy. Exercise and its myriad forms occupy the space on clinical recommendation, which implies that quantifiable benefits of the same have been proven. Further, the benefits of exercise and its impact have also been found to have a genetic underlying interaction, which has created a niche of personal genomics, wherein apart from diet, an exercise regimen also becomes tailorable for every individual. Many subjective well-being reports highlighted daily exercise to keep mental and general health in excellent conditions, and the uncertainties around it. Thus, adopting an exercise behavior and inculcating it as a routine has been recommended. Further, the kind of benefit that can be extracted out of exercise and training is to a great extent influenced by genetic markers around fat, obesity, hunger, as well as satiety. Genetic markers can also impact the body temperature during exercise, making the entire experience of training either comfortable or unpleasant. Thus, there is an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence that has gathered around the benefits of exercise, which has become a pressing need from the 21st century when the belief in the value of exercise started waning, and that spiked up the era of lifestyle and noncommunicable ailments.

Keywords: exercise, genetics, physical activity, benefits, gene

Introduction

Physical exercise has a proven and documented effect on mortality, wherein its preventive impact on diseases like cancer has entitled it to be therapeutic, beyond a healthy habit. For example, exercise has been demonstrated to cause 60% reduction in tumor incidence and growth in several mouse models, and this may be due to exercise-induced influx of immune cells in tumors ( Kujala et al., 1998 ; Idorn and Straten, 2017 ). The longevity benefit of exercise has also been proven in large cohort studies that found adherence to physical activity (PA) recommendations to be beneficial ( McGLory et al., 2018 ). Further, the exercise-induced longevity benefits threshold is obtained at a level three to five times higher (450–750 min/week) over the minimum recommendations among adults ( Arem et al., 2015 ). The first PA recommendation guidelines were released in the year 2008 by the federal government, which recommends that a 150–300 min of moderate-intensity or 75–150 min of vigorous-intensity of aerobic exercise can provide substantial health benefits (Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee). Studies have also assessed the impact of environment toward the development of exercise tendency in childhood, wherein influence of parents, peers, and coaches have been documented toward contribution for a motivational climate ( Allen and Hodge, 2006 ; Keegan et al., 2009 ). Studies have also discussed intrinsic and extrinsic motivation models, wherein parents are the global influence, whereas peers and coaches exert motivation in both contextual and situational levels ( Vallerand, 1997 ). Exercise has also been reviewed and proven as a promising adjunct intervention for mood disorders, including bipolar and major depressive disorder (MDD) ( Hearing et al., 2016 ). However, several factors of exercise are inconclusive such as type, intensity, duration, and training status of the individual, thus recommending exercise as major therapeutics to prevent or control diseases has bigger challenges. Therefore, this review focuses on the benefits of exercise from psychological response to genetics.

Psychological Impact of Exercise

Exercise has been evaluated as an adjunct intervention for mood disorders including MDD and bipolar disorder. The Healthy Body Healthy Mind Feasibility Study involved engaging youth between 15 and 25 years of age with MDD in a multimodal exercise intervention plus usual care to evaluate the magnitude of impact on psychological, physical fitness, and biomarker outcome. The exercise program involved a single session of motivational interviewing to enhance adherence, followed by a 1-h exercise session three times a week for 12 weeks. Depression assessment was done at 12 weeks by the Beck Depression Inventory, the mean scores of which showed a decrease from 31.9 ± 9.1 to 13.1 ± 10.1 (Cohen d effect size = 1.96). The positive impact highlighted by this study motivates recognizing the use of exercise as a powerful adjunct tool ( Adriana et al., 2020 ). The prevalence of child and adolescent mental illness, including all mental disorders, was found to at 13.4% ( Polanczyk et al., 2015 ). The updated World Health Organization (WHO) estimates on mental disorders identified the prevalence to be 22.1% (depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and anxiety) at any time point among conflict-affected populations. The age-standardized and mean-comorbidity-adjusted prevalence was 13% for mild forms and 4% for moderate forms ( Charlson et al., 2019 ). MDD is the third greatest disease factor for disease burden the world over, and with the existing psychosocial and pharmacological intervention, the rate of relapse of the quality and functioning of life among affected has been recorded to be impaired ( Rapaport et al., 2005 ). Scientific reports have demonstrated moderate to higher intensity exercise as an effective adjunct treatment for improving depressive symptoms ( Lawlor and Hopker, 2001 ; Daley, 2008 ; Schuch et al., 2016 ). The association between depression and quality of life has been well established, and even with pharmacological treatments, less than 50% on adequate dose experience significant clinical response ( Sinyor et al., 2010 ). The underlying mechanism of action involving exercise as an intervention for anxiety and depression includes regulation in the production of the brain-derived neurotropic factor, hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, D-β-hydroxybutyrate, and the GSK3β/β-catenin pathway. The HUNT cohort study involving a healthy cohort of 33,908 adults was followed up for 11 years and it identified regular leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) to reduce the incidence of depression ( Harvey et al., 2018 ). Further, postadjustment for confounders, the population attributable fraction suggested that when the relationship is assumed to be causal, 12% of the future cases of depression becomes preventable by engaging in at least 1 h of PA every week, thus proving that LTPA of any intensity becomes protective against future depression ( Manger and Motta, 2005 ). Aerobic exercise has also been studied in relation to symptoms of PTSD. Studies that examined the impact of a 12-week aerobic exercise program involving 30 min of jogging/walking between 60 and 80% maximum heart rate indicated a significant reduction in the symptom of PTSD. Another study involving 33 PTSD-affected were subjected to 2 weeks of stationary biking aerobic exercise of six sessions, and 89% of the participants reported significant reductions in severity after 2 weeks ( Fetzner and Asmundson, 2014 ). With reference to studies on depression, a dose-dependent relation between exercise and depression scores have been found. One such study assessed the benefit of low-frequency exercise involving one aerobic session/week compared with high-frequency exercise involving three to five aerobic sessions/week and found a significant reduction in depression scores among participants in the latter group ( Legrand and Heuze, 2007 ). Thus, promoting exercise in primary care centers, based on guideline recommendations, can provide scientifically proven benefits for a wide range of mood disorders and work as an effective adjunct for symptom management.

Impact of Genetics on Exercise Benefits

The physiological as well as psychological impact of different forms of exercise and physical exercise has been associated with key genetic markers, which can modulate the outcome to a great extent ( Figure 1 ). Scientifically established relation exists between risk genetic markers and their impact on attenuation by exercise regimen tailored as per impact linked genetics. To cite an example, one study among Taiwanese adults assessed the impact of aerobic exercise and badminton on levels of high-density cholesterol and its relation with the genetic variant rs328 in the lipoprotein lipase gene. This study involving 3,742 men and 4,071 women between the ages of 30 and 70 were subjected to no exercise, aerobic exercise, and badminton. Individuals engaged in the aerobic and the badminton exercise group exhibited higher levels of good cholesterol, high-density lipoproteins (HDL), and were also carriers of the rs328 genotypes ( Nassef et al., 2020 ). Studies have also investigated the impact of genetic variants in leptin ( LEP ) and LEP receptor ( LEPR ) on habitual PA, and the body composition response to a unilateral upper body resistance training (RT) program. The variants rs2167270, rs1137100, rs1137101, rs1805096, and rs8179183 were studied. Carriers of the GG genotype of rs2167270 exhibited more kcal per week in vigorous-intensity PA and sports recreation compared with “A” allele carriers. In case of RT carriers of the LEPR “G” allele for variant rs1137101 exhibited greater gain in arm muscle and subcutaneous fat volume ( Walsh et al., 2012 ). The fat mass and obesity-associated gene ( FTO ) is the first and widely studied obesity loci identified through genome-wide association studies. The variant rs9939609 has been widely reported, wherein each additional minor allele increases the risk of obesity by 20–30% ( Frayling et al., 2007 ). Studies have correlated the impact of PA to attenuate obesity risk through FTO variant rs9939609. One such metaanalysis study, involving 45 studies on adults and nine on children, identified the minor allele “A” of rs9939609 to increase odds of obesity by 1.23-fold/allele. Further, the risk was also shown to be attenuated by PA, wherein the risk odds reduced to 1.22/allele, when compared with the inactive group with odds risk as 1.30/allele, thus exhibiting a risk reduction of 27% among the physically active ( Kilpeläinen et al., 2011 ).

Physical exercise influences physiological, psychological, and genetical changes, which results in producing various benefits, including preventing metabolic and mood disorders.

Aerobic exercise benefits on physiology among sedentary adults have also been evaluated with genetic markers. One such study involved participants in a 30-min submaximal aerobic exercise session and found two variants in the FTO gene, viz rs8044769 and rs3751812, to change positively during exercise ( Karoly et al., 2012 ). The CREB1 gene variants, viz rs2253206 and rs2360969, were linked to change in body temperature during exercise and with maximal oxygen capacity (VO 2 max). The variant rs1379659 ( SLIT2 gene) and rs1935881 ( FAM5C gene) were linked to changes in norepinephrine during exercise, whereas the OPRM1 variant rs1799971 was linked to changes in norepinephrine, lactate, as well as the rate of perceived exertion during exercise. This highlights the impact of genetic markers in determining the outcome and benefit of aerobic exercise ( Cagnin et al., 2019 ). Studies have also identified heritability to affect VO 2 max response to exercise training by 47% ( Jones et al., 2016 ). More than a dozen genetic variants have been linked to exercise-related traits and outcomes, and this paved way for the development of genetics-based algorithms for personalized training programs. One such study report highlighted an algorithm that facilitated the achievement of better results in response to high- and low-intensity RT program by predicting the potential of the athlete for power and endurance by studying 15 genetic markers linked to performance. This algorithm development included two studies involving athletes from different sports and soccer players who were subjected to 8-week low- and high-intensity RT with genetically matched and mismatched. The athletes in the matched group exhibited a significant increase in countermovement jump (CMJ; p = 0.0005) and aerobic 3-min cycle test (Aero3; p = 0.0004), whereas those in the mismatched group hardly exhibited any improvement. Further, among the soccer players, the matched group exhibited better improvement in CMJ and Aero3 ( p < 0.0001). The frequency of nonresponders in this study was found to be 82% from the mismatched group. This reiterates the effectiveness of genetically-tailored exercise programs ( Jones et al., 2016 ). Study literature till date reports on the presence of 36 genetic markers from mitochondrial DNA, Y chromosome, as well as autosomal genes to be linked to elite athlete status, whereas 39 genetic markers from 19 genes and mitochondrial DNA have been linked to interindividual variability in response to endurance/strength training ( Ahmetov and Rogozkin, 2009 ). These findings highlight the significance and need to include genetic signature analysis when utilizing exercise as an intervention for risk, disease, as well as treatment management in known cases.

The benefits of long-term exercise, which include better endurance capacity, stamina, as well as improved oxygen supply to the muscles, have been well documented. However, the kind of benefit that can be induced to alter the genetic status of the individual, including genetic markers are less reported. Genetic markers can also impact the body temperature during exercise, making the entire experience of training either comfortable or unpleasant. Thus, there is an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence which has gathered around the benefits of exercise, which has become a pressing need from the 21st century when the belief on the value of exercise started waning, and that spiked up the era of lifestyle and noncommunicable ailments.

Author Contributions

YW and KA conceived and wrote this manuscript and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge Kishore Kumar for his help in editing the manuscript.

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Physical Activity Is Good for the Mind and the Body

Health and Well-Being Matter is the monthly blog of the Director of the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.

Everyone has their own way to “recharge” their sense of well-being — something that makes them feel good physically, emotionally, and spiritually even if they aren’t consciously aware of it. Personally, I know that few things can improve my day as quickly as a walk around the block or even just getting up from my desk and doing some push-ups. A hike through the woods is ideal when I can make it happen. But that’s me. It’s not simply that I enjoy these activities but also that they literally make me feel better and clear my mind.

Mental health and physical health are closely connected. No kidding — what’s good for the body is often good for the mind. Knowing what you can do physically that has this effect for you will change your day and your life.

Physical activity has many well-established mental health benefits. These are published in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans and include improved brain health and cognitive function (the ability to think, if you will), a reduced risk of anxiety and depression, and improved sleep and overall quality of life. Although not a cure-all, increasing physical activity directly contributes to improved mental health and better overall health and well-being.

Learning how to routinely manage stress and getting screened for depression are simply good prevention practices. Awareness is especially critical at this time of year when disruptions to healthy habits and choices can be more likely and more jarring. Shorter days and colder temperatures have a way of interrupting routines — as do the holidays, with both their joys and their stresses. When the plentiful sunshine and clear skies of temperate months give way to unpredictable weather, less daylight, and festive gatherings, it may happen unconsciously or seem natural to be distracted from being as physically active. However, that tendency is precisely why it’s so important that we are ever more mindful of our physical and emotional health — and how we can maintain both — during this time of year.

Roughly half of all people in the United States will be diagnosed with a mental health disorder at some point in their lifetime, with anxiety and anxiety disorders being the most common. Major depression, another of the most common mental health disorders, is also a leading cause of disability for middle-aged adults. Compounding all of this, mental health disorders like depression and anxiety can affect people’s ability to take part in health-promoting behaviors, including physical activity. In addition, physical health problems can contribute to mental health problems and make it harder for people to get treatment for mental health disorders.

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought the need to take care of our physical and emotional health to light even more so these past 2 years. Recently, the U.S. Surgeon General highlighted how the pandemic has exacerbated the mental health crisis in youth .

The good news is that even small amounts of physical activity can immediately reduce symptoms of anxiety in adults and older adults. Depression has also shown to be responsive to physical activity. Research suggests that increased physical activity, of any kind, can improve depression symptoms experienced by people across the lifespan. Engaging in regular physical activity has also been shown to reduce the risk of developing depression in children and adults.

Though the seasons and our life circumstances may change, our basic needs do not. Just as we shift from shorts to coats or fresh summer fruits and vegetables to heartier fall food choices, so too must we shift our seasonal approach to how we stay physically active. Some of that is simply adapting to conditions: bundling up for a walk, wearing the appropriate shoes, or playing in the snow with the kids instead of playing soccer in the grass.

Sometimes there’s a bit more creativity involved. Often this means finding ways to simplify activity or make it more accessible. For example, it may not be possible to get to the gym or even take a walk due to weather or any number of reasons. In those instances, other options include adding new types of movement — such as impromptu dance parties at home — or doing a few household chores (yes, it all counts as physical activity).

During the COVID-19 pandemic, I built a makeshift gym in my garage as an alternative to driving back and forth to the gym several miles from home. That has not only saved me time and money but also afforded me the opportunity to get 15 to 45 minutes of muscle-strengthening physical activity in at odd times of the day.

For more ideas on how to get active — on any day — or for help finding the motivation to get started, check out this Move Your Way® video .

The point to remember is that no matter the approach, the Physical Activity Guidelines recommend that adults get at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity (anything that gets your heart beating faster) each week and at least 2 days per week of muscle-strengthening activity (anything that makes your muscles work harder than usual). Youth need 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. Preschool-aged children ages 3 to 5 years need to be active throughout the day — with adult caregivers encouraging active play — to enhance growth and development. Striving toward these goals and then continuing to get physical activity, in some shape or form, contributes to better health outcomes both immediately and over the long term.

For youth, sports offer additional avenues to more physical activity and improved mental health. Youth who participate in sports may enjoy psychosocial health benefits beyond the benefits they gain from other forms of leisure-time physical activity. Psychological health benefits include higher levels of perceived competence, confidence, and self-esteem — not to mention the benefits of team building, leadership, and resilience, which are important skills to apply on the field and throughout life. Research has also shown that youth sports participants have a reduced risk of suicide and suicidal thoughts and tendencies. Additionally, team sports participation during adolescence may lead to better mental health outcomes in adulthood (e.g., less anxiety and depression) for people exposed to adverse childhood experiences. In addition to the physical and mental health benefits, sports can be just plain fun.

Physical activity’s implications for significant positive effects on mental health and social well-being are enormous, impacting every facet of life. In fact, because of this national imperative, the presidential executive order that re-established the President’s Council on Sports, Fitness & Nutrition explicitly seeks to “expand national awareness of the importance of mental health as it pertains to physical fitness and nutrition.” While physical activity is not a substitute for mental health treatment when needed and it’s not the answer to certain mental health challenges, it does play a significant role in our emotional and cognitive well-being.

No matter how we choose to be active during the holiday season — or any season — every effort to move counts toward achieving recommended physical activity goals and will have positive impacts on both the mind and the body. Along with preventing diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, and the additional risks associated with these comorbidities, physical activity’s positive effect on mental health is yet another important reason to be active and Move Your Way .

As for me… I think it’s time for a walk. Happy and healthy holidays, everyone!

Yours in health, Paul

Paul Reed, MD Rear Admiral, U.S. Public Health Service Deputy Assistant Secretary for Health Director, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion

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