peer reviewed articles on leadership in education

REVIEW article

Strategy and strategic leadership in education: a scoping review.

• 1 Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Research Centre for Human Development, Porto, Portugal
• 2 Universidade de Évora, Évora, Portugal

Strategy and strategic leadership are critical issues for school leaders. However, strategy as a field of research has largely been overlooked within the educational leadership literature. Most of the theoretical and empirical work on strategy and strategic leadership over the past decades has been related to non-educational settings, and scholarship devoted to these issues in education is still minimal. The purpose of this scoping review was to provide a comprehensive overview of relevant research regarding strategy and strategic leadership, identifying any gaps in the literature that could inform future research agendas and evidence for practice. The scoping review is underpinned by the five-stage framework of Arksey and O’Malley . The results indicate that there is scarce literature about strategy and that timid steps have been made toward a more integrated and comprehensive model of strategic leadership. It is necessary to expand research into more complex, longitudinal, and explanatory ways due to a better understanding of these constructs.

Introduction

Strategy and strategic leadership are critical issues for school leaders ( Davies and Davies, 2006 ; Davies and Davies, 2010 ; Eacott, 2010a ; Eacott, 2011 ). However, strategy as a field of research has largely been overlooked in educational leadership literature ( Davies and Davies, 2006 ; Eacott, 2008a ; Eacott, 2008b ; Davies and Davies, 2010 ; Eacott, 2011 ). Most of the theoretical and empirical work on strategy and strategic leadership over the past decades has been related to non-educational settings, and scholarship devoted to these issues in education is still very limited ( Cheng, 2010 ; Eacott, 2011 ; Chan, 2018 ).

The concept of strategy appeared in educational management literature in the 1980s; however, little research was produced until the 1990s (cf. Eacott, 2008b ). Specific educational reforms led to large amounts of international literature mostly devoted to strategic planning ( Eacott, 2008a ; Eacott, 2008b ; Eacott, 2011 ). For a long period, the concept of strategy was incomplete and confusing. The word “strategy” was often used to characterize different kinds of actions, namely, to weight management activities, to describe a high range of leadership activities, to define planning, or to report to individual actions within an organization ( Eacott, 2008a ).

Strategy and strategic planning became synonymous ( Eacott, 2008b ). However, strategy and planning are different concepts, with the strategy being more than the pursuit of a plan ( Davies, 2003 , Davies, 2006 ; Eacott, 2008a ; Eacott, 2008b ; Quong and Walker, 2010 ). Both phases of plans’ design and plans’ implementation are related, and the quality of this second phase highly depends on planning’ quality ( Davies, 2006 ; Davies, 2007 ; Eacott, 2008a ; Eacott, 2008b ; Eacott, 2011 ; Meyers and VanGronigen, 2019 ). Planning and acting are related and must emerge from the strategy. As stated by Bell (2004) .

Planning based on a coherent strategy demands that the aims of the school are challenged, that both present and future environmental influences inform the development of the strategy, that there should be a clear and well-articulated vision of what the school should be like in the future and that planning should be long-term and holistic (p. 453).

Therefore, it is necessary to adopt a comprehensive and holistic framework of strategy, considering it as a way of intentionally thinking and acting by giving sense to a specific school vision or mission ( Davies, 2003 , 2006 ; Eacott, 2008a ; Eacott, 2008b ; Quong and Walker, 2010 ).

The works of Davies and colleagues ( Davies, 2003 ; Davies, 2004 ; Davies and Davies, 2004 ; Davies and Davies, 2006 ; Davies and Davies, 2010 ) and Eacott (2008a , 2008b) , Eacott (2010a , 2011) were essential and contributed to a shift in the rationale regarding strategy by highlighting a more integrative and alternate view. Davies and colleagues ( Davies, 2003 ; Davies, 2004 ; Davies and Davies, 2004 ; Davies and Davies, 2006 ; Davies and Davies, 2010 ) developed a comprehensive framework for strategically focused schools , comprising strategic processes, approaches, and leadership. In this model, the strategy is conceptualized as a framework for present and future actions, sustained by strategic thinking about medium to long term goals, and aligned to school vision or direction.

Strategic leadership assumes necessarily a relevant role in strategically focused schools. Eacott (2006) defines strategic leadership as “leadership strategies and behaviors relating to the initiation, development, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of strategic actions within an educational institution, taking into consideration the unique context (past, present, and future) and availability of resources, physical, financial and human” (p. 1). Thereby, key elements of strategic leadership can be identified as one that: 1) acts in a proactive way to contextual changes; 2) leads school analysis and response to changing environment; 3) leads planning and action for school effectiveness and improvement in face of contextual challenges and; 4) leads monitoring and evaluation processes to inform decision making strategically ( Cheng, 2010 ). This brings to the arena a complex and dynamic view of strategic leadership as it is a complex social activity that considers important historical, economic, technological, cultural, social, and political influences and challenges ( Eacott, 2011 ).

Along with these authors, this paper advocates a more comprehensive and contextualized view of strategy and strategic leadership, where strategy is the core element of any leadership action in schools ( Davies and Davies, 2010 ; Eacott, 2011 ). Here, strategic leadership is not seen as a new theory, but an element of all educational leadership and management theories ( Davies and Davies, 2010 ). Even so, these concepts can inform and be informed by diverse leadership theories, a strategy-specific framework is needed in the educational field.

Considering all the above, strategy can be identified as a topic that is being researched in education, in the recent decades. Nonetheless, there is still scarce educational literature about this issue ( Davies and Davies, 2006 ; Davies and Davies, 2010 ; Cheng, 2010 ; Eacott, 2011 ; Chan, 2018 ). After 10 years of Eacott’s analysis of literature on strategy in education, it seems that this educational construct is being overlooked as there is still no consensual definition of strategy, different studies are supported in diverse conceptual frameworks and empirical studies about this topic are scarce ( Cheng, 2010 ; Eacott, 2011 ; Chan, 2018 ). Moreover, despite the interest of a multidisciplinary vision of strategy and strategic leadership, we agree with Eacott (2008b) about the need for a meaningful definition of strategy and strategic leadership in education, as it is a field with its specifications. Hence, research is needed for a clear definition of strategy, an integrated and complete framework for strategic action, a better identification of multiple dimensions of strategy and a comprehensive model of strategic leadership that has strategic thinking and action as core elements for schools improvement (e.g., Eacott, 2010a ; Hopkins et al., 2014 ; Reynolds et al., 2014 ; Harris et al., 2015 ; Bellei et al., 2016 ). This paper aims to contribute to the field offering a scoping review on strategy and strategic leadership in the educational field.

A clear idea of what strategy and strategic leadership mean and what theory or theories support it are of great importance for research and practice. This scoping review is an attempt to contribute to a strategy-specific theory by continuing to focus on ways to appropriately develop specific theories about strategy and strategic leadership in the educational field, particularly focusing on school contexts.

This study is a scoping review of the literature related to strategy and strategic leadership, which aims to map its specific aspects as considered in educational literature. Scoping reviews are used to present a broad overview of the evidence about a topic, irrespective of study quality, and are useful when examining emergent areas, to clarify key concepts or to identify gaps in research (e.g., Arksey and O’Malley, 2005 ; Peters et al., 2015 ; Tricco et al., 2016 ). Since in the current study we wanted to explore and categorize, but not evaluate, information available concerning specific aspects of strategy in educational literature, we recognize that scoping review methodology serves well this purpose.

In this study, Arksey and O’Malley (2005) five-stage framework for scoping reviews, complemented by the guidelines of other authors ( Levac et al., 2010 ; Colquhoun et al., 2014 ; Peters et al., 2015 ; Khalil et al., 2016 ), was employed. The five stages of Arksey and O’Malley’s framework are 1) identifying the initial research questions, 2) identifying relevant studies, 3) study selection, 4) charting the data, and 5) collating, summarizing and reporting the results. In the sections below, the process of this scoping review is presented.

Identifying the Initial Research Questions

The focus of this review was to explore key aspects of strategy and strategic leadership in educational literature. The primary question that guided this research was: What is known about strategy and strategic leadership in schools? This question was subdivided into the following questions: How should strategy and strategic leadership in schools be defined? What are the main characteristics of strategic leadership in schools? What key variables are related to strategy and strategic leadership in schools?

Identifying Relevant Studies

As suggested by Arksey and O’Malley (2005) , keywords for the search were defined, and databases were selected. Key concepts and search terms were developed to capture literature related to strategy and strategic leadership in schools, considering international perspectives. The linked descriptive key search algorithm that was developed to guide the search is outlined in Table 1 .

TABLE 1 . Key search algorithm.

Considering scoping review characteristics, time and resources available, inclusion and exclusion criteria were developed. Papers related to strategy and strategic leadership, published between 1990 and 2019, were included. Educational literature has reported the concepts of strategy and strategic leadership since the 1980s ( Eacott, 2008a ; 2008b ). However, it gained expansion between 1990 and 2000 with studies flourishing mostly about strategic planning ( Eacott, 2008b ). Previous research argues that strategy is more than planning, taking note of the need to distinguish the concepts. Considering our focus on strategy and strategic leadership, studies about strategic planning were excluded as well as papers specifically related to other theories of leadership than strategic leadership. A full list of inclusion and exclusion criteria is outlined in Table 2 .

TABLE 2 . Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

The following six electronic databases were searched to identify peer-reviewed literature: ERIC, Education Source, Academic Search Complete, Science Direct, Emerland, and Web of Science. Additionally, a manual search of the reference lists of identified articles was undertaken, and Google Scholar was utilized to identify any other primary sources. The review of the literature was completed over 2 months, ending in August 2019.

Study Selection

The process of studies’ selection followed the Preferred Reporting of Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Statement ( Moher et al., 2009 ). Figure 1 illustrates the process of article selection.

FIGURE 1 . PRISMA chart outlining the study selection process.

With the key search descriptors, 1,193 articles were identified. A further number of articles were identified using Google Scholar. However, a large number of articles were removed from the search, as they were duplicated in databases, and 231 studies were identified as being relevant.

The next phases of studies’ selection were guided by the inclusion and exclusion criteria presented above. A screening of the titles, keywords, and abstracts revealed a large number of irrelevant articles, particularly those related to strategic planning (e.g., Agi, 2017 ) and with general ideas about leadership (e.g., Corral and Gámez, 2010 ). Only 67 studies were selected for full-text access and analyses.

Full-text versions of the 67 articles were obtained, with each article being reviewed and confirmed as appropriate. This process provided an opportunity to identify any further additional relevant literature from a review of the reference lists of each article (backward reference search; n = 2). Ultimately, both with database search and backward reference search, a total of 29 articles were included to be analyzed in the scoping review, considering inclusion and exclusion criteria. During this process of study selection, several studies were excluded. As in the previous phase, examples of excluded papers include studies related to strategic planning where the focus is on the planning processes (e.g., Bennett et al., 2000 ; Al-Zboon and Hasan, 2012 ; Schlebusch and Mokhatle, 2016 ) or with general ideas about leadership (e.g., FitzGerald and Quiñones, 2018 ). Additionally, articles that were primarily associated with other topics or related to specific leadership theories (e.g., instructional leadership, transformational leadership) and that only referred briefly to strategic leadership were excluded (e.g., Bandur, 2012 ; Malin and Hackmann, 2017 ). Despite the interest of all these topics for strategic action, we were interested specifically in the concepts of strategy, strategic leadership, and its specifications in educational literature.

Data Charting and Collation

The fourth stage of Arksey and O’Malley (2005) scoping review framework consists of charting the selected articles. Summaries were developed for each article related to the author, year, location of the study, participants, study methods, and a brief synthesis of study results related to our research questions. Details of included studies are provided in the table available in Supplementary Appendix S1 .

Summarising and Reporting Findings

The fifth and final stage of Arksey and O’Malley (2005) scoping review framework summarises and reports findings as presented in the next section. All the 29 articles were studied carefully and a content analysis was taken to answer research questions. Research questions guided summaries and synthesis of literature content.

In this section, results are presented first with a brief description of the origin and nature of the studies, and then as answering research questions previously defined.

This scoping review yielded 29 articles, specifically devoted to strategy and strategic leadership in education, from eleven different countries (cf. Figure 2 ). The United Kingdom and Australia have the highest numbers of papers. There is a notable dispersion of literature in terms of geographical distribution.

FIGURE 2 . Number of papers per country.

A large number of these articles were published by Brent Davies and colleagues ( N = 9) and Scott Eacott ( N = 6). Without question, these authors have influenced and shaped the theoretical grounding about strategy and strategic leadership in educational literature. While Davies and colleagues have contributed to design a framework of strategy and strategic leadership, influencing the emergence of other studies related to these topics, Eacott provided an essential contribution by exploring, systematizing, and problematizing the existing literature about these same issues. The other authors have published between one and two papers about these topics.

Seventeen papers are of conceptual or theoretical nature, and twelve are empirical research papers (quantitative methods–7; qualitative methods–4; mixed methods–1). The conceptual/theoretical papers analyze the concepts of strategy and strategic leadership, present a framework for strategic leadership, and discuss implications for leaders’ actions. The majority of empirical studies are related to the skills, characteristics, and actions of strategic leaders. Other empirical studies explore relations between strategic leadership and other variables, such as collaboration, culture of teaching, organizational learning, and school effectiveness.

How should Strategy and Strategic Leadership in Schools be Defined?

The concept of strategy is relatively new in educational literature and, in great part, related to school planning. In this scoping review, a more integrated and comprehensive view is adopted ( Davies, 2003 ; Davies, 2006 ; Eacott, 2008a ; Eacott, 2008b ; Quong and Walker, 2010 ). Davies (2003) defined strategy as a specific pattern of decisions and actions taken to achieve an organization’s goals (p. 295). This concept of strategy entails some specific aspects, mainly that strategy implies a broader view incorporating data about a specific situation or context ( Davies, 2003 ; Dimmock and Walker, 2004 ; Davies, 2006 ; Davies, 2007 ). It is a broad organizational-wide perspective , supported by a vision and direction setting , that conceals longer-term views with short ones ( Davies, 2003 ; Dimmock and Walker, 2004 ; Davies, 2006 ; Davies, 2007 ). It can be seen as a template for short-term action . However, it deals mostly with medium-and longer-term views of three-to 5-year perspectives ( Davies, 2003 ; Davies, 2006 ; Davies, 2007 ). In this sense, a strategy is much more a perspective or a way of thinking that frames strategically successful schools ( Davies, 2003 ; Davies and Davies, 2005 ; Davies, 2006 ; Davies and Davies, 2010 ).

Eacott (2008a) has argued that strategy in the educational leadership context is a field of practice and application that is of a multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary nature. More than a single definition of strategy, what is needed is a conceptual understanding and articulation of its fundamental features, which removes the need to answer, “what is a strategy?” Understanding strategy as choosing a direction within a given context, through leadership, and articulating that direction through management practices ( Eacott, 2008a , p. 356) brings to the arena diverse elements of strategy from both leadership and management. From this alternative point of view, a strategy may be seen as leadership ( Eacott, 2010a ). More than an answer to “what is a strategy?”, it is crucial to understand “when and how does the strategy exist?” ( Eacott, 2010a ), removing the focus on leaders’ behaviors and actions per se to cultural, social, and political relationships ( Eacott, 2011 ). Hence, research strategy and strategic leadership oblige by acknowledging the broader educational, societal, and political contexts ( Dimmock and Walker, 2004 ; Eacott, 2010a ; Eacott, 2010b ; Eacott, 2011 ).

Strategic leadership is a critical component of school development ( Davies and Davies, 2006 ). However, to define leadership is challenging considering the amount of extensive, diverse literature about this issue. Instead of presenting a new categorization about leadership, the authors most devoted to strategic leadership consider it as a key dimension of any activity of leadership ( Davies and Davies, 2004 ; Davies and Davies, 2006 ; Eacott, 2010a ; Eacott, 2010b ; Eacott, 2011 ). Barron et al. (1995) stressed the idea of change. As mentioned by the authors, implementation of strategic leadership means change: change in thinking, change in the way schools are organized, change in management styles, change in the distribution of power, change in teacher education programs, and change in roles of all participants ( Barron et al., 1995 , p. 180). Strategic leadership is about creating a vision, setting the direction of the school over the medium-to longer-term and translating it into action ( Davies and Davies, 2010 ; Eacott, 2011 ). In that sense, strategic leadership is a new way of thinking ( Barron et al., 1995 ) that determines a dynamic and iterative process of functioning in schools ( Eacott, 2008b ).

In their model of strategic leadership, Davies and Davies (2006) consider that leadership must be based on strategic intelligence, summarised as three types of wisdom: 1) people wisdom, which includes participation and sharing information with others, developing creative thinking and motivation, and developing capabilities and competencies within the school; 2) contextual wisdom, which comprises understanding and developing school culture, sharing values and beliefs, developing networks, and understanding external environment; and 3) procedural wisdom, which consists of the continuous cycle of learning, aligning, timing and acting. This model also includes strategic processes and strategic approaches that authors define as the centre of this cycle ( Davies and Davies, 2006 , p. 136).

To deeply understand strategic leadership, it is necessary to explore strategic processes and approaches that leaders take ( Davies and Davies, 2010 ). In this sense, strategic leadership, strategic processes, and strategic approaches are key elements for sustainable and successful schools, which are found to be strategically focused. Davies (2006) designed a model for a strategically focused school that may be defined as one that is educationally effective in the short-term but also has a clear framework and processes to translate core moral purpose and vision into an excellent educational provision that is challenging and sustainable in the medium-to long-term (p.11). This model incorporates 1) strategic processes (conceptualization, engagement, articulation, and implementation), 2) strategic approaches (strategic planning, emergent strategy, decentralized strategy, and strategic intent), and 3) strategic leadership (organizational abilities and personal characteristics). Based on these different dimensions, strategically focused schools have built-in sustainability, develop set strategic measures to assess their success, are restless, are networked, use multi-approach planning processes, build the strategic architecture of the school, are strategically opportunistic, deploy strategy in timing and abandonment and sustain strategic leadership ( Davies, 2004 , pp.22–26).

What Are the Main Characteristics of Strategic Leadership in Schools?

Davies (2003) , Davies and Davies (2005) , Davies and Davies (2006) , Davies and Davies (2010) discuss what strategic leaders do (organizational abilities) and what characteristics strategic leaders display (personal characteristics). The key activities of strategic leaders, or organizational abilities, are 1) create a vision and setting a direction, 2) translate strategy into action, 3) influence and develop staff to deliver the strategy, 4) balance the strategic and the operational, 5) determine effective intervention points ( what, how, when, what not to do and what to give up ), 6) develop strategic capabilities, and 7) define measures of success ( Davies and Davies, 2006 ; Davies and Davies, 2010 ). The main characteristics that strategic leaders display, or their characteristics, are 1) dissatisfaction or restlessness with the present, 2) absorptive capacity, 3) adaptive capacity, and 4) wisdom.

Two specific studies explored the strategic leadership characteristics of Malaysian leaders ( Ali, 2012 ; Ali, 2018 ), considering the above-mentioned model as a framework. For Malaysian Quality National Primary School Leaders, the results supported three organizational capabilities (strategic orientation, translation, and alignment) and three individual characteristics of strategic leadership (dissatisfaction or restlessness with the present, absorptive capacity, and adaptive capacity). For Malaysian vocational college educational leaders, the results were consistent with seven distinct practices of strategic leadership, such as strategic orientation, strategic alignment, strategic intervention, restlessness, absorptive capacity, adaptive capacity, and leadership wisdom.

Other studies were also focused on the characteristics of strategic leadership with different populations and countries. Chatchawaphun et al. (2016) identified the principles, attributes, and skills of the strategic leadership of secondary school administrators from Thailand. The principles identified within the sample of principals included appropriate values, modern visionary, future focusing strategy, empirical evidence focus, intention toward accomplishment, decency, and making relationships. The attributes found were strategic learning, strategic thinking, and value push up. The skills were learning, interpretation, forecasting, planning, challenge, and decision making. Chan (2018) explored strategic leadership practices performed by Hong Kong school leaders of early childhood education and identified effective planning and management, reflective and flexible thinking, and networking and professional development as variables. Eacott (2010c) investigated the strategic role of Australian public primary school principals concerning the leader characteristics of tenure (referring to the time in years in their current substantive position) and functional track (referring to the time in years spent at different levels of the organizational hierarchy). These demographic variables have moderating effects on the strategic leadership and management of participants. These five studies seem to be outstanding contributions to solidify a framework of strategic leadership and to test it with different populations in different countries.

Additionally, Quong and Walker (2010) present seven principles for effective and successful strategic leaders. Strategic leaders are future-oriented and have a future strategy, their practices are evidence-based and research-led, they get things done, open new horizons, are fit to lead, make good partners and do the “next” right thing—these seven principles of action seem related to the proposal of Davies and colleagues. Both authors highlighted visions for the future, future long-term plans, and plans’ translation into action as important characteristics of strategic leaders.

One other dimension that is being explored in research relates to ethics. Several authors assert that insufficient attention and research have been given to aspects related to moral or ethical leadership among school leaders ( Glanz, 2010 ; Quong and Walker, 2010 ; Kangaslahti, 2012 ). The seventh principle of the Quong and Walker (2010) model of strategic leadership is that leaders do the “next” right thing. This relates to the ethical dimension of leadership, meaning that strategic leaders recognize the importance of ethical behaviors and act accordingly. For some authors, ethics in strategic leadership is a critical issue for researchers and practitioners that needs to be taken into consideration ( Glanz, 2010 ; Quong and Walker, 2010 ). Glanz (2010) underlined social justice and caring perspectives as required to frame strategic initiatives. Kangaslahti (2012) analyzed the strategic dilemmas that leaders face in educational settings (e.g., top-down strategy vs. bottom-up strategy process; leadership by authority vs. staff empowerment; focus on administration vs. focus on pedagogy; secret planning and decision making vs. open, transparent organization; the well-being of pupils vs. well-being of staff) and how they can be tackled by dilemma reconciliation. Chen (2008) , in case study research, explored the conflicts that school administrators have confronted in facilitating school reform in Taiwan. The author identified four themes related to strategic leadership in coping with the conflicts accompanying this school reform: 1) educational values, 2) timeframe for change, 3) capacity building, and 4) community involvement. These studies reinforce the idea that school improvement and success seem to be influenced by the way leaders think strategically and deal with conflicts or dilemmas. Researchers need to design ethical frameworks or models from which practitioners can think ethically about their strategic initiatives and their dilemmas or conflicts ( Chen, 2008 ; Glanz, 2010 ; Kangaslahti, 2012 ).

Despite the critical contribution of Davies’ models ( Davies, 2003 ; Davies, 2004 ; Davies and Davies, 2006 ; Davies and Davies, 2010 ) and subsequent works, Eacott (2010a) questions the production of lists of behaviors and traits. This is likely one of the main differences between Davies’ and Eacott’s contributions in this field. While Davies and colleagues include organizational abilities and personal characteristics in their model of strategic leadership, Eacott (2010a , 2010b) emphasizes the broader context where strategy occurs. These ideas, however, are not contradictory but complementary in the comprehension of strategy as leadership in education since both authors present a comprehensive and integrated model of strategic leadership. Even though Davies and colleagues present some specific characteristics of leaders, these characteristics are incorporated into a large model for strategy in schools.

What Are Other Key Variables Related to Strategy and Strategic Leadership in Schools?

Other studies investigated the relationship between strategic leadership and other key variables, such as collaboration ( Ismail et al., 2018 ), the culture of teaching ( Khumalo, 2018 ), organizational learning ( Aydin et al., 2015 ) and school effectiveness ( Prasertcharoensuk and Tang, 2017 ).

One descriptive survey study presented teacher collaboration as a mediator of strategic leadership and teaching quality ( Ismail et al., 2018 ). The authors argue that school leaders who demonstrate strategic leadership practices can lead to the creation of collaborative practices among teachers and thus help to improve the professional standards among them, namely, teaching quality ( Ismail et al., 2018 ). One cross-sectional study identified positive and significant relations among the variables of strategic leadership actions and organizational learning. Transforming, political, and ethical leadership actions were identified as significant predictors of organizational learning. However, managing actions were not found to be a significant predictor ( Aydin et al., 2015 ). One other study establishes that strategic leadership practices promote a teaching culture defined as the commitment through quality teaching for learning outcomes ( Khumalo, 2018 ). These three studies provide essential highlights of the relevance of strategic leadership for school improvement and quality. Nonetheless, it is interesting to note that in a research survey that examined the effect of leadership factors of administrators on school effectiveness, the authors concluded that the direct, indirect, and overall effects of the administrators’ strategic leadership had no significant impact on school effectiveness ( Prasertcharoensuk and Tang, 2017 ). These studies introduce important questions that need to be explored both related to strategy and strategic leadership features and its relations and impacts on relevant school variables. Such studies stimulate researchers to explore these and other factors that relate to strategic leadership.

The knowledge about strategy and strategic leadership is still incomplete and confusing ( Eacott, 2008a ; Eacott, 2008b ). From the 29 studies selected, divergent data and multiple concepts of strategy can be identified which reinforces the confusion about these issues. Some integrative clarification is still needed about the concepts of strategy and strategic leadership as about its core features. In this section, it is intended to contribute to the clarification and integration of the concepts considering the studies selected.

The emergence of politics and reforms related to school autonomy and responsibility in terms of efficacy and accountability brings the concept of strategy to the educational literature ( Eacott, 2008b ; Cheng, 2010 ). It first appeared in the 1980s but gained momentum between 1990 and 2000. However, the main focus of the literature was on strategic planning based upon mechanistic or technical-rational models of strategy. Authors have criticized the conceptualization of strategy as a way for elaborating a specific plan of action for schools ( Davies, 2003 ; Davies, 2006 ; Eacott, 2008a ; Eacott, 2008b ; Quong and Walker, 2010 ). These same authors adopted a more comprehensive and holistic model of strategy. The concepts have been developed from a more rational and mechanistic view related to planning processes to a more comprehensive and complex view of strategy and leadership that take into consideration a situated and contextual framework. Considering the contribution of these studies, strategy incorporates three core dimensions, articulated with a schoolwide perspective 1) Vision, mission and direction (e.g., Davies, 2003 ; Dimmock and Walker, 2004 ; Davies, 2006 ; Davies and Davies, 2006 ; Davies, 2007 ; Eacott, 2008a ) 2) Intentional thinking (e.g., Barron et al., 1995 ; Davies, 2003 ; Davies and Davies, 2005 ; Davies, 2006 ; Davies and Davies, 2010 ): and; 3) Articulated decision-making and action (e.g., Davies, 2003 ; Dimmock and Walker, 2004 ; Davies and Davies, 2006 ; Davies, 2006 ; Davies, 2007 ; Eacott, 2008a ; Eacott, 2010a ; Eacott, 2010b ; Eacott, 2011 ).

Strategic leaders have an important role in strategy but, even considering this comprehensive and holistic concept of strategy, research poses the question of what are the main characteristics of strategic leaders in schools? From the literature reviewed, specific abilities, behaviors, and other characteristics may be identified. Looking for an integrated picture of strategic leadership, Table 3 represents the main contributions of the studies selected.

TABLE 3 . Strategic leadership: Main features.

Despite the contribution of these studies to deep knowledge about strategic leadership, the discussion here considers whether it is worthwhile to produce lists of behaviors and traits for strategic leaders in the absence of an integrated model that acknowledges the broader educational, societal and political context ( Dimmock and Walker, 2004 ; Eacott, 2010a ; Eacott, 2010b ; Eacott, 2011 ). Eacott (2011) argues that strategy, as constructed through analysis, is decontextualized and dehumanized and essentially a vacuous concept with limited utility to the practice that it seeks to explain (p. 426). Without a comprehensive and contextual model of strategy and strategic leadership, supported by research, the topics may still be overlooked and misunderstood. With this in mind, Figure 3 attempts to represent the core dimensions of strategy from a comprehensive perspective.

FIGURE 3 . Strategy and core dimensions from a comprehensive perspective.

As this is a scoping review, we tried to display a general view of the literature that can serve as a basis for a specific strategy theory in education and to more in-depth studies related to strategy and strategic leadership in schools. Nevertheless, we need to identify some methodological limitations of this study. As a scoping review, methods and reporting need improvement ( Tricco et al., 2018 ) and we are aware of this circumstance. Also, our search strategy may have overlooked some existing studies, since grey documents (e.g., reports) and studies from diverse languages than English were not included, that can misrepresent important data. Besides, inclusion criteria focused only on studies specifically devoted to strategy (not strategic planning) and strategic leadership (no other theories of leadership), but we acknowledge important contributions from this specific literature that were excluded. Finally, in our study there is no comparative analysis between the western and eastern/oriental contexts. However, we are aware that these contexts really differ and a context-specific reflection on strategy and strategic leadership in education would be useful. More research is needed to overcome the limitations mentioned.

Besides, the pandemic COVID19 brought new challenges in education, and particularly, to leaders. This study occurred before the pandemic and this condition was not acknowledged. However, much has changed in education as a consequence of the pandemic control measures, these changes vary from country to country, and schools’ strategies have changed for sure. Future research needs to explore strategy and strategic leadership in education considering a new era post pandemic.

With this scoping review, the authors aimed to contribute to enduring theories about strategy and strategic leadership in education. From our findings, it appears that this issue is being little explored. Despite the important contributions of authors cited in this scoping review ( Aydin et al., 2015 ; Chatchawaphun et al., 2016 ; Prasertcharoensuk and Tang, 2017 ; Ali, 2018 ; Chan, 2018 ; Ismail et al., 2018 ; Khumalo, 2018 ), minor advances seem to have been made after 2010. This is intriguing taking into account the leaders’ role in the third wave of educational reform, where strategic leadership pursues a new vision and new aims for education due to maximizing learning opportunities for students through “ triplisation in education’ (i.e., as an integrative process of globalization, localization and individualization in education)” ( Cheng, 2010 , p. 48). It was expected that research moved from rational planning models towards a more complex view of strategy in education ( Eacott, 2011 ). This review brings the idea that some timid and situated steps have been made.

Since the important review by Eacott, published in 2008, a step forward was made in the distinction between strategy and planning. Despite the significant number of papers about planning that were found during this review, the majority were published before 2008 (e.g., Nebgen, 1990 ; Broadhead et al., 1998 ; Bennett et al., 2000 ; Beach and Lindahl, 2004 ; Bell, 2004 ). Also, most of the papers selected adopt a more integrative, comprehensive, and complex view of strategy and strategic leadership (e.g., Eacott, 2010a ; Eacott, 2010b ; Davies and Davies, 2010 ; Eacott, 2011 ; Ali, 2012 ; Ali, 2018 ; Chan, 2018 ). More than identifying the “best of” strategy and strategic leadership, alternative models understand strategy as a way of thinking ( Davies and Davies, 2010 ) and a work in progress ( Eacott, 2011 ).

This also resonates with the educational literature about loosely coupled systems . There is evidence that loosely coupled educational organizations continue to exist and that resistance to change is a characteristic of school organizations ( Hautala et al., 2018 ). Strategic leadership gains relevance since leaders need to consider how to manage their loose and tight configurations and, hence, reinforce simultaneous personal and organizational dimensions related to school improvement. It is time to expand the research into more complex, longitudinal, and explanatory ways due to a better understanding of the constructs. This scoping review was an attempt to contribute to this endeavor by integrating and systematizing educational literature about strategy and strategic leadership.

Author Contributions

MC-collected and analyzed data, write the paper IC, JV, and JA-guided the research process and reviewed the paper.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) for the support to this publication (Ref. UIDB/04872/2020).

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2021.706608/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: strategy, strategic leadership, school leadership, scoping review, education

Citation: Carvalho M, Cabral I, Verdasca JL and Alves JM (2021) Strategy and Strategic Leadership in Education: A Scoping Review. Front. Educ. 6:706608. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2021.706608

Received: 07 May 2021; Accepted: 23 September 2021; Published: 15 October 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Carvalho, Cabral, Verdasca and Alves. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Marisa Carvalho, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Journal of Educational Leadership in Action

ELA includes current research and essays on a wide range of educational topics: administration, instruction, curriculum, assessment, adult learning, higher education, and international education. Manuscripts are accepted on a rolling basis.

Current Issue: Volume 9, Issue 2 (2024)

Welcome to the latest issue of The Journal of Educational Leadership in Action dedicated to exploring critical issues in educational leadership and management. In this edition, we present a diverse array of articles that address pressing concerns and emerging trends in the field of education.

This volume covers a wide range of topics, from the training and preparation of school leaders to the impact of global events on educational professionals. We examine the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on lecturers in private Nigerian universities, shedding light on how this unprecedented situation has influenced income and job satisfaction.

Several articles focus on leadership styles and their impacts. We explore the role of principals' leadership in overall educational community performance, as well as the potential of trauma-informed leadership in supporting students. The issue also delves into effective elementary school leadership and the decentralization of school governance, offering insights into different approaches to educational administration.

Recognizing the importance of inclusive and culturally responsive education, we feature studies on school leaders' understanding of Culturally Responsive School Leadership (CRSL) and the effects of teacher biases, perceptions, and interactions on student behavior.

Additionally, this issue touches on unique aspects of school culture, such as school nicknames, and explores the realm of career and technical education. We also highlight the application of Participatory Action Research (PAR) in educational settings, demonstrating the value of collaborative inquiry in driving positive change.

We believe this collection of articles will provide valuable insights and spark meaningful discussions among educators, administrators, and researchers. We invite you to engage with these thought-provoking pieces and consider their implications for your own educational contexts.

Thank you for your continued support of our journal. We hope you find this issue both informative and inspiring.

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Exploring Aspiring K-12 School Leaders' Understanding of Culturally Responsive School Leadership Muhammad S. Uddin and Thurman Bridges

How Do Teacher Perceptions and Biases Affect or Influence Student Behavior Benjamin K. Keohane

Perception of School Governing Bodies About Decentralisation of School Governance in Eswatini, Swaziland Ibiwumi Abiodun Alade and Goodness X. Tshabalala

Effective Elementary School Leadership: Does Teacher Perception of Leadership Effectiveness Matter to the Academic Performance of Elementary School Students? Goldy Brown III and Tina Salzman

Symbols for Schools: Types of School Nicknames, How They are Formed, and Implications for Leaders Andrew Hudacs

CTE Can Be For Me: Middle School Counselors’ Perception of Their Knowledge and Abilities to Guide Students in Career and Technical Education in the State of Texas Justin W. Hooten, Ronald S. Rhone, Lesley F. Leach, and Juanita M. Reyes

Leading with Hope: A Grounded Theory Exploration of Trauma Informed Leadership for School Principals Christopher Bottoms, Robert J. Lynch, Shawn Ricks, and Julie Hasson

Leading Participatory Action Research for Teacher Agency Kimberly Hellerich

Effective Leadership and Its Impact on the Educational Community Betti Shahin, Susan Rowan, Toleen Mazloum, and Nadia Kawar

Unveiling the Socioeconomic Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Academic Staff: A Qualitative Analysis of Financial Perspectives and Job Satisfaction Saheed Oluwaseun Lawal, Habibat Bolanle Abdulkareem, Omoniyi Adeyemi Rasaq, and Tajudeen Ade Jamiu

Experiential Leadership Learning: Narratives of a Multiple Case Study of Mexican School Leaders Appointed to Indigenous Schools Manuel Lopez-Delgado and Argelia Estrada-Loya

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You will find a helpful submission checklist on the website  Think.Check.Submit .

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Visit the  ScholarOne support centre  for further help and guidance.

What you can expect next

You will receive an automated email from the journal editor, confirming your successful submission. It will provide you with a manuscript number, which will be used in all future correspondence about your submission. If you have any reason to suspect the confirmation email you receive might be fraudulent, please contact the journal editor, Jackie Bruce , in the first instance.

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While all journals work to different timescales, the goal is that the editor will inform you of their first decision within 60 days.

During this period, we will send you automated updates on the progress of your manuscript via our submission system, or you can log in to check on the current status of your paper.  Each time we contact you, we will quote the manuscript number you were given at the point of submission. If you receive an email that does not match these criteria, it could be fraudulent and we recommend you contact the journal editor, Jackie Bruce , in the first instance.

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Following acceptance of your manuscript, you may be contacted by a member of the Journal Editorial Office (JEO) team as part of their standard post-acceptance checks. The JEO may contact you regarding outstanding permissions, credit lines or authorship queries. Please do respond to them in a timely manner in order to facilitate the publication of your manuscript.

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• Open access
• Published: 05 September 2024

Bridging the generational gap between nurses and nurse managers: a qualitative study from Qatar

• Ahmad A. Abujaber 1 ,
• Abdulqadir J. Nashwan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4845-4119 1 ,
• Mark D. Santos 1 ,
• Nabeel F. Al-Lobaney 1 ,
• Rejo G. Mathew 1 ,
• Jamsheer P. Alikutty 1 ,
• Jibin Kunjavara 3 &
• Albara M. Alomari 2  

BMC Nursing volume  23 , Article number:  623 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

The nursing workforce comprises multiple generations, each with unique values, beliefs, and expectations that can influence communication, work ethic, and professional relationships. In Qatar, the generational gap between nurses and nurse managers poses challenges to effective communication and teamwork, impacting job satisfaction and patient outcomes.

This study investigates the generational gap between nurses and nurse managers in Qatar, aiming to identify strategies to enhance collaboration and create a positive work environment.

A qualitative research design was used, involving semi-structured interviews with 20 participants, including frontline nurses and senior nurse managers. Participants were purposively sampled to represent different generations. Data were collected through face-to-face and virtual interviews, then transcribed and thematically analyzed.

Four key themes emerged: Optimizing the Work Environment : Older generations preferred transformational and situational leadership, while younger nurses valued respect, teamwork, accountability, and professionalism. Strengthening Work Atmosphere through Communication and values : Older nurses favored face-to-face communication, while younger nurses preferred digital tools. Cultivating Respect and Empathy : Younger nurses emphasized fairness in assignments and promotions, while older nurses focused on empathy and understanding. Dynamic Enhancement of Healthcare Systems : Younger nurses were more adaptable to technology and professional development, while older nurses prioritized clinical care and patient outcomes.

The study reveals significant generational differences in leadership preferences, communication styles, and adaptability to technology. Addressing these gaps through effective leadership, ongoing education, and open communication can improve job satisfaction and patient care.

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Introduction

The nursing profession faces a significant challenge of a multigenerational workforce that can cause conflict and hinder effective communication, especially between nurse managers and nurses [ 1 ]. In addition, a literature review of studies conducted over the past two decades indicates that the generational gap between nurses and nurse managers is a complex phenomenon requiring concerted efforts to address it [ 2 , 3 ].

The nursing workforce comprises four generations, including the Baby Boomers (born between 1946 and 1964), Generation X (born between 1965 and 1979), Generation Y or Millennials (born between 1980 and 1994), and Generation Z (born after 1995) [ 4 ]. These generations have unique values, beliefs, attitudes, and expectations that influence their communication style, work ethic, and approach to work [ 4 ].

In 2013, Hendricks and Cope discussed the impact of generational differences on the nursing workforce and the challenges it presents for nurse managers [ 5 ]. They searched various databases electronically and found that generational diversity affects nurses’ attitudes, beliefs, work habits, and expectations. The paper suggested that accepting and embracing this diversity can lead to a more harmonious work environment and facilitate nurse retention [ 5 ].

The article focused on the cultural and work ethic differences between Baby Boomers and Generation Xers, with Baby Boomers primarily managing the workforce [ 6 ]. Baby Boomers are described as driven and dedicated, equating work with self-worth and personal fulfillment [ 6 ]. At the same time, Generation Xers have ideas of an acceptable workplace, and their terms of employment are usually non-negotiable [ 6 ]. The article summarized recent literature and studies to guide healthcare leadership in recruiting, retaining, and managing Generation X workers in the nursing field [ 6 ].

Similarly, Carver & Candela (2008) conducted a study to inform nurse managers about the generational differences among nurses and how they affect the work environment [ 7 ]. With four generations in the nursing workforce, understanding the characteristics of each generation can lead to increased job satisfaction, productivity, and decreased turnover [ 7 ]. Considering generational differences as part of an overall strategy to increase organizational commitment can improve nursing work environments and address the global nursing shortage [ 7 ]. Managers should increase their knowledge of generational diversity to tap into the strengths of each generation [ 7 ]. In addition, Younger nurses have different career expectations than their older colleagues [ 8 ]. They seek a balanced lifestyle with reasonable work hours, demand to use the latest technology, and expect to be vocal team members [ 8 ].

Managing a multigenerational workforce requires recognizing and valuing the strengths of each generation. Leaders who maximize everyone’s talents and address individual and generational needs can create synergy and improve team performance. Each generation brings unique strengths to the workforce that should be celebrated and utilized to the organization’s advantage. Meeting the needs of each employee, such as providing opportunities for advancement, work/life balance, compensation, benefits, and learning and development, can lead to higher-functioning work teams [ 9 ]. Nurse leaders should know their employees’ multigenerational characteristics and expectations and provide timely and specific feedback to manage them effectively [ 9 ]. With an appreciation of multigenerational differences and a commitment to higher-functioning work teams, leaders can improve organizational efficiency and patient care outcomes [ 9 ].

To bridge the generational gap in nursing, the SIT offers a comprehensive approach to enhancing communication, collaboration, and teamwork between nurses and nurse managers [ 5 ]. This involves acknowledging and respecting each generation’s unique characteristics, values, and experiences, which fosters a better understanding and more effective cooperation. Establishing a shared vision and goal for patient care unites nurses and nurse managers, helping to overcome any multigenerational conflicts that might arise in the workplace [ 5 ]. Additionally, encouraging multigenerational communication and mentoring is vital. This can be facilitated through programs where experienced nurses share their knowledge and skills with younger colleagues, promoting a cohesive and supportive team environment. Furthermore, providing training and development opportunities tailored to each generation’s diverse learning styles and preferences is essential for building a more skilled and competent workforce [ 10 ].

The literature indicates that the generational gap between nurses and nurse managers is a global complex phenomenon that can affect communication, work values, job satisfaction, retention, and quality of care [ 11 ]. Nursing leaders can recognize generational differences in values and behaviors as potential strengths. By gaining a deeper understanding of generational influences, these insights can be harnessed to develop effective strategies that sustain the diverse yet shrinking nursing workforce. Leveraging generational differences can also create positive work environments, enhance quality and productivity, and ultimately improve patient care. As generational differences increasingly become a critical aspect of diversity, it is essential to understand the dynamics between work engagement and meaningful work across generational cohorts to tailor approaches that align with each organization’s unique needs [ 12 , 13 ].

Understanding how to bridge the generational gap in nursing is crucial for nurses and nurse managers to work together effectively and provide better patient care, ultimately leading to improved patient outcomes. This study aims to enhance workplace communication and collaboration by identifying and addressing the factors contributing to multigenerational workplace conflicts. By doing so, nurses and nurse managers can build more cohesive and supportive teams, resulting in a more positive work environment. Finally, addressing the generational gap in nursing benefits the workplace and enables the organization to develop a more engaged and motivated workforce. Multigenerational learning and development opportunities can increase job satisfaction and retention. Recognizing and valuing the unique perspectives and experiences each generation brings is essential.

Study significance

To the best of our knowledge, no studies have been conducted in Qatar that addressed the generational gap among nurses. In line with this, the study aims to identify and compare the work engagement levels and managerial approaches among nurses and nurse managers across different generations and explore and propose effective strategies for improving communication, collaboration, and job contentment in an intergenerational work environment. The findings will contribute to the nursing profession’s knowledge and provide practical solutions for managing a diverse nursing workforce in Qatar.

This study utilized a descriptive qualitative research design. After considering the participants’ time limits, commitments, and convenience, data were collected through semi-structured interviews with nurses and nurse managers (Executive and assistant executive directors of nursing). The authors developed the interview questions for this study (Supplementary File 1). Participants were recruited from healthcare facilities within the organization through purposive sampling. The sample size was determined based on the data saturation point, where no new themes or perspectives emerged. Interviews were conducted face-to-face or virtually, depending on the participant’s preference and availability. With the participant’s permission, interviews were audio-recorded to aid in accurate transcription and were thematically analyzed.

Development of the interview guide

The interview guide was thoughtfully developed to capture participants’ experiences and insights effectively. The process began with an in-depth review of studies examining the generational gap between nurses and managers, identifying key themes such as work engagement, organizational environment, communication, and technological advancement. These themes provided the framework for creating open-ended questions to elicit detailed and reflective responses. Probing questions were also included to deepen the data collected by clarifying and expanding on participants’ initial answers. The draft questions underwent multiple rounds of review and refinement to ensure clarity, relevance, and the elimination of bias, with potential input from qualitative research experts.

Qualitative research aimed to generate a deep understanding of the generational gap between nurses and their managers. This understanding could not be answered in a quantitative approach. Several strategies were employed throughout the research process to ensure the credibility of the findings.

Firstly, to ensure the credibility of the data collected, the researcher established trust and rapport with the participants. This was achieved by being transparent about the research aims, building rapport, and showing genuine interest in the participants’ experiences. The researcher also ensured that the participants felt comfortable sharing their experiences and opinions by creating a safe and non-judgmental environment.

Secondly, data triangulation was used to enhance the credibility of the data. Data triangulation involves using multiple data sources to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon being studied.

Thirdly, the researcher conducted member checking to validate the data collected. Member checking involved sharing the findings with the participants and asking for their feedback on whether the findings accurately represented their experiences and opinions. This process ensured that the researcher’s interpretation of the data aligned with the participants’ experiences and perceptions.

Fourthly, the researcher engaged in reflexivity throughout the research process. Reflexivity involves reflecting on the researcher’s biases, values, and assumptions that might have influenced the research process and findings. By being aware of their biases, the researcher ensured they did not influence the data collection or interpretation of the findings.

Finally, the researcher used a systematic and rigorous approach to analyze the data collected. This study used thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The analysis was conducted using a coding scheme, and the findings were supported with quotes from the participants, enhancing the credibility of the findings.

Study population and setting

The participants were approached using a purposive sampling technique. A total of 20 participants were expected to join the study. All participants were approached based on an email from the corporate nursing mail group. The participants of this study met the following criteria: they represented diverse generations, with 3–4 from each of the subsequent generations: Generation X (1965–1980), Generation Y (1981–1996), and Generation Z (1997–2012); they had joined HMC for at least one year; and they were willing to participate in the study.

Study procedures

Before conducting the study, the researcher had obtained the consent of the participants (Research Information Sheet). Interviews were done face-to-face or virtually, depending on the participants’ preferences and availability. During the interviews, conversations were audio-recorded to facilitate transcriptions of the responses, completed within 24 h of the interview, and reviewed by two study researchers. The data saturation was determined by redundancy of information is indicated when similar patterns, themes, or categories keep appearing in the data, and no new information is being uncovered during additional interviews or data collection efforts.

The richness and depth of the data collected are critical. Saturation is considered reached when the data sufficiently explores and explains the research questions and key concepts, providing a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon. Data saturation was reached after twenty interviews; however, two additional interviews were conducted to confirm this. Ethical principles were strictly observed, primarily explaining the nature and purpose of the study before obtaining their consent to participate. Identifiers were removed from the transcripts, and codes were used to label participants (e.g., Participants 1, 2, etc.). Participants were informed that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time should they decide not to participate in further sessions.

Data analysis

Initially, all interviews were professionally transcribed verbatim, with pseudonyms used to anonymize participants and protect their identities. Both authors (JK and NFA) thoroughly read and re-read the transcripts multiple times to become familiar with the content and ensure the transcripts accurately reflected the audio recordings. then applied an inductive coding approach, deriving codes directly from the data rather than imposing them beforehand. This involved systematically identifying and highlighting significant quotes and segments within the transcripts that were relevant to the research questions. These initial codes were subsequently organized into potential themes by grouping together codes that shared a common essence or underlying concept. Following this, the researchers organized these initial codes into potential themes by grouping codes that shared a common essence or underlying concept.

The potential themes underwent a two-phase review and refinement process. In the first phase, the researchers reviewed the coded data extracts to ensure they coherently supported the identified themes. In the second phase, the themes were examined in relation to the entire data set to confirm that they accurately represented the data and captured the full range of participants’ experiences. Some themes were modified, combined, or discarded during this process based on their relevance and data representation.

The final step involved crafting a coherent and compelling narrative that provided a detailed account of each theme. The report included illustrative quotes from participants to substantiate the themes and vividly depict their experiences. This structured approach ensured that the analysis was thorough and that the resulting themes were deeply rooted in the data. By following Braun and Clarke’s six-step process, the study moved from raw transcripts to well-defined themes that offer meaningful insights into the generational gap among nurses and Nurse managers.

This study had a cohort of ten frontline nurses from the new generation and ten senior nurse managers from the old generation, as shown in Table  1 . The mean age of the new generation was 32.4 years (SD 4.9 years). The nurses had an average of 8.3 years of overall work experience (SD 3.09 years), specifically at Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC); they had a mean work experience of 4.7 years (SD 1.1 years). Gender distribution among the participants was 80% male and 20% female. This demographic profile reveals a well-experienced group, particularly regarding their tenure at HMC, providing a stable basis for analyzing their professional perspectives and experiences.

On the other hand, the old generation demographics: 60% were Executive Directors and 40% were Assistant Executives. Most participants belonged to Generation X (ages 44 to 59 years old), suggesting a consistent age distribution. On average, the executives had 27.9 years of overall work experience (SD 9.46 years), highlighting substantial professional tenure with considerable variability. Specifically, their mean work experience at Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC) was 17.4 years (SD 8.24 years), reflecting a diverse range of service durations at this institution. The gender distribution was evenly split, with 50% male and 50% female participants. Details on the demographic data of the old generation participants are detailed in Table  2 . Three major themes were derived from the study, as illustrated in Fig.  1 .

The major themes and Sub-Themes derived from the study

Optimizing the working environment

Healthy work environments that maximize the health and well-being of nurses are essential in achieving good patient and societal outcomes, as well as optimal organizational performance. This theme consisted of three sub-themes: Influencing leadership style, Patient outcome and nurse satisfaction, and Adaptation of technological advancement.

Influential leadership styles

When investigating the leadership style, all older generations consistently agreed to prefer the transformational one because of its capacity to inspire and motivate frontline staff. However, to respond to specific situational demands, the older generation in our study modified and combined aspects of situational and democratic leadership.

Which type of leadership I’m following is transformational leadership. But sometimes , we can take that democratic leadership in some situations , but not all of it. We can say situational leadership at the same time. But any leadership style you will follow should be , I can tell , a combination of some practice and attitude toward your staff”. (Participant 17).

On the other hand, the new generation perceives leadership style by retrieving the inner values of their leaders, such as respect, teamwork, accountability, and professionalism.

“Actually , our leaders primarily lead by maintaining a good relationship , and he is making sense of decreasing the distance between the higher and lower positions. So , I can say that I share the same attitudes and values with my senior managers , but it might differ from one person to another.” ( Participant 1).

Enhanced patient outcomes and nurses’ satisfaction

The older generation perceived the working environment as a motivator for enhancing patient outcomes. Mainly, they are putting serving humanity at the top of their priority, which might be achieved through creativity, collaboration, and compassion. As articulated by Participant 7, “I believe that exerting the best effort in one’s job demonstrates ownership and respect for the profession. Serving humanity , I prioritize creativity , collaboration , and compassion in my work”.

This quote demonstrates the deep values held by this group, highlighting their strategy of combining individual achievement with a wider humanitarian influence.

The new generation views the working environment as a vital element in improving nurses’ satisfaction, considering many contributing factors, such as the current status of the global economy and the opportunities for nurses to work and move abroad. As elaborated by Participant 13,

“I think we can see a difference between the young and the old generation , and I think the way they look at nursing as a profession. There is a big difference between all the new generations , and I can see how the old generation looks at it. The older generation is looking at ways to help people. It is a way to provide support for older people. Unfortunately , I think the new generation has started looking at it as a job—more than a way of helping people. And I believe there are many different reasons for this. I think about the economic status around the world , and the other thing that you know is that I believe the world is open nowadays for nurses to travel around. Therefore , it’s started becoming a job more than a profession. Unfortunately , that’s why people start looking at it in a completely different way , which is not something good.” (Participant 13).

Adaptation to technological advancements

When examining the technological aspects, the older generation acknowledges the presence of the gab. Most of them believe the gap exists because they adhere to the old practices they learned previously.

“There is a noticeable difference between the younger and older generations of nurses , primarily due to advancements in technology and medical knowledge. Younger nurses are often more up-to-date with the latest care techniques and medical research , as they can access various modern resources. Older nurses , however , may adhere to practices they learned earlier in their careers , which might not incorporate recent technological changes”. (Participant 16)

On the other hand, the new generation views new technologies as an easy-to-adopt opportunity. They like to use the new potentials that come with AI. For example, the new generation is becoming more dependent on technology due to the greater benefits it provides compared to traditional approaches in terms of diagnosis and treatment.

“Technology is a significant factor for us , being part of the newer generation. It’s very important in our year of nursing. We use computers , advanced machines , and electronic documentation , which differ from past practices.”(participant 10) . “The younger generation is adapting more easily to new technologies and software , like using EMR for documentation. The older generation , who are used to manual documentation , find it harder to adapt to this new system in patient care. I’ve also heard that some facilities are using GPS and AI systems to assist in diagnoses and results. So , artificial intelligence is becoming a part of nursing , and younger generations are adapting more easily to it. It will take time for the older generation to adapt because they are accustomed to different practices”. (Participant 8)

Strengthening the work atmosphere through communication and values

Effective communication enhances working relationships and knowledge translation and reduces conflict responsible for errors, improving patient safety. This theme consisted of three sub-themes, diverse and practical communication approaches, positive work atmosphere cultivation, and emphasis on shared values across teams.

Diverse and effective communication approaches

The older generation emphasizes the importance of training sessions on communication skills and advanced technologies to bridge the gap with the new generation. Moreover, they believe the new generation needs to be more skilled in direct interpersonal communication.

“Effective communication strategies that bridge generational gaps should be promoted. This could include training on communication best practices and the use of technology for older nurses and encouraging younger nurses to develop strong interpersonal skills for face-to-face interactions”. (Participant 20) “The older generations , always think of , they are more of insightful , in terms of , in the meetings they will be able to translate or interpret the information much differently. And that’s how I see.”( Participants − 18) .

According to the new generation, effective and direct communication without any mediator can enhance the work atmosphere and ease professional communication with older generations. It can help the new generation have more chances to interact with the old generation.

“Certainly , open and direct communication is helpful. As previously said , it is crucial to have someone who can assist in communicating with my manager in my home country. Establishing a direct line of communication with my management and developing a robust professional connection without intermediaries is vital. I appreciate the older generation’s facilitation of an open-door policy , as it cultivates a direct and efficient communication atmosphere.” (Participant 1).

Positive work atmosphere cultivation

When examining the intergenerational dynamics in the workplace, the findings indicated that differences in experience, training, and access to technology significantly impact the work environment and the level of collaboration among employees. As one participant articulated,

“The work atmosphere impacts collaboration. I think it does impact that and impacts these differences from one generation to another. It’s not about good and bad , but it’s rather about the differences in the experiences , differences in the training , and differences in the work environment as well as the availability of technology. So , I would say that there is a difference.” (Participant 19). However, the new generation focuses on the technological aspect and how that might affect the work atmosphere positively.

Emphasis on shared values across teams

Conflicts arise when older generations rely on experience while new generations prefer evidence-based practices. This affects workplace shared values.

“For instance , there might be a conflict over a non-scientifically backed common practice. The older generation might argue that they’ve been doing it for years without issues. However , from a knowledge-based perspective , the practice might be incorrect. Overall , the older generation’s viewpoint is based on their experience , where they haven’t seen negative outcomes. Conversely , the new generation would argue based on scientific principles and current best practices. The older generation might resist changing to these new practices. So , conflicts like these might arise from differing viewpoints on practices and approaches.” (Participant 9) .

The new generations perceive shared values as part of the staff-manager relationship and can’t isolate it. When the old generation leads, the staff investigates the old generation’s way of leading, which will affect the new generation’s attitudes and values. Consequently, the new generation still takes the old generation as an example to be followed. This meaning can be found in Participant 1 answers. “Actually , our leaders primarily lead by maintaining a good relationship , and he is making sense of decreasing the distance between the higher and lower positions. So , I can say that I share the same attitudes and values with my senior managers , but it might differ from one person to another.” ( Participant 1) .

Cultivating respect and empathy

This theme focuses on two subthemes: commitment to fairness and fostering a sense of purpose among staff.

Commitment to fairness

The results of the older generation highlight the importance of fostering empathy in the workplace. Participant 20 suggests promoting understanding by encouraging the new generation to consider their colleagues’ perspectives and motivations, enhancing mutual respect and cooperation.

“Encourage Empathy: Foster empathy among employees by encouraging them to put themselves in each other’s shoes. Encouraging individuals to consider the motivations and experiences of their colleagues can lead to better understanding” (Participant 20). “They can challenge you as a leader and they can challenge each other. That’s how you build a better workplace to have a conversation , a clear professional conversation. If you want to build a professional conversation , the two respect the critiques to respect the differences. So those differences are not conflicts. Differences are differences of opinion due to the experiences everybody can brings in.”(Participants 18) .

However, the new generation demands that older generations be more open to work-related discussions, assignments, and promotion opportunities. They believe the new generation has a greater chance to be promoted if they get a fair chance as they are equipped and well-educated. This was clear by Participant 9.“ Compared to the older generation , the new generation of nurses has more opportunities for service and promotion based on education. In the past , nurses often held diplomas or auxiliary nursing qualifications , with the attitude focused primarily on patient care. Now , there’s a trend towards having more knowledgeable nurses capable of providing advanced care”( Participant 9).

Fostering a sense of purpose among staff

A sense of purpose plays a crucial role in developing cohesive nursing teams by promoting transparent communication and mutual learning, as emphasized by Participant 18.

“The most effective way that I felt worked during this period is the mentorship , working closely with the people and letting them have open communication all the time , providing the proper support , and providing the platform to share the experience and knowledge while you are learning or why they are learning from , and this learning process will be from both. So , this sharing of information through a clear mentorship , in one way or another , will create a culture of mutual respect , and this will end with time; this is not just easy; it takes time. But eventually , if it is done appropriately from the beginning , it will formulate a more cohesive nursing team.“(Participant 18).

The sense of purpose was more obvious among the new generation’s responses, as can be seen in Participant 7’s response: “ Our teamwork is initially built on collaboration , where each nurse supports and enhances the work of others.”

Dynamic enhancement of healthcare systems

The new generation is more adaptable to technological changes and modern healthcare systems. They often embrace new approaches and value work-life balance and a more collaborative approach to patient care. Older nurses have been exposed to a traditional healthcare system and may have had to adapt to technological changes later in their careers.

Continuous education and professional development

The new generation is involved in all nursing and patient care areas. They are advancing in roles such as nurse advocates and nurse researchers. So, the new generation is expanding into new fields and trying to improve the nursing career by pursuing education and professional development. In contrast, the older generation focuses more on clinical areas and patient outcomes.

“There are more options available now , especially for the younger generations. Previously , options were limited. You would start at a hospital or a specific department and stay there. With education and different pathways , you can work in patient care or move into education or other areas. This variety of options makes it easier for the younger generations.” (Participant:8) . “The other thing that when you are dealing with the old generation , you’ll find the love to be with the patient , patient bedside dealing with the patient day today.” (Participant:13) .

Promotion of organizational openness and transparency

The old generation perceived transparency as the need for the new and old generations to openly discuss changes, address concerns, and collaboratively adapt to evolving practices, fostering a transparent and supportive environment in the nursing profession. “Create an environment where nurses and nurse managers can openly discuss changes in the profession , address concerns , and work together to adapt” (Participant 20).

The new generation perceives transparency as a valuable key to promoting change. Participant No. 1’s answers reveal this meaning: “By open communication , that will help. Straight communication and effective communication indeed will help in preparing for the change. As I mentioned before , I need some help or someone to communicate with my manager in my home country. Also , by ensuring that there is no second person between you and your manager , maintain good relationships.”(Participant:1).

This study assessed the generational gap between the new and the old generation. We have identified four main themes: optimizing the working environment, strengthening the work atmosphere through communication and values, cultivating respect and empathy, and dynamic enhancement of healthcare systems. Overall, the results of this study identify the generational gap between these two generations. Moreover, the findings of this research shed light on significant subthemes that highlight the evolving dynamics within the nursing profession, particularly the differences and similarities between new and old generations. The demographic data provided a clear understanding of the structure of both generations, with a notable representation of male staff nurses in the new generation and a diverse range of experiences in healthcare.

Working environment

Perceiving the work environment was evident as a generational gap in our study; the leadership style and other subthemes were also identified. This study discovered that the older generation significantly promotes effective leadership styles, including transformational and situational leadership. These styles enhance teamwork, promote autonomy, and ensure a supportive work environment. This is consistent with the findings of Cummings et al. (2018), who highlighted that transformational leadership positively impacts nurse satisfaction and patient outcomes by fostering a supportive and communicative work environment [ 14 ]. Furthermore, situational leadership is vital for the older generation in dynamic critical care units, offering flexibility to address staff readiness levels effectively [ 15 ].

On the other hand, the new generation stressed the importance of inner values such as respect, teamwork, accountability, and professionalism rather than the leadership style of the old generation. The new generation’s focus on internal values suggests a potential shift in organizational culture that prioritizes individual integrity and an attitude of collaboration over traditional hierarchical leadership approaches. This trend indicates that future healthcare entities’ strategies may incrementally prioritize cultivating an environment where ethical behaviors, mutual respect, and collective responsibility play crucial roles in achieving organizational success. This result is consistent with another study done by Boamah et al. (2018), who found that supportive leadership practices enhance nurses’ work engagement and patient care quality, emphasizing the need for recognition and acknowledgment strategies to boost job satisfaction [ 16 ].

In addition, our study evidently shows generational differences in adaptation to technological advancements, with the new generation demonstrating a higher ability to adopt new technologies into their practice. This finding is supported by Lera et al. (2020), who noted that the new generation is more comfortable with modern digital tools and evidence-based practices​ than the old generation [ 17 ].

Strengthening work atmosphere through communication and values

The current study has found that generational differences in communication preferences exist, with the new generation leveraging technology for more accessible communication. In contrast, the old generation prefers face-to-face interactions for clearer understanding. This aligns with the findings of Rosi et al. (2019), who noted that younger healthcare professionals are more likely to use digital communication tools, whereas the older generation favors traditional methods [ 18 ]. Effective communication strategies that bridge these generational gaps are crucial. Training on communication best practices and the use of technology for the old generation, as well as encouraging the new generation to develop strong interpersonal skills for face-to-face interactions, are crucial [ 19 ].

Regular feedback mechanisms are crucial for identifying and addressing concerns related to the work atmosphere. Boamah et al. (2018) suggest that understanding and addressing generational differences in work preferences can improve team cohesion and reduce conflicts, ultimately leading to better patient care [ 16 ]. The study participants also emphasized the importance of feedback in creating a positive work environment, consistent with the findings of Lin et al. (2021), who stressed the value of input in fostering a supportive workplace [ 20 ]. The current study found that creating a work culture where debate is encouraged, disagreements are respectful, and active listening helps build a team-oriented mindset. This finding aligns with research by Flores et al. (2023), who noted that promoting shared values and respectful communication enhances team cohesion and collaboration [ 21 ].

The current study has found another generational gap in respect and empathy. The new generation emphasizes the importance of having fair assignments, work-related discussions, and promotion opportunities [ 22 ]. Choi et al. (2018), consistent with our study, reported that fair clinical assignments will enhance staff satisfaction, improve nurses’ working conditions, and positively impact patient outcomes [ 23 ].

Professional self-concept is crucial to staff satisfaction, retention, and well-being [ 24 ]. The sense of purpose is part of the nurse’s professional self-concept; hence, the old generation, especially the leaders, must promote staff well-being by considering their purpose and fostering an environment of mutual benefit [ 25 ]. This finding aligns with the current study, which revealed that the new generation views a sense of purpose as fundamental to their professional needs.

The healthcare system is generally considered a significant influence on nursing careers. Regardless of generation, the healthcare system affects nurses and healthcare providers as it is continuously changed, modified, and developed, creating new challenges and opportunities for healthcare providers.

The progression of nursing practice has been significantly influenced by advancements in education and professional development, leading to a shift in roles and opportunities for nurses. The new generation, who are more adaptable to technological changes and evidence-based practices, are increasingly moving into diverse roles beyond traditional clinical settings. They are now prominent in fields such as nurse advocacy, research, and education, reflecting a broadening of the nursing profession and ultimately enhancing healthcare systems. This shift contrasts with the experiences of the older generation who have primarily focused on direct patient care within clinical environments. Recent studies support this trend. For instance, a study found that new nurses are more likely to engage in continuous education and seek roles that allow for more incredible professional growth and diversification than older nurses [ 26 ].

Our study revealed that creating an environment that promotes openness and transparency is essential for fostering effective communication and collaboration between different generations of nurses. Fostering mentorship and knowledge sharing bridges the generational gap and ensures the transmission of valuable experiences and practices. An open dialogue between nurses and nurse managers about changes in the profession, concerns, and adaptation strategies is critical for cohesive teamwork. These findings are consistent with Bragadóttir et al. (2022), which indicate that organizational transparency and open communication channels significantly enhance teamwork and job satisfaction among nursing staff [ 24 ].

This study highlights the evolving dynamics within the nursing profession, focusing on generational differences and similarities. The new generation is more skillful at integrating technology and embracing diverse roles beyond traditional clinical settings, whereas the old generation brings valuable experience and historical perspectives. Effective leadership, continuous education, and open communication are critical for optimizing the work environment, enhancing nurse satisfaction, and improving patient outcomes. Bridging the generational gap through mentorship and fostering a culture of respect and empathy are essential for a cohesive and resilient healthcare system.

Recommendations

Future research should explore strategies to effectively bridge the generational gap in nursing by integrating leadership styles, communication preferences, and technology adoption across different generations. Longitudinal studies could examine how generational dynamics evolve as new generations enter the workforce and older generations transition out, providing insights into the sustainability of organizational changes. Additionally, expanding research to diverse healthcare settings and cultural contexts would enhance the generalizability of findings. At the same time, intervention studies could test the effectiveness of tailored mentorship programs, continuous education initiatives, and organizational transparency in fostering intergenerational collaboration and improving patient care outcomes.

The study’s methodology, including potential sampling bias due to purposive selection, interviewer bias, and the subjective nature of data saturation, could also influence the results. Additionally, the context-specific nature of the study and the use of virtual interviews might limit the depth and transferability of the findings. Finally, time constraints may have restricted the comprehensiveness of the data collected.

Implications for nursing management

Nurse managers should adopt a multi-faceted leadership approach, embracing both transformational and situational styles, to meet the diverse needs of a multigenerational workforce. Implementing targeted communication training and fostering an environment of respect and empathy can improve team cohesion and patient outcomes. Investing in continuous professional development and technological training will further support the integration of new and experienced nurses.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the nurses and nurse managers who participated in the study.

This study was funded by the Medical Research Center at Hamad Medical Corporation (MRC-01-23-206).

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Department of Nursing, Hazm Mebaireek General Hospital, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar

Ahmad A. Abujaber, Abdulqadir J. Nashwan, Mark D. Santos, Nabeel F. Al-Lobaney, Rejo G. Mathew & Jamsheer P. Alikutty

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Albara M. Alomari

Nursing and Midwifery Research Department, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar

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Contributions

AAA, AJN: Conceptualization. NFA, MDS, JK: Formal analysis.AAA, AJN, MDS, NFA, RGM, JPA, JK, AMA: Methodology, Data curation, Manuscript writing (draft and final review). All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Abdulqadir J. Nashwan .

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This study was approved by the Medical Research Center of Hamad Medical Corporation (MRC-01-23-206). The study has been conducted in accordance with the ethical standards noted in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consents were obtained from all the participants.

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Abujaber, A.A., Nashwan, A.J., Santos, M.D. et al. Bridging the generational gap between nurses and nurse managers: a qualitative study from Qatar. BMC Nurs 23 , 623 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02296-y

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Received : 29 June 2024

Accepted : 26 August 2024

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02296-y

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