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The Future of Religion and Secularity in Sociology’s History

• Published: 24 July 2021
• Volume 52 , pages 591–609, ( 2021 )

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• Efe Peker   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2596-7221 1  

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Despite being foundational for the origins of modern sociology, religion as a topic of inquiry and the sociology of religion as a subdiscipline have long remained relatively marginalized in the sociological field. Losing sight of sociology’s profound initial engagement with religion, or a one-sided understanding of it as indifferent or unsympathetic towards the subject, may have contributed to this phenomenon. This article revisits early sociologists’ and the larger family of social philosophers’ involvement with religion to offer a more nuanced history. It argues that the religious question was crucial for the development of sociological thinking in three interrelated dimensions: epistemological, normative, and empirical. Epistemologically, social theorists questioned whether the scientific study of society was reconcilable with the premises of faith. Normatively, they were directly or indirectly involved with the question of whether religion should continue to exist and in what forms. Empirically, the main interest was how religion was changing via modernization, or whether it would survive it, which prompted methodological innovations and became the core of the secularization debate. Focusing on key social thinkers from the Enlightenment to the classics of the long nineteenth century, the article discusses the significance of the engagement with religion and secularity for the consolidation of sociology in these three dimensions, as well as its ongoing relevance for the discipline’s future.

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The Sociological Study of Religion: Arrival, Survival, Revival

The Disenchantment of the World and the Authority of Sociology: How the Queen of the Sciences Lost Her Throne

The Sociology and Anthropology of Secularism: From Genealogy/Power to the Multiple Manifestations of the Secular

The literature on the isolation of the sociology of religion within the larger discipline, especially in the United States, cites a combination of historical, conceptual, methodological, and institutional factors. A detailed discussion of these factors is beyond the scope of this article (see, for instance, Beckford, 1985 ; Calhoun, 1999 ; Ebaugh, 2002 ; Smith et al., 2013 ).

For a critique of the “wars of religion” narrative as a secular construction, see Cavanaugh ( 2009 ).

Although Rousseau was the first to use the term, the idea behind civil religion has a much longer history in the annals of political philosophy (Beiner, 2011 ). In its modern journey, the concept went through significant transformations—for instance, Rousseau’s understanding of civil religion as a state doctrine differs significantly from Bellah’s Durkheim-inspired view of it as a culture of civic sentiment (Cristi, 2001 ).

I bring to the fore these particular legacies due to their direct relevance for the sociological perspective on secularization, which structures my survey. This, of course, led to the omission of other important intellectual lineages. Among others, Weber’s discussion of prophets and priests featured in his The Sociology of Religion (1922), which informed Pierre Bourdieu’s field theory (Hutt, 2007 ), or the impact of Durkheim’s Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912) on the sociology of knowledge and classification (Bloor, 1982 ), could not be included in the analysis.

Similarly in France, the study of religion witnessed a shift from the Catholic-inspired sociologie religieuse (religious sociology) to la sociologie des religions (the sociology of religions), which put more emphasis on scientific neutrality and the investigation of a wider set of religious traditions (Willaime, 2017 , pp. 40–60).

For instance, further historical research can shed light on the specific ways in which early sociology’s interaction with religion in these three dimensions might have instilled “deep cultural assumptions and categories” about the topic to facilitate its relative omission or marginalization for extended periods of time in twentieth century sociology (Smith et al., 2013 , p. 919).

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Peker, E. The Future of Religion and Secularity in Sociology’s History. Am Soc 52 , 591–609 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12108-021-09507-y

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Accepted : 12 July 2021

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12108-021-09507-y

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15.1 The Sociological Approach to Religion

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Discuss the historical view of religion from a sociological perspective
• Describe how the major sociological paradigms view religion

From the Latin religio (respect for what is sacred) and religare (to bind, in the sense of an obligation), the term religion describes various systems of belief and practice that define what people consider to be sacred or spiritual (Fasching and deChant 2001; Durkheim 1915). Throughout history, and in societies across the world, leaders have used religious narratives, symbols, and traditions in an attempt to give more meaning to life and understand the universe. Some form of religion is found in every known culture, and it is usually practiced in a public way by a group. The practice of religion can include feasts and festivals, intercession with God or gods, marriage and funeral services, music and art, meditation or initiation, sacrifice or service, and other aspects of culture.

While some people think of religion as something individual because religious beliefs can be highly personal, religion is also a social institution. Social scientists recognize that religion exists as an organized and integrated set of beliefs, behaviors, and norms centered on basic social needs and values. Moreover, religion is a cultural universal found in all social groups. For instance, in every culture, funeral rites are practiced in some way, although these customs vary between cultures and within religious affiliations. Despite differences, there are common elements in a ceremony marking a person’s death, such as announcement of the death, care of the deceased, disposition, and ceremony or ritual. These universals, and the differences in the way societies and individuals experience religion, provide rich material for sociological study.

In studying religion, sociologists distinguish between what they term the experience, beliefs, and rituals of a religion. Religious experience refers to the conviction or sensation that we are connected to “the divine.” This type of communion might be experienced when people pray or meditate. Religious beliefs are specific ideas members of a particular faith hold to be true, such as that Jesus Christ was the son of God, or that reincarnation exists. Another illustration of religious beliefs is the creation stories we find in different religions. Religious rituals are behaviors or practices that are either required or expected of the members of a particular group, such as bar mitzvah or confession of sins (Barkan and Greenwood 2003).

The History of Religion as a Sociological Concept

In the wake of nineteenth century European industrialization and secularization, three social theorists attempted to examine the relationship between religion and society: Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Karl Marx. They are among the founding thinkers of modern sociology.

As stated earlier, French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) defined religion as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things” (1915). To him, sacred meant extraordinary—something that inspired wonder and that seemed connected to the concept of “the divine.” Durkheim argued that “religion happens” in society when there is a separation between the profane (ordinary life) and the sacred (1915). A rock, for example, isn’t sacred or profane as it exists. But if someone makes it into a headstone, or another person uses it for landscaping, it takes on different meanings—one sacred, one profane.

Durkheim is generally considered the first sociologist who analyzed religion in terms of its societal impact. Above all, he believed religion is about community: It binds people together (social cohesion), promotes behavior consistency (social control), and offers strength during life’s transitions and tragedies (meaning and purpose). By applying the methods of natural science to the study of society, Durkheim held that the source of religion and morality is the collective mind-set of society and that the cohesive bonds of social order result from common values in a society. He contended that these values need to be maintained to maintain social stability.

But what would happen if religion were to decline? This question led Durkheim to posit that religion is not just a social creation but something that represents the power of society: When people celebrate sacred things, they celebrate the power of their society. By this reasoning, even if traditional religion disappeared, society wouldn’t necessarily dissolve.

Whereas Durkheim saw religion as a source of social stability, German sociologist and political economist Max Weber (1864–1920) believed it was a precipitator of social change. He examined the effects of religion on economic activities and noticed that heavily Protestant societies—such as those in the Netherlands, England, Scotland, and Germany—were the most highly developed capitalist societies and that their most successful business leaders were Protestant. In his writing The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905), he contends that the Protestant work ethic influenced the development of capitalism. Weber noted that certain kinds of Protestantism supported the pursuit of material gain by motivating believers to work hard, be successful, and not spend their profits on frivolous things. (The modern use of “work ethic” comes directly from Weber’s Protestant ethic, although it has now lost its religious connotations.)

Big Picture

The protestant work ethic in the information age.

Max Weber (1904) posited that, in Europe in his time, Protestants were more likely than Catholics to value capitalist ideology, and believed in hard work and savings. He showed that Protestant values directly influenced the rise of capitalism and helped create the modern world order. Weber thought the emphasis on community in Catholicism versus the emphasis on individual achievement in Protestantism made a difference. His century-old claim that the Protestant work ethic led to the development of capitalism has been one of the most important and controversial topics in the sociology of religion. In fact, scholars have found little merit to his contention when applied to modern society (Greeley 1989).

What does the concept of work ethic mean today? The work ethic in the information age has been affected by tremendous cultural and social change, just as workers in the mid- to late nineteenth century were influenced by the wake of the Industrial Revolution. Factory jobs tend to be simple, uninvolved, and require very little thinking or decision making on the part of the worker. Today, the work ethic of the modern workforce has been transformed, as more thinking and decision making is required. Employees also seek autonomy and fulfillment in their jobs, not just wages. Higher levels of education have become necessary, as well as people management skills and access to the most recent information on any given topic. The information age has increased the rapid pace of production expected in many jobs.

On the other hand, the “McDonaldization” of the United States (Hightower 1975; Ritzer 1993), in which many service industries, such as the fast-food industry, have established routinized roles and tasks, has resulted in a “discouragement” of the work ethic. In jobs where roles and tasks are highly prescribed, workers have no opportunity to make decisions. They are considered replaceable commodities as opposed to valued employees. During times of recession, these service jobs may be the only employment possible for younger individuals or those with low-level skills. The pay, working conditions, and robotic nature of the tasks dehumanizes the workers and strips them of incentives for doing quality work.

Working hard also doesn’t seem to have any relationship with Catholic or Protestant religious beliefs anymore, or those of other religions; information age workers expect talent and hard work to be rewarded by material gain and career advancement.

German philosopher, journalist, and revolutionary socialist Karl Marx (1818–1883) also studied the social impact of religion. He believed religion reflects the social stratification of society and that it maintains inequality and perpetuates the status quo. For him, religion was just an extension of working-class (proletariat) economic suffering. He famously argued that religion “is the opium of the people” (1844).

For Durkheim, Weber, and Marx, who were reacting to the great social and economic upheaval of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century in Europe, religion was an integral part of society. For Durkheim, religion was a force for cohesion that helped bind the members of society to the group, while Weber believed religion could be understood as something separate from society. Marx considered religion inseparable from the economy and the worker. Religion could not be understood apart from the capitalist society that perpetuated inequality. Despite their different views, these social theorists all believed in the centrality of religion to society.

Theoretical Perspectives on Religion

Modern-day sociologists often apply one of three major theoretical perspectives. These views offer different lenses through which to study and understand society: functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and conflict theory. Let’s explore how scholars applying these paradigms understand religion.

Functionalism

Functionalists contend that religion serves several functions in society. Religion, in fact, depends on society for its existence, value, and significance, and vice versa. From this perspective, religion serves several purposes, like providing answers to spiritual mysteries, offering emotional comfort, and creating a place for social interaction and social control.

In providing answers, religion defines the spiritual world and spiritual forces, including divine beings. For example, it helps answer questions like, “How was the world created?” “Why do we suffer?” “Is there a plan for our lives?” and “Is there an afterlife?” As another function, religion provides emotional comfort in times of crisis. Religious rituals bring order, comfort, and organization through shared familiar symbols and patterns of behavior.

One of the most important functions of religion, from a functionalist perspective, is the opportunities it creates for social interaction and the formation of groups. It provides social support and social networking and offers a place to meet others who hold similar values and a place to seek help (spiritual and material) in times of need. Moreover, it can foster group cohesion and integration. Because religion can be central to many people’s concept of themselves, sometimes there is an “in-group” versus “out-group” feeling toward other religions in our society or within a particular practice. On an extreme level, the Inquisition, the Salem witch trials, and anti-Semitism are all examples of this dynamic. Finally, religion promotes social control: It reinforces social norms such as appropriate styles of dress, following the law, and regulating sexual behavior.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theorists view religion as an institution that helps maintain patterns of social inequality. For example, the Vatican has a tremendous amount of wealth, while the average income of Catholic parishioners is small. According to this perspective, religion has been used to support the “divine right” of oppressive monarchs and to justify unequal social structures, like India’s caste system.

Conflict theorists are critical of the way many religions promote the idea that believers should be satisfied with existing circumstances because they are divinely ordained. This power dynamic has been used by Christian institutions for centuries to keep poor people poor and to teach them that they shouldn’t be concerned with what they lack because their “true” reward (from a religious perspective) will come after death. Conflict theorists also point out that those in power in a religion are often able to dictate practices, rituals, and beliefs through their interpretation of religious texts or via proclaimed direct communication from the divine.

The feminist perspective is a conflict theory view that focuses specifically on gender inequality. In terms of religion, feminist theorists assert that, although women are typically the ones to socialize children into a religion, they have traditionally held very few positions of power within religions. A few religions and religious denominations are more gender equal, but male dominance remains the norm of most.

Sociology in the Real World

Rational choice theory: can economic theory be applied to religion.

How do people decide which religion to follow, if any? How does one pick a church or decide which denomination “fits” best? Rational choice theory (RCT) is one way social scientists have attempted to explain these behaviors. The theory proposes that people are self-interested, though not necessarily selfish, and that people make rational choices—choices that can reasonably be expected to maximize positive outcomes while minimizing negative outcomes. Sociologists Roger Finke and Rodney Stark (1988) first considered the use of RCT to explain some aspects of religious behavior, with the assumption that there is a basic human need for religion in terms of providing belief in a supernatural being, a sense of meaning in life, and belief in life after death. Religious explanations of these concepts are presumed to be more satisfactory than scientific explanations, which may help to account for the continuation of strong religious connectedness in countries such as the United States, despite predictions of some competing theories for a great decline in religious affiliation due to modernization and religious pluralism.

Another assumption of RCT is that religious organizations can be viewed in terms of “costs” and “rewards.” Costs are not only monetary requirements, but are also the time, effort, and commitment demands of any particular religious organization. Rewards are the intangible benefits in terms of belief and satisfactory explanations about life, death, and the supernatural, as well as social rewards from membership. RCT proposes that, in a pluralistic society with many religious options, religious organizations will compete for members, and people will choose between different churches or denominations in much the same way they select other consumer goods, balancing costs and rewards in a rational manner. In this framework, RCT also explains the development and decline of churches, denominations, sects, and even cults; this limited part of the very complex RCT theory is the only aspect well supported by research data.

Critics of RCT argue that it doesn’t fit well with human spiritual needs, and many sociologists disagree that the costs and rewards of religion can even be meaningfully measured or that individuals use a rational balancing process regarding religious affiliation. The theory doesn’t address many aspects of religion that individuals may consider essential (such as faith) and further fails to account for agnostics and atheists who don’t seem to have a similar need for religious explanations. Critics also believe this theory overuses economic terminology and structure and point out that terms such as “rational” and “reward” are unacceptably defined by their use; they would argue that the theory is based on faulty logic and lacks external, empirical support. A scientific explanation for why something occurs can’t reasonably be supported by the fact that it does occur. RCT is widely used in economics and to a lesser extent in criminal justice, but the application of RCT in explaining the religious beliefs and behaviors of people and societies is still being debated in sociology today.

Symbolic Interactionism

Rising from the concept that our world is socially constructed, symbolic interactionism studies the symbols and interactions of everyday life. To interactionists, beliefs and experiences are not sacred unless individuals in a society regard them as sacred. The Star of David in Judaism, the cross in Christianity, and the crescent and star in Islam are examples of sacred symbols. Interactionists are interested in what these symbols communicate. Because interactionists study one-on-one, everyday interactions between individuals, a scholar using this approach might ask questions focused on this dynamic. The interaction between religious leaders and practitioners, the role of religion in the ordinary components of everyday life, and the ways people express religious values in social interactions—all might be topics of study to an interactionist.

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17.3 Sociological Perspectives on Religion

Learning objectives.

• Summarize the major functions of religion.
• Explain the views of religion held by the conflict perspective.
• Explain the views of religion held by the symbolic interactionist perspective.

Sociological perspectives on religion aim to understand the functions religion serves, the inequality and other problems it can reinforce and perpetuate, and the role it plays in our daily lives (Emerson, Monahan, & Mirola, 2011). Table 17.1 “Theory Snapshot” summarizes what these perspectives say.

Table 17.1 Theory Snapshot

The Functions of Religion

Much of the work of Émile Durkheim stressed the functions that religion serves for society regardless of how it is practiced or of what specific religious beliefs a society favors. Durkheim’s insights continue to influence sociological thinking today on the functions of religion.

First, religion gives meaning and purpose to life . Many things in life are difficult to understand. That was certainly true, as we have seen, in prehistoric times, but even in today’s highly scientific age, much of life and death remains a mystery, and religious faith and belief help many people make sense of the things science cannot tell us.

Second, religion reinforces social unity and stability . This was one of Durkheim’s most important insights. Religion strengthens social stability in at least two ways. First, it gives people a common set of beliefs and thus is an important agent of socialization (see Chapter 4 “Socialization” ). Second, the communal practice of religion, as in houses of worship, brings people together physically, facilitates their communication and other social interaction, and thus strengthens their social bonds.

The communal practice of religion in a house of worship brings people together and allows them to interact and communicate. In this way religion helps reinforce social unity and stability. This function of religion was one of Émile Durkheim’s most important insights.

Erin Rempel – Worship – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

A third function of religion is related to the one just discussed. Religion is an agent of social control and thus strengthens social order . Religion teaches people moral behavior and thus helps them learn how to be good members of society. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the Ten Commandments are perhaps the most famous set of rules for moral behavior.

A fourth function of religion is greater psychological and physical well-being . Religious faith and practice can enhance psychological well-being by being a source of comfort to people in times of distress and by enhancing their social interaction with others in places of worship. Many studies find that people of all ages, not just the elderly, are happier and more satisfied with their lives if they are religious. Religiosity also apparently promotes better physical health, and some studies even find that religious people tend to live longer than those who are not religious (Moberg, 2008). We return to this function later.

A final function of religion is that it may motivate people to work for positive social change . Religion played a central role in the development of the Southern civil rights movement a few decades ago. Religious beliefs motivated Martin Luther King Jr. and other civil rights activists to risk their lives to desegregate the South. Black churches in the South also served as settings in which the civil rights movement held meetings, recruited new members, and raised money (Morris, 1984).

Religion, Inequality, and Conflict

Religion has all of these benefits, but, according to conflict theory, it can also reinforce and promote social inequality and social conflict. This view is partly inspired by the work of Karl Marx, who said that religion was the “opiate of the masses” (Marx, 1964). By this he meant that religion, like a drug, makes people happy with their existing conditions. Marx repeatedly stressed that workers needed to rise up and overthrow the bourgeoisie. To do so, he said, they needed first to recognize that their poverty stemmed from their oppression by the bourgeoisie. But people who are religious, he said, tend to view their poverty in religious terms. They think it is God’s will that they are poor, either because he is testing their faith in him or because they have violated his rules. Many people believe that if they endure their suffering, they will be rewarded in the afterlife. Their religious views lead them not to blame the capitalist class for their poverty and thus not to revolt. For these reasons, said Marx, religion leads the poor to accept their fate and helps maintain the existing system of social inequality.

As Chapter 11 “Gender and Gender Inequality” discussed, religion also promotes gender inequality by presenting negative stereotypes about women and by reinforcing traditional views about their subordination to men (Klassen, 2009). A declaration a decade ago by the Southern Baptist Convention that a wife should “submit herself graciously” to her husband’s leadership reflected traditional religious belief (Gundy-Volf, 1998).

As the Puritans’ persecution of non-Puritans illustrates, religion can also promote social conflict, and the history of the world shows that individual people and whole communities and nations are quite ready to persecute, kill, and go to war over religious differences. We see this today and in the recent past in central Europe, the Middle East, and Northern Ireland. Jews and other religious groups have been persecuted and killed since ancient times. Religion can be the source of social unity and cohesion, but over the centuries it also has led to persecution, torture, and wanton bloodshed.

News reports going back since the 1990s indicate a final problem that religion can cause, and that is sexual abuse, at least in the Catholic Church. As you undoubtedly have heard, an unknown number of children were sexually abused by Catholic priests and deacons in the United States, Canada, and many other nations going back at least to the 1960s. There is much evidence that the Church hierarchy did little or nothing to stop the abuse or to sanction the offenders who were committing it, and that they did not report it to law enforcement agencies. Various divisions of the Church have paid tens of millions of dollars to settle lawsuits. The numbers of priests, deacons, and children involved will almost certainly never be known, but it is estimated that at least 4,400 priests and deacons in the United States, or about 4% of all such officials, have been accused of sexual abuse, although fewer than 2,000 had the allegations against them proven (Terry & Smith, 2006). Given these estimates, the number of children who were abused probably runs into the thousands.

Symbolic Interactionism and Religion

While functional and conflict theories look at the macro aspects of religion and society, symbolic interactionism looks at the micro aspects. It examines the role that religion plays in our daily lives and the ways in which we interpret religious experiences. For example, it emphasizes that beliefs and practices are not sacred unless people regard them as such. Once we regard them as sacred, they take on special significance and give meaning to our lives. Symbolic interactionists study the ways in which people practice their faith and interact in houses of worship and other religious settings, and they study how and why religious faith and practice have positive consequences for individual psychological and physical well-being.

The cross, Star of David, and the crescent and star are symbols of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, respectively. The symbolic interactionist perspective emphasizes the ways in which individuals interpret their religious experiences and religious symbols.

zeevveez – Star of David Coexistence- 2 – CC BY 2.0.

Religious symbols indicate the value of the symbolic interactionist approach. A crescent moon and a star are just two shapes in the sky, but together they constitute the international symbol of Islam. A cross is merely two lines or bars in the shape of a “t,” but to tens of millions of Christians it is a symbol with deeply religious significance. A Star of David consists of two superimposed triangles in the shape of a six-pointed star, but to Jews around the world it is a sign of their religious faith and a reminder of their history of persecution.

Religious rituals and ceremonies also illustrate the symbolic interactionist approach. They can be deeply intense and can involve crying, laughing, screaming, trancelike conditions, a feeling of oneness with those around you, and other emotional and psychological states. For many people they can be transformative experiences, while for others they are not transformative but are deeply moving nonetheless.

Key Takeaways

• Religion ideally serves several functions. It gives meaning and purpose to life, reinforces social unity and stability, serves as an agent of social control, promotes psychological and physical well-being, and may motivate people to work for positive social change.
• On the other hand, religion may help keep poor people happy with their lot in life, promote traditional views about gender roles, and engender intolerance toward people whose religious faith differs from one’s own.
• The symbolic interactionist perspective emphasizes how religion affects the daily lives of individuals and how they interpret their religious experiences.

For Your Review

• Of the several functions of religion that were discussed, which function do you think is the most important? Why?
• Which of the three theoretical perspectives on religion makes the most sense to you? Explain your choice.

Emerson, M. O., Monahan, S. C., & Mirola, W. A. (2011). Religion matters: What sociology teaches us about religion in our world . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Gundy-Volf, J. (1998, September–October). Neither biblical nor just: Southern Baptists and the subordination of women. Sojourners , 12–13.

Klassen, P. (Ed.). (2009). Women and religion . New York, NY: Routledge.

Marx, K. (1964). Karl Marx: Selected writings in sociology and social philosophy (T. B. Bottomore, Trans.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Moberg, D. O. (2008). Spirituality and aging: Research and implications. Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging, 20 , 95–134.

Morris, A. (1984). The origins of the civil rights movement: Black communities organizing for change . New York, NY: Free Press.

Terry, K., & Smith, M. L. (2006). The nature and scope of sexual abuse of minors by Catholic priests and deacons in the United States: Supplementary data analysis . Washington, DC: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops.

Sociology Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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215 Religion Research Paper Topics for College Students

Studying religion at a college or a university may be a challenging course for any student. This isn’t because religion is always a sensitive issue in society, it is because the study of religion is broad, and crafting religious topics for research papers around them may be further complex for students. This is why sociology of religion research topics and many others are here, all for your use.

As students of a university or a college, it is essential to prepare religious topics for research papers in advance. There are many research paper topics on religion, and this is why the scope of religion remains consistently broad. They extend to the sociology of religion, research paper topics on society, argumentative essay topics, and lots more. All these will be examined in this article. Rather than comb through your books in search of inspiration for your next essay or research paper, you can easily choose a topic for your religious essay or paper from the following recommendations:

World Religion Research Paper Topics

If you want to broaden your scope as a university student to topics across religions of the world, there are religion discussion topics to consider. These topics are not just for discussion in classes, you can craft research around them. Consider:

• The role of myths in shaping the world: Greek myths and their influence on the evolution of European religions
• Modern History: The attitude of modern Europe on the history of their religion
• The connection between religion and science in the medieval and modern world
• The mystery in the books of Dan Brown is nothing but fiction: discuss how mystery shapes religious beliefs
• Theocracy: an examination of theocratic states in contemporary society
• The role of Christianity in the modern world
• The myth surrounding the writing of the Bible
• The concept of religion and patriarchy: examine two religions and how it oppresses women
• People and religion in everyday life: how lifestyle and culture is influenced by religion
• The modern society and the changes in the religious view from the medieval period
• The interdependence of laws and religion is a contemporary thing: what is the role of law in religion and what is the role of religion in law?
• What marked the shift from religion to humanism?
• What do totemism and animalism denote?
• Pre Colonial religion in Africa is savagery and barbaric: discuss
• Cite three religions and express their views on the human soul
• Hinduism influenced Indian culture in ways no religion has: discuss
• Africans are more religious than Europeans who introduced Christian religion to them: discuss
• Account for the evolution of Confucianism and how it shaped Chinese culture to date
• Account for the concept of the history of evolution according to Science and according to a religion and how it influences the ideas of the religious soul
• What is religious education and how can it promote diversity or unity?7
• Workplace and religion: how religion is extended to all facets of life
• The concept of fear in maintaining religious authorities: how authorities in religious places inspire fear for absolute devotion
• Afro-American religion: a study of African religion in America
• The Bible and its role in religions
• Religion is more of emotions than logic
• Choose five religions of the world and study the similarities in their ideas
• The role of religious leaders in combating global terrorism
• Terrorism: the place of religion in promoting violence in the Middle East
• The influence of religion in modern-day politics
• What will the world be like without religion or religious extremists?
• Religion in the growth of communist Russia: how cultural revolution is synonymous with religion
• Religion in the growth of communist China: how cultural revolution is synonymous with religion
• The study of religions and ethnic rivalries in India
• Terrorism in Islam is a comeback to the crusades
• The role of the Thirty Years of War in shaping world diplomacy
• The role of the Thirty Years of War in shaping plurality in Christianity
• The religion and the promotion of economics
• The place of world religions on homosexuality
• Why does a country, the Vatican City, belong to the Catholic Church?
• God and the concept of the supernatural: examine the idea that God is a supernatural being
• The influence of religion in contemporary Japan
• Religion and populism in the modern world
• The difference between mythical creatures and gods
• Polytheism and the possibility of world peace
• Religion and violence in secular societies?
• Warfare and subjugation in the spread of religion
• The policies against migrant in Poland is targeted against Islam
• The role of international organizations in maintaining religious peace
• International terrorist organizations and the decline of order

Research Paper Topics Religion and Society

As a student in a university or MBA student, you may be requested to write an informed paper on sociology and religion. There are many sociology religion research paper topics for these segments although they may be hard to develop. You can choose out of the following topics or rephrase them to suit your research interest:

• The influence of religion on the understanding of morality
• The role of religion in marginalizing the LGBTQ community
• The role of women in religion
• Faith crisis in Christianity and Islamic religions
• The role of colonialism in the spreading of religion: the spread of Christianity and Islam is a mortal sin
• How does religion shape our sexual lifestyle?
• The concept of childhood innocence in religion
• Religion as the object of hope for the poor: how religion is used as a tool for servitude by the elite
• The impact of traditional beliefs in today’s secular societies
• How religion promotes society and how it can destroy it
• The knowledge of religion from the eyes of a sociologist
• Religious pluralism in America: how diverse religions struggle to strive
• Social stratification and its role in shaping religious groups in America
• The concept of organized religion: why the belief in God is not enough to join a religious group
• The family has the biggest influence on religious choices: examine how childhood influences the adult’s religious interests
• Islamophobia in European societies and anti-Semitism in America
• The views of Christianity on interfaith marriage
• The views of Islam on interfaith marriage
• The difference between spirituality and religion
• The role of discipline in maintaining strict religious edicts
• How do people tell others about their religion?
• The features of religion in sociology
• What are the views of Karl Marx on religion?
• What are the views of Frederic Engels on religion?
• Modern Islam: the conflict of pluralism and secularism
• Choose two religions and explore their concepts of divorce
• Governance and religion: how religion is also a tool of control
• The changes in religious ideas with technological evolution
• Theology is the study of God for God, not humans
• The most feared religion: how Islamic extremists became identified as terrorist organizations
• The role of cults in the society: why religious people still have cults affiliations
• The concept of religious inequality in the US
• What does religion say about sexual violence?

Religion Essay Topics

As a college student, you may be required to write an essay on religion or morality. You may need to access a lot of religious essay topics to find inspiration for a topic of your choice. Rather than go through the stress of compiling, you can get more information for better performance from religion topics for research paper like:

• The origin of Jihad in Islam and how it has evolved
• Compare the similarities and differences between Christian and Judaism religions
• The Thirty Years War and the Catholic church
• The Holocaust: historic aggression or a religious war
• Religion is a tool of oppression from the political and economic perspectives
• The concept of patriarchy in religion
• Baptism and synonym to ritual sacrifice
• The life of Jesus Christ and the themes of theology
• The life of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.) and the themes of theology
• How can religion be used to promote world peace?
• Analyze how Jesus died and the reason for his death
• Analyze the event of the birth of Christ
• The betrayal of Jesus is merely to fulfill a prophecy
• Does “prophecy” exist anywhere in religion?
• The role of war in promoting religion: how crusades and terrorist attacks shape the modern world
• The concept of Karma: is Karma real?
• Who are the major theorists in religion and what do they say?
• The connection of sociology with religion
• Why must everyone be born again according to Christians?
• What does religious tolerance mean?
• What is the benefit of religion in society?
• What do you understand about free speech and religious tolerance?
• Why did the Church separate from the state?
• The concept of guardian angels in religion
• What do Islam and Christianity say about the end of the world?
• Religion and the purpose of God for man
• The concept of conscience in morality is overrated
• Are there different sects in Christianity?
• What does Islam or Christianity say about suicide?
• What are the reasons for the Protestant Reformation?
• The role of missionaries in propagating Christianity in Africa
• The role of the Catholic church in shaping Christianity
• Do we need an international religious organization to maintain international religious peace?
• Why do people believe in miracles?

Argumentative Essay Topics on Religion

Creating argumentative essay topics on religion may be a daunting exercise regardless of your level. It is more difficult when you don’t know how to start. Your professor could be interested in your critical opinions about international issues bordering on religion, which is why you need to develop sensible topics. You can consider the following research paper topics religion and society for inspiration:

• Religion will dominate humanity: discuss
• All religions of the world dehumanize the woman
• All men are slaves to religion
• Karl Marx was right when he said religion is the return of the repressed, “the sigh of the oppressed creature”: discuss
• Christianity declined in Europe with the Thirty Years War and it separated brothers and sisters of the Christian faith?
• Islamic terrorism is a targeted attack on western culture
• The danger of teen marriage in Islam is more than its benefits
• The church should consider teen marriages for every interested teenager
• Is faith fiction or reality?
• The agape love is restricted to God and God’s love alone
• God: does he exist or is he a fiction dominating the world?
• Prayer works better without medicine: why some churches preach against the use of medicine
• People change religion because they are confused about God: discuss
• The church and the state should be together
• Polygamous marriage is evil and it should be condemned by every religion
• Cloning is abuse against God’s will
• Religious leaders should also be political leaders
• Abortion: a sin against God or control over your body
• Liberty of religious association affects you negatively: discuss
• Religious leaders only care about themselves, not the people
• Everyone should consider agnosticism
• Natural laws are the enemy of religion
• It is good to have more than two faiths in a family
• It is hard for the state to exist without religion
• Religion as a cause of the World War One
• Religion as a tool for capitalists
• Religion doesn’t promote morality, only extremisms
• Marriage: should the people or their religious leaders set the rules?
• Why the modern church should acknowledge the LGBTQ: the fight for true liberalism
• Mere coexistence is not religious tolerance
• The use of candles, incense, etc. in Catholic worship is idolatrous and the same as pagan worship: discuss
• The Christian religion is the same as Islam

Christianity Research Paper Topics on Religion

It doesn’t matter if you’re a Christian or not as you need to develop a range of topics for your essay or project. To create narrow yet all-inclusive research about Christianity in the world today, you can consider research topics online. Rather than rack your head or go through different pages on the internet, consider these:

• Compare and contrast Christian and Islam religions
• Trace the origin of Christianity and the similarity of the beliefs in the contemporary world
• Account for the violent spread of Christianity during the crusades
• Account for the state of Christianity in secular societies
• The analysis of the knowledge of rapture in Christianity
• Choose three contemporary issues and write the response of Christianity on them
• The Catholic church and its role towards the continuance of sexual violence
• The Catholic church and the issues of sexual abuse and scandals
• The history of Christianity in America
• The history of Christianity in Europe
• The impact of Christianity on American slaves
• The belief of Christianity on death, dying, and rapture
• The study of Christianity in the medieval period
• How Christianity influenced the western world
• Christianity: the symbols and their meaning
• Why catholic priests practice celibacy
• Christianity in the Reformation Era
• Discuss the Gnostic Gospels and their distinct historic influence on Christianity
• The catholic church in the Third Reich of Germany
• The difference between the Old Testament and the New Testament
• What the ten commandments say from a theological perspective
• The unpredictable story of Moses
• The revival of Saul to Paul: miracle or what?
• Are there Christian cults in the contemporary world?
• Gender differences in the Christian church: why some churches don’t allow women pastors
• The politics of the Catholic church before the separation of the church and the state
• The controversies around Christian religion and atheism: why many people are leaving the church
• What is the Holy Trinity and what is its role in the church?
• The miracles of the New Testament and its difference from the Old Testament’s
• Why do people question the existence of God?
• God is a spirit: discuss

Islam Research Paper Topics

As a student of the Islamic religion or a Muslim, you may be interested in research on the religion. Numerous Islam research paper topics could be critical in shaping your research paper or essay. These are easy yet profound research paper topics on religion Islam for your essays or papers:

• Islam in the Middle East
• Trace the origin of Islam
• Who are the most important prophets in Islam?
• Discuss the Sunni and other groups of Muslims
• The Five Pillars of Islam are said to be important in Islam, why?
• Discuss the significance of the Holy Month
• Discuss the significance of the Holy Pilgrimage
• The distinctions of the Five Pillars of Islam and the Ten Commandments?
• The controversies around the hijab and the veil
• Western states are denying Muslims: why?
• The role of religious leaders in their advocacy of sexual abuse and violence
• What the Quran says about rape and what does Hadiths say, too?
• Rape: men, not the women roaming the street should be blamed
• What is radicalism in Islam?
• The focus of Islam is to oppress women: discuss
• The political, social, and economic influence of modernity on Islam
• The notable wives of prophet Muhammad and their role in Islam: discuss
• Trace the evolution of Islam in China and the efforts of the government against them
• Religious conflict in Palestine and Israel: how a territorial conflict slowly became a religious war
• The study of social class and the Islamic religion
• Suicide bombers and their belief of honor in death: the beliefs of Islamic jihadists
• Account for the issues of marginalization of women in Muslim marriages
• The role of literature in promoting the fundamentals of Islam: how poetry was used to appeal to a wider audience
• The concept of feminism in Islam and why patriarchy seems to be on a steady rise
• The importance of Hadiths in the comprehension of the Islamic religion
• Does Islam approve of democracy?
• Islamic terrorism and the role of religious leaders
• The relationship of faith in Islam and Christianity: are there differences in the perspectives of faith?
• How the Quran can be used as a tool for religious tolerance and religious intolerance
• The study of Muslims in France: why is there religious isolation and abuse in such a society?
• Islam and western education: what are the issues that have become relevant in recent years?
• Is there a relationship between Islam and Science?
• Western culture: why there are stereotypes against Muslims abroad
• Mythology in Islam: what role does it play in shaping the religion?
• Islam and the belief in the afterlife: are there differences between its beliefs with other religions’?
• Why women are not allowed to take sermons in Islam

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Sociology of Religion Readings List

Readings for comprehensive exam in sociology of religion.

All sociologists of religion should be familiar a core set of readings in order to claim professional competence, as background to eventually teaching in the sociology of religion, and as intellectual context to help become an original producer of significant scholarship in the field. The purpose of doctoral exams is to provide occasions for students to master the core literatures of their fields of interest and research. Scholars differ on exactly what literature belongs on such core lists of readings. Listed below, however, are the readings which ND graduate students will be expected to master for the program’s doctoral comprehensive exams in the sociology of religion. Among the core questions in the sociology of religion—which the readings below address in various ways and about which doctoral exams in sociology of religion will ask—are the following:

1.  Subject : What is “religion?” Why and how are people religious? How is religion expressed in social terms and forms?

2.  Methods : How can we study religion sociologically? What are the characteristic strengths and weaknesses of different methodological approaches, especially as they relate to larger theoretical interests and perspectives and types of research agendas and questions?

3.  Modernity : How does the historical transition from “pre-modern” to modern (and postmodern?) society affect the strength and character of religion? Does modernity secularize or not? Are there multiple modernities? What might that mean?

4.  Participation and Communities : What social factors and processes influence individuals’ religious beliefs, commitments, practices, conversions, switching, etc. and the strength and character of religious communities, traditions, and subcultures?

5.  Reproduction and Change : What influence does religion exert in maintaining and/or challenging established social practices and institutions, through politics, cultural transformation, or other means?

Review the current area exam list .

Many of the readings that have historically been included on the area exams can be found below:

Core Reading List

Ammerman, Nancy. 1997.  Congregation and Community . Rutgers.

Ammerman, Nancy. 2006. Everyday Religion . New York: Oxford University Press (Chs. ???).

Ammerman, Nancy. 2013. Sacred Stories, Spiritual Tribes . New York: Oxford University Press. (Pp. 1-55, 288-304).

Ammerman, Nancy 1997 . “Golden Rule Christianity,” pp. 196-216 in David Hall (ed.),  Lived Religion in America . Princeton.

Asad, Talal.  1993 .  “The Construction of Religion as an Anthropological Category.”  In  Genealogies of Religion .

Becker, Penny. 1999. Congregations in Conflict . Cambridge.

Bell, Daniel. 1980. “The Return of the Sacred?”  The Winding Passage . Basic Books (Ch. 17).

Bellah, Robert. 1967 . “Civil Religion in America.”  Daedalus . 96 (Winter). Pp. 1-21.

Bellah, Robert. 1964 . “Religious Evolution,” American Sociological Review 29:358-374 (also in Bellah,  Beyond Belief . Harper and Row.)         

Berger, Peter . 1969.  The Sacred Canopy . Anchor.

Berger, Peter L. 1996. “Secularism in Retreat.”  The National Interest.  (Winter).

Beyer, Peter .  2006.  Religion in Global Society . New York: Routledge.

Bourdieu, Pierre. 1991 . “Genesis and Structure of the Religious Filed.” I n Religious Institutions , Craig Calhoun (ed.). Greenwich: JAI Press.

Bruce, Steve . 2002.  God is Dead . New York: Blackwell.

Calhoun, Craig, Mark Juergensmeyer, and Jonathan VanAntwerpen (eds.). 2011. Rethinking Secularism . New York: Oxford University Press. (Chapters).

Casanova, Jose . 1994.  Public Religions in the Modern World . Chicago.

Chaves, Mark. 1994 . “Secularization as Declining Religious Authority.”  Social Forces . March. 72(3): 749-775.

Chaves, Mark and Phil Gorski. 2001 . “Religious Pluralism and Religious Participation.”  Annual Review of Sociology . 27: 261‑281.

Cimino, Richard and Christopher Smith. 2014. Atheist Awakening: Secular Activism and Community in America . New York: Oxford University Press.

Comaroff, John and Jean . 1991.  Of Revelation and Revolution . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Davidman, Lynn . 1991.  Tradition in a Rootless World. California.

Davie, Grace. 1990. “Believing Without Belonging.”  Social Compass . 37: 456-69.

Douglas, Mary . 1966.  Purity and Danger. New York: Prageger.

Durkheim, Emile. 1995 [1915]. Karen Fields, translator.  The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life.  Free Press. [Chris Smith has a reading guide available for this book.]

Eisenstadt, S.E. 2000. “Multiple Modernities.”  Daedalus . Winter, 129(1): 1-29.

Evans Pritchard, EE . 1976.  Witchcraft Oracles and Magic among the Azande  (abridged with an Introduction by Eva Gillies). Oxford: ClarendonPress. (Introduction, pp. vii-xxix; Chs. 1-4, pp. 1-64.)

Finke, Roger and Rodney Stark. 1992. The Churching of America, 1776-1990 . Rutgers. (read Chapter 1, skim Chapters 2-7).

Fowler, Robert Booth . 1989.  Unconventional Partners . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Geertz, Clifford . 1973. “Religion as a Cultural System” and “Ethos and Worldview,” in  The Interpretation of Cultures . Basic Books.

Gorski, Phillip. 2000 . “Historicizing the Secularization Debate.”  ASR . 65:1 (February): 138-167.

Hadaway, Kirk, Penny Long Marler, and Mark Chaves. 1993 . 1993. “What the Polls Don’t Show: A Closer Look at U.S. Church Attendance.” ASR . 58: 741-52. (Also see follow-up symposium in ASR , 63(1), Feb 1998).

Hervieu-Leger, Daniele. 2002.  Religion as a Chain of Memory , New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers.

Hunter,  James. 1983. “The New Religions: Demoderization and the Protest against Modernity.” In Bryan Wilson (ed.).  The Social Impact of New Religious Movements . Rose of Sharon Press. Pp. 1-19.

Iannaccone, Laurence. 1994 . “Why Strict Churches are Strong.”  AJS. 99(5): 1180-1211.

Iannaccone, Laurence. 1990. “Religious Practice: A Human Capital Approach.”  JSSR . 29 (September): 297-314.

James, William .  1902.   Varieties of Religious Experience. Lectures II and III (Circumscription of the Topic and The Reality of the Unseen). (various publishers)

Lofland, John and Rodney Stark. 1965 . “Becoming a World-Saver: a Theory of Conversion.”  American Sociological Review .  30: 862‑875.

Luckmann, Thomas. 1967 .  The Invisible Religion. Macmillan.

Mahmood, Saba . 2005.  Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject.  Princeton University Press.

Mahmood, Saba. 2016. Religious Difference in a Secular Age . Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Malinowski, Bronislaw. 1954. “Magic, Science and Religion.” In  Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays . New York: Doubleday.

Mauss, Marcel. 1990.  The Gift.  New York: WW Norton.

Martin, David . 1978.  A General Theory of Secularization . New York: Blackwell. Pp. 1-99.

Martin, David. 2005.  On Secularization: Toward a Revised General Theory. Burlington (VT): Ashgate (Intro, Chapter 9).

Marx, Karl . “Theses on Feuerbach.” “Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's  Philosophy of Right: Introduction.” “The German Ideology: Part I” (up to A2). In Robert Tucker (ed.). 1978. The Marx-Engels Reader. Norton.

McRoberts, Omar . 2005.  Streets of Glory: Church and Community in a Black Urban Neighborhood.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Neibuhr, H. Richard. 1929. The Social Sources of Denominationalism . (various publishers)

Norris, Pippa and Ronald Inglehart . 2004.  Sacred and Secular . Cambridge: Cambridge.

Pattillo-McCoy, Mary. 1998 . “Black Church Culture as a Community Strategy of Action,”  ASR . 63:6 (December): 767-784.

Pope, Liston . 1942.  Millhands and Preachers . Yale. (Chs. 5, 8-10, 14).

Riesebrodt, Martin. 2009.  The Promise of Salvation: A Theory of. Religion.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Stark, Rodney. 1997. The Rise of Christianity . Harper San Francisco.

Shils, Edward . 1982.  The Constitution of Society , Chicago: University of Chicago Press (chapters on the sacred).

Slade, Stanley. 1994. “Popular Spirituality as an Oppressive Reality.” In Guillermo Cook (ed.).  New Face of the Church in Latin America . Orbis Books.

Smilde, David . 2007.  Reason to Believe: Cultural Agency in Latin American Evangelicalism. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Smith, Christian et al . 1998.  American Evangelicalism: Embattled and Thriving . Chicago.

Smith, Christian. 2003.  Moral Believing Animals . Oxford.

Smith, Christian (ed.). 2003.  The Secular Revolution . California. (Introduction and select chapters).

Smith, Christian. 2003. “Theorizing Religious Effects among American Adolescents.”  JSSR.  42(1): 17-30.

Snow, David A., and Richard Machalek. 1982 . “On the Presumed Fragility of Unconventional Beliefs.”  JSSR . 21 (March): 15-26.

Spiro, Melford E. 1966 . “Religion: Problems of definition and explanation.” In  Anthropological approaches to the study of religion , edited by Michael Banton, 85-126. New York: Praeger.

Stark, Rodney & Roger Finke . 2000.  Acts of Faith . California.

Steensland, Brian, et al. 2000 . “The Measure of American Religion: Toward Improving the State of the Art.” Social Forces . 79. (September): 291-318.

Thompson, E.P. 1966.  The Making of the English Working Class . Vintage (Esp. Chs. 11, 12).

Tocqueville, Alexis de . 1969.  Democracy in America . Doubleday (Pp. 277-301, 441-454).

Voas, David and Mark Chaves . 2016. “Is the United States a Counterexample to the Secularization Thesis?” American Journal of Sociology . 121: 1517-1556.

Walzer, Michael. 1965.   The Revolution of the Saints . Harvard. (Pp. 1-65).

Warner, Stephen. 1993 . “Work in Progress Toward a New Paradigm for the Sociological Study of Religion in the United States.”  AJS.  98:5 (March): 1044-93.

Weber, Max. [1958].  The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism . Scribners.

Weber, Max . [1978]. Economy and Society. California (pp. 3-33, 399-602).

Weber, Max. “The Social Psychology of the World Religions,” “The Protestant Sects and the Spirit of Capitalism,” and “Religious Rejections of the World and Their Direction.” In Gerth and Mills (eds.). 1946.  From Max Weber . Oxford. Pp. 267-359.

Wilson, Bryan. 1979.  Contemporary Transformations of Religion . Oxford. (Ch 1)

Woodberry, Robert and Christian Smith. 1998 . “Fundamentalists, et al.” Annual Review of Sociology—1998 . Vol. 24. Annual Reviews. pp. 25-56.

Wuthnow, Robert. 1988.  The Restructuring of American Religion . Princeton.

II. Focus Area Lists

A. global religion.

Almond, Gabriel, Scott Appleby, and Emmanuel Sivan. 2003. Strong Religion: The Rise of Fundamentalisms Around the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.  

An-Na’im, Abdullahi Ahmed . 2008.  Islam and the Secular State: Negotiating the Future of Sharia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Appleby, Scott R. 2000. The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation . Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. 

Asad, Talal. 1993. Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Asad, Talal. 2003. Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity . Stanford, CA, Stanford University Press.

Banchoff, Thomas, Ed. 2008  Religious Pluralism, Globalization, and World Politics.   New York:  Oxford University Press.

Bender, Cadge, Peggy Levitt, and David Smilde. 2012. Religion on the Edge . New York: Oxford University Press.

Beyer, Peter. 2000. “Not in My Backyard: Studies of Other Religions in the Context of SSSR-RRA Annual Meetings.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 39(4): 525-530.

Beyer, Peter.  2006. Religion in Global Society . New York: Routledge.

Bowen, John. 2016. On British Islam: Religion, Law, and Everyday Practice in Shari’a Councils . Princeton University Press.

Brown, Karen McCarthy. 2001. Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Brusco, Elizabeth. 1995. The Reformation of Machismo: Evangelical Conversion and Gender in Colombia . Austin: University of Texas Press.

Burdick, John. 1993.  Looking for God in Brazil: The Progressive Catholic Church in Urban Brazil’s Religious Arena . Berkeley, University of California Press.

Cadge, Wendy and Elaine-Howard Ecklund. 2007. “Immigration and Religion.” Annual Review of Sociology 33: 359-379.

Casanova, Jose . 2012. “Rethinking Public Religions.” Rethinking Religion and World Affairs .Ed. Shah, Timothy Samuel, Alfred Stepan, and Monica Duffy Toft. New York: Oxford University Press.

Cavanaugh, William. 2009. The Myth of Religious Violence: Secular Ideology and the Roots of Modern Conflict . New York: Oxford University Press.

Chidester, David. 1996. Savage Systems: Colonialism and Comparative Religion in Southern Africa . Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia.

Chidester, David. 2014. Empire and Religion: Imperialism and Comparative Religion . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Comaroff, Jean and John Comaroff. (1991). Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism, and Consciousness in South Africa . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Davie, Grace. 2002. Europe: the Exceptional Case, London: Darton, Longman, Todd. 

Dressler, Markus. 2015. Writing Religion: The Making of Turkish Alevi Islam . New York: Oxford University Press.

Dressler, Markus and Arvind Mandair. 2011. Secularism and Religion-Making . New York: Oxford University Press.

Freston, Paul. 2004. Evangelicals and Politics in Asia, Africa, and Latin America . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Geertz, Clifford. 1968. Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Grim, Brian and Roger Finke . 2007. “Religious Persecution in Cross-National Context: Clashing Civilizations or Regulated Religious Economies?” American Sociological Review 72: 633-658.

Haar, Gerrie ter. 2011. Religion and Development: Ways of Transforming the World . Hurst and Co.

Hirschkind, Charles. 2006. The Ethical Soundscape: Cassette Sermons and Islamic Counterpublics . New York: Columbia University Press.

Hopkins, Dwight et al. 2001. Religions/Globalizations. Durham: Duke University Press [relevant selected chapters].

Huntington, Samuel P. 1996. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order . New York: Touchstone (chapters 6 and 7).

Hurd, Elizabeth Shakman. 2008. The Politics of Secularism in International Relations . Princeton: Princeton University Press.  

Jakelic, Slavica. 2010. Collectivistic Religions: Religion, Choice, and Identity in Late Modernity . Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company.

Juergensmeyer, Mark. 2003. Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence . Berkeley: University of California Press.   

Jenkins, Philip. 2002/2011. The Next Christendom . New York: Oxford University Press. [Optional related: Jenkins, 2008, The New Faces of Christianity , Oxford.]

Jenkins, Philip. 2009. God’s Continent: Christianity, Islam, and Europe’s Religious Crisis . New York: Oxford University Press.

Kurzman, Charles. 2004. The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran . Cambridge: Harvard University Press (Chapter 3).

Laitin, David. 1986. Hegemony and Culture: Politics and Religious Change among the Yoruba . Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Little, David and Donald Swearer (eds.). 2007. Religion and Nationalism in Iraq: A Comparative Perspective . Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 

Levitt, Peggy. 2007. God Needs no Passport, New York: The New Press. 

Lopez, Donald. 1999. Prisoners of Shangri La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Mahmood, Saba. 2005. Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Mandaville, Peter. 2007. Global Political Islam , New York: Routledge. 

Martin, David. 2002. Pentecostalism: The World Their Parish . Oxford: Blackwell. 

Miller, Donald and Tetsunao Yamamori. 2007. Global Pentecostalism, Berkeley: University of California Press. 

Norris, Pippa and Ronald Inglehart. 2004. Sacred and Secular . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Provost, Rene.  Mapping the Legal Boundaries of Belonging: Religion and Multiculturalism . New York: Oxford University Press.

Riesebrodt, Martin. 1993. Pious Passion . Berkeley: University of California Press.

Robbins, Joel . 2004. “The Globalization of Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity.” Annual Review of Anthropology 33: 117-143.

Roy, Olivier. 2004. Globalizing Islam . New York: Columbia University Press

Scott, Joan Wallach. 2010. The Politics of the Veil, Princeton: Princeton University Press. 

Sells, Michael. 1998. The Bridge Betrayed: Religion and Genocide in Bosnia, Berkeley: University of California Press.

Shakman-Hurd, Elizabeth. 2015. Beyond Religious Freedom . Princeton: Princeton University Press. (Selections.)

Sharpe, Eric. 1986. Comparative Religion: A History. London: Gerald Duckworth and Co.

Shenhav, Yehouda. 2006. The Arab Jews: A Postcolonial Reading of Nationalism, Religion, and Ethnicity. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 

Slade, Stanley. 1994. “Popular Spirituality as an Oppressive Reality.” In Guillermo Cook (ed.). New Face of the Church in Latin America . Maryknoll: Orbis Books. 

Smilde, David. 2007. Reason to Believe: Cultural Agency in Latin American Evangelicalism .  Berkeley: University of California Press.

Smith, Christian. 1991. The Emergence of Liberation Theology . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Smith, Douglas. 1965. Religion and Politics in Burma . Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Stepan, Alfred . 2000. “Religion, Democracy, and the ‘Twin Tolerations.’” Journal of Democracy 11(4): 37-57.

Sullins, D. Paul . 2006. “Gender and Religion: Deconstructing Universality, Constructing Complexity.” American Journal of Sociology 112(3): 838-880.

Toft, Monica, Daniel Philpot, and Timothy Shah. 2011. God’s Century: Resurgent Religion and Global Politics , New York: Norton. 

Tweed, Thomas. 1997. Our Lady of the Exile: Diasporic Religion at a Cuban Catholic Shrine in Miami . New York: Oxford University Press.  

Trinitapoli, Jenny and Alexander Weinreb. 2012. Religion and AIDS in Africa, New York: Oxford University Press. 

van der Veer, Peter. 2001. Imperial Encounters: Religion and Modernity in India and Britain . Princeton: Princeton University Press

Vasquez, Manuel and Marie Marquardt. 2003. Globalizing the Sacred: Religion Across the Americas . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.

Wickham, Carrie. 2002. Mobilizing Islam. New York: Columbia University Press (Chs 6 & 7).

Witte, John and M. Christian Green. 2011. Religion and Human Rights . New York: Oxford University Press.

Woodberry, Robert . 2012. “The Missionary Roots of Liberal Democracy.” American Political Science Review 106: 244-274.

Yang, Fenggang. 2011. Religion in China: Survival and Revival under Communist Rule . New York: Oxford University Press

B. Religion, Civic Engagement, Politics, and Social Activism

Aminzade, Ron and Elizabeth J. Perry. 2001 . “The Sacred, Religious, and Secular in Contentious Politics: Blurring Boundaries.” Pp. 155-178 in  Silence and Voice in the Study of Contentious Politics , R. Aminzade, J. A. Goldstone, D. McAdam, E. J. Perry, W. H. J. Sewell, S. Tarrow, and C. Tilly (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ammerman, Nancy T. 2005 .  Pillars of Faith . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press (Chapters 5 & 6).

Asbridge, Thomas . 2004.  The First Crusade . New York: Oxford University Press (Chapters 1, 2, and 11).

Beyerlein, Kraig and Mark Chaves. 2003 . “The Political Activities of Religious Congregations in the United States.”  Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion  42:229-246.

Beyerlein, Kraig and John R. Hipp. 2006 . “From Pews to Participation: The Effect of Congregation Activity and Context on Bridging Civic Engagement.”  Social Problems  53:97-117.

Billings, Dwight B. 1990 . "Religion as Opposition: A Gramscian Analysis."  American Journal of Sociology  96:1-31.

Chaves, Mark . 2004.  Congregations in America . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press (Chapter 3).

Christiano, Kevin. 2007. Religious Diversity and Social Change: American Cities, 1890-1906. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ebaugh, Helen Rose, Janet S. Chafetz, and Paula F. Pipes. 2006 . “Where’s the Faith in Faith-Based Organizations? Measures and Correlates of Religiosity in Faith-Based Social Service Coalitions.”  Social Forces  84:2259-2272.

Emerson, Michael and Christian Smith. 2000. Divided by Faith. Oxford.

Epstein, Barbara. 1991 . “The Religious Community: Mass Politics and Moral Witness.” In Epstein.  Political Protest and Cultural Revolution. California. (Ch. 6).

Gorski, Phillip. 2003. The Disciplinary Revolution . Chicago: Chicago.

Harris, Fredrick . 2001.  Something Within: Religion in African American Political Activism.  New York: Oxford University Press.

Hoffman, Bruce. 1995 . “‘Holy Terror’: The Implications of Terrorism Motivated by a Religious Imperative.”  Studies in Conflict and Terrorism  18:271-284.

Juergensmeyer, Mark . 2003.  Terror in the Mind of God . Berkeley: University of California Press (Chapters 7-11).

Juergensmeyer, Mar k. 2008.  Global Rebellion . Berkeley: University of California Press (Chapters 1, 2, 6, & Conclusion).

Kurzman, Charles. 1998 . “Organizational Opportunity and Social Movement Mobilization: A Comparative Analysis of Four Religious Movements.”  Mobilization 3:23-49.

Kurzman, Charles. 2004 .  The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran . Cambridge: Harvard University Press (Chapter 3).

Lichterman, Paul . 2005.  Elusive Togetherness . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Livezy, Lois. 1989 . “U.S. Religious Organizations and the International Human Rights Movement .”  Human Rights Quarterly  11:14-81.

McVeigh, Rory and David Sikkink. 2001 . “God, Politics, and Protest: Religious Beliefs and the Legitimation of Contentious Tactics.”  Social Forces  79:1425-1458.

Munson, Ziad. 2008 .  The Making of Pro-Life Activists. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (Chapter 7 and pages 193-196).

Nelson, Timothy. 1996 . “Sacrifice of Praise: Emotion and Collective Participation in an African-American Worship Service.” Sociology of Religion . 57(4): 379-96.

Nepstad, Sharon Erickson . 2004.  Convictions of the Soul . New York: Oxford University Press.

Nepstad, Sharon Erickson . 2008.  Religion and War Resistance in the Plowshares Movement . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (especially Chapter 2).

Osa, Maryjane. 1997 . “Creating Solidarity: The Religious Foundations of the Polish Social Movement.”  East European Politics and Societies  11:339-365.

Pfaff, Steven. 2001 . “The Politics of Peace in the GDR: The Independent Peace Movement, the Church, and the Origins of the East German Opposition.”  Peace & Change . 26:280-300.

Smith, Christian . 1991.  The Emergence of Liberation Theology. Chicago.

Smith, Christian . 1996.  Resisting Reagan . Chicago. (pp. xv-86, skim 87-132, read 133-208).

Smith, Christian. 2000.  Christian American?: What Evangelicals Really Want . Berkeley, CA:: University of California Press (Chapter 3).

Smith, Christian (ed.). 1996. Disruptive Religion . Routledge. (Introduction)

Stark, Rodney. 2004. For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-Hunts, and the End of Slavery . Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Unruh, Heidi Rolland and Ronald J. Sider . 2005.  Saving Souls, Serving Society . New York: Oxford University Press.

Verba, Sidney, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady . 1995.  Voice and Equality . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press (Chapter 13).

Wickham, Carrie Rosefsky. 2002 .  Mobilizing Islam . New York: Columbia University Press (Chapters 6 & 7).

Wood, Richard . 2002.  Faith in Action . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Woodworth, Steven E . 2001.  While God Is Marching On. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press (Chapters 6, 7, 13 & 14).

Wuthnow, Robert. 1999 . “Mobilizing Civic Engagement: The Changing Impact of Religious Involvement.” Pp. 331-363 in  Civic Engagement in American Democracy , edited by T. Skocpol and M. P. Fiorina. Washington, D.C: Brookings Institution Press/Russell Sage Foundation.

Wuthnow, Robert and John H. Evans . 2002.  The Quiet Hand of God. Berkeley : University of California Press (Chapters 1, 7, 9, 14, and 15).

Wuthnow, Robert . 2004.  Saving America?  Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Wuthnow, Robert. 2009 .  Boundless Faith. Berkeley: University of California Press (Chapter 5).

Young, Michael . 2006.  Bearing Witness Against Sin . Chicago: Chicago. 

Zald, Mayer N. and John D. McCarthy. 1987 . "Religious Groups as Crucibles of Social Movements." Pp. 67-95 in  Social Movements in an Organizational Society , edited by M. N. Zald and J. D. McCarthy. New Brunswich, NJ: Transaction.

C. Religion, Gender, and Family

Armour, Ellen and Susan St. Ville . 2006.  Bodily Citations: Religion and Judith Butler.  New York:   Columbia University Press . “Judith Butler in Theory” (pp. 1-12), Chapter 4, “Disturbingly Catholic” (Alliaume, pp. 93-119), and “Afterword” (Butler, pp.276-281, 287-289).

Brown, Karen McCarthy . 1991.  Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn . Berkeley: University of California Press. Chapters 7 and 8 (pp. 204-257). 

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D. Religion and Education, and Schooling

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Abstract: In this study, I analyze the main topics and results introduced in recent publications in the sociology of religion. Briefly touching upon the practical use of identification of major topics covered in published literature during the process of publication output planning, we continue the article with the thematical analysis of those journal articles in the sociology of religion, in which the presented research did not focus on a specific religion or on the believers of a specific religion. We examined the adherence to this criterion of lack of specification in 173 articles published in leading international journals between 2010 and 2013, from the journal list of the Institute of Sociology of the HAS (Hungarian Academy of Sciences), from which 66 journal articles were coded and classified with inductive categorization consistent with grounded theory. Throughout the process, we managed to identify 6 main topics (Secularization, Economy, Sexuality, Politics, Personal Satisfaction, and Well-Being, Social CoExistence, and Cooperation). We then further divided each of these key themes into subtopics, and we examined the studies further, according to the institutional affiliation of first author(s), institutional affiliation of journal editors, and geographic location of journal publishers. Results show that the identified topics and topic preferences are characteristics of a subset of a Western sociological knowledge, produced mainly by agents embedded in an Anglo-Saxon research environment.

Keywords: publication analysis, thematical analysis, sociology of religion, Anglophone dominance

Introduction

In spite of post-secularization approaches becoming more and more common in professional sociological thinking, and of a relatively widespread consensus regarding the necessity of research in the public engagement of religion, religious people, and groups; in a Hungarian research environment there was not any organized, easy to navigate and relevant information source available that would have facilitated the international dissemination of research in sociology of religion.1 Regarding Christianity, I attempted to solve this deficiency in my article published in Szociológiai Szemle, where I introduced and analyzed topics connected to Christian believers and Christian values - according to their distribution related to each other, as well as their geographical-cultural distribution - that were covered in articles published by the most respected international sociological journals (Tóth 2015a). In this article, I am attempting to do something similar by investigating not specifically Christianity or any...

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A Sociology of Religious Freedom

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Freedom of and from religion is a key concept to understand the place of religious and spiritual identities, beliefs, and practices in the contemporary world. Sociology can assist in explaining why and how religious freedom holds a variety of meanings in society and may be perceived differently by individuals, social groups, and institutions. This book addresses three major questions of a sociology of religious freedom. First, how to define religious freedom as a multidimensional concept considering its complex and controversial nature. Second, what are the recurrent sociological conditions and relevant social perceptions that will foster an understanding of religious freedom in varying political, legal, and socioreligious contexts. Third, what are the mechanisms of social implementation of religious freedom that contribute to making it a fundamental value of human rights culture in a society. The book suggests that a sociological definition of religious freedom requires taking into account historical, philosophical, legal, religious, and political considerations of a given society. By disclosing the interplay of structural conditions and individual and group perceptions, sociology develops an understanding of the normative and value-laden nature of religious freedom, as well as its societal functions. The book argues that the social mechanisms of incorporation of religious freedom principles into institutional culture are as important as its legal implementation.

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PhD: Sociology of Religion

Why study sociology of religion at baylor.

The Department of Sociology at Baylor University is recognized for its distinction in training sociologists of religion.

Our curriculum combines seminars of substantive interests and independent research. Two required seminars introduce students to theory in the sociology of religion. We train all students in advanced quantitative data management and analytic techniques, and a required methods course on doing research with sociology of religion data. In addition, students may choose among six elective seminars on such topics as religiosity, family and religion, religious organizations, religious deviance, and race/gender and religion. It is our belief that students learn best by hands-on experience. Consequently, our financial packages are designed to maximize the amount of time students have to pursue their independent research topics.

What resources are available?

Too many programs bring in graduate students to service large introduction to sociology courses. This limits the amount of time they have to work on their own research. At Baylor we do things differently. We admit a small cohort of student for each fall. We offer full graduate assistantships and tuition remission to all whom we accept into the program. With continued satisfactory progress toward the terminal Ph.D. degree, funding is renewed for up to five years. Students have their own workspace and desktop computer and access to wide variety of data analysis software (STATA , SAS, SPSS, GIS, Geoda, HLM, R, Nivio).

Our graduate seminars are comprised of mixed cohorts of students with very similar research interests. Our students are active research partners, collaborating regularly with faculty and other graduate students. Students have had original research published in high quality peer-reviewed journals, including Social Forces, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, The Sociological Quarterly, Sociology of Religion, Review of Religious Research, and Social Science Quarterly. Additionally, our department is the home to the nationally-recognized Baylor Religion Survey. Every three years we partner with the Gallup Organization to measure the religious beliefs and values of the American population. In the past we have examined the relationships of religion in its varied forms to trust and civic engagement, politics, the paranormal, image of God, consumption patterns, race, gender, family, health, and work to name a few.

The department has a distinguished visiting scholar program. Renowned scholars such as Dr. Peter Berger (now deceased) have spent time at Baylor working with graduate students. Dr. James Hunter was our distinguished visiting scholar for five of the past six years.

All graduate students in the sociology of religion are expected, and financially supported, to attend and present research papers at the annual meetings of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion. Students also routinely present research papers at the American Sociological Association annual meetings. Students can expect support from the department for two meetings per year.

As a private institution, we take our teaching mission very seriously. We expect our students to leave with the same appreciation of undergraduate teaching. Students receive careful mentoring for teaching, including a required Seminar in Teaching and a semester of supervised teaching This training equips students to design, implement, and evaluate effective college courses.

What can I expect?

At Baylor we offer a collegial environment where success is celebrated. We offer committed faculty members who have a good history of writing and publishing with graduate students. We offer access to unique data. We offer opportunities to network with leading scholars in the field. We offer training for excellent teaching. Most importantly, we offer the time to engage in research. At Baylor we transform students to scholars in the sociology of religion.

We have a two-semester teacher-in-training sequence that all students must complete before they are allowed to teach a course at Baylor. This training will help students understand the many different areas of preparation that are necessary to establish and successfully manage a college course.

How Do I Apply?

Please make your application via  Graduate School Online Application .  (goBaylor Grad).

Relevant Faculty:

Kevin Dougherty,   Paul Froese,   Jerry Park,  and  Jeremy Uecker.

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