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36 Top Science Writing Jobs (Become a Science Writer)

Got a knack for neutrons?

A penchant for paleontology?

Then it’s time to take a look at science writing jobs.

Considering many scientific journalists are also working professionals (or have some degree of experience within the scientific field) the scientific writer salary is on the higher end of the pay spectrum.

As a working professional and budding freelance writer, you might not realize how much science writer jobs actually make.

Major, well known publications and companies are always looking to hire subject matter experts to help distill down high level academic reports into articles that the general public will understand.

But there is so much more to science writing than just relaying data.

And as a budding freelance writer, niching down to something like science writing jobs not only will help you stand out in that niche, but it will also make it easier to land work since once you find that first writing job you can ask for referrals.

So if you are ready to take your freelance writing career (or professional scientific career) to the next level, then let’s dive into what a science writer does and how you can land those highly sought after gigs.

What Does a Science Writer Do?

Freelance science writing jobs can cover a wide range of topics and platforms.

As a science writer, sometimes known as a scientific journalist, you need top research skills and be able to write and edit scientific articles and news for both professional and everyday publications.

Science writers not only need to be adept at understanding complex scientific concepts, they also need to be able to break those concepts down into layman’s terms for the general public to understand.

Scientific writers can also cross over with technical writing if they are in the academic field. They can also lean more towards journalism and report on news sites and press releases.

It’s also recommended you have a degree in the sciences as this will help you with writing your articles and make you look more experienced than a typical freelance writer.

How Much Does a Science Job Pay?

If you haven’t figured it out already, the more niche and in demand the topic you write about, the more you can make from your writing.

According to Zippia , the average salary of a scientific writer in the United States is around $120,000!

Top companies from Pfizer to Merck hire scientific writers. From writing about the latest health crisis in breaking news to informed consent documents for clinical trials, there is no shortage of interesting and well paying science writer jobs.

A scientific writer salary can vary based on if the position is remote or at a specific location, the size of the company hiring, and hiring prerequisites such as necessary education and experience level.

Some of these higher paying positions require many years of experience in the medical or science field and even graduate degrees.

How to Become a Science Writer

There are many ways to become a scientific journalist. Often, those that have been in the science field go into writing about their expertise.

Think Phds and high level academics.

As mentioned previously, many science writers have some type of science degree and experience in the field. There is also the possibility that those in the science fields can take further coursework in journalism in order to relay complex scientific information into something that the general public would understand in a way they find interesting.

If you have been in the academic or scientific field for some time and are looking for a change, then consider scientific writing jobs.

If you are serious about becoming a scientific writer, then consider joining the National Association of Science Writers . They offer a wealth of resources from interest based discussion groups to helpful resources for freelancers.

List of Scientific Writing Jobs

Freelance science writing jobs can vary from physics to psychology. There are so many different niches that can fall into the science writer category that often overlap with other categories, it’s crazy!

Here are just a few niches in the sciences field.

1. Bioanalytics

Bioanalytics involves measuring drugs and their metabolites and biotics in biological systems. It’s a sub-discipline of analytical chemistry that takes into account biological molecules in unnatural locations as well as proteins, DNA, and large molecule drugs.

You may may writing jobs in this field through clinical trial laboratory services, which are facilities that research the effects of medical, surgical, or behavioral intervention.

2. Psychology

Psychology is often referred to as the “science of the mind” and strives to understand the mind as well as behavior. It includes the study of the conscious and unconscious mind as well as thoughts and feelings.

Worth Checking Out: Folk Rebellion

Biology is a field of science that looks at studying life, from the biology of a cell to the anatomy of plants to the evolution of population. It is a natural science with a broad scope.

Because it has such a broad scope, where you find a biology science writing job really depends on your field of expertise.  

Worth Checking Out: New Scientist

4. Environmental

Environmental science is a field of study that looks at physical, biological, and information sciences in order to study the environment and find solutions to environmental problems.

Because climate change and other environmentally-related issues seem to be at the forefront of modern media, you can find writing work through journalism, copy writing, technical writing, and many other forms of content.

Worth Checking Out: AJ Magazine

5. Insects and Bees

The study of insects and bees is known as entomology, which is a branch of zoology. This field of study includes genetics, taxonomy, morphology, physiology, behavior, and ecology.

With more and more people coming to understand the importance of insects to our ecosystem, especially bees, there are many online opportunities to find writing jobs in this field.

Worth Checking Out: Bee Culture

6. Health science

This field of applied science deals with human and animal health in two parts: the study and research of health and its application when it comes to improve health and cure diseases.

Health science writers are usually journalists who make money by writing for web and print publications. This can include forms of writing such as technical writing and anecdotal content.

Physics is a branch of science that studies the motion and behavior of matter through space and time by looking at energy and force. The focus of physics is to understand how the universe works.

Paid writing jobs in physics include technical writing as well as creating content based on research or theories.

Worth Checking Out: Discover Magazine

8. Pathology

When it comes to the cause and effects of diseases and injury, the science of pathology is used to study diseases by incorporating biological research and medical practices.

This type of science can include anything from pharmaceuticals to cancer treatments.

Worth Checking Out: Everyday Health

9. Paleontology

Paleontology is the study of ancient life, from prehistoric animals and plants to modern fungi and microbes.

It also includes the study of fossils in order to classify organisms and study their interactions with each other and their environments.

Worth Checking Out: Smithsonian

10. Medical Research

Medical research is a broad field that involves fundamental scientific principles and applies them to clinical research when it comes to new medicines, treatments, etc.

Worth Checking Out: Science Mag

11. Sustainability

Sustainability science focuses on a broad-based approach to bring together natural and social sciences, engineering, and medicine and recently emerged as a new academic discipline.

Worth Checking Out: Earth Island Journal

12. Forensics

Forensic science involves the application of science to criminal and civil laws to aid during investigations by gathering and processing evidence.

This can include anything from blood analysis in criminal cases to forensic accounting to investigate fraud and scams.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a molecule that contains the necessary information to build and maintain an organism. All living things have DNA and a portion of it is passed along to offspring.

Worth Checking Out: Oxford Academic

14. Ecology

Ecology is the scientific study of the relationship between living organisms and their physical environment. This field focuses on organisms at the individual, population, and biosphere levels.

Worth Checking Out: Humanosphere

15. Geology

Geology studies the Earth’s physical structure and substances. This includes the history of rocks and how we can use the world’s resources in the most economical way.

Worth Checking Out: Hakai Magazine

16. Chemistry

Chemistry is a field of science that studies the properties and behavior of matter by looking at the compounds composed of atoms, molecules, and ions and their structures, properties, and behaviors.

Worth Checking Out: inChemistry

Scientific writers can also go by many names, which include but are not limited to scientific journalist, scientific research/research writer, data and policy analyst writer, research analyst, and even script writers for science shows and YouTube channels.

Examples of Science Writing

There is a lot more to science based writing than just breaking down boring research terms into something that everyday people will understand.

To help you better understand the various types of writing gigs available for science writers, here are 10 examples:

• Press releases : Press releases are a short summary of research and journalists often use them when deciding to write a news article on recent scientific research.
• Books/manuals/pamphlets : Scientific books, manuals, and pamphlets are usually written to describe and interpret research published in journal articles to large populations of individuals.
• Reports and white papers : Reports produced by researchers and government agencies can provide vital information to scientists as well as the general population. These reports are usually found in scholarly databases and on the internet.
• Newsletters and email newsletters : Many scientific sites and blogs keep their readers informed on current news and research by sending out newsletters and email newsletters .
• Case studies : This form of content are typically used to test hypotheses as well as provide insight and information to sell a product or service.
• Science news articles : You can write video scripts for website introductions, how-to videos or instructional/training videos for the scientific community.
• Video scripts : Blog posts are a versatile and personal medium for science writing that can address scientific information on a professional level or translate it into terms that lay-people can understand.
• Blog posts : There are many publications out there that publish science new articles. These articles often refer to a recent study published as a primary research article.
• Academic journals : Academic journals contain articles that focus on scientific research and are intended for an academic or technical audience, not general readers. As long as you have experience in the research field, you can write the articles without being involved in the research.
• Contracts and scientific documents : These can include research contracts as well as agreements between companies and clinics.  

Where to Find Scientific Writing Gigs

Other than just searching through Indeed for science writer jobs, check out these paying markets for science writers:

Discover Magazine

Discover magazine is a very well known science magazine that covers everything from scientific breakthroughs to technology and space travel. It is also among one of the highest paying scientific writing jobs for print at around $1 per word and about $300 per web story.

The editors at Discover magazine are always on the lookout for enlightening and informative articles that will get their readers excited about science.

Their motto is “science is for everyone,” and appreciate writing that is conversational in tone that also offers topics grounded in research.

If you are interested in pitching them, be sure to thoroughly read through their pitching guidelines first.

New Scientist

New Scientist is constantly on the lookout for new and intriguing science and technology pieces that will both entertain and inform their audience. Their audience ranges from physicists to those with no scientific background at all.

Their stories are timely and up to date and extremely time sensitive.

While they don’t reveal what they pay their freelancers, it’s based on the piece and agreed upon by that editorial manager.

Earth Island Journal

An international magazine with a focus on environmental concerns, Earth Island Journal looks for compelling and distinctive stories. If you are a writer that is always looking towards the future and what the next big threat to the environment might be, then you should consider pitching here.

They purposely look to focus on stories that are likely overlooked by other scientific publications. They focus on a wide range of environmental issues, such as climate, energy, wildlife conservation, public policy, animal rights, public health, as well as film, books, and music that is environmentally related.

They pay about $0.25 per word for print articles and about $100 for online reports. If you are new to writing for these types of publications, it is a bit easier to get into web publications.

A\J: Alternatives Journal

The Alternatives Journal is the “voice of Canada’s Environment.” They focus on a variety of environmental issues with a delicate balance of an academic journal and general interest magazine.

They look for both feature articles of 1,000 to 4,000 words in length to smaller, less analytical reports ranging from 500 to 1,200 words. They follow a strict style guideline and rigorous fact checking.

While writing for A\J will look great on a freelance resume, their pay is a little lower at $0.10 per word.

Humanosphere

Are you a science buff with a social warrior heart? Humanosphere believes that the best stories can come from the most unlikely of places. They are on the search for writers who have great research skills but also are able to stand their ground. Humanosphere loves stories that focus on the environment, education, and gender equality.

They don’t shy away from funny, provocative, or even snarky humor. Pieces can range anywhere between 500 to 2,500 words and payment is based on the assignment.

Popular Science

Popular Science has been around since the late 1800’s. Nope, that isn’t a typo. They cover everything from emerging technologies, automobiles, photography, and space, just to name a few.

Their goal is to provide readers with information on how certain technologies work and how those technologies directly benefit the reader. They look for stories that have strong storytelling, humor, human interest, and anecdotes. Pay for each piece is agreed upon per submission.

Science Magazine

From genetics to geology, Science covers a wide range of science topics as well as policy. It also covers issues that are of importance to the scientific community, such as technology, engineering, and even sexual harassment. They strive to include quotes from women and individuals of color within their news briefs, trend stories, features, and news analysis articles.

While the rate of pay depends on experience level, most pieces pay per word.

Smithsonian Magazine

The submission process for the Smithsonain is pretty straightforward. There is an easy to fill out form that gets sent directly to the magazine’s editors. While they are sure to get a large volume of submissions, this would be a great publication to add to your resume.

You can choose to send a submission to the following sections: history, science, arts, travel, and innovation.

There You Go!

At this point you should hopefully have a better understanding of what it takes to get a science writer job. Whether you are already a full time freelancer or professional looking to expand your income and professional standing through writing.

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9 High-Paying Writing Jobs for Word People: Editors, Writers, and Beyond

Thanks to the “starving artist” stereotype, most people don’t consider writing a lucrative career path. Outside of the few writers who luck out and make it big with a New York Times bestseller or an award-winning screenplay, people might picture a Dickensian peasant who can’t afford fingers for their gloves or, more modernly—someone like Nick from New Girl , forever mooching off his friends with quote-unquote real jobs and swearing that he’s working on his zombie novel. 

But the truth is, you don’t need to choose between your love of writing and a stable, profitable career. There are plenty of writing-centric jobs out there that pay well; you just need to know where to look.

We’ve compiled a list of nine high-paying jobs you should definitely consider if you love to write. For the purposes of this article, we’re defining a high-paying job as one where the average salary, based on data from the compensation resource PayScale , is above the median salary for all occupations in the U.S.—which, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics , was $55,068 in 2022. In many cases, the salary range and more senior roles along the same path mean your long-term earning potential is even higher.

Average salary : $57,164 Salary range: $38,000–$85,000

Editors oversee a piece of writing from inception to publication. Depending on the type of writing they’re editing (and the writer they’re working with), this can include honing the thesis, framing, and structure; ensuring the facts are accurate and the sources credible; making suggestions about how to improve the writing (for example, calling out inconsistencies in voice or tone); eliminating unnecessary sentences or paragraphs; and correcting grammar and spelling mistakes. Editors can work in a variety of settings, including for book publishers, media companies, magazines, newspapers, and any organization that produces written content or communications. 

Editors need to have an in-depth understanding of all things writing—including grammar, style, narrative, and structure. As such, most editors are writers themselves and/or hold a degree in a writing-related field (like English or journalism). The financial opportunity for editorial professionals increases as you progress in your career—with senior editors making an average of $75,646 per year and editorial directors pulling in an average of $100,936 annually.

Find editor jobs on The Muse

2. Content marketing manager

Average salary : $71,590 Salary range: $49,000–$104,000

Content marketing managers lead the charge when it comes to developing and executing content for a company. While some content marketing managers take a generalist approach, many specialize in creating and overseeing specific types of content—such as blog posts, ebooks, white papers, website content, and social media posts.

While content marketing managers do spend a significant amount of time creating content (including writing), they also spend a good amount of time on strategy—making this a great role if you love to write, but don’t want to spend all your time tapping at a keyboard. You’ll also have a chance to think about the bigger picture and figure out how content can support an organization’s overall mission and goals.

Some companies want their content marketing managers to hold degrees, but many are more interested in a candidate’s ability to strategize, create, and promote content—so as long as you’re a solid writer and understand the basics of content marketing, there are definitely opportunities to get into the field. Content marketing managers also have the opportunity for upward mobility (and the increased salary that goes with it)—with content marketing directors making an average of $103,327 per year.

Find content marketing manager jobs on The Muse

3. Communications manager

Average salary : $69,856 Salary range: $46,000–$109,000

Communications managers are, as you might guess, in charge of a company’s communications—often both internal and external. Responsibilities could include defining and developing the company’s voice, developing and managing the company’s communication strategy, writing internal guides and resources, managing client- and customer-facing communications (such as press releases, press conferences, or other media opportunities), and ensuring that all business communications, internal and external, are in line with the company’s mission and goals.

Because a communication manager is managing the company’s communication, a lot of writing and editing is involved—but there are also plenty of strategic responsibilities and opportunities to interact with colleagues and external partners to keep things interesting.

To get your foot in the door as a communications manager, you’ll need a bachelor’s degree in communications, marketing, or a related field. And while communications managers demand competitive salaries, the financial opportunities will only increase as you grow in your career—with senior communications managers making an average of $105,624 per year and VPs making an average of $156,617.

Find communications manager jobs on The Muse

4. Technical writer

Average salary : $63,929 Salary range: $46,000–$91,000

Technical writers are responsible for writing copy that translates complex technical ideas into something a general audience can read and understand—including for instruction manuals, tutorials, journal articles, and educational resources.

As the title implies, writing is the main part of any technical writing gig. But to succeed in this role, you’ll need more than writing chops; you’ll also need a deep understanding of tech-related concepts—and the ability to communicate those concepts using nontechnical language. As such, technical writers often have a degree in English, communications, journalism, or similar, along with background knowledge relevant to the subject matter they’ll be writing about, such as computer science, information technology, scientific research in a certain field, environmental policies, or manufacturing processes (although, depending on the role and company, a degree might not be required to land a job). For senior technical writers, the average salary jumps up to $86,122.

Find technical writer jobs on The Muse

5. Medical writer

Average salary : $78,571 Salary range: $60,000–$108,000

Similar to a technical writer, a medical writer takes extremely complex concepts and ideas and translates them into easier-to-digest copy—only medical writers have a particular focus on all things healthcare. Medical writers can work in a variety of environments, including businesses (for example, pharmaceutical companies, medical device companies, supplement companies, or health tech startups), medical associations, or healthcare providers. They may work on a number of project types, including medical articles, policy documents, or training and educational materials.

Because medical and scientific know-how is a must to succeed, most medical writers have an academic background in biology or other sciences and some have experience in the medical field (for example, as a nurse). However, depending on the role, having impeccable research skills and the ability to understand medical concepts and translate them for the target audience may be enough to get into the field. And while medical writers make a great salary from the get-go, there’s also room for growth—with senior medical writers making an average of $97,850 per year.

Find medical writer jobs on The Muse

6. PR manager

Average salary : $73,930 Salary range: $50,000–$108,000

Public relations managers (also commonly referred to as PR managers) are responsible for building brand awareness and driving positive brand sentiment for a person, company, product, or service. They might accomplish those goals by building relationships with the media, drafting press releases, developing and leading consumer-facing campaigns, and minimizing the impact of negative press—among other strategies.

PR managers may work for an independent business (like a restaurant), a business group or corporation (like a hotel chain or a book publisher), a nonprofit (like a food bank), an academic or other institution (like a university), or an individual (like a politician, celebrity, or author) and generally need a bachelor’s degree in public relations, communications, marketing, or a related field. And while PR managers enjoy a great average salary, candidates who prove they can drive brand awareness and positive press can typically demand higher compensation packages—and PR directors make an average of $100,660.

Find PR manager jobs on The Muse

7. Copywriter

Average salary : $56,592 Salary range: $40,000–$79,000

Copywriters are responsible for writing material that persuades the reader to take action—whether that’s in the form of an advertisement, a website landing page, or a sales letter. Ultimately, copywriters create the content that helps businesses drive sales—making them an incredibly valuable asset to companies looking to engage their customers and move the needle on conversions and revenue.

While some companies will require their copywriters to hold a degree, many are primarily concerned with their ability to write copy that drives results. It should be noted that while the average copywriter demands a solid salary, many companies out there are willing to pay big bucks for results—so if you’re gifted at writing sales copy, you’ll likely be able to demand a higher salary. A senior copywriter, for example, makes an average of $79,618.

Find copywriter jobs on The Muse

8. Research analyst

Average salary : $59,644 Salary range: $44,000 - $85,000

Research analysts are responsible for collecting, verifying, organizing, and analyzing data—and using it to reach key business conclusions and make data-backed recommendations to their employer. Research analysts can work in a variety of fields and departments (including finance, marketing, economics, and operations).

While much of a research analyst’s job has to do with data, another major part of their role is sharing their analysis and findings to stakeholders within the company—and that means writing detailed reports and preparing and giving presentations. So if you’re looking for a job that combines your love of research and data with your love of writing? This could be the opportunity for you.

Generally, you need at least a bachelor’s degree to get started as a research analyst, but once you’ve got your foot in the door, there’s serious opportunity for growth—with senior research analysts making an average of $71,185 per year and, for those who want to eventually take on more of a leadership role, research directors making an average of $108,966 per year.

Find research analyst jobs on The Muse

9. Curriculum developer

Average salary : $69,161 Salary range: $48,000–$98,000

Curriculum developers are responsible for researching and writing academic, educational, and/or training materials, including textbooks, digital and college course materials (such as outlines and syllabi), and other resources to aid in teaching and/or training. Depending on the type of curriculum they specialize in, curriculum developers may work for universities, research institutions, nonprofits, or corporations.

Most curriculum developers have at least a bachelor’s degree, top-notch research and writing skills, and in-depth knowledge in their area of focus (for example, a curriculum developer writing a textbook on math would need to have an in-depth understanding of the subject matter). Next steps on your career path might include curriculum director (with an average salary of $76,049) or training director (with an average salary of $92,412).

Find curriculum developer jobs on The Muse

Proofreader Needed for 6000 Words Research Article - 01/09/2024 11:57 EDT

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The future of research collaborations involving Russia

• Benjamin Plackett 0

Benjamin Plackett is a freelance writer based in Dubbo, Australia.

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On the banks of the Moskva River, just upstream from the Kremlin and Red Square, sits a grandiose network of interconnected concrete buildings. The tallest two are bejewelled with bulky bronze structures, and this unique aesthetic has earned the Moscow-based Russian Academy of Sciences its nickname — ‘golden brains’. Until very recently, the organization had every reason to think that Russian science was deserving of such an epithet.

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Probiotics: Usefulness and Safety

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} What are probiotics?

Probiotics are live microorganisms that are intended to have health benefits when consumed or applied to the body. They can be found in yogurt and other fermented foods, dietary supplements , and beauty products. Cases of severe or fatal infections have been reported in premature infants who were given probiotics, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has warned health care providers about this risk.

Although people often think of bacteria and other microorganisms as harmful “germs,” many are actually helpful. Some bacteria help digest food, destroy disease-causing cells, or produce vitamins. Many of the microorganisms in probiotic products are the same as or similar to microorganisms that naturally live in our bodies.

What types of bacteria are in probiotics?

Probiotics may contain a variety of microorganisms. The most common are bacteria that belong to groups called Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium . Other bacteria may also be used as probiotics, and so may yeasts such as Saccharomyces boulardii .

Different types of probiotics may have different effects. For example, if a specific kind of Lactobacillus helps prevent an illness, that doesn’t necessarily mean that another kind of Lactobacillus or any of the Bifidobacterium probiotics would do the same thing.

Are prebiotics the same as probiotics?

No, prebiotics aren’t the same as probiotics. Prebiotics are nondigestible food components that selectively stimulate the growth or activity of desirable microorganisms.

What are synbiotics?

Synbiotics are products that combine probiotics and prebiotics.

How popular are probiotics?

The 2012 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) showed that about 4 million (1.6 percent) U.S. adults had used probiotics or prebiotics in the past 30 days. Among adults, probiotics or prebiotics were the third most commonly used dietary supplement other than vitamins and minerals. The use of probiotics by adults quadrupled between 2007 and 2012. The 2012 NHIS also showed that 300,000 children age 4 to 17 (0.5 percent) had used probiotics or prebiotics in the 30 days before the survey.

How might probiotics work?

Probiotics may have a variety of effects in the body, and different probiotics may act in different ways.

Probiotics might:

• Help your body maintain a healthy community of microorganisms or help your body’s community of microorganisms return to a healthy condition after being disturbed
• Produce substances that have desirable effects
• Influence your body’s immune response.

How are probiotics regulated in the United States?

Government regulation of probiotics in the United States is complex. Depending on a probiotic product’s intended use, the FDA might regulate it as a dietary supplement, a food ingredient, or a drug.

Many probiotics are sold as dietary supplements, which don’t require FDA approval before they are marketed. Dietary supplement labels may make claims about how the product affects the structure or function of the body without FDA approval, but they aren’t allowed to make health claims, such as saying the supplement lowers your risk of getting a disease, without the FDA’s consent.

If a probiotic is going to be marketed as a drug for treatment of a disease or disorder, it has to meet stricter requirements. It must be proven safe and effective for its intended use through clinical trials and be approved by the FDA before it can be sold.

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The community of microorganisms that lives on us and in us is called the “microbiome,” and it’s a hot topic for research. The Human Microbiome Project, supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) from 2007 to 2016, played a key role in this research by mapping the normal bacteria that live in and on the healthy human body. With this understanding of a normal microbiome as the basis, researchers around the world, including many supported by NIH, are now exploring the links between changes in the microbiome and various diseases. They’re also developing new therapeutic approaches designed to modify the microbiome to treat disease and support health.

The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) is among the many agencies funding research on the microbiome. Researchers supported by NCCIH are studying the interactions between components of food and microorganisms in the digestive tract. The focus is on the ways in which diet-microbiome interactions may lead to the production of substances with beneficial health effects.

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A great deal of research has been done on probiotics, but much remains to be learned about whether they’re helpful and safe for various health conditions.

Probiotics have shown promise for a variety of health purposes, including prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea (including diarrhea caused by Clostridium difficile ), prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis and sepsis in premature infants, treatment of infant colic , treatment of periodontal disease , and induction or maintenance of remission in ulcerative colitis .

However, in most instances, we still don’t know which probiotics are helpful and which are not. We also don’t know how much of the probiotic people would have to take or who would be most likely to benefit. Even for the conditions that have been studied the most, researchers are still working toward finding the answers to these questions.

The following sections summarize the research on probiotics for some of the conditions for which they’ve been studied.

Gastrointestinal Conditions

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• Probiotics have been studied for antibiotic-associated diarrhea in general, as well as for antibiotic-associated diarrhea caused by one specific bacterium, Clostridium difficile . This section discusses the research on antibiotic-associated diarrhea in general. C. difficile is discussed in a separate section below.
• A 2017 review of 17 studies (3,631 total participants) in people who were not hospitalized indicated that giving probiotics to patients along with antibiotics was associated with a decrease of about half in the likelihood of antibiotic-associated diarrhea. However, this conclusion was considered tentative because the quality of the studies was only moderate. Patients who were given probiotics had no more side effects than patients who didn’t receive them.
• Probiotics may be helpful for antibiotic-associated diarrhea in young and middle-aged people, but a benefit has not been demonstrated in elderly people, according to a 2016 review of 30 studies (7,260 participants), 5 of which focused on people age 65 or older. It’s uncertain whether probiotics actually don’t work in elderly people or whether no effect was seen because there were only a few studies of people in this age group.
• A review of 23 studies (with 3,938 participants) of probiotics to prevent antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children provided moderate quality evidence that probiotics had a protective effect. No serious side effects were observed in children who were otherwise healthy, except for the infection for which they were being treated.

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• The bacterium Clostridium difficile can infect the colon (large intestine) of patients who have received antibiotics, causing diarrhea that can range from mild to severe. C. difficile infection is difficult to treat and sometimes comes back after treatment. It’s more common in people who take antibiotics long-term and in elderly people, and it can spread in hospitals and nursing homes. C. difficile infection affects about half a million people a year in the United States and causes about 15,000 deaths.
• A 2017 analysis of 31 studies (8,672 total patients) concluded that it is moderately certain that probiotics can reduce the risk of C. difficile diarrhea in adults and children who are receiving antibiotics. Most of these studies involved hospital patients. The analysis also concluded that the use of probiotics along with antibiotics appears to be safe, except for patients who are very weak or have poorly functioning immune systems.
• The types of probiotics that would be most useful in reducing the risk of C. difficile diarrhea, the length of time for which they should be taken, and the most appropriate doses are uncertain.

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• A 2014 review of 14 studies (1,182 participants) of probiotics for constipation in adults showed some evidence of benefit, especially for Bifidobacterium lactis .
• A 2017 evaluation of 9 studies (778 participants) of probiotics for constipation in elderly people indicated that probiotics produced a small but meaningful benefit. The type of bacteria most often tested was Bifidobacterium longum . The researchers who performed the evaluation suggested that probiotics might be helpful for chronic constipation in older people as an addition to the usual forms of treatment.
• A 2017 review looked at 7 studies of probiotics for constipation in children (515 participants). The studies were hard to compare because of differences in the groups of children studied, the types of probiotics used, and other factors. The reviewers did not find evidence that any of the probiotics tested in the children were helpful. A second 2017 review, which included 4 of the same studies and 2 others (498 total participants in the 6 studies examined), took a more optimistic view of the evidence, noting that overall, probiotics did increase stool frequency, and that the effect was more noticeable in Asian than European children.

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• Diarrhea is a common side effect of chemotherapy or radiotherapy for cancer. It’s been suggested that probiotics might help prevent or treat this type of diarrhea. However, a 2018 review of 12 studies (1,554 participants) found that the evidence for a beneficial effect of probiotics was inconclusive.

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• In diverticulosis, small pouches develop at weak spots in the wall of the colon (large intestine). In most cases, this does not cause any symptoms. If symptoms (such as bloating, constipation, diarrhea, or cramping) do occur, the condition is called diverticular disease. If any of the pouches become inflamed, the condition is called diverticulitis. Patients with diverticulitis can have severe abdominal pain and may develop serious complications.
• A 2016 review of 11 studies (764 participants) of probiotics for diverticular disease was unable to reach conclusions on whether the probiotics were helpful because of the poor quality of the studies.

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• Inflammatory bowel disease is a term for a group of conditions that cause a portion of the digestive system to become inflamed; the most common types are ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea (which may be bloody), loss of appetite, weight loss, and fever. The symptoms can range from mild to severe, and they may come and go. Treatment includes medicines and in some cases, surgery.
• A 2014 review of 21 studies in patients with ulcerative colitis (1,700 participants) indicated that adding probiotics, prebiotics, or synbiotics to conventional treatment could be helpful in inducing or maintaining remission of the disease. The same review also looked at 14 studies (746 participants) of probiotics, prebiotics, or synbiotics for Crohn’s disease and did not find evidence that they were beneficial.

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• A 2018 review of 53 studies (5,545 total participants) of probiotics for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) concluded that probiotics may have beneficial effects on global IBS symptoms and abdominal pain, but it was not possible to draw definite conclusions about their effectiveness or to identify which species, strains, or combinations of probiotics are most likely to be helpful.

For more information, see the NCCIH fact sheet on irritable bowel syndrome .

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• A 2018 review evaluated 11 studies (5,143 participants) of probiotics or prebiotics for prevention of traveler’s diarrhea and found evidence that they may be helpful. However, the review didn’t assess the quality of the studies and didn’t include data on side effects.
• A 2017 clinical practice guideline by the International Society of Travel Medicine stated that there’s insufficient evidence to recommend probiotics or prebiotics to prevent or treat traveler’s diarrhea. The guidelines acknowledged that there’s evidence suggesting a small benefit but pointed out that studies vary greatly in terms of factors such as the probiotic strains used, the causes of the diarrhea, and geographic locations. Also, some studies had weaknesses in their design.

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.header_greentext{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_bluetext{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_redtext{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_purpletext{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_blacktext{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_whitetext{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;}.green_header{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.blue_header{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.red_header{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.purple_header{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.yellow_header{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.black_header{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.white_header{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;} infant colic.

• Colic is excessive, unexplained crying in young infants. Babies with colic may cry for 3 hours a day or more, but they eat well and grow normally. The cause of colic is not well understood, but studies have shown differences in the microbial community in the digestive tract between infants who have colic and those who don’t, which suggests that microorganisms may be involved.
• A 2018 review of 7 studies (471 participants) of probiotics for colic, 5 of which involved the probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938, found that this probiotic was associated with successful treatment (defined as a reduction of more than half in daily crying time). However, the effect was mainly seen in exclusively breastfed infants.
• No harmful effects were seen in a review of 4 studies (345 participants) of L. reuteri DSM 17938 for colic or in a small NCCIH-funded study that included repeated physical examinations and blood tests in infants with colic who were given this probiotic, as well as parents’ reports of symptoms.

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• Necrotizing enterocolitis is a serious, sometimes fatal disease that occurs in premature infants. It involves injury or damage to the intestinal tract, causing death of intestinal tissue. Its exact cause is unknown, but an abnormal reaction to food components and the microorganisms that live in a premature baby’s digestive tract may play a role.
• A 2017 review of 23 studies (7,325 infants) showed that probiotics helped to prevent necrotizing enterocolitis in very-low-birth-weight infants. However, the results of individual studies varied; not all showed a benefit. Probiotics that included both Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium seemed to produce the best results, but it was not possible to identify the most beneficial strains within these large groups of bacteria.
• None of the infants in the studies described above developed harmful short-term side effects from the probiotics. However, the long-term effects of receiving probiotics at such a young age are uncertain. Outside of these studies, there have been instances when probiotics did have harmful effects in newborns. In 2023, the FDA warned health care providers that premature infants who are given probiotics are at risk of severe, potentially fatal infections caused by the microorganisms in the products.

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• Sepsis is a serious illness in which the body has a harmful, overwhelming response to an infection. It can cause major organs and body systems to stop working properly and can be life threatening. The risk of sepsis is highest in infants, children, the elderly, and people with serious medical problems. One group particularly at risk for sepsis is premature infants.
• A review of 37 studies (9,416 participants) found that probiotics were helpful in reducing the risk of sepsis in premature infants.

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.header_greentext{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_bluetext{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_redtext{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_purpletext{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_blacktext{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_whitetext{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;}.green_header{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.blue_header{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.red_header{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.purple_header{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.yellow_header{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.black_header{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.white_header{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;} dental caries (tooth decay).

• A small amount of research, all in infants and young children, has examined the possibility that probiotics might be helpful in preventing dental caries (also called cavities or tooth decay). A review of 7 studies (1,715 total participants) found that the use of probiotics was associated with fewer cavities in 4 of the 7 studies, but the quality of the evidence was low, and no definite conclusions about the effectiveness of probiotics could be reached.

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• Periodontal diseases result from infections and inflammation of the gums and bone that surround and support the teeth. If the disease is severe, the gums can pull away from the teeth, bone can be lost, and teeth may loosen or fall out.
• A 2016 review of 12 studies (452 participants) that evaluated probiotics for periodontal disease found evidence that they could be a helpful addition to treatment by reducing disease-causing bacteria and improving clinical signs of the disease. However, effects may differ for different probiotics.

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.header_greentext{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_bluetext{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_redtext{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_purpletext{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_blacktext{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_whitetext{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;}.green_header{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.blue_header{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.red_header{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.purple_header{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.yellow_header{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.black_header{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.white_header{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;} allergic rhinitis (hay fever).

• A review of 23 studies (1,919 participants) in which probiotics were tested for treating allergic rhinitis found some evidence that they may be helpful for improving symptoms and quality of life. However, because the studies tested different probiotics and measured different effects, no recommendations about the use of probiotics could be made. Few side effects of probiotics were reported in these studies.

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• A review of 11 studies (910 participants) of probiotics for asthma in children had inconclusive results.

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• Atopic dermatitis is an itchy chronic skin disorder that’s associated with allergies but not caused by them. It’s most common in infants and may start as early as age 2 to 6 months. Many people outgrow it by early adulthood. Atopic dermatitis is one of several types of eczema.
• A 2017 review of 13 studies (1,271 participants) of probiotics for the treatment of atopic dermatitis in infants and children did not find consistent evidence of a beneficial effect. A review of 9 studies (269 participants) in adults provided preliminary evidence that some strains of probiotics might be beneficial for symptoms of atopic dermatitis.

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• It’s been suggested that changes in people’s lifestyles and environment may have led to reduced contact with microorganisms early in life, and that this decrease may have contributed to an increase in allergies. This is sometimes called the “hygiene hypothesis,” although factors unrelated to hygiene, such as smaller family size and the use of antibiotics, may also play a role. Studies have been done in which probiotics were given to pregnant women and/or young infants in the hope of preventing the development of allergies.
• A 2015 review of 17 studies (4,755 participants) that evaluated the use of probiotics during pregnancy or early infancy found that infants exposed to probiotics had a lower risk of developing atopic dermatitis, especially if they were exposed to a mixture of probiotics. However, probiotics did not have an effect on the risks of asthma, wheezing, or hay fever (allergic rhinitis).

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.header_greentext{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_bluetext{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_redtext{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_purpletext{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_blacktext{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_whitetext{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;}.green_header{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.blue_header{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.red_header{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.purple_header{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.yellow_header{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.black_header{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.white_header{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;} acne.

• Research has identified mechanisms by which probiotics, either taken orally or used topically (applied to the skin), might influence acne. However, there has been very little research in people on probiotics for acne, and the American Academy of Dermatology’s 2016 guidelines for managing acne state that the existing evidence isn’t strong enough to justify any recommendations about the use of probiotics.

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• When the liver is damaged and unable to remove toxic substances from the blood, the toxins can build up in the bloodstream and affect the nervous system. This may lead to impairments of brain function called hepatic encephalopathy.
• A 2017 review looked at 21 studies (1,420 participants) of probiotics for hepatic encephalopathy and concluded that they were generally of low quality. There was evidence that compared with a placebo (an inactive substance) or no treatment, probiotics probably had beneficial effects on hepatic encephalopathy, but it was uncertain whether probiotics were better than lactulose, a conventional treatment for liver disease.

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• Probiotics have been tested for their effects against upper respiratory infections (a group that includes the common cold, middle ear infections, sinusitis, and various throat infections). A 2015 evaluation of 12 studies with 3,720 total participants indicated that people taking probiotics may have fewer and shorter upper respiratory infections. However, the quality of the evidence was low because some of the studies were poorly conducted.

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• A 2015 review of 9 studies (735 participants) of probiotics for the prevention of urinary tract infection did not find evidence of a beneficial effect.

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• Probiotics have an extensive history of apparently safe use, particularly in healthy people. However, few studies have looked at the safety of probiotics in detail, so there’s a lack of solid information on the frequency and severity of side effects.
• The risk of harmful effects from probiotics is greater in people with severe illnesses or compromised immune systems. When probiotics are being considered for high-risk individuals, such as premature infants or seriously ill hospital patients, the potential risks of probiotics should be carefully weighed against their benefits. Cases of severe or fatal infections have been reported in premature infants who were given probiotics, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has warned health care providers about this risk.
• Possible harmful effects of probiotics include infections, production of harmful substances by the probiotic microorganisms, and transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from probiotic microorganisms to other microorganisms in the digestive tract.
• Some probiotic products have been reported to contain microorganisms other than those listed on the label. In some instances, these contaminants may pose serious health risks.

NCCIH-Funded Research

NCCIH sponsors a variety of research projects related to probiotics or the microbiome. In addition to the previously mentioned studies on diet-microbiome interactions in the digestive tract, recent topics include:

• The mechanisms by which probiotics may help to reduce postmenopausal bone loss
• Engineering probiotics to synthesize natural substances for microbiome-brain research
• The mechanisms by which certain probiotics may relieve chronic pelvic pain
• The effects of a specific Bifidobacterium strain on changes in short-chain fatty acid production in the gut that may play a role in antibiotic-associated diarrhea.

More To Consider

• Don’t use probiotics as a reason to postpone seeing your health care provider about any health problem.
• If you’re considering a probiotic dietary supplement, consult your health care provider first. This is especially important if you have health problems. Anyone with a serious underlying health condition should be monitored closely while taking probiotics.
• Take charge of your health—talk with your health care providers about any complementary health approaches you use. Together, you can make shared, well-informed decisions.

For More Information

Nccih clearinghouse.

The NCCIH Clearinghouse provides information on NCCIH and complementary and integrative health approaches, including publications and searches of Federal databases of scientific and medical literature. The Clearinghouse does not provide medical advice, treatment recommendations, or referrals to practitioners.

Toll-free in the U.S.: 1-888-644-6226

Telecommunications relay service (TRS): 7-1-1

Website: https://www.nccih.nih.gov

Email: [email protected] (link sends email)

Know the Science

NCCIH and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) provide tools to help you understand the basics and terminology of scientific research so you can make well-informed decisions about your health. Know the Science features a variety of materials, including interactive modules, quizzes, and videos, as well as links to informative content from Federal resources designed to help consumers make sense of health information.

Explaining How Research Works (NIH)

Know the Science: How To Make Sense of a Scientific Journal Article

Understanding Clinical Studies (NIH)

A service of the National Library of Medicine, PubMed® contains publication information and (in most cases) brief summaries of articles from scientific and medical journals. For guidance from NCCIH on using PubMed, see How To Find Information About Complementary Health Approaches on PubMed .

Website: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

MedlinePlus

To provide resources that help answer health questions, MedlinePlus (a service of the National Library of Medicine) brings together authoritative information from the National Institutes of Health as well as other Government agencies and health-related organizations.

Website: https://www.medlineplus.gov

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• Bafeta A, Koh M, Riveros C, et al. Harms reporting in randomized controlled trials of interventions aimed at modifying microbiota: a systematic review. Annals of Internal Medicine . 2018;169(4):240-247.
• Blaabjerg S, Artzi DM, Aabenhus R. Probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in outpatients—a systematic review and meta-analysis. Antibiotics . 2017;6(4).pii:E21.
• Butel M-J. Probiotics, gut microbiota and health. Médecine et Maladies Infectieuses . 2014;44(1):1-8.
• Cohen PA. Probiotic safety—no guarantees. JAMA Internal Medicine . 2018;178(12):1577-1578.
• Degnan FH. The US Food and Drug Administration and probiotics: regulatory categorization. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2008;46(Suppl 2):S133–S136.
• Didari T, Solki S, Mozaffari S, et al. A systematic review of the safety of probiotics. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety . 2014;13(2):227–239.
• Dryl R, Szajewska H. Probiotics for management of infantile colic: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Archives of Medical Science. 2018;14(5):1137-1143.
• Fijan S. Microorganisms with claimed probiotic properties: an overview of recent literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2014;11(5):4745-4767.
• Ford AC, Harris LA, Lacy BE, et al. Systematic review with meta-analysis: the efficacy of prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics and antibiotics in irritable bowel syndrome. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics . 2018;48(10):1044-1060.
• Goldenberg JZ, Yap C, Lytvyn L, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile -associated diarrhea in adults and children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017;(12):CD006095. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on January 23, 2018.
• Guarner F, Khan AG, Garisch J, et al. World Gastroenterology Organisation Global Guidelines. Probiotics and Prebiotics. October 2011. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology . 2012;46(6):468–481.
• Hempel S, Newberry SJ, Maher AR, et al. Probiotics for the prevention and treatment of antibiotic-associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA . 2012;307(18):1959–1969.
• Hempel S, Newberry S, Ruelaz A, et al. Safety of Probiotics to Reduce Risk and Prevent or Treat Disease. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment no. 200. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2011. AHRQ publication no. 11-E007.
• Rao SC, Athalye-Jape GK, Deshpande GC, et al. Probiotic supplementation and late-onset sepsis in preterm infants: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2016;137(3):e20153684.
• Sanders ME, Akkermans LM, Haller D, et al. Safety assessment of probiotics for human use. Gut Microbes . 2010;1(3):164-185.
• Thomas JP, Raine T, Reddy S, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis in very low-birth-weight infants: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Acta Paediatrica . 2017;106(11):1729-1741.
• U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Warning Regarding Use of Probiotics in Preterm Infants. Issued September 29, 2023. Accessed at  https://www.fda.gov/media/172606 on October 2, 2023.
• Zuccotti G, Meneghin F, Aceti A, et al. Probiotics for prevention of atopic diseases in infants: systematic review and meta-analysis. Allergy. 2015;70(11):1356-13

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• Bae J-M. Prophylactic efficacy of probiotics on travelers’ diarrhea: an adaptive meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Epidemiology and Health . 2018;40:e2018043.
• Black LI, Clarke TC, Barnes PM, Stussman BJ, Nahin RL. Use of complementary health approaches among children aged 4-17 years in the United States: National Health Interview Survey, 2007-2012. National health statistics reports; no 78. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2015.
• Cao L, Wang L, Yang L, et al. Long-term effect of early-life supplementation with probiotics on preventing atopic dermatitis: a meta-analysis. Journal of Dermatological Treatment . 2015;26(6):537-540.
• Clarke TC, Black LI, Stussman BJ, Barnes PM, Nahin RL. Trends in the use of complementary health approaches among adults: United States, 2002–2012. National health statistics reports; no 79. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2015.
• Dalal R, McGee RG, Riordan SM, et al. Probiotics for people with hepatic encephalopathy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2017;(2):CD008716. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on November 15, 2018.
• Dimidi E, Christodoulides S, Fragkos KC, et al. The effect of probiotics on functional constipation in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition . 2014;100(4):1075-1084.
• Doron S, Snydman DR. Risk and safety of probiotics. Clinical Infectious Diseases . 2015;60(Suppl 2):S129-S134.
• Fatheree NY, Liu Y, Taylor CM, et al. Lactobacillus reuteri for infants with colic: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Journal of Pediatrics . 2017;191:170-178.
• Ghouri YA, Richards DM, Rahimi EF, et al. Systematic review of randomized controlled trials of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics in inflammatory bowel disease. Clinical and Experimental Gastroenterology . 2014;7:473-487.
• Gibson GR, Hutkins R, Sanders ME, et al. Expert consensus document: The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of prebiotics. Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology . 2017;14(8):491-502.
• Goldenberg JZ, Lytvyn L, Steurich J, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of pediatric antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2015;(12):CD004827. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on November 2, 2018.
• Hao Q, Dong BR, Wu T. Probiotics for preventing acute upper respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2015;(2):CD006895. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on March 6, 2018.
• Hoffmann DE, Fraser CM, Palumbo FB, et al. Probiotics: finding the right regulatory balance. Science . 2013;342(6156):314-315.
• Huang R, Hu J. Positive effect of probiotics on constipation in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2017;7:153.
• Huang R, Ning H, Shen M, et al. Probiotics for the treatment of atopic dermatitis in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2017;7:392.
• Jafarnejad S, Shab-Bidar S, Speakman JR, et al. Probiotics reduce the risk of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in adults (18-64 years) but not the elderly (>65 years): a meta-analysis. Nutrition in Clinical Practice . 2016;31(4):502-513.
• Jørgensen MR, Castiblanco G, Twetman S, et al. Prevention of caries with probiotic bacteria during early childhood. Promising but inconsistent findings. American Journal of Dentistry . 2016;29(3):127-131.
• Kechagia M, Basoulis D, Konstantopoulou S, et al. Health benefits of probiotics: a review. ISRN Nutrition . 2013;2013:48165.
• Kelesidis T, Pothoulakis C. Efficacy and safety of the probiotic Saccharomyces boulardii for the prevention and therapy of gastrointestinal disorders. Therapeutic Advances in Gastroenterology . 2012;5(2):111-125.
• Kober M-M, Bowe WP. The effect of probiotics on immune regulation, acne, and photoaging. International Journal of Women’s Dermatology . 2015;1(2):85-89.
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• Lin J, Zhang Y, He C, et al. Probiotics supplementation in children with asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health. 2018;54(9):953-961.
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Acknowledgments

NCCIH thanks Yisong Wang, Ph.D., and David Shurtleff, Ph.D., for their review of the 2019 update of this publication.

This publication is not copyrighted and is in the public domain. Duplication is encouraged.

NCCIH has provided this material for your information. It is not intended to substitute for the medical expertise and advice of your health care provider(s). We encourage you to discuss any decisions about treatment or care with your health care provider. The mention of any product, service, or therapy is not an endorsement by NCCIH.

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Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Complementary Health Approaches

Probiotics - Systematic Reviews/Reviews/Meta-analyses (PubMed®)

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