essay on hindu temple

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Hinduism and hindu art.

Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi

Standing Four-Armed Vishnu

Linga with Face of Shiva (Ekamukhalinga)

Standing Parvati

Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja)

Standing Ganesha

Standing Female Deity, probably Durga

Ardhanarishvara (Composite of Shiva and Parvati)

Vaikuntha Vishnu

Krishna on Garuda

Durga as Slayer of the Buffalo Demon Mahishasura

Seated Ganesha

Kneeling Female Figure

Hanuman Conversing

The Goddess Durga Slaying the Demon Buffalo Mahisha

Loving Couple (Mithuna)

Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Shaiva Saint

Vidya Dehejia Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University

February 2007

According to the Hindu view, there are four goals of life on earth, and each human being should aspire to all four. Everyone should aim for dharma , or righteous living; artha , or wealth acquired through the pursuit of a profession; kama , or human and sexual love; and, finally, moksha , or spiritual salvation.

This holistic view is reflected as well as in the artistic production of India. Although a Hindu temple is dedicated to the glory of a deity and is aimed at helping the devotee toward moksha , its walls might justifiably contain sculptures that reflect the other three goals of life. It is in such a context that we may best understand the many sensuous and apparently secular themes that decorate the walls of Indian temples.

Hinduism is a religion that had no single founder, no single spokesman, no single prophet. Its origins are mixed and complex. One strand can be traced back to the sacred Sanskrit literature of the Aryans, the Vedas, which consist of hymns in praise of deities who were often personifications of the natural elements. Another strand drew on the beliefs prevalent among groups of indigenous peoples, especially the faith in the power of the mother goddess and in the efficacy of fertility symbols. Hinduism, in the form comparable to its present-day expression, emerged at about the start of the Christian era, with an emphasis on the supremacy of the god Vishnu, the god Shiva, and the goddess Shakti (literally, “Power”).

The pluralism evident in Hinduism, as well as its acceptance of the existence of several deities, is often puzzling to non-Hindus. Hindus suggest that one may view the Infinite as a diamond of innumerable facets. One or another facet—be it Rama, Krishna, or Ganesha—may beckon an individual believer with irresistible magnetism. By acknowledging the power of an individual facet and worshipping it, the believer does not thereby deny the existence of many aspects of the Infinite and of varied paths toward the ultimate goal.

Deities are frequently portrayed with multiple arms, especially when they are engaged in combative acts of cosmic consequence that involve destroying powerful forces of evil. The multiplicity of arms emphasizes the immense power of the deity and his or her ability to perform several feats at the same time. The Indian artist found this a simple and an effective means of expressing the omnipresence and omnipotence of a deity. Demons are frequently portrayed with multiple heads to indicate their superhuman power. The occasional depiction of a deity with more than one head is generally motivated by the desire to portray varying aspects of the character of that deity. Thus, when the god Shiva is portrayed with a triple head, the central face indicates his essential character and the flanking faces depict his fierce and blissful aspects.

The Hindu Temple Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in India . Thus, if one speaks of Indian architecture without taking note of the lavish sculptured decoration with which monuments are covered, a partial and distorted picture is presented. In the Hindu temple , large niches in the three exterior walls of the sanctum house sculpted images that portray various aspects of the deity enshrined within. The sanctum image expresses the essence of the deity. For instance, the niches of a temple dedicated to a Vishnu may portray his incarnations; those of a temple to Shiva , his various combative feats; and those of a temple to the Great Goddess, her battles with various demons. Regional variations exist, too; in the eastern state of Odisha, for example, the niches of a temple to Shiva customarily contain images of his family—his consort, Parvati, and their sons, Ganesha, the god of overcoming obstacles, and warlike Skanda.

The exterior of the halls and porch are also covered with figural sculpture. A series of niches highlight events from the mythology of the enshrined deity, and frequently a place is set aside for a variety of other gods. In addition, temple walls feature repeated banks of scroll-like foliage, images of women, and loving couples known as mithunas . Signifying growth, abundance, and prosperity, they were considered auspicious motifs.

Dehejia, Vidya. “Hinduism and Hindu Art.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/hind/hd_hind.htm (February 2007)

Further Reading

Dehejia, Vidya. Indian Art . London: Phaidon, 1997.

Eck, Diana L. Darsan: Seeing the Divine Image in India. 2d ed . Chamberburg, Pa.: Anima Books, 1985.

Michell, George. The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms. Reprint . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.

Mitter, Partha. Indian Art . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Additional Essays by Vidya Dehejia

• Dehejia, Vidya. “ Buddhism and Buddhist Art .” (February 2007)
• Dehejia, Vidya. “ Recognizing the Gods .” (February 2007)
• Dehejia, Vidya. “ South Asian Art and Culture .” (February 2007)

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Essay on Temple

India is a land of ancient temples, sacred places and shrines. Temples are a symbol of peace and belief for Hindus. The temple’s main deity is the sculpture of a God or Goddess. Indian temples are known for their intricate sculptures, carvings and ancient paintings. These temples are open to the public and visitors who come to worship and make offerings. BYJU’S essay on temple helps children learn about the holy Indian temples.

From Kanyakumari to Kashmir, we find temples in any corner of the country. Each temple has a history, and the walls have a story of brave warriors or kings to tell the world. The entrance, or dhwaja sthambha, is a gateway that marks the way to the sanctum sanctorum. People visit temples for different reasons, such as pursuing peace, organising family functions, seeking blessings, serving people, etc. Now, let us read about famous Indian temples that are globally recognised by referring to an essay on temple in English.

Table of Contents

Famous indian temples, virupaksha temple, brihadeshwara temple, golden temple, akshardham temple.

Puri Jagannath Temple

History of Indian Temples

Indian temples are one of the most beautiful creations of humankind. Here are a few famous temples in India.

Virupaksha temple is located in Hampi, Karnataka. The temple was constructed by one of the chieftains, Lakkana Dandesha, who worked in the reign of the ruler Deva Raya II of the Vijayanagara Empire. Hampi is one of the world heritage sites designated by UNESCO. Lord Shiva is the main deity who is worshipped in sanctum sanctorum. This temple is the primary centre of yatra at Hampi.

Brihadeshwara temple, also known as Rajarajeswaram, is located in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. This temple was constructed by Rajaraja I, a Chola emperor. Brihadeshwara temple is an example of Tamil architecture. Rajarajeswaram is dedicated to Lord Shiva. Like the Virupaksha temple, this temple is also a UNESCO world heritage site.

Golden temple is one of the most prominent shrines in the country, located in Amritsar, Punjab. Golden temple is also known as Sri Harmandir Sahib. Lakhs of Sikhs visit this temple every year. While visiting this temple, people must cover their heads for the lord.

Akshardham temple is one of the most visited temples across the country. Akshardham temple is situated in the national capital of India, Delhi, and the temple is famous for its architectural marvel. Moreover, this is one of India’s most beautiful shrines built in recent times.

To conclude, temples are of great importance to the Indians and the country’s culture. People visit temples to seek blessings from God or find peace from all the chaos around. In addition, Indian temples are excellent constructions, and each one of them is an architectural masterpiece. In this short essay on temple, we have explained the prominent Indian temples for children. For more essays, stories and poems , visit BYJU’S website.

Frequently Asked Questions

Which is the oldest temple in india.

The oldest temple in India is the Mundeshwari temple, located in Kaimur District, Bihar.

Which state is famous for temples in India?

Tamil Nadu is famous for its temples in India.

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Essay: Ayodhya and the end of the Hindu imagination

The most magical thing about the ramayana is that it has the capacity to enter our personal lives, dreams and nightmares. but will that continue to be possible now that a single official version has been enshrined.

When a state stamps its ownership on a much-loved story, its ordinary citizens have no choice but to let go of their own versions. In effect, they have to give up their own peculiar, personalised love for the tale, its range of characters, the various scenes and episodes. By loving the story, once upon a time, they could write parts of it themselves, create echoes of it for their daily lives, loves and prayers. All of that is now lost. There remains only one story to follow, only one hero to admire, designated virtues to worship.

I lost my Ramayana on January 22, when the Indian state took it away from me.

The most magical thing about stories is that they are private, that they have a shape-shifting capacity of entering our personal lives, dreams and nightmares. When the democratically elected leader of a country consecrates a particular version of a story in a designated temple that leads to a flurry of holidays nationwide, when national media live streams the consecration to every corner of the nation, when dignitaries from the walks of life that really matter in India – film and cricket and politics – gather to watch the consecration, can you still go on loving the story and its characters in your own private and idiosyncratic way?

When Ram Rajya is the utopia around us, is it possible anymore to mourn the loss of Sita to her Earth Mother? Is it possible anymore to love and admire Indrajit, aka Meghnad, Ravana’s spirited younger brother, invincible behind the clouds? Once upon a time, a great Bengali poet had written an epic poem in the manner of Milton where Lakshman killed the cloud-warrior with the latter in the middle of his puja, in a rare moment of vulnerability. Lakshman’s breach of military ethics had the same mystery and complexity as Krishna’s instruction to Arjun to kill the great Kaurava generals, in ways unacceptable to military ethics. But Michael Madhusudhan Dutt, the poet of Meghnad Badh Kavya , was, like his idol John Milton, “of the devil’s party without knowing it”, as the poet William Blake had said of the great English poet of Paradise Lost . For Milton, Satan was the most unforgettable character of the Bible. For Michael, Meghnad was a hero, Lakshman an ethical violator and a coward.

Can we admire Meghnad anymore? Can we mourn the sorrow of a Ram Rajya with Sita lost to the folds of earth from whence she had appeared at birth?

The beauty and greatness of our epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata is that they exist in almost every nook and cranny of Indian life, in every local and vernacular version, far beyond the Brahminical Hinduism that has sought to clamp its muscle of purity on them. AK Ramanujan narrates a few of the endlessly innumerable ways in which the Ramayana has shaped our languages, our basic life lessons, and our rituals. When someone is talking endlessly about something, one says, “What’s this Ramayana about?” In Tamil, a narrow room is called a kishkindha, and a proverb about a dim-witted person says: “After hearing the Ramayana all night, he asks how Rama is related to Sita”. In a Bengali arithmetic textbook, children are asked to figure the dimensions of what is left of a wall that Hanuman built, after he had broken down parts of it in mischief. And to this, Ramanujan says, we must add an infinite number of marriage songs, place legends, temple myths, paintings, sculpture, and the many performing arts that echo bits and scraps of the Ramayana in every imaginable way.

A Hindu epic is such a pantheon of unforgettable characters and episodes that it is impossible for anyone touched by it to not create versions of it. My mind cries out for Apu, the child-protagonist of Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay’s novel Pather Panchali . With a makeshift bow and arrow crafted from castaway twigs, the poor village boy spends hours daydreaming, suddenly transformed into a hero from the Ramayana or the Mahabharata . But he always chose to be Karna; his heart went out to the courageous hero who, he felt, got nothing but insult and injustice in his life. The hero who could have triumphed in the epic died broken, a dishonourable death, his prowess and generosity misremembered, cast into oblivion. Apu, the dreamy boy destined to be a suffering bohemian creative soul as an adult, cast his lot with Karna, spurning the nobility and triumphant glory of Arjun and Krishna. The Mahabharata , molten into a much beloved coming-of-age novel from the early twentieth century, became more magical for this unusual choice. And Apu was one of many; Karna, would be immortalized by the Marathi novelist Shivaji Sawant in his wildly popular novel, Mritunjaya, the death-conqueror. I remember my professor, the poet P Lal, who published the English translation of the novel, saying that Karna is the closest we have to a tragic hero.

The German critic Erich Auerbach told us the difference between Homeric and Biblical narration: Unlike the Homeric epics of Iliad and Odyssey, which lie and fabricate when necessary, biblical stories lay claim to the singularity of an absolute truth. “The Bible’s claim to truth is not only far more urgent than Homer’s,” Auerbach wrote, “it is tyrannical – it excludes all other claims.” 

The Hindu epics, with their playfulness and plurality, are much like the Hellenic pantheon and Homeric narration. As long as they have been around, their fluidity has seeped into all crevices of Indian life far more than a single absolute version could ever have done. Ramanujan tells the story of the foolish villager who went to a performance of the Ramayana on his wife’s insistence but fell asleep each night. Trying to lie desperately, he could only describe the epic in terms of the sensory experience that had touched him each night he had missed the story: “sweet” the night sweetmeats were stuffed into his sleeping mouth, “heavier and heavier” the night someone sat on his sleeping body, and “salty” the night a dog urinated into his sleeping mouth.

Is the Ramayana all of that? All these impossible flavours? Perhaps we’ll never know anymore, as now we have the authority of an official version enshrined in Ayodhya.

Saikat Majumdar is a novelist and critic. @_saikatmajumdar

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India as a country is renowned for its diversity, both in terms of geographical habitats and its social composition. This diversity rests on interplay of several factors, including economic, political and social structures that have been nurtured over the centuries. Underlying all these structures is a spiritual foundation, which rather inconspicuously exerts a powerful influence on our society. Scholars across the world have recognized India as a sacred geography, with all its disparate locations being tied together through pilgrimage routes. One of the most omnipresent structures within this sacred geography is the Hindu temple. The profusion of temples found across the subcontinent suggests that they continue to dominate our landscape in modern times.

A discussion on temples in ‘modern India’ may seem like a pointless exercise; it may raise the obvious question- how do temples affect our contemporary lives in any tangible manner? There seem to be so many other pressing issues, and temples, for millennials in particular, seem to be little more than relics from a bygone era. But such assertions arise from a tiny cross-section of our society; and can easily be disproved by the vibrant pilgrimage networks that continue to galvanise devotees from various parts of the country. What is it that makes the temple or a tirtha kshetra such a powerful symbol for lakhs of devotees? This essay seeks to probe and demonstrate the continuing relevance of temples in modern India. Studying the architectural and iconographical orientation of temples can allow us to realise the manner in which modern temples connect us to a sacred past, and also manifest the ambitions of a shared future. This essay will also analyse how modern aesthetic ideas have impinged themselves on temples, without tarnishing their sacred character. The thrust of this effort is to underscore how temples are the backbone of India’s millennia-old civilization, and continue to project some of the most elevated philosophical and spiritual ideas germane to our civilizational context.

At the very outset, it is useful to examine the meaning of a temple in Hindu tradition. Before venturing into the definition of a temple, the concept of sacred space deserves elaboration. From prehistoric times, man has been predisposed towards perceiving a ‘reality’ that does not belong to the world. This takes place through the manifestation of sacred reality, which is in direct opposition to profane experience. Historian Mircea Eliade characterizes this manifestation as ‘hierophany’, and this process encompasses its most elementary manifestation in ordinary objects to the experience of a ‘supreme’ reality (Eliade1987: 12). Maintaining this sacred space is an existential imperative for many societies, and there are numerous ways in which a consciousness of the sacred becomes visible. The sacred in other words bestows meaning on secular pursuits of everyday life.

India is well and truly a living landscape. Almost all topographical features like mountains, rivers, forests and villages are elaborately associated with stories of Gods and heroes. All such stories are suffused with metaphysical insight. These accounts are not to be viewed in isolation, as they significantly underpin the notion of a sacred geography. [1] Thus, in our paradigm, while differences in physical features are acknowledged, their connection with the cosmos is accorded pre-eminence. This almost exemplifies Eliade’s observation, ‘the cosmos in entirety can become a hierophany’. Temples need to be situated as components within this sacred landscape.

Oftentimes, we equate temples merely with shrines that house deity/s. However, this is a rather simplistic notion; as shrines are incomplete without the landscape that surrounds them. Moreover, there are many temples that lack elaborate shrines, wherein idols or natural objects serve the purpose. A temple can therefore be better understood as a confluence of structures, with a specific spatial orientation, consisting of features that produce a distinct spiritual ethos. It is impossible to comprehend the character of temples without acknowledging its philosophical basis, as temples are rooted in Vedantic ideals. Hinduism, which is inextricably tied to Vedanta, is concerned with liberation or moksha as embodying the ultimate purpose of life. Vedanta borrows heavily from the Upanishads, which stress on there being no duality between human beings and the ultimate reality (Brahman). Prakriti (nature) and purusha (soul) are one and the same, but human beings fail to realise this non-duality because of an illusory veil (maya) that impedes spiritual progress. In order to cast this veil aside, some actions have to be performed. A temple, along with its deity, is thus supposed to facilitate the transcendence of illusions so that a devotee can proceed towards moksha. In other words, the aforementioned concern for ‘wholeness’ and universal reality permeates the structural character of a temple. [2]

A temple removes all distinctions between man, nature and God, as these are considered to be inseparable entities. Such a creative fusion implies that the architectural plans of a temple as well as the icons placed within it are replete with symbolic value. In the words of scholar George Michelle “temples provide a symbolic expression to that which cannot be discursively expressed” (Michelle, 1988).

The most powerful symbolism can be noticed in the association of temples with Mount Meru (also known as Sumeru). In Hindu mythology, Mount Meru is seen as the centre of the cosmic axis and the abode of Gods. The Himalayas and Bharatavarsha are located below this sacred mountain. Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is considered as the earthy manifestation of Mount Meru, which explains the sanctity of river Ganga, that originates in the Himalayan ranges. It is this cosmological paradigm that sustains the association of temples with natural features like caves, mountains and rivers.

As mentioned earlier, all distinctions between man and cosmos collapse when one enters a temple. The human body provides the most viable pattern for viewing the cosmos. Thus, a temple is nothing but the cosmos taking a human form. The Matsya Purana, presenting a general orientation of the Hindu house, also mentions the symbolic merger of body, space and cosmos (P.B Singh, 1992). In Kundalini Yoga, the seven chakras are seen as vital energy points present inside the body, connected to the ultimate reality or Brahman. A temple almost approximates a human body with these seven chakras. For instance, the garbha-griha or womb-chamber of the temple holds the Anahata-chakra , which relates to the energy of the heart (Bharne, 2012, p. 93). This is the sanctum-sanctorum of a templewhich housesthe deity, and its equation with the Anahata-chakra reflects how it signifies the very essence of the temple. As opposed to the superstructure or the pavilions, it remains relatively unadorned, to provide a sanctifying environment for spiritual pursuits. Likewise, various parts of the temple are divided in such a manner, to help the devotee realise the ultimate truth in his bodily form.

Temples are planned in accordance with the vastu-purusha-mandala , a scheme which indicates the underlying philosophical motivations governing temple. Vastu literally means ‘existence’; and its shape is cosmologically deemed to be a square. This is the reason temples generally have a square-plan, i.e. Mandala. As Stella Kramrisch observes, ‘Square is a fundamental form of Indian architecture….it is a mark of order, of finality, to expanding a life of perfection beyond life and death.’ (Kramrisch 1946: p.21).

As noted earlier, the cosmos is sought to be reimagined in the structure of a temple, and thus texts like the Mayamatam and Vishnudharmottara Purana prescribe that the image of the cosmic man (Purusha) should be identical to the planned site. The Purusha is equivalent to the totality of manifestation, and the vastu purusha mandala can thus be seen as a metaphysical plan of the temple.

This brief exposition on the nature of sacred space in the Hindu paradigm, and the cosmological orientation of temples can offer us a window into acknowledging the sacred character of modern temples.

Amalgamation of Tradition and Modernity in Modern Temples: the case of Akshardham

In modern temples, there is a very visible tussle between tradition and modernity. After all, the notion of a sacred space does evolve over time, and many ancient and medieval temples continue to be worshipped across the country. The Virupaksha temple in Hampi and the Padmanabhaswamy temple in Thiruvananthapuram have been under worship for at least three hundred years. However, this essay shall primarily concern itself with temples that have been commissioned in independent India, including both monumental and canonical temples and ordinary shrines that dot our landscape.

Perhaps the most ambitious temple-building project in modern India is that of the Swaminarayan Akshardham temple in New Delhi. This massive complex truly represents the country’s heritage in an inimitable manner. The Akshardham temple in Gandhinagar was constructed by the same organization called BAPS in 1992, and its popularity propelled this group under Pramukh Swami Maharaj to launch its second major project in the national capital on a much more ambitious scale in 2001. Quite revealingly, Vedic rituals were performed at each major juncture in the process of construction. Eight scholars of Pancaratra Sastra were called upon to consecrate the temple. Workers were also drawn from various segments of society, and prominently included local farmers and tribal women. Thus, canonical injunctions were adhered to while constructing this temple, and it also facilitated social integration.

The temple is today spread across an astonishing 100 acres of land, and the central monument is set in a pool of water, surrounded by sculpted stone colonnades. The monument seems to be modelled on the medieval temples of western India, constructed entirely using pink sandstone. In fact, the complex is not merely a temple; it is also a museum and has a theme park. Audio shows and computer-controlled fountains illustrate how devotion is intricately connected with technology. The Bharat Upavan (Gallery of India) is a park that contains bronze images of warriors, freedom fighters and numerous other legendary figures associated with India’s cultural heritage.

Kavita Singh has studied the iconography of this temple, and her study illustrates how the architecture at Akshardham seems to be inspired from several other classical temples of the subcontinent. The domes resemble those found in Shore temple, Mahabalipuram. The frieze of elephants at the lowest level of the plinth is similar to the elephant friezes found in Kailasanatha temple (a little more on elephants later). In fact, the influence of Jain temple architecture can also be discerned in this complex. Stone carvings found inside the central monument are similar to those of Jain temples at Dilwara and Ranakpur. Kavita Singh persuasively argues that the Akshardham temple resembles the dadabaris, which are memorial shrines built in honour of departed Jain gurus. The construction work has also been done using stone, without any trace of cement or steel, once again harking back to temple building traditions of yesteryears. The central complex features an exhibition on the life of Bhagwan Swaminarayan along with vignettes from the lives of other prominent Hindu saints.

The sculptural exuberance of the complex includes a bewildering range of deities from the Hindu pantheon, including Shiva-Parvati, Radha-Krishna, Sita-Ram and Lakshmi-Narayan. Again, the spirit of fusing prakriti with purusha can be noticed over here. The synthesis of different cults seeks to underscore the essential unity of the Hindu religion. The exhibitions and theme parks again invoke heroes from the past, and this deification of historicalpersonages is one of the most critical developments in recent temple building endeavours. A fusion of the ancient with the modern can perceptively be noticed in this magnificent complex. As former President of India, Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam also remarked during the temple’s inauguration in 2007, Akshardham truly represents India’s ‘civilisational heritage in dynamic form’. (Kavita Singh2012: 52)

Temples as Repositories of Values

Another important landmark in the capital city of Delhi is the Lakshminarayan (Birla) temple located near Connaught circle. This is once again a massive complex, whose construction was completed in 1939 under the watchful eyes of industrialist Baldeo Das Birla. It was inaugurated by none other than Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. This was the first among a chain of Birla temples constructed by the Birla Foundation, and today such temples can be seen in cities like Kolkata, Hyderabad and Varanasi. The business-class funding temples is not a novelty in the Indian context, as right from ancient times, groups possessing capital have enriched the sacred sphere. The Ainurruvar (The Five Hundred) of Aihole are a case in point, as a large number of early medieval temples in North Karnataka were funded by this motley group of merchants.

The Birla temple in Delhi may not match Akshardham in its scale, but it also creatively synthesizes different architectural traditions. It follows the Nagara style of architecture, and is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and Goddess Lakshmi. The temple has numerous paintings and sculptures which encompass the grand sweep of Indian history. For instance, the story of Shivaji and Ramdas is depicted in one painting, while Guru Gobind Singh’s sacrifice is projected in another. Verses of poems by Kabir, Surdas and Ramdas also embellish the walls of the temple. The most interesting locationin this temple is the Gita Bhavan, which contains an exhibition of paintings that reflect upon certain important messages from the Bhagavada Gita. Verses from Upanishads are also inscribed, giving an overview of some profound philosophical messages. [3]

Thus, the spatial organization of the Birla temple underscores the ways temples have become carriers of spiritual values. They are no longer seen as purely ritual-oriented structures, and have become repositories of cultural wisdom, performing a very significant educational role.

Temples as Multi-purpose Centres: Chhatarpur

At the opposite end of the national capital, one finds another intriguing modern temple complex in Chhatarpur. Spread over sixty acres, the temple is dedicated to Goddess Katyayani, an incarnation of Goddess Durga. Architecturally, the temple seamlessly blends Nagara (North Indian) and Dravida (South Indian) styles and there are more than twenty shrines dedicated to a number of deities including Rama and Shiva. Sculptures of tigers and lions can be seen at the entrance of these temples, as can elephants. Elephants, as noted earlier, are symbolic of wisdom and physical strength, and several temples from ancient India too contain elephants on the plinths. On the opposite end of the Katyayani mandir stands a giant 10-feet Hanuman statue.

Chhatarpur has become a veritable temple town, but adding to the significance of this place are a school and a diagnostic centre. The Sant Nagpal Public School, affiliated with the CBSE board, is attached to the temple complex, while a few paces down the road, one can find the Sant Nagpal Diagnostic centre. Thus, temples are evidently intervening in such domains as education and health that are very high in the priorities of policy makers. [4]

Grama-devatas and Wayside shrines: Crystallisation of Communities.

But our sacred space isn’t only dominated by massive temples; there are a large number of wayside shrines that straddle the Indian subcontinent. Most of these temples do not subscribe to rigid architectural canons, and innovatively create a sacred environment. Many of these shrines gradually metamorphose into larger sacred entities.

However, a majority of shrines remain simple, unadorned and yet of profound significance for the common man. Many a times, trees or coconuts are also deified, and worshipping them before heading to workplace is almost a routinised practice in several parts of modern India. This is also tied to the philosophical concerns of Vedanta, as God is considered omnipresent, and this allows people to fulfill their devotional ambitions without traversing long distances. In the words of Diana Eck, “In the pilgrim’s India, we encounter over and over the powerful conception of a god who fills and exceeds the span of space and is simultaneously fully present in this very place.” (Eck 2012) Thus God is treated as transcendent, yet part of a devotee’s immediate reality. The installation of Shiva lingas in remote corners of the country attests to the popular notion that the divine can be discovered anywhere, if the devotee is willing to apprehend and perceive the divine presence. If one visits Aihole in Karnataka, a number of early medieval temples can be seen tucked away in a corner, maintained by some obscure merchant or fishing community. This consciousness in both the omnipresence and immediacy of the divine has passed down over the generations, and permeates modern Indian society to a great extent. This remarkable continuity attests to the deeper philosophical and spiritual pursuits of devotees in modern India.

Temples often become focal points for the crystallization of communities. This process is particularly notable in rural India, as almost 600,000 villages across the subcontinent have their own ‘grama-devatas’ (Bharne 2012: 164). Thus, in rural habitats, the temple isn’t primarily a sacred centre; the deity or grama-devata is synonymous with every facet of life in the village. All rivers, hills, fields and houses are part of the spirit of the grama-devata . Even otherwise, in rural India, temples are intertwined with the daily chores of village life. For instance, the majestic Sun temple in the village of Modhera in Gujarat, has a flight of steps leading to a tank (Kund) connected to the river Pushpavati. People come over here to bathe, wash clothes and also perform rituals during the festive seasons. Thus, the religious and social life of people in the village is intertwined, and temples act as socio-sacred nodes that sustain the spiritual and material requirements of villages.

Such informal and ‘plebian’ shrines also undergo innovations in urban contexts. Anthropologist Joanne Punzo Waghorne in his monumental study of Hindu temples in Chennai presents the case of a very intriguing temple in the Adyar neighbourhood of South Chennai. This is the Madhya Kailasa temple, and it houses a deity called ‘Shree Adhyantha Prabha’ . Half of the deity’s body is Lord Ganesha while the other half is Lord Hanuman, a one-of-its-kind combination to be found in the Indian subcontinent. Ganesha here embodies Aadhi (beginning), given that the elephant God is often associated with sound; while Hanuman embodies Anta (end), or breath, as he is the son of Vayu (wind god). This represents the notion that it is only with the fusion of life and death that ‘purnam’ (totality, complete life) can be attained. This is a very fascinating synthesis, without any precedent in the country. Waghorne’s conversations with devotees revealed that unlike other temples, devotees over here are allowed to perform kumbha-abhishekam (consecration of deity) by themselves, without the intervention of a priest. The devotees expressed their delight in being endowed with such authority and also stressed on the temple being open for ‘everyone’, regardless of sectarian or religious distinctions. This inclusiveness has to be marked out because the deity almost signals a fusion of Shiva and Vishnu; Ganesh as the son of Shiva and Hanuman, the companion of Lord Ram.

The Madhya Kailash temple is one among many other temples that reflect the creative freedom accorded to devotees within the Hindu tradition. This case also helps us realise the complex ways in which communities living in urban spaces craft their own understanding of the ‘sacred’, turning temples into spaces where new communities and identities get forged.

Reclamation of Sacred space: Somnath, Ayodhya

Somnath is a site of immense cultural significance. Situated close to the ancient port of Veraval, is associated with the pilgrimage site of Prabhasa. The Bhalka Tirtha, situated in proximity to the temple, is known to have been the place where Krishna left behind his human body. Prabhasa represents the confluence of three great rivers- Saraswati, Kapila and Hiranya, and this riverine association is a feature of any major temple in India. The temple in Somnath is considered to be the first among the 12 jyotirlingas found in the country. A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva was first constructed in Prabhasa somewhere around the 7th century AD, but was subjected to the iconoclastic zeal of Islamic invaders at least thrice in the course of thirteen centuries. This however, did not dampen the resolve of local kings, as temples continued to be erected (at a distance from the site of demolition) from time to time. Sardar Vallabhai Patel, India’s first Home Minister, strongly believed that Somnath was an integral component of India’s heritage; with profound implications for the lived reality of millions of devotees. After the accession of Junagadh in 1948, Patel resolved to restore the temple, and in this effort was supported by veteran educationist K.M. Munshi. The temple was completed within three years, and in May 1951, inaugurated, much to the chagrin of the Prime Minister J.L. Nehru, by the President of India, Rajendra Prasad. It is quite revealing that the restoration of the Somnath temple was among the first projects undertaken in independent India. Prasad’s statement during the consecration ceremony sums up the impulse behind this project- “The power of reconstruction is greater than the power of destruction.” (Pande et.al 2021: 120)

Ayodhya, the birthplace of Lord Ram, is presently witnessing the construction of a Ram temple that in many ways echoes the dual project of invoking a glorious scared heritage and capturing the ambitions of a bright national future. The town is believed to have been founded by Manu and ruled by Ikshvaku. The cultural memory of losing the Ram temple to invasive onslaughts by Mughal emperor Babur has profoundly impinged itself on the layered contemporary history of this site. The Ram Janmabhumi movement was carried forth with the singular agenda of resurrecting the Ram temple, and as temple construction gathers steam, a number of inferences can be made. The temple complex is projected to cover a whopping 1.35 lakh square feet of area. The three-storied complex will contain five domed mandapas and one shikhara, giving it a height of 151 feet. The chief architect of this temple is Chandrakantbhai Sompura whose grandfather Prabhakarji Sompura had designed the Somnath temple. The parallels that have been struck between Somnath and Ayodhya attest to a shared heritage of reclaiming sacred space. Interestingly, the architectural style of the proposed temple is also largely similar, as the Ram temple is being constructed in the Maru-Gurjara style that traces its roots to early medieval Gujarat and Rajasthan. The Rudra-Mahalaya temple of Gujarat, Khajuraho temple in Madhya Pradesh and five Jain temples in Dilwara have also been constructed in this style, characterized by “superimposed registers with lower bands of mouldings”. (Times of India, 2020). The temple will be having an open-air theatre, a library, a museum and a theatre centre, clearly on the lines of the majestic Akshardham temple. Cutting-edge modern technology will be harnessed to “offer a 3D experience of the sanctum sanctorum for pilgrims” (Indian Express, 2021). Moreover, a shed adjacent to the make-shift shrine already houses some of the key artefacts excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India that establish the Hindu claim over the site.

Though it remains to be seen whether the temple eventually incorporates all of these features, the very process of construction reveals conscious efforts to bestow it with a national character. A bell, weighing 613 kg, was wheeled all the way from Rameshwaram in 2020, and is set to be installed in the premises. The superstructure of the temple is being prepared using pink sandstone sourced from Bansi Paharpur in Rajasthan. Moreover, the fund collection drive carried out by the Ram Janmabhoomi Teertha kshatra ensured that people from every corner of the country could contribute at their discretion. Such efforts clearly bring to light the temple’s proposed status as an instrument of national integration. It can be surmised that the Ram Janmabhumi temple brings together some of the features discussed earlier with regard to modern Indian temples. It revives the glorious heritage of Hindu architecture, while neatly tying it with contemporary sensibilities. Ayodhya is being seen as a potential tourist hub, and the presence of a museum within the complex suggests that the Ram temple is primed to project India’s spiritual values to a larger audience. Moreover, new communities and market networks are bound to coalesce around this temple complex, making this structure a potential harbinger of social change.

This essay has presented the Hindu temple as a site of negotiation between cultural inheritance and modern aesthetic principles. The cosmological and philosophical ideas underlying construction of temples demonstrates that temples are not merely brick and mortar shrines, standing in isolation. They represent a concord between human anatomy and the larger sacred landscape, consisting of trees, rivers, mountains and other topographical features. Modern Indian temples like Swaminarayan Akshardham and Lakshminarayan (Birla) temple carry forth the rich philosophical and spiritual messages of yore in a modern idiom. They also illustrate the ways in which temple complexes have become conveyers of profound meaning and veritable educational institutes in themselves. In carrying forward the rich philosophical and civilizational ideals to have emerged in the subcontinent, temples- by their very existence- are doing the nation a great service. The imperative need to live in harmony with environment and cosmic forces can be reinforced through the architectural layout of temples. Thus, the construction of temples must be seen as a nation-building exercise rather than an activity having religious overtones.

References:

• Eck, Diana. India: A Sacred Geography (Harmony books, 2012) Eliade, Mircea. The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of religion. (Harper One, 1968)
• Jain, Meenakshi. Flight of deities and rebirth of temples. (Aryan Books International, 2019)
• Kramrisch, Stella. The Hindu Temple Vol. 1 (University of Calcutta, 1946)
• Krusche, Krupali. Vinayak Bharne. Rediscovering the Hindu temple: The Sacred Architecture and urbanism of India (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012)
• Madan, T.N. (ed.) ‘Religion in India’ (Oxford University Press, 1999)
• Michelle, George. The Hindu Temple: An introduction to its meanings and forms (University of Chicago Press, 1988)
• Waghorne, Joanne Punzo. Diaspora of the Gods: Modern Hindu temples in an Urban middle-class world (Oxford University Press, 2004)
• Pande, Vikrant, Manu Pillai, Haroon Khalid Et al. Where the Gods Dwell: Thirteen temples and their (hi)stories. (Westland, 2021)

Research papers:

• P.B. Singh, Rana. “Nature and Cosmic Integrity: A search in Hindu geographical thought.” GeoJournal 26 (1992): 139-147
• Singh, Kavita. “Temple of Eternal return: The Swaminarayan Akshardham complex in Delhi.” ArtibusAsiae 70, no. 1 (2010): 47–76.
• Singh, Amita. “Nature in art, architecture and landscape.”LandscapeResearch, UK, Vol. 20, No. 1 (1995)

Newspaper articles/reports:

• Sharda, Shailavee. ‘UP: Ramjanmabhoomi to house museum of excavated artefacts.” The Times of India. 20 July 2020 https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/ramjanmabhoomi-to-house-museum-of-excavated-artefacts/articleshow/77057037.cms
• Husain, Yusra. “Nagara style of architecture for Ayodhya’s Ram Temple.” The Times of India. 31 July, 2020 https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/nagara-style-of-architecture-for-ayodhyas-ram-temple/articleshow/77272513.cms
• Google Arts and Culture, “Maru Gurjara style of Architecture.” https://artsandculture.google.com/entity/m%C4%81ru-gurjara-architecture/g11h7rn2zp7?hl=en
• PTI. “Pink stone from Rajasthan to be used for the construction of Ram temple structure in Ayodhya: sources”. The Economic Times. 9 September 2021 https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/pink-stone-from-rajasthan-to-be-used-for-construction-of-ram-temple-structure-in-ayodhya-sources/articleshow/86067730.cms
• https://akshardham.com/explore/thematic-gardens/
• Seth, Maulshree. “Ram temple premises to have museum, open air theatre, library, research centre.” The Indian Express. 12 January 2021. https://indianexpress.com/article/india/ram-temple-premises-to-have-museum-open-air-theatre-library-research-centre-7143878/

[1] For a deeper reading into the nuances of India’s sacred geography, particularly from the perspective of pilgrimage and rituals, See Diana Eck, ‘India: A sacred geography’ (Harmony books, 2007), pp.1-43 [2] To know more about the philosophical ideas that constitute temples, see Vinayak Bharne, Krupali Krusche, ‘Rediscovering Hindu temple’ (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012), pp 1-19 [3] Observations based on a field visit to the Lakshminarayan (Birla) temple, Connaught circle, New Delhi. [4] Observations based on a field visit to the Chhatarpur temple complex

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The Importance of Temples in Hinduism: A Gateway to the Divine

Someshwara Temple, an 11th century architectural marvel, showcases the significance of temples in Hinduism.

As one of the oldest religions in the world, Hinduism is steeped in tradition and rituals that date back thousands of years. At the heart of these traditions lies the temple, a sacred space where devotees come to worship and connect with the divine. In this article, we’ll explore the significance of temples in Hinduism, examining their role in shaping the religion and the lives of its followers.

The Importance of Temples in Hinduism

Temples are integral to the practice of Hinduism, providing a physical space for devotees to connect with their gods and goddesses . They are a place of worship, contemplation, and community, and serve as a gateway to the divine.

Understanding Hinduism

Before delving into the significance of temples in Hinduism, it’s important to have a basic understanding of the religion itself. Hinduism is a complex and diverse faith, with roots that stretch back to ancient India.Key elements of Hinduism include the belief in reincarnation, the concept of karma as a governing principle, and the recognition of numerous deities.

Unlike many other religions, Hinduism does not have a single founder or scripture. Instead, it is a collection of beliefs and practices that have evolved over time, influenced by the region, culture, and traditions of its followers.

The Role of Temples in Hinduism

In Hinduism, temples serve as the physical manifestation of the divine, a place where devotees can come to offer prayers and seek blessings. They are seen as a sacred space, a place where the boundary between the material and spiritual worlds is blurred.

Temples are often constructed in areas of natural beauty, such as mountains, rivers, and forests, emphasizing the connection between the divine and the natural world. They are also designed to reflect the beliefs and traditions of the region in which they are built.

Temples play a crucial role in the practice of Hinduism, serving as a focal point for religious and social activities. They provide a space for devotees to come together in worship and community, fostering a sense of belonging and connection.

Through their rituals and ceremonies, temples offer a means of connecting with the divine , helping devotees to deepen their spiritual practice and cultivate a sense of inner peace and harmony.

The Significance of Temple Architecture

The design and architecture of Hindu temples are deeply symbolic, reflecting the beliefs and traditions of the religion. They are often characterized by intricate carvings, elaborate decorations, and ornate sculptures, each with its own symbolic meaning.

For example, the towering gopuram, or gateway, that marks the entrance to many South Indian temples is believed to symbolize the gateway to the divine. The mandapam, or hall, where devotees gather for worship, is often designed to resemble a cosmic structure, representing the universe itself.

The Importance of Rituals and Offerings

Central to the practice of Hinduism are the rituals and offerings made at temples. These may include the lighting of incense, the offering of flowers and food, and the recitation of mantras and prayers.

Through these acts of devotion, devotees seek to connect with the divine and receive blessings in return. They also serve as a means of expressing gratitude and humility, reminding devotees of their place in the larger cosmic order.

Why are temples important in Hinduism?

Temples serve as a physical manifestation of the divine, offering a space for devotees to worship and connect with their gods and goddesses. They also play a crucial role in fostering community and social connection among followers of the religion.

How are Hindu temples different from other places of worship?

Hindu temples are characterized by their intricate architecture

and design, which are deeply symbolic and reflective of the beliefs and traditions of the religion. Unlike other places of worship, such as churches or mosques, temples are often located in areas of natural beauty and are designed to integrate with their surroundings, emphasizing the connection between the divine and the natural world.

What rituals and offerings are made at Hindu temples?

Rituals and offerings at Hindu temples can vary depending on the region and tradition. They may include the lighting of incense, the offering of flowers and food, the recitation of mantras and prayers, and the performance of puja, a ritual that involves offering prayers and performing worship.

Can non-Hindus visit Hindu temples?

Yes, many Hindu temples welcome visitors of all faiths. However, it’s important to respect the customs and traditions of the temple, including dress codes, removing shoes before entering the sanctum sanctorum, and refraining from taking photographs or videos during worship.

Why do Hindus go to temples?

Hindus go to temples to seek blessings from their gods and goddesses, to deepen their spiritual practice, and to connect with their community. Temples offer a space for worship, reflection, and contemplation, helping devotees to cultivate a sense of inner peace and harmony.

What is the significance of temple festivals in Hinduism?

Temple festivals are an important part of Hindu religious and cultural life. They typically involve elaborate rituals, processions, and offerings, and are often accompanied by music, dance, and other forms of celebration. Temple festivals provide a means of connecting with the divine and fostering a sense of community and belonging among followers of the religion.

How can one benefit from visiting a Hindu temple?

Visiting a Hindu temple can offer a range of benefits, including spiritual nourishment, community connection, and a sense of inner peace and harmony. Temples provide a space for worship, reflection, and contemplation, helping devotees to deepen their spiritual practice and cultivate a sense of connection with the divine.

In Hinduism, temples are much more than mere places of worship. They are a physical manifestation of the divine, a gateway to the spiritual realm, and a means of fostering community and connection among followers of the religion. Through their rituals and ceremonies, their architecture and design, and their role in social and cultural life, temples play a vital role in shaping the religious and spiritual lives of Hindus around the world.

If you’re interested in learning more about Hinduism and its traditions, visiting a temple can be a wonderful way to connect with the religion and its community. Whether you’re seeking spiritual nourishment, cultural enrichment, or simply a sense of peace and tranquility, a visit to a Hindu temple can offer a powerful and transformative experience.

So, next time you’re looking to connect with the divine, consider a trip to your local Hindu temple, and experience the power and beauty of this ancient and enduring faith.

Further reading

Why do we go to temples?: https://pujayagna.com/blogs/hindu-customs/why-do-hindus-go-to-temples

The Mystical Importance Of Preserving Hindu Temples: https://behindeverytemple.org/temple-science/importance-of-preserving-hindu-temples/

Philosophy And Culture Behind Hindu Temple Architecture In India: https://www.indica.today/research/conference/philosophy-and-culture-behind-hindu-temple-architecture-in-india-a/

The Importance of a Hindu Temple: https://cisindus.org/2020/11/28/the-importance-of-a-hindu-temple/

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‘Where the Gods Dwell’: a modern guide to Indian shrines

Essays in ‘where the gods dwell’ go beyond faith, mythology and architecture to explore the lesser-known stories of temples, from thanjavur to assam.

Published - January 21, 2022 03:54 pm IST

‘Where the Gods Dwell’ book cover

The role of religion in its most fundamental aspect is to soothe. All faiths were invented (or should we say discovered, named or received) to allay the fears and nourish the hopes of us humans.

There is another important role that religion plays and that is as a keeper of the culture of a people. In this, it is intertwined with history and geography, culture and aesthetics, symbols and myth. The book, Where the Gods Dwell (Westland, ₹499), broadly falls under this ambit. It is a series of 13 essays, some better than others, about the sacred history of shrines. My one-line descriptions of the essays definitely do not do the essays justice, but such is the nature of anthologies, and for that matter, hapless writers like me who would like to amplify the audience for such books.

My favourite essay is Trisha Gupta’s piece on Khajuraho, which describes the sexual sculptures in the temple complex, attempts to unravel their history and talks about current India’s discomfort with their frank sensuality. Yours could be one of the other essays, depending on your proclivity or geography. In that sense, there is something in this book for every stripe of reader. These essays offer an opening, and interested parties can choose a shrine that attracts them to delve deeper.

Khajuraho temple in Madhya Pradesh

In Tamil Nadu, outside the Hindu temples that I used to visit as a child, shops typically sold a tiny booklet. You bought it for pittance: ₹25 or ₹50. Written in Tamil, it was simply titled Sthala Puranam . History of the sacred place. Occasionally, the priest or guide would perform this function, recounting the sacred history of the land upon which the temple stood. Usually, it involved a fantastic story of a god’s choice of a particular place.

Where the Gods Dwell offers a modern view of these old-fashioned sthala puranas . It also raises the idea of how a site’s history is — and should be — transmitted. Books in this genre offer a portable, expert’s perspective. They offer much to the curious reader. But to truly experience the rich history, myths, symbols and stories that lie within the many temple complexes of India, you need to be in situ. You need to know the local language and go with a local person. For those of us who cannot do that, books such as Where the Gods Dwell offer a great introduction to what we have in India — and for that matter, what is lost in English translation.

The Brihadisvara temple in Thanjavur

More than 13 temples to visit

Indira Viswanathan Peterson’s essay is full of rich detail about the Brihadisvara temple of Thanjavur. It calls forth the layered history that includes Chola kings, Shaivite saints and Europeans. Manu Pillai does the same for the Padmanabhaswami temple of Thiruvananthapuram, describing the intertwined lives of the titular god, his king, Martanda Varma and a Pulaya woman.

I wish I had visited Belur and Halebidu temples after reading Meera Iyer’s essay about its architecture, including the “balcony seats” that were used for napping. Basav Biradar’s essay on Hampi raises significant questions– about local resistance and communities– that make history interesting. Shrenik Rao’s piece on the Kakatiyas uses the learned king, Rudra (Vidya Vibhushana — one whose adornment is education), to describe the rigid caste or varna system of the age. Siddhartha Sarma’s piece about Kamakhya melds together the tantric Srividya cult that is rooted in the Shakti peethas with broader questions that delve into the notion of goddess or Devi worship.

Kamakhya temple in Guwahati, Assam

Neelesh Kulkarni mixes personal history — learned from his grandfather — with the stories surrounding Vithoba of Pandharpur, showing how the gods may be specific to a site but their leanings (preferring humility over hubris) are universal to Hinduism. Vikrant Pande includes the voices of guides and priests in his piece on Somnath , showing the multiplicity of narratives that include sacred trees and mythical time. Haroon Khalid’s piece describes Shivratri at Killa Katas , a historic Hindu temple complex in Pakistan through the eyes of a guide, Shakeel, and a local activist, using this festival to describe place and politics.

Amish Raj Mulmi’s piece takes readers back to the hoary history surrounding Pashupatinath of Nepal, arguably one of the oldest gods of them all. As a Tamilian, I knew Sri Lanka’s fascination with the warrior, Lord Murugan. What I didn’t know was the layered history of the Nallur Kandaswamy temple, described by Thulasi Muttulingam – how Muslim, Christian and Hindu shrines stand beside each other, demanding a piece of the tale. Siddhartha Gigoo’s essay describes in lyrical if scorching prose about the ruined temples that the Kashmiri Pandits used to pray at. Once sacred, now desecrated.

Shoba Narayan is a Bengaluru -based journalist and the author of Food and Faith: A Pilgrim’s Journey Through India (2020)

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