what is language assignment

What Is Academic Writing?

You learn a lot in college, and not all of it can be found in the course catalog. A lot of the skills you acquire you find yourself having to master on your own: managing your time, researching efficiently, and making ramen noodles in a coffee pot.

Another one of the skills you need to master is academic writing . Academic writing isn’t like other types of writing; it’s formal , it’s objective, and for a lot of students just starting college or grad school, it can be daunting.

But once you break down the fundamentals of academic writing and examine them piece by piece, you’ll see they’re nothing to be afraid of. There are rules you need to follow, but once you’ve got those rules down, you’re on your way onto the dean’s list.

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Characteristics of academic writing, types of academic writing, academic writing structure, academic writing tips, score top marks on your writing every time.

Perhaps the most prominent characteristic of academic writing is the emphasis on adhering to a style guide . While nearly all content and media outlets use a specific style guide—which is either an already established guide or one of their own creation—correct adherence to a chosen style guide is nonnegotiable with academic writing. In most cases, you’ll lose credit if you don’t adhere to the style guide in your writing.

Two of the main style guides for academic writing are the Modern Language Association (MLA) guide and the American Psychological Association (APA) guide. Others include the American Medical Association (AMA) style guide, the American Chemical Society (ACS) style guide, and the Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) . Each of these style guides maintains specific rules for how to format and punctuate your writing as well as how to cite the sources you use.

Beyond the style guide, these are the key characteristics that define academic writing:

Academic writing should be formal, clear, and concise

Academic writing uses formal language. It’s also optimized for clarity and conciseness , which can initially seem contradictory to the use of formal language.

Many writers confuse formal language with flowery language . Generally, flowery language uses elaborate words, lengthy sentences (sometimes to the point of being run-on), and metaphors so drawn-out that they obfuscate the point the writer is trying to make.

Actual formal language is much different. Formal language uses the most accurate, non-colloquial verbiage available to communicate the author’s points, and this verbiage may include jargon. Sentences are only as complex as they need to be in order to express coherent thoughts and positions; you should use literary devices like metaphor sparingly. In instances where literary devices are appropriate, they’re used differently than in other types of writing. Overall, clarity and conciseness are your main goals.

Academic writing takes an objective, detached stance from the subject being discussed. Because this type of tone is essential, the passive voice is sometimes necessary in academic writing, particularly in the sciences.

Academic writing uses prescriptive grammar

When it comes to grammar, academic writing is prescriptive. By that, we mean there are specific grammar and style rules that your writing must adhere to in order to be correct. These rules come from two sources: the style guide for the piece you’re working on and generally established conventions for academic writing. Style guides provide granular requirements, such as instructions on whether to hyphenate certain compound words and when to spell out numbers versus use numerals. Broader academic writing conventions, like writing in the third person and maintaining an objective tone , apply to all academic writing.

In contrast, other, more casual types of writing are not as strict about “proper grammar” versus “improper grammar.” In fact, in certain other types of writing, like blogging and ad copywriting, it’s often necessary to break established grammar rules in order to hook readers’ attention and communicate with them effectively.

Using ellipses to build suspense, ending sentences with prepositions , and using exclamation points to make your sentences exciting are great strategies for catchy, conversational writing—but they have no place in academic writing.

Formatting will depend on your style guide

Beyond adhering to specific grammar and style rules, your academic writing also needs to be formatted according to the style guide for your assignment. Formatting includes how you number your pages, what’s included in your header and footer, how the contents of your cover page are ordered, and how your citations and references are formatted. For example, if you’re writing a humanities paper, you’re most likely going to write it according to the MLA style guide. According to this style guide, the source page is titled “Works Cited” and each reference’s author is named by their last name followed by their first name. For a social sciences paper, you’d typically use the APA style guide, which instead says to title the sources page “References” and lists authors by their last names followed by their first initials.

Academic writing covers a variety of types of work. These include:

An essay is a relatively short piece of writing that, like a research paper, makes and supports a specific point.

Theses and dissertations

A thesis and a dissertation are two types of capstone projects. Generally, the term thesis refers to the culminating project of a master’s program (and some bachelor’s programs) while the term dissertation is used for a project that culminates in a doctoral program.

These projects are lengthy works that demonstrate the author’s candidacy for the degree they are seeking by posing an intellectual question, a persuasive argument , or a thought-provoking position. Both are created through the candidate’s research, under the guidance of their academic advisor.

Research proposals

A research proposal is a document formally requesting sponsorship or funding to support the author’s academic research. A research proposal outlines how the author plans to conduct their research, why they want to conduct this specific research, and what they aim to accomplish through the research.

Research papers

A research paper is a comprehensive work that thoroughly demonstrates the author’s understanding of the subject they researched. Every research paper is formulated around a thesis statement—the statement in the opening paragraph that states the author’s position and summarizes their supporting arguments.

Literature reviews

A literature review is a piece of academic writing that summarizes, describes, and evaluates a topic through analysis of other authors’ works. A literature review examines a topic through two or more works, and these works can be books, scholarly articles, presentations, dissertations, or other published materials.

As much as academic writing uses formal language and conforms closely to style guides, it also follows a clear structure. This specific structure depends on the type of writing being produced, but generally follows this type of outline:

1 Introduction that clearly states the thesis and aims of the work

2 Position/finding/challenge supporting the thesis

a. Supporting content

b. Supporting content

3 Position/finding/challenge supporting the thesis

4 Position/finding/challenge supporting the thesis

5 Conclusion

The length of the work and the number of sections included depend on the specific assignment and the topic being covered. While an essay may only be five to seven paragraphs or so and span just a few pages, a dissertation generally clocks in around 150–300 pages.

Another area where academic writing differs greatly from other types of writing is that in an academic paper, you always have to cite your sources. How to format your citations depends on the style guide you’re using.

Although the citation format for each style guide varies a bit, they all include the same key information about the sources you cite. This information includes the author’s name, the name of the work you’re citing, the work’s copyright date, and the work’s publisher. Take a look at how the most commonly used academic style guides advise on format:

Don’t overlook the importance of properly citing your sources—all of them. Each formatting style has specific guidelines for citing just about any kind of source, including TV shows , PDFs , Wikipedia articles , and YouTube videos . Although you probably won’t face plagiarism consequences for an incorrectly formatted citation when you clearly made an attempt to attribute the work properly, an incomplete or missing citation may be deemed plagiarism, as this article explains. Possible consequences for plagiarism include:

A lowered grade
Automatic failure of the assignment
Failure of the course
Removal from the academic program
Suspension or expulsion from your university

Always refer to the style guide

In academic writing, there’s no gray area concerning whether something is grammatically correct or not. It’s either correct or it isn’t. The style guide for your assignment covers all the rules regarding what is and isn’t correct, so if you’re ever not sure, refer to the style guide. And if you’re ever not sure which style guide to follow, ask your instructor.

Actively avoid plagiarism

By this, we mean it isn’t enough to simply avoid stealing others’ words when you’re writing. We mean you should consciously choose to differentiate your writing from your sources as much as possible so you don’t inadvertently plagiarize another writer’s work—and so your work really shines as a unique piece.

As we mentioned above, even unintentional plagiarism can mean failing your assignment and other consequences. Grammarly’s plagiarism checker can help you avoid unintentional plagiarism while making your writing more engaging. It’s easy: Just run a plagiarism check using the Grammarly Editor and your work will be immediately compared against billions of other pieces available online. If there are any pieces of text that appear to need citations, Grammarly will flag them and you can cite them accordingly.

Do not use contractions

Academic writing never uses contractions. This is one of the biggest differences between formal and informal writing.

Do not take it personally

When you’re writing an academic paper, always write it in the third person. The first person (I, me) and the second person (you) are not appropriate for academic writing because they undermine the author’s objectivity.

Academic writing is black-tie writing

Think of an academic paper as a formal event. Your writing needs to show up “dressed appropriately.” This means: conforming to the style guide, using formal language, and absolutely avoiding slang and colloquial expressions. In contrast, think of an email to your professor as business casual and messages with your friends as casual. If the language you use with your friends is shorts and sandals and the language you use with your professor is khakis and a polo, the language in your academic writing needs to be a tuxedo.

Writing an academic paper is a lot different from writing a blog post, an email, a piece of fiction, and even other kinds of writing your professor might assign, like a critical response to a reading or a presentation for class. A piece of academic writing, whether it’s an analytical essay, a research paper, a persuasive essay , or another kind of assignment in this vein, needs to adhere to very specific style and formatting standards. It also needs to have the appropriate tone and vocabulary for an academic work.

Don’t submit your writing without running it through the Grammarly Editor first. In the Grammarly Editor, you can set specific goals for your writing so it strikes the perfect tone for your audience. Just set the domain to “Academic” and in addition to suggestions for grammar and punctuation, you’ll see suggestions for how to change your word choice, sentence structure, and other aspects of your writing to make it shine.

Assignability Of Contracts: Everything You Need to Know

The assignability of contracts is when one side of a contract agreement transfers the contract to another entity, so that the new entity fulfills the terms of the contract. 3 min read updated on September 19, 2022

The assignability of contracts is when one side of a contract agreement transfers the contract to another entity, so that the new entity fulfills the terms of the contract. Being able to assign contracts depends on a variety of factors, mainly the language contained in the contract.

How Contract Assignments Work

Some contracts prohibit assignment altogether, while others may allow it with the other party's consent. An example of a basic contract assignment may look like this:

Bob contracts with a dairy to deliver a gallon of cream to his house every day.
The dairy assigns Bob's contract to another dairy.
As long as Bob is notified of the change in provider and gets his gallon of cream every day, his contract is with the new dairy.

Because the law has a preference for the free alienation of property, parties are free to assign contract rights and delegate contractual obligations.

Assigning a contract to another doesn't always take away the assigning party's liability. Some contracts include a clause that at least one of the original parties guarantees performance — or fulfills the contract terms — no matter what the assignment.

The performance, however, can't be changed in contract assignment. There's a limit to substitution, so the new party has no power to change the performance per the rights stated in the contract. For example, if the obliging party has pledged to perform only if some event happens (with no certainty that it will happen), no assignment should increase the risk to the obliging party if the event doesn't happen through no fault of the obligor.

The nature of a contract's obligations determines its assignability.

When Assignments Won't Be Enforced

In certain cases, contracts can't be assigned.

A clause in the contract prohibits assignment. This is usually called an anti-assignment clause.
Assignments can't take place if they materially alter what's expected under the contract. If the assignment affects the expected performance as outlined in the contract, lowers the value of returns (including anticipated returns), or increases risks for the other contract party (the one who's not assigning contractual rights), it's unlikely that any court will enforce the arrangement.
If an assignment violates public policy or the law, it won't be enforced. For instance, the federal government prohibits certain claim assignments against the government, and many states prohibit an employee from assigning future wages.

Other assignments may not be illegal, but they could still violate public policy. As an example, personal injury claims can't be assigned because doing so might encourage litigation.

When looking into whether one party can transfer a contract or some rights and obligations in the contract, the transferring party has to check into applicable laws and statutes. That party must also check the contract's express language to determine whether or not it can transfer the assignment without obtaining consent from the non-transferring party.

If the contract requires that consent is given and the transferring party doesn't get that consent, it risks a contract breach as well as an invalid, ineffective transfer.

How to Assign a Contract

Follow these steps to assign contracts, when it's allowed for you to do so.

Carefully study the contract for prohibitions or limitations, such as anti-assignment clauses. In some cases, there isn't a separate anti-assignment clause, but it may be stated in another way, such as language that says, "This contract may not be assigned."
Execute the assignment. As long as you're free to assign the contract, prepare and enter into the assignment, which is basically an agreement transferring your rights and obligations.
Notify the obligor, or the non-transferring party. After you assign contract rights to the assignee, notify the other party that was the original contractor, also known as the obligor. This notice relieves you of any liability as stated in the contract, as long as the contract doesn't say differently — for instance, the contract states that you, as the assignor, guarantee performance under the contract.

Before trying to assign a contract to a third party, it's very important to understand if you're allowed to do so. You'll have to research legal statutes as well as the language in the contract to ensure you follow rules and regulations. Otherwise, you risk a breach of contract .

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What Is the Definition of Assigns

Language for Effectively Communicating Assignments

Language is a critical element in properly communicating the intent of assignments to students. When your assignments are clear, your students are more likely to produce what you want. This teaching tip explains what is really meant by some common task descriptors. When you review the assignment with your students, consider explaining the terms you have used to be sure they understand what you mean.

Common assignment tasks and task descriptors

In addition to the suggestions in this table, review CTE Teaching Tip: Bloom’s Taxonomy Learning Activities and Assessments for additional ways to categorize assignment tasks and corresponding verbs or task descriptors.

When you want students to…	…ask them to…
Identify	cite, define, enumerate, give, identify, indicate, list, mention, name, state.
Describe	describe, discuss, review, summarize, draw, illustrate, sketch, develop, outline, trace.
Relate	analyze, compare, contrast, differentiate, distinguish, relate.
Demonstrate	demonstrate, explain why, justify, prove, show, support.
Evaluate	assess, comment, criticize, evaluate, interpret, propose.

Sample task descriptors and what they really mean

Analyze :  Divide a complex whole into its parts or elements, laying bare parts or pieces for individual scrutiny, so as to discover the true nature or inner relationships.

Compare : Look for qualities or characteristics that resemble each other. Emphasize similarities among them, but in some cases also mention differences.

Contrast : Stress the dissimilarities, differences, or unlikeness of things, qualities, events, or problems.

Criticize : Express your judgment about the merit or truth of the factors or views mentioned. Give the results of your analysis of these factors, discussing their limitations and good points.

Define : Give concise, clear, and authoritative meanings. Don't give details, but make sure to give the limits of the definition. Show how the thing you are defining differs from things in other classes.

Describe : Recount, characterize, sketch, or relate in sequence or story form.

Draw : Give a drawing, chart, plan, or graphic answer. Usually, you should label a diagram. In some cases, add a brief explanatory description.

Discuss : Examine, analyze carefully, and give reasons pro and con. Be complete and give details.

Enumerate or list : Write in list or outline form, giving points concisely one by one.

Evaluate : Carefully appraise the problem, citing both advantages and limitations. Emphasize the appraisal of authorities and, to a lesser degree, your personal evaluation.

Explain : Clarify, interpret, and spell out the material you present. Give reasons for differences of opinion or of results and try to analyze causes.

Illustrate : Use a figure, picture, diagram, or concrete example to explain or clarify a problem.

Interpret : Translate, give examples of, solve, or comment on a subject, usually giving your judgment about it.

Justify : Prove or give reasons for decisions or conclusions, taking pains to be convincing.

Outline : Organize a description under main points and subordinate points, omitting minor details and stressing the arrangement or classification of things.

Prove : Establish that something is true by citing factual evidence or giving clear logical reasons.

Relate : Show how things are related to, or connected with, each other or how one causes another, correlates with another, or is like another.

Review : Examine a subject critically, analyzing and commenting on the important statements to be made about it.

State : Present the main points in brief, clear sequence, usually omitting details, illustrations, or examples.

Summarize : Give the main points or facts in condensed form, like the summary of a chapter, omitting details and illustrations.

Trace : In narrative form, describe the progress, development, or historical events from some point of origin.

Common information sources and considerations for students

For additional examples of information sources, the Library has useful “Source types” and “Evaluating Information Sources" research guides.

Web-based : There are many types of online information, including e-journals, websites for various organizations (educational, government, non-profit, etc.), news websites, blogs, and more. When you discuss “web-based” resources, be specific about what sort of online information you are referring to and encourage students to evaluate their sources.

Scholarly journals:   Articles are long, use terminology or jargon of the discipline, usually begin with an abstract and include a bibliography (e.g., Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology; Journal of Academic Librarianship; IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques).

Popular journals :  These are geared towards a more general audience and available on your local newsstand. Articles are short and rarely have bibliographies. (e.g., Maclean’s, Discovery, Psychology Today, Time, Newsweek).

Peer reviewed (or refereed) journal articles : Explain the process of having experts in the field examine an article before it is published to ensure that the research described is sound and of high quality. Refer students to the Notes for Authors section of a journal to determine if it follows peer review. Alternately, refer students to  the Library’s Peer-reviewed journal articles webpage or UlrichsWeb Global Serials Directory

Primary sources : These provide firsthand information in the original words of the creator or eyewitness and may include creative works, original documents, reports of original research, or ideas.

Secondary sources : These provide information reviews and/or, evaluation, analysis, or interpretations of primary sources.

Current :  Specifically define your boundaries for “current.”  Do you mean “current” as in this week, this year, this decade, this century, etc.? Can students refer to older material at all, if it is relevant?

Reproduced (with permission of Michael Steven Marx) from Skidmore College, NY:  Common Terms for Paper Topics and Essay Questions with additions and emendations from Centre for Teaching Excellence, University of Waterloo.

If you would like support applying these tips to your own teaching, CTE staff members are here to help. View the CTE Support page to find the most relevant staff member to contact.

This Creative Commons license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon our work non-commercially, as long as they credit us and indicate if changes were made. Use this citation format: Effectively communicating assignment tasks. Centre for Teaching Excellence, University of Waterloo .

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The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that they will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
apply —use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove their point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, they still have to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and they already know everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality they expect.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Home › CELTA tips › CELTA tip: language analysis assignment

CELTA tip: language analysis assignment

By Pete on May 12, 2015 • ( 23 )

The language analysis assignment is quite straightforward. It’s in two parts, grammar and vocabulary. You’re given a particular grammar structure or lexical items, and you have to analyse it and explain how you would go about teaching it. That’s about it really. It might sound simple, but that doesn’t make it easy!

During the course you’ll learn how to introduce target language, more than likely in this order:

Meaning, Form, Pronunciation, Appropriacy

For both grammar and vocabulary items, we were told to lay the analysis out like this:

a) Analysis of meaning (say what it means!)

b) Describe how you would convey the meaning

c) Check students understanding

d) Highlight the form

e) mention any phonological features of the target language

Here are some general tips:

For conveying the meaning of a grammar point, you should think about putting the target language in a context . For a word or phrase, think about how ‘concrete’ the word is – you might be able to just show a picture of it, draw it, mime it, etc. It might not be as complicated as you think.
To check understanding of a grammar point, timelines might be useful. Also, use concept checking questions (CCQs) . It’s worth getting in the habit of using these as you need them often when you’re teaching. Don’t worry, I’m still bad at thinking of them on the spot, and I’ve been teaching 5 years!
‘highlighting the form’ might include giving collocations – words that commonly go alongside the target language. E.g. if you were teaching the word ‘promise’, it might be relevant to teach ‘break a promise’ and ‘keep a promise’
Features of pronunciation which might be worth teaching include contractions (I am = I’m) and weak forms , among other things.
Whichever target language you are asked to analyse for this assignment, the level of the students should be considered very carefully. Make sure you’re not complicating things by using difficult vocabulary, grade your language appropriately .
You might have to mention ‘ appropriacy ’ when you teach a language item. This means whether it is ok to use the item in certain contexts (e.g. formal/informal situations)

I’m sure you’ll get plenty of advice from your tutors on how to do this task. Still, here’s an example of how I did one grammar point and one vocabulary item. You can download my full assignment if you want to see how it looked. The word limit for this assignment was 1000 words which I’d say is plenty for a thorough analysis of each item.

(note: V1 = present simple, V2 = past simple, V3 = past participle)

Example grammar answer:

Target structure: she’s just gone out

a) Analyse the meaning

‘ she’s just gone out’

She was at home (i.e. somewhere). Now, she’s not at home. She only left home a short time ago.

b) Convey the meaning

At ten past six, I arrived at Lady Gaga’s house. I knocked on the door [action]. Her mum opened the door.

I said to her mum, “is Lady Gaga at home?”

Her mum said, “sorry, Lady Gaga is not here”.

I said, “Oh, er… me and Lady Gaga have a date at six o’clock. ”

Her mum said, “You are late. Lady Gaga was here at 6pm, but she’s just gone out”

c) Checking meaning

Is Lady Gaga at home now? No

Was she at home at six o’clock? Yes

So, she left home a long time ago? No

(use the above to aid explanation, showing the event happened in the recent past)

Present Perfect

She has just gone out

S + has / have + Adv V3

e) Phonology

(bold shows stress)

She’s just gone out

with ‘out’, this makes a phrasal verb – ‘gone out’. With phrasal verbs, the stress is on the preposition

Example vocabulary answer:

Target word: Library (elementary)

a) Meaning analysis

A room or building where you can borrow books (DVDs, etc), read, study, etc.

b) Convey meaning

Display the picture above. Elicit if possible, or model the word.

c) Checking understanding

Is this a book shop? No

Can I take the books? Yes

Forever? No

Can I read here? Yes

In here can I TALK LIKE THIS!!!!!!! (loudly…) No

d) Form: Library is a noun. It is countable (‘library’ becomes ‘libraries’). ‘Library book’ is a common collocation.

e) Phonology: The stress is on the first syllable. The word is sometimes spoken as only two syllables (i.e. ‘lai-bri’, not ‘lai-brer-ri’). Although not incorrect, it might be best if the teacher chooses one spoken form and is consistent.

A final tip on this assignment. You might find that it takes a while to analyse each item thoroughly. Don’t worry. It does get easier with practice. Make the most of the time you spend on this assignment and really think about the process you are undertaking – it will become commonplace in your lesson planning. Good luck with the assignment!

Assignments: The Basic Law

The assignment of a right or obligation is a common contractual event under the law and the right to assign (or prohibition against assignments) is found in the majority of agreements, leases and business structural documents created in the United States.

As with many terms commonly used, people are familiar with the term but often are not aware or fully aware of what the terms entail. The concept of assignment of rights and obligations is one of those simple concepts with wide ranging ramifications in the contractual and business context and the law imposes severe restrictions on the validity and effect of assignment in many instances. Clear contractual provisions concerning assignments and rights should be in every document and structure created and this article will outline why such drafting is essential for the creation of appropriate and effective contracts and structures.

The reader should first read the article on Limited Liability Entities in the United States and Contracts since the information in those articles will be assumed in this article.

Basic Definitions and Concepts:

An assignment is the transfer of rights held by one party called the “assignor” to another party called the “assignee.” The legal nature of the assignment and the contractual terms of the agreement between the parties determines some additional rights and liabilities that accompany the assignment. The assignment of rights under a contract usually completely transfers the rights to the assignee to receive the benefits accruing under the contract. Ordinarily, the term assignment is limited to the transfer of rights that are intangible, like contractual rights and rights connected with property. Merchants Service Co. v. Small Claims Court , 35 Cal. 2d 109, 113-114 (Cal. 1950).

An assignment will generally be permitted under the law unless there is an express prohibition against assignment in the underlying contract or lease. Where assignments are permitted, the assignor need not consult the other party to the contract but may merely assign the rights at that time. However, an assignment cannot have any adverse effect on the duties of the other party to the contract, nor can it diminish the chance of the other party receiving complete performance. The assignor normally remains liable unless there is an agreement to the contrary by the other party to the contract.

The effect of a valid assignment is to remove privity between the assignor and the obligor and create privity between the obligor and the assignee. Privity is usually defined as a direct and immediate contractual relationship. See Merchants case above.

Further, for the assignment to be effective in most jurisdictions, it must occur in the present. One does not normally assign a future right; the assignment vests immediate rights and obligations.

No specific language is required to create an assignment so long as the assignor makes clear his/her intent to assign identified contractual rights to the assignee. Since expensive litigation can erupt from ambiguous or vague language, obtaining the correct verbiage is vital. An agreement must manifest the intent to transfer rights and can either be oral or in writing and the rights assigned must be certain.

Note that an assignment of an interest is the transfer of some identifiable property, claim, or right from the assignor to the assignee. The assignment operates to transfer to the assignee all of the rights, title, or interest of the assignor in the thing assigned. A transfer of all rights, title, and interests conveys everything that the assignor owned in the thing assigned and the assignee stands in the shoes of the assignor. Knott v. McDonald’s Corp ., 985 F. Supp. 1222 (N.D. Cal. 1997)

The parties must intend to effectuate an assignment at the time of the transfer, although no particular language or procedure is necessary. As long ago as the case of National Reserve Co. v. Metropolitan Trust Co ., 17 Cal. 2d 827 (Cal. 1941), the court held that in determining what rights or interests pass under an assignment, the intention of the parties as manifested in the instrument is controlling.

The intent of the parties to an assignment is a question of fact to be derived not only from the instrument executed by the parties but also from the surrounding circumstances. When there is no writing to evidence the intention to transfer some identifiable property, claim, or right, it is necessary to scrutinize the surrounding circumstances and parties’ acts to ascertain their intentions. Strosberg v. Brauvin Realty Servs., 295 Ill. App. 3d 17 (Ill. App. Ct. 1st Dist. 1998)

The general rule applicable to assignments of choses in action is that an assignment, unless there is a contract to the contrary, carries with it all securities held by the assignor as collateral to the claim and all rights incidental thereto and vests in the assignee the equitable title to such collateral securities and incidental rights. An unqualified assignment of a contract or chose in action, however, with no indication of the intent of the parties, vests in the assignee the assigned contract or chose and all rights and remedies incidental thereto.

More examples: In Strosberg v. Brauvin Realty Servs ., 295 Ill. App. 3d 17 (Ill. App. Ct. 1st Dist. 1998), the court held that the assignee of a party to a subordination agreement is entitled to the benefits and is subject to the burdens of the agreement. In Florida E. C. R. Co. v. Eno , 99 Fla. 887 (Fla. 1930), the court held that the mere assignment of all sums due in and of itself creates no different or other liability of the owner to the assignee than that which existed from the owner to the assignor.

And note that even though an assignment vests in the assignee all rights, remedies, and contingent benefits which are incidental to the thing assigned, those which are personal to the assignor and for his sole benefit are not assigned. Rasp v. Hidden Valley Lake, Inc ., 519 N.E.2d 153, 158 (Ind. Ct. App. 1988). Thus, if the underlying agreement provides that a service can only be provided to X, X cannot assign that right to Y.

Novation Compared to Assignment:

Although the difference between a novation and an assignment may appear narrow, it is an essential one. “Novation is a act whereby one party transfers all its obligations and benefits under a contract to a third party.” In a novation, a third party successfully substitutes the original party as a party to the contract. “When a contract is novated, the other contracting party must be left in the same position he was in prior to the novation being made.”

A sublease is the transfer when a tenant retains some right of reentry onto the leased premises. However, if the tenant transfers the entire leasehold estate, retaining no right of reentry or other reversionary interest, then the transfer is an assignment. The assignor is normally also removed from liability to the landlord only if the landlord consents or allowed that right in the lease. In a sublease, the original tenant is not released from the obligations of the original lease.

Equitable Assignments:

An equitable assignment is one in which one has a future interest and is not valid at law but valid in a court of equity. In National Bank of Republic v. United Sec. Life Ins. & Trust Co. , 17 App. D.C. 112 (D.C. Cir. 1900), the court held that to constitute an equitable assignment of a chose in action, the following has to occur generally: anything said written or done, in pursuance of an agreement and for valuable consideration, or in consideration of an antecedent debt, to place a chose in action or fund out of the control of the owner, and appropriate it to or in favor of another person, amounts to an equitable assignment. Thus, an agreement, between a debtor and a creditor, that the debt shall be paid out of a specific fund going to the debtor may operate as an equitable assignment.

In Egyptian Navigation Co. v. Baker Invs. Corp. , 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 30804 (S.D.N.Y. Apr. 14, 2008), the court stated that an equitable assignment occurs under English law when an assignor, with an intent to transfer his/her right to a chose in action, informs the assignee about the right so transferred.

An executory agreement or a declaration of trust are also equitable assignments if unenforceable as assignments by a court of law but enforceable by a court of equity exercising sound discretion according to the circumstances of the case. Since California combines courts of equity and courts of law, the same court would hear arguments as to whether an equitable assignment had occurred. Quite often, such relief is granted to avoid fraud or unjust enrichment.

Note that obtaining an assignment through fraudulent means invalidates the assignment. Fraud destroys the validity of everything into which it enters. It vitiates the most solemn contracts, documents, and even judgments. Walker v. Rich , 79 Cal. App. 139 (Cal. App. 1926). If an assignment is made with the fraudulent intent to delay, hinder, and defraud creditors, then it is void as fraudulent in fact. See our article on Transfers to Defraud Creditors .

But note that the motives that prompted an assignor to make the transfer will be considered as immaterial and will constitute no defense to an action by the assignee, if an assignment is considered as valid in all other respects.

Enforceability of Assignments:

Whether a right under a contract is capable of being transferred is determined by the law of the place where the contract was entered into. The validity and effect of an assignment is determined by the law of the place of assignment. The validity of an assignment of a contractual right is governed by the law of the state with the most significant relationship to the assignment and the parties.

In some jurisdictions, the traditional conflict of laws rules governing assignments has been rejected and the law of the place having the most significant contacts with the assignment applies. In Downs v. American Mut. Liability Ins. Co ., 14 N.Y.2d 266 (N.Y. 1964), a wife and her husband separated and the wife obtained a judgment of separation from the husband in New York. The judgment required the husband to pay a certain yearly sum to the wife. The husband assigned 50 percent of his future salary, wages, and earnings to the wife. The agreement authorized the employer to make such payments to the wife.

After the husband moved from New York, the wife learned that he was employed by an employer in Massachusetts. She sent the proper notice and demanded payment under the agreement. The employer refused and the wife brought an action for enforcement. The court observed that Massachusetts did not prohibit assignment of the husband’s wages. Moreover, Massachusetts law was not controlling because New York had the most significant relationship with the assignment. Therefore, the court ruled in favor of the wife.

Therefore, the validity of an assignment is determined by looking to the law of the forum with the most significant relationship to the assignment itself. To determine the applicable law of assignments, the court must look to the law of the state which is most significantly related to the principal issue before it.

Assignment of Contractual Rights:

Generally, the law allows the assignment of a contractual right unless the substitution of rights would materially change the duty of the obligor, materially increase the burden or risk imposed on the obligor by the contract, materially impair the chance of obtaining return performance, or materially reduce the value of the performance to the obligor. Restat 2d of Contracts, § 317(2)(a). This presumes that the underlying agreement is silent on the right to assign.

If the contract specifically precludes assignment, the contractual right is not assignable. Whether a contract is assignable is a matter of contractual intent and one must look to the language used by the parties to discern that intent.

In the absence of an express provision to the contrary, the rights and duties under a bilateral executory contract that does not involve personal skill, trust, or confidence may be assigned without the consent of the other party. But note that an assignment is invalid if it would materially alter the other party’s duties and responsibilities. Once an assignment is effective, the assignee stands in the shoes of the assignor and assumes all of assignor’s rights. Hence, after a valid assignment, the assignor’s right to performance is extinguished, transferred to assignee, and the assignee possesses the same rights, benefits, and remedies assignor once possessed. Robert Lamb Hart Planners & Architects v. Evergreen, Ltd. , 787 F. Supp. 753 (S.D. Ohio 1992).

On the other hand, an assignee’s right against the obligor is subject to “all of the limitations of the assignor’s right, all defenses thereto, and all set-offs and counterclaims which would have been available against the assignor had there been no assignment, provided that these defenses and set-offs are based on facts existing at the time of the assignment.” See Robert Lamb , case, above.

The power of the contract to restrict assignment is broad. Usually, contractual provisions that restrict assignment of the contract without the consent of the obligor are valid and enforceable, even when there is statutory authorization for the assignment. The restriction of the power to assign is often ineffective unless the restriction is expressly and precisely stated. Anti-assignment clauses are effective only if they contain clear, unambiguous language of prohibition. Anti-assignment clauses protect only the obligor and do not affect the transaction between the assignee and assignor.

Usually, a prohibition against the assignment of a contract does not prevent an assignment of the right to receive payments due, unless circumstances indicate the contrary. Moreover, the contracting parties cannot, by a mere non-assignment provision, prevent the effectual alienation of the right to money which becomes due under the contract.

A contract provision prohibiting or restricting an assignment may be waived, or a party may so act as to be estopped from objecting to the assignment, such as by effectively ratifying the assignment. The power to void an assignment made in violation of an anti-assignment clause may be waived either before or after the assignment. See our article on Contracts.

Noncompete Clauses and Assignments:

Of critical import to most buyers of businesses is the ability to ensure that key employees of the business being purchased cannot start a competing company. Some states strictly limit such clauses, some do allow them. California does restrict noncompete clauses, only allowing them under certain circumstances. A common question in those states that do allow them is whether such rights can be assigned to a new party, such as the buyer of the buyer.

A covenant not to compete, also called a non-competitive clause, is a formal agreement prohibiting one party from performing similar work or business within a designated area for a specified amount of time. This type of clause is generally included in contracts between employer and employee and contracts between buyer and seller of a business.

Many workers sign a covenant not to compete as part of the paperwork required for employment. It may be a separate document similar to a non-disclosure agreement, or buried within a number of other clauses in a contract. A covenant not to compete is generally legal and enforceable, although there are some exceptions and restrictions.

Whenever a company recruits skilled employees, it invests a significant amount of time and training. For example, it often takes years before a research chemist or a design engineer develops a workable knowledge of a company’s product line, including trade secrets and highly sensitive information. Once an employee gains this knowledge and experience, however, all sorts of things can happen. The employee could work for the company until retirement, accept a better offer from a competing company or start up his or her own business.

A covenant not to compete may cover a number of potential issues between employers and former employees. Many companies spend years developing a local base of customers or clients. It is important that this customer base not fall into the hands of local competitors. When an employee signs a covenant not to compete, he or she usually agrees not to use insider knowledge of the company’s customer base to disadvantage the company. The covenant not to compete often defines a broad geographical area considered off-limits to former employees, possibly tens or hundreds of miles.

Another area of concern covered by a covenant not to compete is a potential ‘brain drain’. Some high-level former employees may seek to recruit others from the same company to create new competition. Retention of employees, especially those with unique skills or proprietary knowledge, is vital for most companies, so a covenant not to compete may spell out definite restrictions on the hiring or recruiting of employees.

A covenant not to compete may also define a specific amount of time before a former employee can seek employment in a similar field. Many companies offer a substantial severance package to make sure former employees are financially solvent until the terms of the covenant not to compete have been met.

Because the use of a covenant not to compete can be controversial, a handful of states, including California, have largely banned this type of contractual language. The legal enforcement of these agreements falls on individual states, and many have sided with the employee during arbitration or litigation. A covenant not to compete must be reasonable and specific, with defined time periods and coverage areas. If the agreement gives the company too much power over former employees or is ambiguous, state courts may declare it to be overbroad and therefore unenforceable. In such case, the employee would be free to pursue any employment opportunity, including working for a direct competitor or starting up a new company of his or her own.

It has been held that an employee’s covenant not to compete is assignable where one business is transferred to another, that a merger does not constitute an assignment of a covenant not to compete, and that a covenant not to compete is enforceable by a successor to the employer where the assignment does not create an added burden of employment or other disadvantage to the employee. However, in some states such as Hawaii, it has also been held that a covenant not to compete is not assignable and under various statutes for various reasons that such covenants are not enforceable against an employee by a successor to the employer. Hawaii v. Gannett Pac. Corp. , 99 F. Supp. 2d 1241 (D. Haw. 1999)

It is vital to obtain the relevant law of the applicable state before drafting or attempting to enforce assignment rights in this particular area.

Conclusion:

In the current business world of fast changing structures, agreements, employees and projects, the ability to assign rights and obligations is essential to allow flexibility and adjustment to new situations. Conversely, the ability to hold a contracting party into the deal may be essential for the future of a party. Thus, the law of assignments and the restriction on same is a critical aspect of every agreement and every structure. This basic provision is often glanced at by the contracting parties, or scribbled into the deal at the last minute but can easily become the most vital part of the transaction.

As an example, one client of ours came into the office outraged that his co venturer on a sizable exporting agreement, who had excellent connections in Brazil, had elected to pursue another venture instead and assigned the agreement to a party unknown to our client and without the business contacts our client considered vital. When we examined the handwritten agreement our client had drafted in a restaurant in Sao Paolo, we discovered there was no restriction on assignment whatsoever…our client had not even considered that right when drafting the agreement after a full day of work.

One choses who one does business with carefully…to ensure that one’s choice remains the party on the other side of the contract, one must master the ability to negotiate proper assignment provisions.

Founded in 1939, our law firm combines the ability to represent clients in domestic or international matters with the personal interaction with clients that is traditional to a long established law firm.

Understanding an assignment of copyright agreement

Did you know you can assign, or transfer, your copyright to someone? Find out what information to include in your agreement and how you can make sure your interests are protected.

Find out more about business management

by Ronna L. DeLoe, Esq.

Ronna L. DeLoe is a freelance writer and a published author who has written hundreds of legal articles. She does...

Assignment of copyright

When you create intellectual property such as a book, poem, song, photograph, or painting, copyright laws give you the right to claim ownership of your creative work. Registering your copyright with the U.S. Copyright Office allows others to find out who owns the rights to your creation. As a copyright owner, you can also transfer, or assign, your copyright, as long as you follow the correct procedure.

Woman with short brown hair in art studio leans across desk with art supplies and camera on it to type on laptop

Copyright assignment permits a third party, known as the assignee, to take ownership of the copyright from the owner, or assignor. The assignment must be done in writing to be valid. Although notarization isn't required, it's a good idea to have someone witness the assignor and assignee signing and dating the agreement. Transfer of ownership usually involves monetary exchange, although that's not a requirement.

Registering a copyright with the U.S. Copyright Office isn't a requirement for valid ownership, even in cases of copyright assignment. However, registering provides a way for third parties to discern who owns the copyright. Because you don't have to file the transfer, a short-form assignment contract is sufficient for filing. This document usually contains only limited details of the work you're assigning, including the copyright number (if applicable), the signatures of both parties, the signature of a witness if desired, and the date of the assignment.

Just like in any other contract, a copyright assignment should contain certain information , such as the amount of consideration, or money, being exchanged. When assigning your copyright, the other party should provide some amount of consideration. Contracts usually include the language “for other good and valuable consideration," and courts have held that even one dollar is acceptable. As long as each party to the contract is getting something in return and the contract is not made under duress or pressure, the contract is valid.

Likewise, as the owner of the copyright, you have the right to assign all or part of it. If you assign your entire copyright to the other party, you are giving up all of your rights to your own copyright. In the case of a book, for example, assigning only part of your copyright could mean:

Assigning it to one party for use as a movie and to another for use as a television show
Assigning one party the original version and another party a translated version
Assigning rights to different types of books, such as an audiobook, a traditional print book, and an e-book
A partial assignment for a limited duration, if you specify such in your agreement

Copyright laws protect you in case your work of intellectual property becomes famous or is worth money later on. While you can't get your copyright back for many years after your assignment unless the new owner consents otherwise, current copyright law allows you to terminate your copyright assignment after 35 years.

For example, songwriters who assigned their copyright to what are now legendary songs from the 1960s or 1970s can now recover the copyright to their songs, many of which have increased in value due to their use in commercials and television shows. The writer of "YMCA," a member of the Village People, successfully recovered his copyright by invoking his termination rights after the 35-year period.

If you're a freelancer who creates a work such as a poetry collection, you own the copyright of the poetry book and can assign the copyright, if you wish. If, however, you're employed by someone to write poems, either as an employee or as an independent contractor under their direction, your creation is sometimes called a work for hire .

Creation of intellectual property under a work-for-hire contract means that you don't own the copyright. Instead, whoever hired you owns it, and unless that person gives you permission to purchase or own the copyright, you cannot transfer it to anyone else.

The more control a client has over how and when you're creating the intellectual property, the more likely you're regarded as an employee rather than an independent contractor. An employer-employee relationship generally assures that the employer owns the copyright. If, on the other hand, you're an independent contractor and have more creative control over your project than an employee would have, then you're the copyright owner.

Because intellectual property is an extremely specialized area of the law, it's recommended that you use a copyright attorney or similar intellectual property specialist to assist in any assignments. You can start protecting your creative interests by registering your copyright .

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Learning resource types, introduction to linguistics, assignments.

Writing assignment 1: A critical summary of an article (PDF)

Writing assignment 2: An argumentative essay (PDF)

Writing assignment 3: A grammatical sketch (PDF)

Writing assignment 4: A revision of writing assignment 1 or writing assignment 2 (PDF)

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Why does the assignment operator assign to the left-hand side?

I began teaching a friend programming just recently (we're using Python), and when we began discussing variable creation and the assignment operator, she asked why the value on the right is assigned to the name on the left, and not vice-versa.

I had not thought about it too much before, because it seemed natural to me, but she said that left-to-right seemed more natural to her, since that's how most of us read natural languages.

I thought about it, and concluded that it makes code much easier to read, since the names that are assigned to (which the programmer will need to reuse) are easily visible, aligned on the left.

As opposed to:

Now I wonder if there are other reasons as well for this standard. Is there a history behind it? Or is there some technical reason why this is a good option (I don't know much about compilers)? And are there any programming languages that assign to the right side?

language-design

15 R can assign to the right-hand side ( value -> variable ). – You Commented Aug 3, 2011 at 22:06
21 Is your friend's name... Yoda? – Adriano Carneiro Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 16:36
1 Reminds me of if (3 == i) to avoid the =/== typo – BlackJack Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 20:28
1 If she starts compaining about this, I wonder what will she do when she sees C++ & co. – BlackBear Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 21:55
3 Just a side note: Khan Academy has some lessons on Python for beginner programmers: khanacademy.org/#computer-science and Google has some for more advanced: code.google.com/edu/languages/google-python-class/set-up.html – lindon fox Commented Aug 9, 2011 at 2:54

13 Answers 13

Ditto @paxdiablo. The early programming languages were written by mathematicians--actually all of them were. In mathematics, by her own principle--reading left to right-- it makes sense in the way it works.

x = 2y - 4.

In mathematics, you would say this: Let x be equal to 2y -4.

Also, even in algebra you do this. When you solve an equation for a variable, you isolate the variable you are solving for to the left side. i.e. y = mx + b;

Furthermore, once an entire family of languages-- such as the C family-- has a certain syntax, it is more costly to change.

20 @FarmBoy: in mathematics, assignment and equality ARE the same thing, as there is no sequence in a formula as there is in computers. ( a equals b and at the same time b equals a ) – Petruza Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 3:17
1 @FB except in some single assignment functional languages like e.g. Erlang. Assignment and Assuring equality are the same like in mathematics – Peer Stritzinger Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 6:00
20 @Petruza No, in mathematics assignment and equality are not the same thing. If I say 'Let x = 2y - 3' it is different from 'Thus x = 2y - 3'. I math, typically context differentiates them. Since The comment disputing me was so universally acclaimed, I'll mention that I do have a Ph.D. in mathematics, I'm pretty sure about this. – Eric Wilson Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 12:32
2 I don't know mathematics anywhere near a PhD, what I state is that as there is no sequentiality, there's no order of execution in mathematics both in an assignment or in an equality, unlike programming, in which both sides of an assignment can be different at some point in time, and they end up being equal at some other point in time. But in mathematics, in an assignment like let a be... as there is no time, both sides of the assignment are equal as well, so the assignment is in fact an equality, no wonder why both use the same sign: = – Petruza Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 18:47
5 @Petruzza - but there is sequentiality. Mathematical documents are written from start to end, the same as any other document. If I assert x = 1 in chapter one, but assert x = 2 in chapter two, that isn't some terrible contradiction - each assertion applies only within a certain context. The difference in imperative programming is partly the removal of a barrier (we don't need a change of context), and partly about implementation and usefulness. – user8709 Commented Aug 5, 2011 at 8:27

BASIC , one of the earliest computer languages had the "proper" form of:

which matches the mathematical mindset of specifying a variable, like "Let H be the height of the object".

COBOL was also similar with its COMPUTE statement. As with many ways of doing things, it may have simply been an arbitrary decision that was carried forward through many languages.

7 I suppose that this form is more natural when program lines are considered as "statements" as opposed to "operations." As in, I declare that X must equal THIS , instead of the more linear Evaluate THIS and store it in X – voithos Commented Aug 3, 2011 at 22:26
Wait, BASIC was an 'early' computer language? – Alex Feinman Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 18:12
2 @Alex Considering that it harkens from the 1960s, I'd say that's pretty early. – Ben Richards Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 21:32
1 On the other hand, in COBOL you could write MULTIPLY HEIGHT BY WIDTH GIVING AREA , so the variable that gets the result is on the very right side of the statement. – user281377 Commented Aug 5, 2011 at 9:14

Actually, there is a programming language that assigns to the right side: TI-BASIC ! Not just that, but it also doesn't use '=' as the assignment operator, but rather uses an arrow known as the "STO" operator.

In the above example, three variables are being declared and given values. A would be 5, B would be 8, and C would be -3. The first declaration/assignment can be read 'store 5 as A'.

As to why TI-BASIC uses such a system for assignment, I attribute it to being because it is a programming language for a calculator. The "STO" operator on TI calculators was most often used in normal calculator operations after a number was calculated. If it was a number the user wanted to remember, they would hit the "STO" button, and the caclulator would prompt them for a name (automatically engaging the alpha lock so that keystrokes produced letters instead of numbers):

and the user could name the variable whatever they chose. Having to turn on alpha lock, type the name, then press "STO", and hitting the "Ans" key would have been far too cumbersome for normal operations. Since all calculator functions are available in TI-BASIC, no other assignment operators were added as "STO" performed the same task, albeit backwards when compared to most other languages.

(Anecdote: TI-BASIC was one of the first languages I learned, so when I when I was first learning Java in college I felt as though assigning to the LEFT was unusual and 'backwards'!)

+1 I totally forgot that ! TI Basic was my very first language, too, but I don't remember this detail. – barjak Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 7:51
1 Actually the STO operator is closer to how the machine works, and how any language actually operates. The value is first calculated and then stored in memory. – Kratz Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 12:44

Heuristic 1: When faced with more than one possible way of doing something while designing a language, pick the most common, most intuitive one, or else you will end up with Perl+.

Now, how is it more natural (at least to an English speaker)? Let's look at how we write/say things in English:

Steven is now 10 years old (as opposed to 10 years old Steven now is). I weigh more than 190 pounds (as opposed to more than 190 pounds I weigh).

The following also sounds more natural:

"If Mary is 18 yo, then she can have a candy". "If I am younger than 21 yo, then I will ask my brother to by me tequila".

"If 18 yo Mary is ..." "If 21 is greater than my age ... "

Now the code:

Note that this is not natural to either programmers nor English speakers. The sentences sound like yoda-speak, and the code is nicknamed yoda-conditions. These might be helpful in C++, but I am sure most people would agree: if a compiler could do the heavy lifting and alleviate the need for yoda-conditions, life would be a bit easier.

Of course, one could get used to anything. For examples, number 81 is written as:

Eighty One (English) Eighty and one (Spanish) One and Eighty (German).

Finally, there are 4! = 24 valid ways of saying "green apple lies on table" in Russian - the order (almost) does not matter, except that 'on' must come together with 'table'. So, if you are a native Russian speaker (for example), then you might not care whether one writes a = 10 or 10 = a because both seem equally natural.

While linguistics is a fascinating subject, I never formally studied it and do not know that many languages. Hopefully I have provided enough counter-examples though.

4 ... and in French, 81 is said as "four times twenty one" ... :) – Martin Sojka Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 7:25
8 @Martin That's really weird, because four times twenty one is 84. – Peter Olson Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 15:17
7 @Peter: you've got your parenthesis wrong, it's (four times twenty) one – SingleNegationElimination Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 20:36
2 In French it's actually four twenty and one , then four twenty two (sans and ) up to four twenty ten nine (99). – Jon Purdy Commented Aug 5, 2011 at 6:07
4 @Job: Reading your "If 18 yo Mary is ...", I was inevitably reminded of Yoda saying "When nine hundred years old you reach, look as good you will not, hmm?" in Return of the Jedi :-) – joriki Commented Aug 6, 2011 at 17:32

It started with FORTRAN in the 1950s. Where FORTRAN was an abbreviation of FORmula TRANslation -- the formulas in question being simple algebraic equations which by convention always assign to the left.

Its near contemporary COBOL on the other hand was meant to be English-like and assigned to the right (mostly!).

I think this is the best example here because it perfectly illustrates a context in a language where it's readable to a common English speaker but has right assignment. I'm saying that's important because of the large amount of people saying in English it would only read left to right for the assignment to make sense, which is absolutely not true. – Joshua Hedges Commented Aug 16, 2018 at 18:48

Well, as @diceguyd30 pointed out, there's both notations.

<Identifier> = <Value> means "let Identifier be Value ". Or to expand that: Define (or redefine) the variable Identifier to Value .
<Value> -> <Identifier> means "store Value to Identifier ". Or to expand that: Put Value into the location designated by Identifier .

Of course, generally speaking the Identifier may in fact be any L-value.

The first approach honors the abstract concept of variables, the second approach is more about actual storage.

Note that the first approach is also common in languages, that do not have assignments. Also note, that variable definition and assignment are relatively close <Type> <Identifier> = <Value> vs. <Identifier> = <Value> .

It could be a remnant of early parsing algorithms. Remember that LR parsing was only invented in 1965, and it could well be that LL parsers had troubles (within the time and space limitations of the machines at the time) going the other way around. Consider:

The two are clearly disambiguated from the second token. On the other hand,

Not fun. This gets worse when you start nesting assignment expressions.

Of course, easier to disambiguate for machines also means easier to disambiguate for humans. Another easy example would be searching for the initialization of any given identifier.

Easy, just look up the left side. Right side, on the other hand

Especially when you can't grep punch cards, it's much harder to find the identifier you want.

Precisely the point that I had thought of, yes. – voithos Commented Aug 8, 2011 at 0:31

As has already been mentioned, pretty well all the early computer languages worked that way. E.g. FORTRAN, which came along many years before BASIC.

It actually makes a great deal of sense to have the assigned variable on the left of the assignment expression. In some languages, you might have several different overloaded routines with the SAME NAME, returning different types of result. By letting the compiler see the type of the assigned variable first, it knows which overloaded routine to call, or what implicit cast to generate when converting from (e.g.) an integer to a float. That's a bit of a simplistic explanation, but hopefully you get the idea.

2 I understand your explanation, but could not the compiler just look ahead until the end of the statement? – voithos Commented Aug 3, 2011 at 22:57
That might make the lexer simpler in today's languages, but how many programming languages even supported named methods, let alone method overloads, when this kind of syntax was new? – user Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 9:27
2 Hi @voithos. Yes - the compiler could look ahead, but that would probably have been an unacceptable level of complexity in the early days of compiler writing - which was often hand-coded assembler! I think that putting the assigned variable on the left is a pragmatic choice: it's easier for both man and machine to parse. – Dave Jewell Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 9:55
I think it would be trivial for an assignment to assign to the right. When a expression like 3+4==6+7, both sides are evaluated before the operator is, because the language is defined recursively. The language element 'variable = expression', could easily be changed to 'expression = variable'. Whether or not that causes ambiguous situations depends on the rest of the language. – Kratz Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 12:51
1 @Kratz - that's certainly true for compilers now, but there may have been a minor issue for very old interpreted languages that worked with tokenized source. OTOH, that might have favored variable-on-the-right rather than variable-on-the-left. – user8709 Commented Aug 5, 2011 at 9:59

Asssembly languages have the destination as part of the left-hand opcode. Higher level languages tended to follow the conventions of the predecessor languages.

When you see = (or := for Pascalish dialects), you could pronounce those as is assigned the value , then the left-to-right nature will make sense (because we also read left-to-right in most languages). Since programming languages were predominantly developed by folks who read left-to-right, the conventions stuck.

It is a type of path dependence . I suppose if computer programming was invented by people who spoke Hebrew or Arabic (or some other right-to-left language), then I suspect we'd be putting the destination on the right.

Yes, but I suspect that the text in the editors would be right-aligned as well... – voithos Commented Aug 3, 2011 at 22:55
8 You can't generalise like that about assembly languages. They vary as to where the destination operand is. – quickly_now Commented Aug 3, 2011 at 23:09
2 @quickly_now: right; in fact, most of the primitive machine languages (not even assemblers by today's standards) didn't even have destination, as there was usually just one or two general-purpose accumulators. most operations implied the accumulator as destination, except for 'store' opcodes, which specified only the memory address and not the source (which was the accumulator). I really don't think it was any influence on assignment syntax for ALGOL-like languages. – Javier Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 4:34
3 @Tangurena - Some assembler languages have the destimation on the left. Not of the opcode (that's the assembled object code), but the left of the arguments list for the instruction mnemonic. However, others have the destination on the right. In 68000 assembler, you'd write mov.b #255, d0 , for instance, where d0 is the register to assign to. Older assemblers only have a single argument per instruction. In the 6502 LDA #255 (Load Accumulator), you could argue that the A is on the left, but it's also on the left in STA wherever (Store Accumulator). – user8709 Commented Aug 5, 2011 at 9:05
2 And even the Intel 4004 (the 4-bit ultimate ancestor of the 8086 family, with the 8008 and 8080 in between) was developed after assignment in high level languages. If you're assuming that the 8086 series is representative of what assemblers did in the 50s and earlier, I very much doubt that's true. – user8709 Commented Aug 5, 2011 at 9:10

For what it's worth, most statements in COBOL read from left to right, so the two operands were named first, and the destination last, like: multiply salary by rate giving tax .

I won't however, suggest that your student might prefer COBOL, for fear that I'd be (quite rightly) flagged for making such a low, uncouth, tasteless comment! :-)

she said that left-to-right seemed more natural to her, since that's how most of us read natural languages.

I think this is a mistake. On the one hand, you can say "assign 10 to x" or "move 10 to x". On the other hand, you can say "set x to 10" or "x becomes 10".

In other words, depending on your choice of verb, the assigned-to variable may or may not be the subject, and may or may not be on the left. So "what is natural" just depends entirely on your habitual choice of wording to represent assignment.

In pseudocode the assignment operator is very commonly written on the right. For example

In Casio calculators, even non-programmable variants, the assignment variable is also displayed on the right

In Forth the variable is on the right, too

In x86, Intel syntax has the destination on the left, but GAS syntax reverses the order, making some confusion to many people, especially on instructions regarding parameters' order like subtraction or comparisons. These instructions are the same in 2 different dialects

They both move the value in rbx to rax. No other assembly languages I know write the destination on the right like GAS.

Some platforms put the expression on the left and the variable on the right: MOVE expression TO variable COBOL expression → variable TI-BASIC, Casio BASIC expression -> variable BETA, R put expression into variable LiveCode

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assignment_%28computer_science%29#Notation

Most languages assign the value to the left, one of the reasons being easy to align the operators, easier to read and recognize the variable, as the assignment operators and variables' positions will not vary wildly in the lines, and it's easier to read as "let variable be some value".

However some people prefer to say "move value x to y" and write the variable on the right.

I think it follows a logical way of thinking. There has to be a box (variable) first, then you put an object (value) inside it. You don't put the object in the air and then put a box around it.

3 yes you do. in most languages the right side is evaluated before the left one. – Javier Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 4:35
3 Its a "Driving on the Right side of the road" type of thing. It seems logical but only because its the way you have always done it. All superior countries drive on the Left. – James Anderson Commented Aug 4, 2011 at 8:33
1 @JamesAnderson superior countries? :o – nawfal Commented Jul 22, 2014 at 21:00
You're right, it's only logical for a left to right writing system as the roman alphabet, which I guess is used by almost every programming language, if not all. – Petruza Commented Jul 24, 2014 at 0:35

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Gen ed writes, writing across the disciplines at harvard college, teaching the elements of writing assignments.

Overview: How Unpacking the Elements Translates into Lesson Planning

In Unpacking the Elements we try to break down prompts into the essential features common to nearly every assignment (writing or not), and in doing so the goal was primarily two-fold: to help instructors identify the role of each element in their own assignments and how clearly each element is communicated in their prompts; and to give students and instructors a shared, simple vocabulary for talking about the goals and expectations of assignments. In this section, the goal is to move from designing effective prompts and sharing them with students to using prompts as a road map for teaching in the classroom. If you’ve done the assignment prompt decoder and thought about elements in a specific prompt, you were maybe left with a few questions. For example:

What does it look like to teach each element and give students practice with them?
What is the best order to teach the elements in?
How can I scaffold smaller exercises or give students feedback along the way?
What’s the timing of all of this look like within the framework of a real term?

In the pages of this section we take up these questions, first laying out more generally how teaching through the elements looks in the classroom before taking a deeper dive into a handful of the more common—and increasingly complex—types of academic writing assignments. For each kind of assignment, you’ll find sample timelines and sequences, along with out-of-the-box activities and generalizable advice on teaching with writing (“tips” and “pitfalls to avoid”).

The advice and examples in this section are meant to be flexible enough to adapt to a wide range of real-life teaching scenarios and pedagogical approaches, but they all reflect a handful of guiding principles about the interrelated ways that assignment prompts "work": they create the context for learning experiences by serving as a touchstone for student-teacher discussions about the specific goals and expectations of the learning experience at hand, and they help keep instructors and students alive to what those goals and expectations are—and how their time together is an ongoing, well-supported engagement with them.

Three Key Principles for Teaching Writing in the Classroom

Students should always be “writing the paper”.

If your lesson plan is drawn from the actual assignment students are working on at any point in the term (whether it’s a smaller “now” response paper or a smaller part of a “bigger” project due in six weeks), then nearly every homework assignment or in-class activity is writing the paper. The purpose of section will always be more clear if students recognize that every meeting is a chance to practice relevant skills or make progress on an assignment. And of course, that recognition is only possible if students understand what the goals of the assignment they're working on are, what skills are relevant to meeting those goals, and what kinds of steps reflect progress toward them. With that in mind, it’s helpful to start with the Assignment Decoder for Students .

Prompts don’t (and shouldn’t be asked to) speak for themselves

The assignment prompt decoders linked throughout this site are meant to give course heads, TFs & TAs, and students a way of assessing how clearly a prompt is communicating its elements. For course heads and instructors, this might lead to a revision of the prompt or clarifications in class or meetings of the teaching team. For students, it might lead to questions in section, emails to an instructor, or asking a fellow student for input. Whatever doing the decoder leads to—and whether or not the decoder is used at all—it’s crucial to keep in mind that prompts don’t speak for themselves, no matter how clear they are: they’re a framework for, and hopefully an invitation to discussion about what it will look and feel like to do an assignment well. But what about a really clear prompt—doesn’t it save class time if students can just read it on their own? It’s a fair question, and the fair response is that we can’t know whether students have understood the really clear prompt unless we have a discussion with them about it. At that point, of course, we’re back to discussing the prompt, and the upside is this: spending class time working through prompts is actually a reliably efficient way to make subsequent classes more effective.

You can’t do it all, and you don’t need to

If you and your students are on the same page about the goals and priorities of an assignment, then you’re freed up to engage in some backward design triage: How much time is there until the likely deadline? How many sections are there to work with? What are the essential elements that need teaching and practice? What’s a good place to start? When giving feedback, it’s almost as unhelpful to just write “A-” without comments as it is to fill the margins with comments or append a novella’s worth of reflection to the end of a student’s essay. In both cases, it’s unclear what the rubric for feedback is and how they reflect the priorities of this assignment. And the same goes for teaching this assignment: You should find the sequence of in-class activities and formative assessments that best balance what’s necessary for students to succeed with what’s possible given the time and bandwidth available to you and your students. The general advice and sample trajectories for assignments in this section are meant to make that balance feel both attainable and much more than “good enough”—it’s what great teachers aim for.

DIY Guides for Analytical Writing Assignments

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Types of Assignments
Unpacking the Elements of Writing Prompts
The Steps of Teaching the Most Common Types of Writing Assignments
Giving Feedback to Students

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Operators in C Programming: A Complete Overview

Curious about Operators in C Programming? Operators in C are symbols that perform operations on variables and values, such as addition, subtraction, and comparison. This blog will delve into various operators, including arithmetic, logical, and bitwise, explaining their functions and how they are used in C programming.

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Are you struggling to master the foundational concepts of programming? Understanding operators in C programming is crucial for anyone looking to write efficient and powerful code. These operators are the building blocks that enable you to perform calculations, manipulate data, and make decisions within your programs.

In this blog, we'll delve into the various types of operators in C programming, from arithmetic to logical, and explore how they work together to bring your code to life. By mastering these operators, you'll gain the confidence to tackle more complex programming challenges, making your code both cleaner and more effective. Stay with us as we guide you through the essentials of operators in C programming, helping you unlock the true potential of your coding skills.

Table of Contents

1) What is a C Operator?

2) Types of Operators in C

a) Arithmetic Operations in C

b) Relational Operators in C

c) Logical Operator in C

d) Bitwise Operators in C

e) Assignment Operators in C

f) Increment and Decrement Operators

g) sizeof Operator

h) Other Operators

3) Conclusion

What is a C Operator?

In C Programming, an operator is a symbol that instructs the compiler to perform specific mathematical, relational, or logical operations on variables and values to produce a result. Operators are fundamental in manipulating data and are used extensively in expressions to perform calculations, comparisons, and logical evaluations.

They enable programmers to write concise and efficient code by simplifying complex operations into manageable components. From simple arithmetic operations like addition and subtraction to more complex tasks like bitwise manipulations and logical decision-making, operators in C are essential tools that facilitate a wide range of programming tasks and functionalities.

Types of Operators in C

C Operators are categorised based on the type of operation they perform. These categories include arithmetic, relational, logical, sbitwise, assignment, increment and decrement, size of, and other miscellaneous operators. Each category has specific functions and uses in programming. Understanding these operators in conjunction with the various Data Types in C allows programmers to effectively manipulate and process data.

1) Arithmetic Operations in C

Arithmetic operators perform basic mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and modulus.

Operators and Their Functions:

a) + (Addition): Adds two operands.

b) - (Subtraction): Subtracts the second operand from the first.

c) * (Multiplication): Multiplies two operands.

d) / (Division): Divides the numerator by the denominator.

e) % (Modulus): Returns the remainder of a division operation.

Example:

#include

int main() {

int a = 10, b = 5;

printf("Addition: %dn", a + b); // 15

printf("Subtraction: %dn", a - b); // 5

printf("Multiplication: %dn", a * b); // 50

printf("Division: %dn", a / b); // 2

printf("Modulus: %dn", a % b); // 0

return 0;

}

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2) Relational Operators in C

Relational operators compare two values or variables. They return a boolean result (true or false).

a) == (Equal to): Checks if two operands are equal.

b) != (Not equal to): Checks if two operands are not equal.

c) > (Greater than): Checks if the left operand is greater than the right.

d) < (Less than): Checks if the left operand is less than the right.

e) >= (Greater than or equal to): Checks if the left operand is greater than or equal to the right.

f) <= (Less than or equal to): Checks if the left operand is less than or equal to the right.

#include

int main() {

int a = 10, b = 5;

printf("a == b: %dn", a == b); // 0 (false)

printf("a != b: %dn", a != b); // 1 (true)

printf("a > b: %dn", a > b); // 1 (true)

printf("a

}

3) Logical Operators in C

Logical operators are used to combine multiple relational expressions.

a) && (Logical AND): Returns true if both operands are true.

b) || (Logical OR): Returns true if at least one operand is true.

c) ! (Logical NOT): Returns true if the operand is false.

#include

int main() {

int a = 1, b = 0;

printf("a && b: %dn", a && b); // 0 (false)

printf("a || b: %dn", a || b); // 1 (true)

printf("!a: %dn", !a); // 0 (false)

return 0;

}

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4) Bitwise Operators in C

Bitwise operators perform operations on binary representations of integers.

a) & (AND): Performs bitwise AND.

b) | (OR): Performs bitwise OR.

c) ^ (XOR): Performs bitwise XOR.

d) ~ (NOT): Performs bitwise NOT.

e) << (Left Shift): Shifts bits to the left.

f) >> (Right Shift): Shifts bits to the right.

#include

int main() {

int a = 5, b = 3;

printf("a & b: %dn", a & b); // 1

printf("a | b: %dn", a | b); // 7

printf("a ^ b: %dn", a ^ b); // 6

printf("~a: %dn", ~a); // -6

printf("a

return 0;

}

5) Assignment Operators in C

Assignment operators assign values to variables.

a) =: Simple assignment.

b) +=: Adds and assigns.

c) -=: Subtracts and assigns.

d) *=: Multiplies and assigns.

e) /=: Divides and assigns.

f) %=: Takes modulus and assigns.

#include

int main() {

int a = 10;

a += 5; // a = a + 5

printf("a += 5: %dn", a); // 15

a -= 3; // a = a - 3

printf("a -= 3: %dn", a); // 12

a *= 2; // a = a * 2

printf("a *= 2: %dn", a); // 24

a /= 4; // a = a / 4

printf("a /= 4: %dn", a); // 6

a %= 3; // a = a % 3

printf("a %%= 3: %dn", a); // 0

return 0;

}

6) Increment and Decrement Operators

Increment and decrement operators increase or decrease the value of a variable by one.

a) ++: Increment operator.

b) --: Decrement operator.

#include

int main() {

int a = 10;

a++;

printf("a++: %dn", a); // 11

a--;

printf("a--: %dn", a); // 10

return 0;

}

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7) sizeof Operator

The sizeof operator returns the size of a variable or data type in bytes.

#include

int main() {

int a;

float b;

double c;

char d;

printf("Size of int: %lun", sizeof(a)); // Typically 4 bytes

printf("Size of float: %lun", sizeof(b)); // Typically 4 bytes

printf("Size of double: %lun", sizeof(c)); // Typically 8 bytes

printf("Size of char: %lun", sizeof(d)); // Typically 1 byte

return 0;

}

8) Other Operators

Other miscellaneous operators include the comma operator, the conditional operator (ternary), and the cast operator.

a) , (Comma): Separates expressions.

b) ?: (Ternary): A shorthand for the if-else statement.

c) (type) (Cast): Converts a variable from one type to another.

Example :

#include

int main() {

int a = 10, b = 20, c;

c = (a > b) ? a : b;

printf("Ternary operator: %dn", c); // 20

float d = 3.14;

int e;

e = (int)d;

printf("Cast operator: %dn", e); // 3

return 0;

}

Conclusion

Understanding and effectively using operators in C programming is crucial for writing efficient and effective code. By mastering these operators, you can perform a wide range of operations, from simple arithmetic to complex bitwise manipulations, enhancing your programming capabilities.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Operators in C are symbols that instruct the compiler to perform specific mathematical, relational, or logical operations on variables and values. They enable manipulation of data, facilitating various operations such as arithmetic calculations, comparisons, and logical evaluations, which are essential for writing functional C programs.

The '=' operator is an assignment operator that assigns the value on its right to the variable on its left. The '==' operator is a relational operator used to compare two values, returning true if they are equal and false if they are not.

Logic operators in C include && (logical AND), || (logical OR), and ! (logical NOT). These operators are used to combine or invert logical expressions, enabling decision-making processes within the program based on multiple conditions.

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What Is an Assignment of Contract?

Assignment of Contract Explained

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Assignment of contract allows one person to assign, or transfer, their rights, obligations, or property to another. An assignment of contract clause is often included in contracts to give either party the opportunity to transfer their part of the contract to someone else in the future. Many assignment clauses require that both parties agree to the assignment.

Learn more about assignment of contract and how it works.

What Is Assignment of Contract?

Assignment of contract means the contract and the property, rights, or obligations within it can be assigned to another party. An assignment of contract clause can typically be found in a business contract. This type of clause is common in contracts with suppliers or vendors and in intellectual property (patent, trademark , and copyright) agreements.

How Does Assignment of Contract Work?

An assignment may be made to anyone, but it is typically made to a subsidiary or a successor. A subsidiary is a business owned by another business, while a successor is the business that follows a sale, acquisition, or merger.

Let’s suppose Ken owns a lawn mowing service and he has a contract with a real estate firm to mow at each of their offices every week in the summer. The contract includes an assignment clause, so when Ken goes out of business, he assigns the contract to his sister-in-law Karrie, who also owns a lawn mowing service.

Before you try to assign something in a contract, check the contract to make sure it's allowed, and notify the other party in the contract.

Assignment usually is included in a specific clause in a contract. It typically includes transfer of both accountability and responsibility to another party, but liability usually remains with the assignor (the person doing the assigning) unless there is language to the contrary.

What Does Assignment of Contract Cover?

Generally, just about anything of value in a contract can be assigned, unless there is a specific law or public policy disallowing the assignment.

Rights and obligations of specific people can’t be assigned because special skills and abilities can’t be transferred. This is called specific performance. For example, Billy Joel wouldn't be able to transfer or assign a contract to perform at Madison Square Garden to someone else—they wouldn't have his special abilities.

Assignments won’t stand up in court if the assignment significantly changes the terms of the contract. For example, if Karrie’s business is tree trimming, not lawn mowing, the contract can’t be assigned to her.

Assigning Intellectual Property

Intellectual property (such as copyrights, patents, and trademarks) has value, and these assets are often assigned. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) says patents are personal property and that patent rights can be assigned. Trademarks, too, can be assigned. The assignment must be registered with the USPTO's Electronic Trademark Assignment System (ETAS) .

The U.S. Copyright Office doesn't keep a database of copyright assignments, but they will record the document if you follow their procedure.

Alternatives to Assignment of Contract

There are other types of transfers that may be functional alternatives to assignment.

Licensing is an agreement whereby one party leases the rights to use a piece of property (for example, intellectual property) from another. For instance, a business that owns a patent may license another company to make products using that patent.

Delegation permits someone else to act on your behalf. For example, Ken’s lawn service might delegate Karrie to do mowing for him without assigning the entire contract to her. Ken would still receive the payment and control the work.

Do I Need an Assignment of Contract?

Assignment of contract can be a useful clause to include in a business agreement. The most common cases of assignment of contract in a business situation are:

Assignment of a trademark, copyright, or patent
Assignments to a successor company in the case of the sale of the business
Assignment in a contract with a supplier or customer
Assignment in an employment contract or work for hire agreement

Before you sign a contract, look to see if there is an assignment clause, and get the advice of an attorney if you want to assign something in a contract.

Key Takeaways

Assignment of contract is the ability to transfer rights, property, or obligations to another.
Assignment of contract is a clause often found in business contracts.
A party may assign a contract to another party if the contract permits it and no law forbids it.

Legal Information Institute. " Assignment ." Accessed Jan. 2, 2021.

Legal Information Institute. " Specific Performance ." Accessed Jan. 2, 2021.

U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. " 301 Ownership/Assignability of Patents and Applications [R-10.2019] ." Accessed Jan. 2, 2021.

Licensing International. " What is Licensing ." Accessed Jan. 2, 2021.

cppreference.com

Assignment operators.















(C11)









Miscellaneous

General




(C11)







(C99)

Assignment and compound assignment operators are binary operators that modify the variable to their left using the value to their right.

Operator	Operator name	Example	Description	Equivalent of
=	basic assignment	a = b	becomes equal to
+=	addition assignment	a += b	becomes equal to the addition of and	a = a + b
-=	subtraction assignment	a -= b	becomes equal to the subtraction of from	a = a - b
*=	multiplication assignment	a *= b	becomes equal to the product of and	a = a * b
/=	division assignment	a /= b	becomes equal to the division of by	a = a / b
%=	modulo assignment	a %= b	becomes equal to the remainder of divided by	a = a % b
&=	bitwise AND assignment	a &= b	becomes equal to the bitwise AND of and	a = a & b
\|=	bitwise OR assignment	a \|= b	becomes equal to the bitwise OR of and	a = a \| b
^=	bitwise XOR assignment	a ^= b	becomes equal to the bitwise XOR of and	a = a ^ b
<<=	bitwise left shift assignment	a <<= b	becomes equal to left shifted by	a = a << b
>>=	bitwise right shift assignment	a >>= b	becomes equal to right shifted by	a = a >> b

Simple assignment Notes Compound assignment References See Also See also

[ edit ] Simple assignment

The simple assignment operator expressions have the form


lhs rhs

lhs	-	expression of any complete object type
rhs	-	expression of any type to lhs or with lhs

Assignment performs implicit conversion from the value of rhs to the type of lhs and then replaces the value in the object designated by lhs with the converted value of rhs .

Assignment also returns the same value as what was stored in lhs (so that expressions such as a = b = c are possible). The value category of the assignment operator is non-lvalue (so that expressions such as ( a = b ) = c are invalid).

rhs and lhs must satisfy one of the following:

both lhs and rhs have compatible struct or union type, or..
rhs must be implicitly convertible to lhs , which implies
both lhs and rhs have arithmetic types , in which case lhs may be volatile -qualified or atomic (since C11)
both lhs and rhs have pointer to compatible (ignoring qualifiers) types, or one of the pointers is a pointer to void, and the conversion would not add qualifiers to the pointed-to type. lhs may be volatile or restrict (since C99) -qualified or atomic (since C11) .
lhs is a (possibly qualified or atomic (since C11) ) pointer and rhs is a null pointer constant such as NULL or a nullptr_t value (since C23)

has type (possibly qualified or atomic(since C11)) _Bool and rhs is a pointer or a value(since C23)

(since C99)

has type (possibly qualified or atomic) and rhs has type

(since C23)

[ edit ] Notes

If rhs and lhs overlap in memory (e.g. they are members of the same union), the behavior is undefined unless the overlap is exact and the types are compatible .

Although arrays are not assignable, an array wrapped in a struct is assignable to another object of the same (or compatible) struct type.

The side effect of updating lhs is sequenced after the value computations, but not the side effects of lhs and rhs themselves and the evaluations of the operands are, as usual, unsequenced relative to each other (so the expressions such as i = ++ i ; are undefined)

Assignment strips extra range and precision from floating-point expressions (see FLT_EVAL_METHOD ).

In C++, assignment operators are lvalue expressions, not so in C.

[ edit ] Compound assignment

The compound assignment operator expressions have the form


lhs op rhs

op	-	one of *=, /= %=, += -=, <<=, >>=, &=, ^=, \|=
lhs, rhs	-	expressions with (where lhs may be qualified or atomic), except when op is += or -=, which also accept pointer types with the same restrictions as + and -

The expression lhs @= rhs is exactly the same as lhs = lhs @ ( rhs ) , except that lhs is evaluated only once.

If lhs has type, the operation behaves as a single atomic read-modify-write operation with memory order .

For integer atomic types, the compound assignment @= is equivalent to:

addr = &lhs; T2 val = rhs; T1 old = *addr; T1 new; do { new = old @ val } while (! (addr, &old, new);

(since C11)

[ edit ] References

C17 standard (ISO/IEC 9899:2018):
6.5.16 Assignment operators (p: 72-73)
C11 standard (ISO/IEC 9899:2011):
6.5.16 Assignment operators (p: 101-104)
C99 standard (ISO/IEC 9899:1999):
6.5.16 Assignment operators (p: 91-93)
C89/C90 standard (ISO/IEC 9899:1990):
3.3.16 Assignment operators

[ edit ] See Also

Operator precedence

Common operators

a = b a += b a -= b a *= b a /= b a %= b a &= b a \|= b a ^= b a <<= b a >>= b	++a --a a++ a--	+a -a a + b a - b a * b a / b a % b ~a a & b a \| b a ^ b a << b a >> b	!a a && b a \|\| b	a == b a != b a < b a > b a <= b a >= b	a[b] *a &a a->b a.b	a(...) a, b (type) a a ? b : c sizeof _Alignof (since C11)

[ edit ] See also

for Assignment operators

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The Ultimate Guide to CELTA

CELTA Written Assignments – Language Skills Related Tasks (LSRT)

Looking for help with CELTA Written Assignments? You’ve come to the right place.

Written assignments form a major part of the CELTA assessment process and are a compulsory part of the course. There are 4 written assignments in total but some centres conflate two of them to make one larger assignment. In this series we will look at each individual assignment and provide you with some advice and guidance as well as highlight some of the common pitfalls.

Disclaimer: All centres create their own written assignment rubrics, make sure you check with your centre exactly what is required. We can only provide general information here, rather than specific. With this in mind, do you think it would be wise to pay for other peoples’ assignments to help you write your own?

person holding blue ballpoint pen writing in notebook

Although every centre creates their own written assignments, the CELTA Syllabus and Assessment Guidelines states that for the LSRT assignment:

The design of the assignment is to include: • evidence of the candidate’s background reading in the topic area • identification of the receptive language skills and/or subskills that could be practised and developed using coursebook material or authentic text • identification of productive language skills that could be practised and developed in relation to that text • task design in relation to the text with brief rationale

Candidates can demonstrate their learning by: a. correctly using terminology that relates to language skills and subskills b. relating task design to language skills development c. finding, selecting and referencing information from one or more sources using written language that is clear, accurate and appropriate to the task

All written assignments should be 750 – 1000 words

Source: CELTA Syllabus and Assessment Guidelines

What does this mean for you? Well firstly, of course, you need to make sure you do some background reading and find out more about why we provide students with practice in the reading/listening subskills, what these subskills are and how you can give the students practice using them. It would be very easy for me to tell you the answers in this post but that won’t help you in the long run. Instead I can suggest a couple of sources for you to have a look at:

Learning Teaching by Jim Scrivener
The CELTA Course by Cambridge University Press
Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language by Macmillan Education
Listening Skills – Blog Post by TUGtoC
Getting to Grips with Reading Skills – Blog Post by TUGtoC

If your centre’s assignment requires you to find your own material (reading or listening texts) make sure that it is something you can use for the level of learner you are aiming the lesson at. Whilst it is true that most material should be possible to use with all levels, the activities themselves must be aimed at the learners’ level.

Once you have found a text (if your centre hasn’t provided you with one) you will probably be asked to come up with suitable activities that will give the students practice in one or two of the reading/listening subskills. You can make sure that your activity really does practise the subskill you are suggesting by trialling the task yourself (ie if you want the students to scan for specific information, try it yourself and see if it is actually possible to find the answers by scanning!). Please also make it clear in your assignment that you will be giving the students the task to do while reading/listening – NEVER ask students to read or listen to something without giving them a task to do. If you give students something to read/listen to without a task then they will not be practising the listening/reading subskills, instead they will be listening/reading very carefully because they won’t have anything specific to focus on. I can’t tell you how frustrated we tutors get when trainees get this wrong 😦

After you have created your in-reading/in-listening part of the lesson you will be asked to suggest a follow-up activity that would have students practise either speaking or writing. After receptive skills practice students need to start being productive and as reading and listening is an individual task I would suggest a follow-up task should have more student interaction, this could be in written or spoken form but is more likely to be in spoken form as writing tends to be done alone. Whatever you decide to do, remember to exploit the context of the in-reading/listening tasks by, for example, remaining on the topic from the text. Remember, however, they should not be reading/listening to the text again for the post- activity.

One more thing you should make sure you do is write a bibliography, stating all the resources you have used to help you to write your assignment. Remember, CELTA requires you to prove you are capable of “finding, selecting and referencing information from one or more sources using written language that is clear, accurate and appropriate to the task” – (Source: CELTA Syllabus and Assessment Guidelines) so make sure you prove this by including your bibliography.

When you think you have completed your assignment, walk away from it for at least a couple of hours. Go back to it later with a fresh pair of eyes and check it against the rubric. Ask yourself the following questions:

Have you done everything that you have been asked to do?
How many words have your written?
Is it clearly laid out and easy for someone else to read?
Are there any spelling, punctuation, grammar errors?
Are there any typos?
Have I included a bibliography?

Common Pitfalls

In our centre, trainees often fall foul of the following:

using the subskills terminology incorrectly (ie saying something is a scanning task when it is a skimming task)
providing a task that doesn’t practise the subskill they say it does
not highlighting the fact that the in-reading/listening task they would give students should be done while reading/listening
not submitting a complete assignment
writing much more than is required and going way over the word-count
not proof-reading their work before handing it in
not including a bibliography

Any one of the above can result in having to resubmit the assignment. Whilst having to resubmit is no bad thing, it does increase your workload and stress levels so should be avoided if possible.

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Author: Emma Jones

A CELTA Tutor based in Munich and co-author of The Ultimate Guide to CELTA View all posts by Emma Jones

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What Is Academic Writing?

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Assignability Of Contracts: Everything You Need to Know

How Contract Assignments Work

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How to Assign a Contract

Language for Effectively Communicating Assignments

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What is a C Operator?

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1) Arithmetic Operations in C

2) Relational Operators in C

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5) Assignment Operators in C

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What Is an Assignment of Contract?

What Is Assignment of Contract?

How Does Assignment of Contract Work?

What Does Assignment of Contract Cover?

Assigning Intellectual Property

Alternatives to Assignment of Contract