greek art assignment

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Ancient Greece Free Lesson Plans for Ancient Greek Art and Architecture

For teachers: ancient greek art and architecture lessons and activities.

The Architecture of Ancient Greece, lesson plan and classroom activity

Ancient Greece Architecture lesson plan, teaching with primary sources

Going Greek with architecture, lesson plan, 1-2 class periods

Engineer Like an Ancient Greek (STEM, lesson plans, free from teachers pay teachers)

Architecture Lesson Plans - The affect on modern furniture (Utah Ed)

The Acropolis of Athens, handout, important buildings

Lesson Idea: The year is 432 BCE. As dawn breaks over Athens, Pheidias is late for work. He is the chief builder for the Parthenon, Athens’ newest and largest temple. When he arrives onsite, city officials accuse him of embezzling gold from the temple’s sacred central statue. He has until sundown to prove his innocence or face the courts. A Day in the Life of an Ancient Greek Architect (Ted-Ed, lesson plan, video)

The Parthenon lesson plan with free download and assignment

Greek sculpture lesson plan

Art from ancient Greece, the use of marble and ideas and artifacts, lesson plan, background, student handouts

For Teachers: Ancient Greek Pottery, Urns, Vases lessons and activities

Greece Vase Painting Project, complete lesson plan

Story on a Vase, lesson plan

Greek Vases: Ode to a Grecian Urn, scratch-out project

Greek Pots lesson plan, classroom activity

Olympic Games Urn - printout activity, have students put their favorite sport on their vase (can also be used for daily life)

For Teachers: Ancient Greek Drama, Music, Theatre, Literature lessons and activities

Ancient Greek drama and theatre lesson plans

Explore Greek Myths - lesson plans & myths

Aesop's Fables - lesson plans & fables

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The Art & Culture of Ancient Greece

The ancient Greeks were masters at picking up ideas from other cultures, mixing these with their own innovations and producing unique contributions to world culture . Greek sculptors adored the human form, painters loved to tell stories on Greek pottery , and the Greek architectural orders can still be seen around the world today in all sorts of buildings. With fine Mediterranean weather, the Greeks were an outdoor people and it is then, perhaps no coincidence that they developed open-air theatre , political meetings and philosophical discussions.

In this collection, we examine the major aspects of the culture and thinking of the ancient Greeks, from temple architecture to how to live a good life. We also consider aspects of their religion - another outdoor activity - their diet, medicine and music .

A Greek comedy play followed a conventional structure. The first part was the parados where the Chorus of as many as 24 performers entered and performed a number of song and dance routines. Dressed to impress, their outlandish costumes could represent anything from giant bees with huge stingers to knights riding another man in imitation of a horse or even a variety of kitchen utensils. In many cases the play was actually named after the Chorus, e.g., Aristophanes ' The Wasps .

Articles & Definitions

Ancient Greek Sculpture

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Food & Agriculture in Ancient Greece

Ancient Greek Medicine

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Ancient Greek Art

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 23, 2023 | Original: May 17, 2010

In around 450 B.C., the Athenian general Pericles tried to consolidate his power by using public money, the dues paid to Athens by its allies in the Delian League coalition, to support the city-state’s artists and thinkers. Most of all, Pericles paid artisans to build temples and other public buildings in the city of Athens. He reasoned that this way he could win the support of the Athenian people by doling out plenty of construction jobs while building public monuments so grand that people would come from far and wide to see them, increasing Athens’ prestige as well as his own.

The Architecture of Classical Greece

The most noteworthy result of Pericles’ public-works campaign was the magnificent Parthenon , a temple in honor of the city’s patron goddess Athena. The architects Iktinos and Kallikrates and the sculptor Phidias began work on the temple in the middle of the 5th century B.C. The Parthenon was built atop the Acropolis , a natural pedestal made of rock that was the site of the earliest settlements in Athens, and Pericles invited other people to build there as well: In 437 B.C., for example, the architect Mnesikles started to build a grand gateway known as the Propylaia at its western end, and at the end of the century, artisans added a smaller temple for the Greek goddess Athena—this one in honor of her role as the goddess of victory, Athena Nike—along with one for Athena and Erechtheus, an Athenian king. Still, the Parthenon remained the site’s main attraction.

Did you know? Many of the sculptures from the Parthenon are on display at the British Museum in London. They are known as the Elgin Marbles.

Greek Temple Architecture

With its rectangular stone platform, front and back porches (the pronaos and the opisthodomos) and rows of columns, the Parthenon was a commanding example of Greek temple architecture. Typically, the people of ancient Greece did not worship inside their temples as we do today. Instead, the interior room (the naos or the cella) was relatively small, housing just a statue of the deity the temple was built to honor. Worshippers gathered outside, entering only to bring offerings to the statue.

The temples of classical Greece all shared the same general form: Rows of columns supporting a horizontal entablature (a kind of decorative molding) and a triangular roof. At each end of the roof, above the entablature, was a triangular space known as the pediment, into which sculptors squeezed elaborate scenes. On the Parthenon, for example, the pediment sculptures show the birth of Athena on one end and a battle between Athena and Poseidon on the other.

So that people standing on the ground could see them, these pediment sculptures were usually painted bright colors and were arrayed on a solid blue or red background. This paint has faded with age; as a result, the pieces of classical temples that survive today appear to be made of white marble alone.

Proportion and Perspective

The architects of classical Greece came up with many sophisticated techniques to make their buildings look perfectly even. They crafted horizontal planes with a very slight upward U-shape and columns that were fatter in the middle than at the ends. Without these innovations, the buildings would appear to sag; with them, they looked flawless and majestic.

Ancient Greek Sculpture

Not many classical statues or sculptures survive today. Stone statues broke easily, and metal ones were often melted for re-use. However, we know that Greek sculptors such as Phidias and Polykleitos in the 5th century and Praxiteles, Skopas and Lysippos in the 4th century had figured out how to apply the rules of anatomy and perspective to the human form just as their counterparts applied them to buildings. Earlier statues of people had looked awkward and fake, but by the classical period they looked natural, almost at ease. They even had realistic-looking facial expressions.

One of the most celebrated Greek sculptures is the Venus de Milo , carved in 100 B.C. during the Hellenistic Age by the little-known Alexandros of Antioch. She was discovered in 1820 on the island of Melos.

Ancient Greek Pottery

Classical Greek pottery was perhaps the most utilitarian of the era’s art forms. People offered small terra cotta figurines as gifts to gods and goddesses, buried them with the dead and gave them to their children as toys. They also used clay pots, jars and vases for almost everything. These were painted with religious or mythological scenes that, like the era’s statues, grew more sophisticated and realistic over time.

Much of our knowledge of classical Greek art comes from objects made of stone and clay that have survived for thousands of years. However, we can infer that the themes we see in these works–an emphasis on pattern and order, perspective and proportion and man himself–appeared as well in less-durable creations such as ancient Greek paintings and drawings.

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Guide to Ancient Greek Art

(3 reviews)

Beth Harris

Steven Zucker

Copyright Year: 2019

Publisher: Smarthistory

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Caroline Wilson, Ed.D., Assistant Professor, Tidewater Community College on 7/27/22

This text covers a range and thorough summary of Greek periods in art history. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This text covers a range and thorough summary of Greek periods in art history.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The authors have done effective research and applied their knowledge comprehensibly and interestingly for the reader.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The topic is a vital segment of the art historical timeline and the information provided is timeless.

Clarity rating: 5

Images selected in the text clarify the author’s point and provide helpful visual examples of Greek art historical trends described.

Consistency rating: 5

The writing styles of the authors are consistent.

Modularity rating: 5

The historical periods discussed build on one another.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The overall organization of the text is linear along the art history timeline and flows flawlessly.

Interface rating: 5

The text is free of interface issues.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

The text is well written.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The text is not culturally offensive and is inclusive.

This text provides a “go-to” resource for a better understanding of the overview of ancient Greek art history. Highly recommended reading for the art history enthusiast.

Reviewed by Joyce Miller, Professor of Art, Mount Wachusett Community College on 5/24/21

Dry and informative read more

Dry and informative

Strong and content as expected with research and references

covers topics as expected

Clarity rating: 3

Reading written statements of recorded conversations or interviews is not an interesting format for students. Tedious at best. Interesting for faculty maybe.

Consistency rating: 3

Format is structured but when researching on how black figure pottery was made I got linked to smarthistory -a youtube video from Art Institute of Chicago that was terrific but then when I went back to text it was not listed in the resources nor could I find it again via the text online. Going back to "Search" in this textbook was problematic when download of page numbers does not correspond to actual page numbers on the scrolled through pages. Will just simply directly search Youtube, Google or other sites for such information . Easier.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

Content organized but as stated earlier the additional course materials and links not so clear or organized

Interface rating: 4

Just the hunt and seek too time consuming

Only reviewed a few chapters and the Table of Contents, all seemed well written from what I perused.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

Good images and overviews of Greek Pottery.

Reviewed by Tammy Cotton-Jennings, Lecturer/Art, Leeward Community College on 7/1/20

The textbook covers a lot of information, in a book of less than 200 pages. However, the content would be easier for those with some prior knowledge. This is more of a guide (as the title states), than an introduction to the subject. there is no... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

The textbook covers a lot of information, in a book of less than 200 pages. However, the content would be easier for those with some prior knowledge. This is more of a guide (as the title states), than an introduction to the subject. there is no index or glossary, but I do appreciate the ability to click on titles of chapters and get taken easily to each section.

I found no inaccuracies in the book. The material appears to have been researched thoroughly and is error free.

The content of this textbook is mostly up to date. It appears that the last changes, or additions were made in 2017. It would be easy to insert new articles, citations, and research to the content.

I found most of the chapters missing Introductions. It is assumed that the reader has already been exposed to Greek history and literature, as in the first paragraph of the book: "Ancient Greece can feel strangely familiar. From the exploits of Achilles (hero of Homer’s epic poem, the Illiad, about the Trojan war) and Odysseus (also known as Ulysses, the hero in Homer’s other epic poem, the Odyssey), to the treatises of Aristotle.." The sections on ancient Greek architecture and Greek Vase-Painting, by Dr. Renee M. Gondek and Dr. Jeffey A. Becker are very well done, whereas the sections on Classical, Hellenistic styles have no introductions, just conversations between Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker.

The terminology and framework are consistent, and the images are well chosen.

Modularity rating: 3

I would be happy to use parts of this textbook in my class, and there are sections that would work easily. In other instances, I would have to re-write introductions.

The topics in the text have been organized well.

Everything to do with the interface and navigation works well in this textbook. I especially would like to point out the excellent quality of the images and their explanations.

I found no significant errors.

My only criticism of the text is in relation to the assumption that all students would have prior knowledge of some of the philosophical or literary references. "...thanks largely to ..... well-known literary sources, ....this civilization is embedded in our collective consciousness—"

As already mentioned, for an introductory course perhaps the book would benefit from a clear concise introduction to the ancient world. Also, I think the conversations between Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker. work very well in the smarthistory videos, but not as well in the textbook form.

Table of Contents

• Part I. A beginner's guide
• Part II. Pottery
• Part III. Daedalic and Archaic
• Part IV. Early Classical
• Part V. Classical
• Part VI. Late Classical
• Part VII. Hellenistic

Ancillary Material

About the book.

This book contains all of Smarthistory’s content for Ancient Greek art.

About the Contributors

Ruth Ezra is a doctoral candidate at Harvard University, where she specializes in the art of late-medieval and Renaissance Europe. Upon completion of her BA at Williams College, she studied in the UK on a Marshall Scholarship, earning an MPhil in history and philosophy of science from the University of Cambridge and an MA in history of art from the Courtauld Institute. A committed educator, Ruth has recently served as a Gallery Lecturer at both the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and the National Galleries of Scotland, as well as a Teaching Fellow at Harvard.

Beth Harris is co-founder and executive director of Smarthistory. Previously, she was dean of art and history at Khan Academy and director of digital learning at The Museum of Modern Art, where she started MoMA Courses Online and co-produced educational videos, websites and apps. Before joining MoMA, Beth was Associate Professor of art history and director of distance learning at the Fashion Institute of Technology where she taught both online and in the classroom. She has co-authored, with Dr. Steven Zucker, numerous articles on the future of education and the future of museums, topics she regularly addresses at conferences around the world. She received her Master’s degree from the Courtauld Institute of Art in London, and her doctorate in Art History from the Graduate Center of the City University of New York.

Steven Zucker is co-founder and executive director of Smarthistory. Previously, Steven was dean of art and history at Khan Academy. He was also chair of history of art and design at Pratt Institute where he strengthened enrollment and lead the renewal of curriculum across the Institute. Before that, he was dean of the School of Graduate Studies at the Fashion Institute of Technology, SUNY and chair of their art history department. He has taught at The School of Visual Arts, Hunter College, and at The Museum of Modern Art. Dr. Zucker is a recipient of the SUNY Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in Teaching. He has co-authored, with Dr. Beth Harris, numerous articles on the future of education and the future of museums, topics he regularly addresses at conferences around the world. Dr. Zucker received his Ph.D. from the Graduate Center of the City University of New York.

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First Things First...

A lesson on ancient Greek painting in the form of pottery as well as Greek sculpture offers a great opportunity for an expanded discussion on the artist’s quest to achieve real human proportions and postures. From the Geometric Period, the earliest period of Greek art, to the development of the anatomical canon of proportions in the High Classical period, you can use the evolution of figural form as a backbone for your discussion.

This lesson incorporates solely Greek works that span from 800 to 31 BCE (although some of the later examples are Roman copies after lost Greek originals, the dates provided relate to their Greek creation). It centers around the evolution of anatomical proportions and the human form. Through this theme you could also explore the importance in Greek culture of representing mythological figures and deities in idealized form, or the development the notion of humanism, an ideological approach centered on the immense potential of the human being to achieve greatness, particularly in the arts and sciences. Alternatively, you could relate the Greek study of the human form to to the idealized proportions of Greek architecture (Phideas, for example, and his efforts at the Parthenon, 447–432 BCE). The works in this lesson also evince a final parallel them of the emergence of the named artist. It is through Greek art that we witness for the first time in the Western art historical canon a sudden profusion of artists signing their works, suggesting a newfound pride-of-place in being a respected artist.

A great way to introduce your class to this theme is to start your lesson with an image of the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Statue of a Kouros (590–580 BCE). If you’ve previously covered Egyptian art, you can begin by asking the students what this statue reminds them of, for example, King Menkaure and His Queen (2490–2472 BCE). You can then have them compare and contrast these two sculptures, or you can proceed by recruiting a student volunteer to the front of the classroom. Have that student assume a pose mimicking that of the Metropolitan Statue of a Kouros, and then ask your students for suggestions as to how the posed student could adjust his or her body to appear more naturalistic.

Background Readings

Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) , Roman copy of 440 BCE Greek original, marble.

Before class, The Metropolitan Museum of Art’s thematic essay on Greek art provides a great textual snapshot of the peak centuries of ancient Greek artistic production. You could combine this with the museum’s essay that focuses on Geometric period of artistic production as well to provide a more complete picture. Smarthistory’s synopsis is also a clever and quick overview that begins earlier in Greek artistic production and carries the viewer over into Roman art, which can also provide a convenient segue for a subsequent lecture’s topic.

Content Suggestions

Black Figure Style : a style of painted pot from the Archaic Period (600–480 BCE) in which figures and forms are created through the application of black slip before firing.

Contrapposto : posing of the human figure in which one part is turned in opposition to another part, typically with the weight of the body being thrown to one foot to create a counterbalance of the body about its central axis.

Geometric Style : a style of painted pot from the Geometric Period (900–700 BCE) dominated by abstract motifs (e.g. the meander pattern) and animals conveyed through black slip.

Humanism : an ideological or philosophical approach that stresses the importance of the human being, rather than divine or celestial forces, and the human being’s potential for achievement or greatness in all things.

Kore : Greek for “young woman”; statuary type depicting a young woman.

Kouros : Greek for “young man”; statuary type depicting a young man.

Krater : a large vessel used by the ancient Greeks to mix wine with water; also sometimes used as male funerary markers.

Red Figure Style : a style of painted pot from the Archaic Period (600–480 BCE) in which figures and forms are created through the absence of black slip, allowing the red of the terracotta to come through for greater design detail and finesse; appeared late sixth century BCE.

Symmetria : symmetry, including a sense of proportion and balance, as achieved by contrapposto poses.

White Ground Style : a style of painted pot from the Archaic Period (600–480 BCE) in which figures and forms are painted on white clay pot, allowing for greater detail and polychromy; also appeared late sixth century BCE.

From the rise of ancient Greek art around 800 BCE to its decline during the reign of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE, the artists of this period revolutionized the treatment of the human form. Ushered in with the early Geometric Period, which continued past conventions of stylized and abstracted forms, the rapid advancement of figural treatment and proportion became over the following centuries the hallmark of ancient Greek art and the feature most emulated by artists of both the subsequent Roman Empire and the Renaissance centuries later.

One important impetus for the development of anatomical proportions in Greek art was the emergence of humanism, an ideological or philosophical approach that stresses the importance of the human being, rather than divine or celestial forces. Humanism focuses on human experience and naturalistic perspectives, and emphasizes the human being’s potential for achievement or greatness in all things.

Here are some key works, organized by time period, that can be used to illustrate the progression of Greek artists rendering the human form during a one-hour-fifteen-minute class :

Timeline : Geometric Period (800–700 BCE) Orientalizing Period (700–600 BCE) Archaic Period (600–480 BCE) Early Classical Period (480–450 BCE) High Classical Period (450–420 BCE) Late Classical Period (420–323 BCE) Hellenistic Period (323–31 BCE)

• Funerary Krater, Dipylon Cemetery, c. 760 BCE, Geometric, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
• Mantiklos Apollo, Greece, c. 700–680 BCE, Orientalizing, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
• Exekias, Achilles and Ajax Playing Dice , c. 530 BCE, Archaic, Vatican Museums, Rome
• Euphronios, Death of a Sarpedon Krater , 515 BCE, Archaic, National Etruscan Museum, Rome
• Phiale Painter, Hermes Bringing the Infant Dionysos to Papposilenos , c. 440–435 BCE, Archaic, Vatican Museums, Rome
• Statue of a Kouros, c. 580 BCE, Archaic, Metropolitan Museum of Art
• Kroisos Kouros , Anavysos, c. 530 BCE, Archaic, 76 inches high, National Archaeological Museum, Athens
• Kritios Boy, 480 BCE, Early Classical, 34 inches high, Acropolis Museum
• Dying Warrior , Temple of Aphaia, West, 500–490 BCE (vs. East Pediment, 490–480 BCE), Glyptothek, Munich
• Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) , Roman copy of a Greek original from 440 BCE, High Classical, Archaeological Museum of Naples
• Praxiteles, Hermes and the Infant Dionysos , Roman copy of a Greek original from c. 340 BCE, Late Classical, Louvre Museum, Paris
• Gallic Chieftain Killing Himself and His Wife , Roman copy of a Greek original from c. 320–220 BCE, Hellenistic, Palazzo Altemps, Rome
• Defeated Boxer , c. 100–50 BCE, Hellenistic, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome

The Funerary Krater from the Dipylon Cemetery bears the essential hallmarks of the early Geometric Period, which gets its name from the repeated use of geometric patterns and motifs during this time. Here, clearly divided registers, or levels, of decoration alternate between different abstract geometric designs, including the meander pattern seen in the upper lip of the pot. The belly of the krater is decorated with two larger registers that are separated by geometric patterns and filled with a stylized representation of a funeral procession. The upper register reveals the deceased individual, laid out rigidly across a funerary bier, and to either side appear abstract female forms, whose crossed arms overhead are meant to signal their mourning. The lower register reveals a procession of soldiers with their horses, presenting additional examples of the tendency toward abstracted figures. The soldiers, for example, appear as if they are shields with limbs, while the chariot horses are melded into one horse-like shape with a multitude of legs.

This abstraction of form continued into the Orientalizing Period, as illustrated by the Mantiklos Apollo . Earning this name from the inscription across his thighs that reads: “Mantiklos donated me as a tithe to the far shooter, the bearer of the Silver Bow. You, Phoebus (Apollo) give me something pleasing in return,” this small bronze cast votive reveals stylized treatment of the human form similar to that of the Dipylon krater, with an inverted triangular torso, elongated neck, and oblong face.

Moving into the Archaic Period, one witnesses a profusion of painted pottery. These ceramic pieces reflect the talents of Greek painters for rendering figural naturalism. The skill required for these pieces is attested to by the fact that artists signed many of the pieces they painted. The first style to emerge was known as Black Figure Style pottery, so-called because figures appear through the application and subsequent kiln oxidation of applied silica slip. Exekias’ Achilles and Ajax Playing Dice illustrates this style of pot. Comparing this to the Dipylon funerary krater, one can see that the repeated geometric patterns and abstracted figures are here replaced with a narrative reduced to one central register and a clearer articulation of figures and compositional elements. It is as if Ezekias has caught Achilles and Ajax in a heated moment of the game, both hunched over the board in observation.

The same feeling can be attained from Red Figure Style pottery, as illustrated by Euphronios’ Death of Sarpedon Krater . Here figures are formed through the absence of the silica slip, with the advantage of allowing more intricate details within the composition. In the main narrative panel of the Death of Sarpedon Krater, for example, Euphronios’ mastery of the red figure technique allowed him to delineate musculature and bleeding wounds, details that add to the dramatic scene, wherein Sarpedon, defeated by the spear of Patroclus during the Trojan War, is carried off the battlefield by Sleep and Death.

The White Ground technique, the last of the three styles of Greek painted pottery, carried the field forward by introducing the element of polychromy, or multi-colored forms. This style, as illustrated in the Phiale Painter’s Hermes Bringing the Infant Dionysos to Papposilenos , involved painting narrative scenes in many colors on a white clay pot. The result, similar to a painting on a canvas, was imagery as intricate as seen in Red and Black Figure pots, but here the addition of vibrant color brings these stories to life.

Also during the Archaic Period, we find that artists become exponentially more adept at conjuring the naturalism of the human body. Statue of a Kouros reveals efforts, for example, to better convey the musculature of a male figure, with incised lines used to delineate abdominal and thigh muscles. This kouros, or “young man,” also exhibits greater facial expression, illustrating the tight, mannequin-like expression known as the “archaic smile,” a common feature of the sculpture of this period.

Compare the Metropolitan’s Statue of a Kouros to the Kroisos Kouros , carved forty years later, and you can get a sense of how quickly artists innovated their approach to the figure. While the Kroisos Kouros figure maintains the archaic smile, mat-like layer of braided hair, and rigid stance similar to the Metropolitan’s kouros, the kouros from Anavysos shows great advances in the Greeks’ understanding of anatomy and musculature. Contoured muscles have replaced incised lines, and the overall girth of the thighs and torso bring us even closer to a naturalistic human figure.

The Kritios Boy reflects the next step in this evolution during the transition to the Early Classical Period, commenced with the victory of the Greeks over Persian invaders and considered, along with the High Classical Period, the peak years of ancient Greek civilization. Though the Kritios Boy’s face is still relatively expressionless, the archaic smile is gone, and the carved eyes, which originally would have had inlaid stone, suggest a step toward imbuing the figure with personality. Also improved is the artist’s understanding of musculature, so much so that the sculpture gives a sense of the tactility of its flesh. What is most striking about this figure, however, is the effort to capture the naturalistic stance of contrapposto, wherein the shoulders shift opposite to the pelvis, allowing the figural weight to rest on one leg while the other bends slightly.

The development of naturalism was central to the transition from the Archaic to the Early Classical Periods, as demonstrated by a visual analysis of the Western Pediment Dying Warrior (500–490 BCE) and Eastern Pediment Dying Warrior (490–480 BCE) from the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina. Though these two figures were completed within a decade of each other, they reveal this essential transition. The Western Pediment Dying Warrior maintains the same characteristics of his Archaic predecessors (archaic smile, mannequin-like appearance) while revealing the limitations of this approach to sculptural representation. This figure is intended to be in the throes of death as he grips at the arrow that has pierced his chest; however, his expressionless face and rigid smile do not connote such agony. Added to this missing emotional context is the awkward position in which this warrior’s body has been folded. He balances on one hip while jauntily crossing his leg, a position difficult for anyone to assume, let alone a dying soldier. His Eastern Pediment Warrior counterpart, however, reveals a greater sense of naturalism not only in pose but also in expression.

The Greek sculptor Polykleitos was known for his perfection of the contrapposto stance in conjunction with his writing of the Canon, one of the most influential known ancient treatises on art. In this text, Polykleitos advocates for sculptural symmetria, which basically means that all parts of the sculpture should be designed in perfect proportion to each other. This principle is demonstrated in his Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) , particularly in the counterbalance of the figure’s shoulders to his hips. With his weight resting on his right foot, this figure’s left leg is bent and his left foot is extended behind him, as if the spear bearer has been caught mid-stride. While this positioning of the legs causes the spear bearer’s left hip to dip downward, Polykleitos compensates for this by adjusting his left shoulder upward. This counterbalancing allows for the symmetria of the sculpture and thus fits Polykleitos’s canon for beauty. (A great clip illustrating Polykleitos’s canon, excerpted from the Nigel Spivey series mentioned below, can be found here .)

If Greek art of the High Classical Period is characterized by the refined idealism of the Doryphoros, the subsequent Late Classical Period, illustrated through sculptures such as Praxiteles’s Hermes and the Infant Dionysos , captures the period’s burgeoning interest in a more human approach to artistic depictions. This shift came in part due to the changing political atmosphere in Greece, where the relative calm of the preceding century had been replaced in the fourth century by upheaval and uncertainty. Most notable in this shift was the installation of Alexander the Great, whose father had gained control of Greek territories around 338 BCE yet met with death only two years later. While Alexander the Great’s military campaigns expanded Greece’s control to unprecedented borders, the atmosphere of unrest initiated artistic shifts.

In Hermes and the Infant Dionysos we see the figure of Hermes adopting a softened contrapposto stance as he cradles the infant Dionysos in the crook of his arm. Hermes’s gaze is gentler than that seen in Polykleitos’s Doryphoros, and his right arm would have once playfully held a bunch of grapes. In sum, the interaction seen here seems not the exchange between two gods but rather that between a caregiver and child, stressing the human qualities of these previously idealized deities.

The death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE resulted in the division of his expansive empire among his top generals and signaled another artistic revolution as artists explored more novel means of expression. Building on the humanist qualities of Late Classical art, Hellenistic art emphasized emotion, drama, and theatricality. This was particularly apparent in those works reserved for military monuments, such as the Gallic Chieftain Killing Himself and His Wife . Originally part of a sculptural group erected on the acropolis of the kingdom of Pergamon, near present-day Bergama, Turkey, this dramatic grouping was intended to reinforce Pergamene victory over the Gauls while also expressing reverence for their nobility in defeat.

Here the Gallic chieftain stands poised to drive his sword into his own chest, the tip of his blade already piercing his skin and causing rivulets of blood below. He is depicted just after having killed his wife, whose body hangs limp next to him. His powerful pose, implying that death is more amenable than capture, provides a strong contrast to that of his wife’s lifeless body, and when observing this sculpture in the round it is as if you can envision what will happen next.

While Gallic Chieftain Killing Himself and His Wife conveys this strong sense of drama and theatricality, other sculptures from the Hellenistic Period offer greater subtlety of emotion. Such is illustrated by works like the bronze Defeated Boxer . Depicting a boxer who has presumably just lost a fight, this figure expresses a sense of total defeat, with hunched shoulders and a pitiful expression on his face. Thus, while not as immediately dramatic as works such as the Gallic Chieftain, in comparison the Defeated Boxer illustrates the truly remarkable range of emotional expression that Hellenistic sculptors were able to achieve.

At the End of Class

To reinforce some of the themes discussed in this class, you can have your students watch clips or the entirety of the first episode of Nigel Spivey’s How Art Made the World , entitled “More Human Than Human” . This installment is a great complement to a lecture on Greek art, as it discusses the evolution of the human form from the Woman of Willendorf to the Greek era. It also provides a great visual explanation of Polykleitos’s canon.

A discussion of ancient Greek art also presents the opportunity to incorporate the current “hot topic” of cultural patrimony and the longstanding question: “who owns the past?” This question is particularly relevant to some of the objects included in this lesson, such as Euphronios’s Death of Sarpedon Krater, which was repatriated in Italy in 2008 following a long legal battle (one article on the topic is here ; however, articles on related cases can be found readily and might be more current). You could have your students read some recent news articles on the issue, and then either write a brief response paper or incorporate them into a class debate.

Further Resources

Smarthistory on Greek Art

Alexis Culotta (author) is a PhD Candidate at the University of Washington.

Jon Mann (editor) is an Adjunct Lecturer at Lehman College, a Senior Contributor at Artsy, and a lecture contributor and editor at Art History Teaching Resources and Art History Pedagogy and Practice.

Kaegan Sparks (editor) is a PhD student at the CUNY Graduate Center and a Publication Associate in Critical Anthologies at the New Museum, New York.

Jon Mann, "Greek Art," in Art History Teaching Resources, September 6, 2014, accessed July 3, 2024, http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/lessons/greek-art/.

War, democracy, and art in ancient Greece, c. 490–350 B.C.E.

Iktinos and Kallikrates, The Parthenon, Athens, 447 – 432 B.C.E. (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The art and architecture of Classical Greece (c. 490–323 B.C.E.) has had an outsized impact in the history of art. It was revered and emulated in later periods and places such as Hellenistic Pergamon , Augustan Rome, and renaissance Italy . Writing in the eighteenth century, Johann Joachim Winckelmann deemed classical Greek art the pinnacle of all artistic achievement, a reputation that heavily influenced the development of the field of art history and has lingered into the twenty-first century. Classical art has been regularly praised for its stylistic elements, including notably its idealized depictions of the human form. These sculptures’ depictions of the human body appear naturalistic, depicting what humans actually look like, but it is a constructed naturalism without flaws or acknowledgment of reality. The artworks promote the idea that that which is most perfect is the most beautiful, and have been admired by generations of art historians and the general public alike.

Phidias (?), Sculpture from the east pediment of the Parthenon, marble, c. 448–432 B.C.E. (British Museum, London)

The term “classical” has become a synonym for an artistic form, visual, musical, or textual, that is both traditional and exemplary, such as classical ballet or classical music. The academic field that studies ancient Greek and Roman antiquity, primarily its texts, has long been known as the field of Classics. This chapter aims to go beyond the established stylistic reputation of classical art and examine it within its original historical context, providing a deeper understanding of the goals and meanings of the idealized art of the classical period. 

Ancient Greek world map (underlying map © Google)

This chapter examines classical art and architecture, incorporating the periods and styles now known as Early Classical/ Severe (c. 490–450 B.C.E.), High Classical (c. 450–400 B.C.E.), and Late Classical (c. 400–323 B.C.E.). To highlight how the historical events of the era affected the development of artistic style and subject, the chapter is organized primarily chronologically, and examines art within its original context as a lens through which to examine the time period and culture in which it was produced. 

Watch a video that introduces the classical

Classic, classical, and classicism explained: What do we mean when we use these terms?

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Greco-Persian Wars

Growth of the Achaemenid Empire under different kings (underlying map © Google)

In 490 B.C.E., the Achaemenid Persian Empire , under the leadership of king Darius, invaded mainland Greece. The Persian Empire, stretching from the Mediterranean to central Asia, was the dominant political and military force in the region. Greece, by comparison, consisted primarily of independent city-states ( poleis) and had little political or military power. Many Greeks, in the face of this unprecedented threat, temporarily put aside their own differences to form a unified military force. Against the odds, the Greeks won, with a decisive victory at the Battle of Marathon. Under a new king, Xerxes, the Persians invaded again in 480, and the Greeks, who had spent ten years building up their military forces and defenses, joined together and again won a series of battles. While for the Persians these were simply setbacks in their quest for territorial expansion and received little attention in their histories or art, for the Greeks, the Greco-Persian Wars were defining events, causing changes in Greek art, culture, and society. The Greeks now saw themselves as powerful players on the international stage, and this affected both their internal perceptions and their interactions with other societies. Their victories over the Persians were commemorated in various forms for the rest of the century, and especially in Athens, were regularly cast as triumphs of Greek civilization over the non-Greek barbarian other. 

Read an essay about the Achaemenid Persian Empire

Ancient Persia: an introduction

The Severe Style: a period of change

The Greco-Persian Wars led to changes in art that ushered in the classical style. Following the first Persian invasion in 490, the severe (or early classical) style emerged, which departed from the earlier archaic style . 

Striding God (Artemision Zeus) (detail), c. 460 B.C.E., bronze, 2.09 m high, Early Classical (Severe Style), recovered from a shipwreck off Cape Artemision, Greece in 1928 (National Archaeological Museum, Athens)

The Severe period derives its name from the so-called severe facial expressions on sculptures like the Striding God (Artemision Zeus) that contrast with earlier statues like the Anavysos Kouros and Peplos Kore with their archaic smiles. 

Kritios Boy , after 480, marble, 86 cm high (Acropolis Museum)

On statues like the Kritios Boy and the Riace Warriors we notice a new pose, frequently referred to by the Italian term, contrapposto , which depicts the body in an S-curve position. Contrasting to standing kouroi of the sixth century, the new pose is seen by art historians to be more naturalistic as it mimics how people commonly stand with their weight resting on one leg.

Paris (?), from the west pediment from the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina, Archaic/Early Classical Periods, c. 490–480 B.C.E. (Glyptothek, Munich; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The emergence of the Severe style, while it seems to be linked with changes in Greek perceptions that followed the Greco-Persian Wars, was not an immediate revolution. This can be seen at the Temple of Aphaia on the island of Aegina. Like many Greek temples, it featured sculpture in its pediments that was mythological in subject. The pediments at Aegina are unusual, however, because they display multiple artistic styles: the sixth-century archaic style in the west pediment and the fifth-century severe style in the east. The date of the temple has been frequently debated due to these differences in style. 

Trojan and Greek, from the east pediment from the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina, Archaic/Early Classical Periods, c. 490–480 B.C.E. (Glyptothek, Munich; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Some scholars have argued that the temple was begun before the Persian Wars when the archaic style was dominant and finished later once the Severe style came into vogue. More recently, other writers have posited that both pediments were done after 490 B.C.E., and that they are evidence that the archaic style continued to co-exist with the severe style for some time, with different artists employing different styles. This argument that the two styles co-existed pushes back against the theory that the Greco-Persian Wars and the associated changes in Greek self-perception led to immediate and comprehensive changes in artistic style. If this is correct, the classical style is less a revolution, as it is sometimes been called in art historical scholarship, and more an evolution. The Aegina pediments speak to how the development of style in the Greek world is still a debated topic, and that it was both gradual and messy.

Watch videos and read essays about the Severe Style

Contrapposto explained: A pose that depicts the body in an S-curve position.

Kritios Boy: Following war with the Persians, this highly naturalistic sculpture was buried out of respect.

Striding God (Artemision Zeus): This bronze god sank to the bottom of the sea where he sat for millennia, but who is he and what can he tell us?

Riace Warriors: Archaeologists pulled these bronze warriors from the sea in 1972, but their origin and date remain a mystery.

East and West Pediments from the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina: Two different styles in two groups from the same temple—what does it mean?

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Athens and the Athenian Democracy

The Acropolis of Athens viewed from the Hill of the Muses (photo: Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0)

The city of Athens saw dramatic political as well as artistic changes following the Greco-Persian Wars and played an important role in the development of the High Classical style that emerged in the mid-fifth century. Many art historical surveys of classical Greek art focus on Athens almost exclusively. Yet, Athens was only one among a number of Greek cities creating art and architecture in the period. This narrow focus in modern texts can be partly explained by Athens’ position as one of the wealthiest and most powerful cities in the Greek world in this period, and the comparatively large investments they made in the arts. To paraphrase the ancient historian Thucydides, Athens, through its investment in art and architecture, looked like a more powerful city than it actually was, while the modest appearance of its rival, Sparta, belied its own power (1.10).

Thucydides on Athens

For I suppose if Lacedaemon were to become desolate, and the temples and the foundations of the public buildings were left, that as time went on there would be a strong disposition with posterity to refuse to accept her fame as a true exponent of her power. And yet they occupy two-fifths of Peloponnese and lead the whole, not to speak of their numerous allies without. Still, as the city is neither built in a compact form nor adorned with magnificent temples and public edifices, but composed of villages after the old fashion of Hellas, there would be an impression of inadequacy. Whereas, if Athens were to suffer the same misfortune, I suppose that any inference from the appearance presented to the eye would make her power to have been twice as great as it is. We have therefore no right to be sceptical, nor to content ourselves with an inspection of a town to the exclusion of a consideration of its power.

Thucydides, The History of the Peloponnesian War , 1.10, translated by Richard Crawley, written 431 B.C.E.

In addition, significantly more textual documentation has survived from Athens than other cities, allowing us to gain a better understanding of the artistic process and the creation of monuments such as the Acropolis.

Athens, beginning in the late sixth century B.C.E., was a democracy, in contrast to other Greek poleis which were primarily oligarchies or tyrannies . As with many democratic systems, Athens required the justification of expenditures to its citizens, meaning that the costs of its state-sponsored artistic projects, including notably the Acropolis building program, were recorded and displayed in public locations.

Soon after the defeat of the Persians in 490 B.C.E., Athenians began to practice ostracism as a way to prevent any one person from gaining too much power. Each year, people would meet in the Agora to vote as to whether any one person was too powerful or too close to becoming a tyrant. If the majority said yes, then another meeting was held during which citizens would write onto an ostrakon (piece of a potsherd used for a writing surface) the name of an individual they feared was too powerful; the individual who had the majority of votes was exiled for 10 years.

These ostraka from 482 B.C.E. were recovered from a well near the Acropolis and have the name of Themistocles written on them. He was a famous Athenian general, but would eventually be exiled (Ancient Agora Museum in Athens; photo: Zde, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Every male citizen was eligible (and obligated) to take part in Athens’ democratic system, serving in the assembly, juries, the army, and other governmental service. Yet, male citizens were only one part of a much larger population. In addition to citizens, metics (free non-citizens) and enslaved people lived in the city. Women, both citizens and non-citizens, were not eligible to take part in the government. Current scholarly estimates hypothesize a group of 30,000 to 60,000 male citizens ruling over a population of between 150,000 and 400,000 people.

A view of the Athenian Agora from the Acropolis

The Athenian Agora served as the physical center of Athens’ democracy, with many of its buildings hosting institutions central to the daily functioning of the government. Many cities had agoras, which were public open spaces used for gatherings or markets. In Athens, the Agora was in the center of the city, next to the Acropolis. It housed law courts, buildings where the boule (the city council) met, magistrates’ offices, mints, archives, temples, stores, and statues. It was the heart of public, civic life in Athens.

Watch a video about the agora

The Athenian Agora: The experiment in democracy in Athens

Delian League, Athenian Empire, and the Acropolis Building Program

The Acropolis of Athens (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Athens acted as one of the military leaders in the Greco-Persian Wars, and emerged from the conflict as one of the most powerful poleis (city-states) in Greece. After the wars, they formed the Delian League, a federation of Greek cities located primarily on the coasts of the Aegean Sea in both mainland Greece and Asia Minor as well as on the Aegean islands, many of which had been under the control of Persia before the wars, and acted as its leader. Ostensibly, the Delian League was a federation of equals who joined together for defense, to prepare for another possible Persian invasion. Each city contributed ships and/or money, and the treasury was housed on the island of Delos. In reality, the league became an Athenian empire, as demonstrated most clearly by the movement of the treasury from Delos to Athens, where the Athenian democracy decided to use the money not for defense, but for the construction of the Acropolis Building Program.

Aerial view of the Acropolis (© Google)

The Acropolis, a flat topped hill in the center of the city, served as the heart of Athens’ religious life. The highly decorated, marble buildings functioned not only as a place to worship Athens’ most important deity, Athena, in monumental and lavish form, but to glorify the city of Athens and its people. They also served as victory monuments, commemorating the defeat of the Persians.

Remains of materials from the temples destroyed during the Persian sack of the Acropolis, such as column-drums (here) and a triglyph-metope frieze, were incorporated into the Acropolis North Wall.

In 480 and again in 479, the Persians sacked the city of Athens. While the city was mostly evacuated before the Persians entered, large portions of the city were destroyed, including the sacred structures on the Acropolis. The buildings that were constructed as part of the Acropolis Building Program (including the Temple of Athena Nike, the Parthenon, and the Erechtheion) were their replacements, and there were references to the Persian destruction and subsequent defeat across the Acropolis.

Temple of Athena Nike, 421–405 B.C.E., marble, Acropolis, Athens

Remnants of an archaic temple were left visible as a monument to the destruction, while the Temple of Athena Nike was decorated with friezes that depicted battles of Greeks and Persians, and the metopes of the Parthenon showed mythological battles that served as an allegory of the Persian defeat, presented as the triumph of civilization over barbarism.  

Watch videos and read essays about the Acropolis building program

The Parthenon, Athens: an overview

The Erechtheion: This complex temple is very different from its neighbor, the Parthenon.

Temple of Athena Nike: It probably had a connection to the victory of the Greeks against the Persians around half a century earlier.

Destruction, Memory, and Monuments: The Parthenon has had many lives.

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Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) or Canon , Roman marble copy of a Greek bronze, c. 450–440 BCE (Museo Archaeologico Nazionale, Naples; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Outside of Athens, numerous statues and buildings also embraced the idealizing forms seen on the Acropolis. One statue that became one of the best known in the ancient world and representative of fifth-century artistic style was the Doryphoros by Polykleitos. The original bronze statue has not survived, but it was copied frequently in marble by the Romans, and discussed by a number of ancient writers.

It was also known as the canon, as Polykleitos attempted, in the statue, to achieve the perfect set of proportions for the male, human form. This was, for the artist, the pursuit of the ultimate beauty, which could be mathematically determined through symmetry and ideal proportions.

The goal of much of fifth-century art, like the Doryphoros and the buildings and sculptures on the Athenian Acropolis, was to pursue idealism with a detached appreciation of beauty on a philosophical level.

While the location of the original Doryphoros is debated, it was likely erected in a public place, perhaps in Polykleitos’ hometown of Argos. Greek statues were commissioned for various purposes, including as votive dedications in sanctuaries, grave markers, or monuments commemorating military victories or other civic or religious accomplishments. They were commissioned by both governments and individuals and displayed in both private and public contexts. Statues were made of various media, including terracotta, marble, and bronze.

Antikythera Youth , 340–330 B.C.E., bronze, 1.96 m high (National Archaeological Museum, Athens, photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Many small-scale statues displayed in homes were made of terracotta, while metal or stone were used for more public dedications. Few bronze statues have survived, as the material could be melted down and used for other purposes in later periods, including notably for weapons or tools. Those bronze statues that have survived have done so primarily because they were lost in antiquity due to shipwreck, like the Antikythera Youth , or in other natural disasters, before their recovery in the modern period. Many of the bronze statues that were famous in the ancient period, like the Doryphoros , are known today only in marble Roman copies or through descriptions.

Painted mockup of Paris (?), west pediment sculptures, Temple of Aphaia, Island of Aegina, c. 490–480 B.C.E.

Most stone statues were made of white marble taken from quarries on the Greek islands, notably Paros, or the mainland at Mount Pentelikon near Athens. All of these statues, as well as marble architectural sculptures, were originally painted in bright colors, both their skin and clothing, and painted designs were frequently included on the sculpted fabric.

Antikythera Youth (detail), 340–330 B.C.E., bronze, 1.96 m high (National Archaeological Museum, Athens, photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Even the bronze statues were colorful, with different types of alloys or metal treatments used to distinguish between the color of hair, skin, eyes, and clothing. The plain white marble that is found in most museums today would have been viewed as half-finished by a Greek viewer.

Traces of paint are still visible on many sculptures, including these from the Parthenon. Phidias (?), Sculpture from the east pediment of the Parthenon, marble, c. 448–432 B.C.E. (British Museum, London)

Watch videos about two sculptures

Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) : The original bronze statue has not survived, but it was copied frequently and discussed by a number of ancient writers.

The Antikythera Youth: A magnificent original 4th-century Greek bronze lost at sea.

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The Peloponnesian War, its aftermath and images of women

Athens continued work on the Acropolis buildings throughout the second half of the fifth century, even after they became embroiled in the Peloponnesian War (431 to 404 B.C.E.). The war, fought between Athens and its allies against Sparta and its allies, was long and brutal. Athens eventually lost the war, along with much of its economic and military power, but the costs were high on both sides. Construction on the Acropolis continued intermittently during the fighting. This served, in part, as a public works project, providing jobs for Athenians whose livelihoods had been disrupted by the war, but primarily as a statement of Athens’ self-perceived power and glory.

Grave stele of Hegeso , c. 410 B.C.E., marble and paint, from the Dipylon Cemetary, Athens, 5′ 2″ (National Archaeological Museum, Athens)

Following the end of the Peloponnesian Wars, little art and architecture was commissioned at the state level in Athens, yet private commissions of artworks erected in public spaces, such as grave markers, were regularly made. These grave markers commemorate individuals and/or families, and depict idealized depictions of their honorees. They frequently highlight what were seen as the accomplishments of their honorees—service to the state and army for men, and families and oversight of the domestic sphere for women as seen in the Grave Stele of Hegeso . In classical Athens, women were not only disenfranchised from political life, but also limited in their own bodily and economic autonomy. Athenian women had a male guardian, usually a father or a husband, that made decisions for them regarding issues such as money, property, and divorce, their entire lives. Overseeing a prosperous household, bearing children, and taking part in religion were the expected accomplishments for women. Artworks like the Grave Stele of Hegeso therefore provide a valuable lens through which to examine gender roles in classical Greece.

Capitoline Venus , 2nd century C.E., marble, 193 cm (Capitoline Museums, Rome) (Roman copy of the Aphrodite of Knidos, a 4th century B.C.E. Greek original by Praxiteles)

While the male nude had long been a subject of Greek art, the first monumental statue of a female nude did not appear until the fourth century, when Praxiteles sculpted The Aphrodite of Knidos . Like the Doryphoros , the original artwork has not survived, but it is known through multiple copies and emulations, like the Capitoline Venus , as well as written descriptions.

Before this, partial and total female nudity was reserved for sex workers and victims of sexual assault in Greek art. Goddesses and heroines were not depicted nude, and female nudity did not have the same identifying characteristics of the heroic Greek as male nudity did. The Aphrodite of Knidos made the female nude an acceptable subject, and influenced generations of her descendants. Yet, female nudity was still limited, reserved only for certain figures. For instance, while Aphrodite, the goddess of erotic love, was regularly depicted nude, Athena, the goddess of strategic warfare, was not.

In addition, how Aphrodite was depicted differed from her male counterparts. Aphrodite of Knidos is shown bathing with a water jug and a large piece of drapery. She holds her hand across her body in front of her pubic triangle and turns her head to the side. This gesture has been interpreted by some scholars as drawing attention to her power as a goddess of sexuality, while others have viewed it as a gesture of vulnerability, as the goddess attempts to hide herself from unwanted male eyes. She is intended to be a portrait of female beauty, but whether that beauty is powerful or vulnerable still remains a question.   

Watch videos about images of women made after the Peloponnesian War

Grave stele of Hegeso: This stele helps to  examine gender roles in classical Greece.

Capitoline Venus (copy of the Aphrodite of Knidos): What did her nudity possibly mean to the Greeks?

In modern society, the term classical has become associated with a universally appealing artistic style of idealized depictions of perfect beauty, but the art of classical Greek art is better understood as a product of a specific period in Greek history. The fifth and fourth centuries saw multiple wars, as well as social and cultural upheaval. The Greeks were part of a larger Mediterranean and West Asian world that was connected by trade, diplomatic, and military ties, and these connections influenced their art. In the Classical period, this is seen most notably in their interactions with the Persians and the subsequent affect on their art and architecture. All this is reflected in classical idealism.

Key questions to guide your reading

What were the greco-persian wars who fought in these wars and why what was the impact of these wars on greek art, politics, and society, what buildings were constructed on the athenian acropolis in the fifth century b.c.e. how do these buildings reflect the concerns of the athenian democracy and its people, how can greek ideas of gender be seen in art produced in the fifth and fourth centuries b.c.e. was male and female nudity treated differently in greek art, terms to know and use.

Contrapposto

Pelopponnesian War

Poleis (singular polis)

Severe Style

Read “Empire and Art in the Hellenistic world (c. 350–31 B.C.E.).”

Collaborators

Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker

Dr. Senta German

Dr. Beth Harris

Dr. Lauren Kilroy-Ewbank

Dr. Rachel Kousser

Katarzyna Minollari

Dr. Steven Zucker

The British Museum

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Greek and Roman Art

The Museum's collection of Greek and Roman art comprises more than thirty thousand works ranging in date from the Neolithic period (ca. 4500 B.C.) to the time of the Roman emperor Constantine's conversion to Christianity in A.D. 312. It includes the art of many cultures and is among the most comprehensive in North America. The geographic regions represented are Greece and Italy, but not as delimited by modern political frontiers: Greek colonies were established around the Mediterranean basin and on the shores of the Black Sea, and Cyprus became increasingly Hellenized. For Roman art, the geographical limits coincide with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The department also exhibits the art of prehistoric Greece (Helladic, Cycladic, and Minoan) and pre-Roman art of Italic peoples, notably the Etruscans.

What's On View

The Greek and Roman galleries reveal classical art in all of its complexity and resonance. The objects range from small, engraved gemstones to black-figure and red-figure painted vases to over-lifesize statues and reflect virtually all of the materials in which ancient artists and craftsmen worked: marble, limestone, terracotta, bronze, gold, silver, and glass, as well as such rarer substances as ivory and bone, iron, lead, amber, and wood. The strengths of the collection include painted Greek vases, Greek grave reliefs, Cypriot sculpture, marble and bronze Roman portrait busts, and wall paintings from two villas on the slopes of Mount Vesuvius, one at Boscoreale and the other at Boscotrecase. The department's holdings in glass and silver are among the most important in the world, and the collection of archaic Attic sculpture is second only to that in Athens.

History of the Department

The Museum's first accessioned object was a Roman sarcophagus from Tarsus, donated in 1870. Its first director (1879–1904), Luigi Palma di Cesnola, was appointed on the strength of the acquisition and display of his large collection of antiquities from Cyprus. The third director (1910–1931) was Edward Robinson, an accomplished classical archaeologist whose tenure saw an exceptional enrichment of the collections by bequest, gift, and purchase. The donations of J. P. Morgan, for example, complemented purchases made possible in particular from the Rogers Fund, established in 1901 by a bequest of Jacob S. Rogers, a manufacturer of locomotives. In addition, some material came from excavations through organizations supporting the exploration of Sardis and from excavations at Praisos on Crete through the Archaeological Institute of America. Despite these propitious conditions for the acquisition of ancient art and the large number of objects that were indeed acquired, an independent Department of Classical Art was not established formally until 1909; in 1935 it was renamed the Department of Greek and Roman Art.

The Galleries

In 2007, the Museum completed a fifteen-year master plan to renovate the exhibition spaces for Greek and Roman art and reinstall the collection. The first phase was achieved in June 1996 with the opening of The Robert and Renée Belfer Court for prehistoric and early Greek art. The second phase, seven galleries for Greek art of the archaic and classical periods (sixth through fourth century B.C.), opened in April 1999. With objects arranged in a new contextual display combining works of different media, the new Greek galleries present such themes as religion, funerary customs, civic life, and athletics, in magnificent Beaux-Arts spaces created for the collection between 1912 and 1917 by the architectural firm of McKim, Mead and White. The grand, barrel-vaulted gallery in the center of the installation—now known as the Mary and Michael Jaharis Gallery—is one of New York City's great interior spaces, flooded with natural light and ideal for exhibiting large-scale marble sculpture, bronzes, and vases.

The department's extensive collection of Cypriot art returned to view in April 2000 in four newly renovated galleries on the second floor. The reinstallation culminated in April 2007 with the opening of spaces for Hellenistic, Etruscan, South Italian, and Roman Art. With more than 5,300 objects on view in an area of more than 30,000 square feet, the focal point is the Leon Levy and Shelby White Court —a monumental, skylit peristyle for the display of Hellenistic and Roman art with a soaring two-story atrium. The new galleries present the most important and familiar masterworks in the Greek and Roman collection.

The Study Collection on the mezzanine above the Leon Levy and Shelby White Court supplements the objects on view in the primary galleries and an exhibition gallery allows for temporary displays.

Browse and learn more about The Study Collection .

Ongoing Research

The staff of the Greek and Roman Department continuously adds information to the online collection . They produce publications, contribute to international conferences, and take an active part in archaeological fieldwork in Greece.

Collection Highlights

See highlights of Greek and Roman art in The Met collection .

Related Content

Publications

Discover The Met's many publications on Greek, Cypriot, Etruscan, and Roman art.

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

Browse richly illustrated essays on Greek and Roman art.

Blog Articles

Fresh perspectives on Greek and Roman art from curators and others at the Museum.

Watch videos about Greek and Roman art—interviews, lectures, exhibition previews, and more.

Archaeological Fieldwork at Palaikastro, Crete

Read about our excavations in Plaikastro in eastern Crete, once the site of a major Minoan town in the fifteenth century B.C.

On View in the Galleries

The Painted Details on Early Cycladic Marble Figures in the Leonard N. Stern Collection

A Roman Statue of Aphrodite on Loan to The Met

A Giant Boxer from Mont’e Prama: A Major Loan from Sardinia

The Dietrich von Bothmer Fragment Collection

The Kachrylion Kylix: A Major Loan from the National Archaeological Museum, Florence

Datable to about 510 B.C., a time of extraordinary creativity in Athens and of intense export to Italy, this drinking cup depicts the heroic deeds of Theseus.

Stay Connected

Meet the Staff

Get to know the people who care for the art.

Curatorial Friends Group

The Friends of Greek and Roman Art: Philodoroi brings together patrons and collectors in support of the department.

Module 5: The Art of Ancient Greece—Part I

Module 5 overview, what you’ll learn to do: examine and identify early greek art..

In Module 5 we will examine Ancient Greek art. We will look at how this art contributed to the larger development of Western art. It is imperative to understand Ancient Greek art in order to see how it impacted later artistic developments.

Learning Activities

The learning activities for this module include:

• Review: Key Learning Items
• Read: Aegean Prehistoric Archaeology
• Read: The Early Aegean (3000–700 BCE)

Geometric Period

• Watch: Geometric Greek Krater (4:26)

Archaic Period

• Watch: Black Figure Amphora (6:42)
• Watch: Niobid Painter, Attic Red Figure Calyx-Krater (6:04)
• Watch: New York Kouros (5:52)

Classical Period

• Watch: Spear Bearer (5:07)
• Watch: The Greek Temple (6:31)
• Watch: East and West Pediments, Temple of Aphaia (14:39)
• Watch: Myron, Discus Thrower (3:45)
• Watch:  The Parthenon (16:03)
• Watch: Parthenon’s East Pediment (4:58)
• Watch: Parthenon Frieze (5:21)
• Watch: Parthenon Metopes (6:42)
• Watch: Erechtheion (4:13)

Extra Review

• Review: External Resources
• Submit:  Module 5 Quiz (5 points)
• Art History I. Provided by : Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at : http://eli.nvcc.edu/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Image of Finger. Authored by : geralt. Located at : https://pixabay.com/en/finger-touch-hand-structure-769300/ . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

How to use this content:

As listed on the “Start Here” page for this unit, one of the unit objectives is “Identify Key Historical Facts” This objective will be assessed by the unit quiz.  While reading and watching the content in the following links and videos, make note of historical facts and information so you can return to them as needed when working on the unit quiz. Be on the lookout for names of artists, influential people, artworks, important events, trends and values in the culture.

Ancient Greece

We owe most of our cultural heritage to Ancient Greece. Their Humanistic philosophy and approach to life is the foundation of almost every ideology we subscribe to in the Industrialized West.

Link #1:  Ajax and Achilles Vase

Link #2:  Greek Humanism

Link #3:  Doryphoros

Link #4:  Architectural Orders

Link #5   Parthenon

Link #6:  Discobolos

Link #7:  Dying Gaul

More Learning Resources

Remember, since we can’t cover everything about art in this class, these reading assignments are based on the choices I have made for what to include, but there is much more that has not been included. If you are interested in learning more, please remember that our primary source, the Khan Academy, has lots of other videos and articles that explore this time and culture even further. You can explore them at Khan Academy (Ancient Greece) or SmartHistory (Ancient Greece) .

These links are not required reading for this unit, but if you are interested in learning more, you might enjoy exploring these resources:

Making Greek Vases

Parthenon In-Depth

Special Topic: Parthenon Marbles

British Museum on the Parthenon Marbles

New York Times Article

Acropolis Museum

Phelps: Art Appreciation Copyright © by megphelps. All Rights Reserved.

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Ancient Mediterranean + Europe

Course: ancient mediterranean + europe   >   unit 6, ancient greece.

• (Choice A)   True A True
• (Choice B)   False B False