melting point of wax experiment

7. Instrument Setup

Along with proper sample preparation, the settings on the instrument are as well essential for the exact determination of the melting point. Correct selection of the start temperature, the end stop temperature and the heating ramp rate are necessary to prevent inaccuracies due to a heat increase in the sample that is incorrect of too fast:

a) Start Temperature

Melting point determination starts at a predefined temperature close to the expected melting point. Up to the start temperature, the heating stand is rapidly preheated. At the start temperature the capillaries are introduced into the furnace, and the temperature starts to rise at the defined heating ramp rate. Common formula to calculate the start temperature: Start Temperature = expected MP – (5 min * heating rate)

b) Heating Ramp Rate

The heating ramp rate is the fixed rate of temperature rise between the start and stop temperatures for the heating ramp. Results depend strongly on the heating rate - the higher the heating rate the higher the observed melting point temperature. Pharmacopeias apply a constant heating rate of 1 °C/min. For highest accuracy and non-decomposing samples use 0.2 °C/min. With substances that decompose, a heating rate of 5 °C/min should be applied. For exploratory measurements a heating rate of 10 °C/min may be used.

c) Stop Temperature

The maximum temperature to be reached in the determination. Common formula to calculate the stop temperature: Stop Temperature = expected MP + (3 min * heating rate)

d) Thermodynamic / Pharmacopeia Mode

There are two modes for melting point evaluation: Pharmacopeia melting point and thermodynamic melting point. The pharmacopeia mode neglects that the furnace temperature is different (higher) during the heating process than the sample temperature, meaning that the furnace temperature is measured rather than the sample temperature. As a consequence, the pharmacopeia melting point depends strongly on the heating rate. Therefore, measurements are only comparable if the same heating rate is applied. The thermodynamic melting point on the other hand, is obtained by subtracting the mathematical product of a thermodynamic factor ‘f’ and the square root of the heating rate from the pharmacopeia melting point. The thermodynamic factor is an empirically determined instrument-specific factor. The thermodynamic melting point is the physically correct melting point. This value does not depend on heating rate or other parameters. This is a very useful value as it allows melting points of different substances to be compared independently of experimental setup.

Melting Point and Dropping Point – Automated Analysis

This melting point and dropping point guide explains the measurement principle of automated melting & dropping point analysis, and gives tips & hints for better measurements and performance verification.

• Visit this page to download the Automated Melting & Dropping Point Analysis guide

8. Calibration and Adjustment of a Melting Point Instrument

Before the unit is put into operation, it is recommended to verify its measurement accuracy. In order to check the temperature accuracy, the instrument is calibrated using melting point standards with exact certified melting points. Thus, the nominal values including tolerances can be compared with actual measured values.

If calibration fails, which means if the measured temperature values do not match the range of the certified nominal values of the respective reference substances, the instrument needs to be adjusted.

In order to ensure measurement accuracy it is recommended that the furnace is calibrated with certified reference substances on a regular basis, for example once a month.

Melting Point Excellence instruments leave the factory having been adjusted using METTLER TOLEDO reference substances. A three-point calibration with benzophenone, benzoic acid and caffeine is performed, followed by an adjustment. The adjustment is then verified by calibration with vanillin and potassium nitrate.

9. Influence of the Heating Rate on the Melting Point Measurement

Results depend strongly on the heating rate - the higher the heating rate the higher the observed melting point temperature. The reason is that the melting point temperature is not measured directly within the substance, but outside the capillary at the heating block, due to technical reasons. Therefore, the temperature of the sample lags behind the furnace temperature. The higher the heating rate, the more rapid the rise in oven temperature, increasing the difference between the melting point measured and the true melting temperature.

Due to the dependence of the rate of heat increase, measurements taken for melting points are comparable with one another only if they are taken using the same rates.

Temperature Behavior of the Sample and the Furnace

Melting point determination starts at a predefined temperature close to the expected melting point. The red solid line represents the temperature of the sample (see figure below). At the beginning of the melting process, both sample and furnace temperatures are identical; the furnace and sample temperatures are thermally equilibrated beforehand. The sample temperature rises proportionally to the furnace temperature. We have to bear in mind that the sample temperature increases with a short delay which is caused by the time needed for heat transmission from the furnace to the sample. While heating up, the furnace temperature is always higher than the sample temperature. At a certain point the furnace heat melts the sample inside the capillary. The sample temperature remains constant until the whole sample is molten. We identify different furnace temperature values T A and T C which are defined by the respective melting process stages: collapse point and clear point. The sample temperature inside the capillary rises significantly once the sample is completely molten. It increases parallel to the furnace temperature showing a similar delay as in the beginning.

Pharmacopeia MP vs. Thermodynamic MP

There are two modes for melting point evaluation: Pharmacopeia melting point and thermodynamic melting point. The pharmacopeia mode neglects that the furnace temperature is different (higher) during the heating process than the sample temperature, meaning that the furnace temperature is measured rather than the sample temperature. As a consequence, the pharmacopeia melting point depends strongly on the heating rate. Therefore, measurements are only comparable if the same heating rate is applied.

The thermodynamic melting point on the other hand, is obtained by subtracting the mathematical product of a thermodynamic factor ‘f’ and the square root of the heating rate from the pharmacopeia melting point. The thermodynamic factor is an empirically determined instrument-specific factor. The thermodynamic melting point is the physically correct melting point (see figure below). This value does not depend on heating rate or other parameters. This is a very useful value as it allows melting points of different substances to be compared independently of experimental setup.  

10. Melting Point Measurement – Tips and Hints

• Colored or decomposing samples (azo benzene, potassium dichromate, cadmium iodide) or samples that show a tendency to include air bubbles in the melt (urea) may require either the lowering of threshold value B or usage of the C value as the evaluation criteria because the transmission increase will not be so high during the melting.
• Samples that decompose (sugar) or sublime (caffeine): Seal the capillary with a flame. The volatile components produce an overpressure inside the closed capillary that inhibit further decomposition or sublimation.
• Hydroscopic samples: Seal the capillary with a flame.
• Heating rate: Usually 1 °C/min. For highest accuracy and non-decomposing samples use 0.2 °C/min. With substances that decompose, 5 °C/min; for exploratory measurements 10 °C/min.
• Start temperature: 3 - 5 min before, respectively 5 – 10 °C below, the expected melting point (3 - 5 times the heating rate).
• End temperature: A successful measuring curve requires an end temperature that is approx. 5 °C above the expected event.
• Use the thermodynamic melting point if SOP and instrument permit it. The thermodynamic melting point is the physically correct melting point and is not dependent on instrument parameters.
• Incorrect sample preparation : The sample being investigated must be fully dry, homogeneous and in powdered form. Moist samples must be dried first. Coarse crystalline sample and non-homogeneous samples are finely ground in a mortar. To ensure comparable results, it is important to fill all capillary tubes to the same height and to compact the substance well in the capillaries.
• Use of melting point capillaries that are very precisely manufactured ensuring highly accurate and repeatable results, e.g. capillaries from METTLER TOLEDO, is recommended. If other capillaries are used, the instruments should be calibrated and, if required, adjusted using these capillaries.

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11. Effect of Impurities on the Melting Point – Melting Point Depression

Melting point depression is the phenomenon of reduction of the melting point of a contaminated, impure material compared to the pure material. The reason is that contaminations weaken the lattice forces within a solid crystalline sample. In conclusion, less energy is needed to break the forces of attraction and to destroy the crystalline structure.

The melting point is therefore a useful indicator of purity as there is a general lowering and broadening of the melting range as impurities increase.

12. Mixed Melting Point Determination

If two substances melt at the same temperature, a mixed melting point determination can reveal if they are one and the same substance. The fusion temperature of a mixture of two components is usually lower than that of either pure component. This behavior is known as melting point depression.

For mixed melting point determination, the sample is mixed with a reference substance in a 1:1 ration. Whenever the melting point of the sample is depressed by mixing with a reference substance, the two substances cannot be identical. If the melting point of the mixture does not drop, the sample is identical to the reference substance that was added.

Commonly, three melting points are determined: sample, reference and 1:1 mixing ratio of sample and reference. The mixed melting point technique is an important reason why all high-quality melting point machines accommodate at least three capillaries in their heating blocks.

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Melting and Freezing

These downloadable videos and animations are part of the multimedia package Stuff and Substance, developed by the Gatsby Science Enhancement Programme (SEP). They can be used to develop the idea of a substance as a kind of ‘stuff’ which has a definite melting point.

The idea of a melting point can be introduced using pure samples of substances as the temperature that is ‘just hot enough’ to start melting. In terms of behaviour, a precise melting point is recognised by a sharp change from solid to liquid. Many students think the melting temperature depends on the sample size – the bigger the lumps the higher the temperature. Although most students see solidifying on cooling as the reverse of melting, many think that this only happens at temperatures well below the melting temperature. The videos show the melting behaviours of substances with different melting points (wax, lead and common salt) and the animations address the temperature aspects of melting and solidifying.

These video and animation files form part of the resources in the section Melting and Freezing  in the Stuff and Substance  multimedia package, which provides a series of interactive pages that can be used by teachers or students in the classroom.

Please note: From 2021, Adobe has discontinued support for Flash player and as a result some interactive files may no longer be playable. As an alternative method to accessing these files a group of volunteers passionate about the preservation of internet history have created project Ruffle ( https://ruffle.rs/ ). Ruffle is an entirely open source project that you can download and run many interactive Flash resources. For further information regarding STEM Learning’s policy for website content, please visit our terms and conditions page.

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Please be aware that resources have been published on the website in the form that they were originally supplied. This means that procedures reflect general practice and standards applicable at the time resources were produced and cannot be assumed to be acceptable today. Website users are fully responsible for ensuring that any activity, including practical work, which they carry out is in accordance with current regulations related to health and safety and that an appropriate risk assessment has been carried out.

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Melting and freezing stearic acid

In association with Nuffield Foundation

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In this experiment, a solid turns into a liquid and then the liquid turns into a solid. The energy changes are examined

The students will take the temperature of stearic acid at regular intervals as they heat and cool it. They can observe the melting and freezing points of the acid and can plot a   graph. This experiment could also be done using data-logging equipment

This practical takes quite a long time to carry out. Students can begin by simply recording their data but, once they get the hang of what they are doing, most should be able to plot the graph at the same time as taking readings. If data-loggers are being used then students will need another activity to be doing alongside the experiment.

• Eye protection
• Beaker (250 cm 3 )
• Boiling tube (note 1)
• Thermometer (0–100˚C)
• Clamp, stand and boss
• Bunsen burner
• Heat resistant mat

Apparatus notes

• If, after the practical, the boiling tubes are left containing both the stearic acid and the thermometer, immerse all the boiling tubes in hot water to remove the thermometers. The stearic acid can then be stored in the boiling tubes and recycled several times.
• Stearic acid (octadecanoic acid)

Health, safety and technical notes

• Read our standard health and safety guidance
• Wear eye protection.
• Stearic acid (octadecanoic acid), CH 3 (CH 2 ) 16 COOH(s) – see CLEAPSS Hazcard HC038b . The stearic acid in this practical can be used again and again. Have enough to quarter fill a boiling tube for each student
• Put about 150 cm 3  water into the beaker.
• Heat it on a tripod and gauze until the water just starts to boil.
• Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram and start the timer. Keep the water boiling, but not boiling vigorously.
• Using a suitable results table, record the temperature of the stearic acid every minute until it reaches about 70˚C. Note on your results table the point at which you see the solid start to melt.
• Use the clamp stand to lift the tube from the hot water. Record the temperature every minute as the stearic acid cools down until it reaches about 50˚C. Note on your results table the temperature at which you see the stearic acid begin to solidify.

Source: Royal Society of Chemistry

Apparatus set-up for the melting and freezing stearic acid experiment

Teaching notes

Remind students not to attempt to move the thermometer in the solid stearic acid, as it will break.

Energy must be supplied to melt a solid; this same energy is released when the liquid re-solidifies.

This presents a good opportunity to demonstrate how to maintain a steady temperature using a Bunsen burner. This can be achieved by sliding the Bunsen burner aside as the boiling becomes too vigorous; slide it back as the water stops boiling. It is not essential that the water bath is boiling. Students could be provided with another thermometer, and asked to maintain a lower temperature, say 80 °C.

A temperature sensor attached to a computer can be used in place of a thermometer. It can plot the temperature change on a graph and show this as it occurs. A slight modification of the experiment can yield an intriguing result: When the test tube is cooling place it in an insulated cup containing a few cm 3  of water. Use a second temperature sensor to monitor the temperature of the water. The water temperature should rise as the stearic acid cools and it should continue to rise even as it changes state.

A slight alternative to this experiment is to plot only the cooling curve. Place all the boiling tubes with stearic acid into a large beaker. Place some hot water in the beaker and continue to heat with a Bunsen burner. Remove from the heat when all the stearic acid has melted. Students can place a thermometer into the stearic acid and place the boiling tube into a test tube rack or beaker. They take the temperature every 30 seconds or every minute and plot a graph. Many students will anticipate that the stearic acid will continue to cool to zero – it is useful to discuss why the stearic acid stops cooling when it reaches room temperature.

In either version of the experiment it is good practice for students to draw a graph of their results. There should be a clear horizontal line in the graph which corresponds to the change of state, however many school samples of stearic acid are not very pure and hence the line is often not perfectly horizontal. The exact melting and freezing points of the stearic acid may not be exactly the same and will depend on the purity of the product and where it was purchased from, but are usually around 55–70 ˚C.

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Additional information

This is a resource from the  Practical Chemistry project , developed by the Nuffield Foundation and the Royal Society of Chemistry.

Practical Chemistry activities accompany  Practical Physics  and  Practical Biology . 

© Nuffield Foundation and the Royal Society of Chemistry

• 11-14 years
• 14-16 years
• Practical experiments
• Properties of matter

Specification

• Melting and freezing take place at the melting point, boiling and condensing take place at the boiling point
• Describe how heating a system will change the energy stored within the system and raise its temperature or produce changes of state.
• Describe how, when substances melt, freeze, evaporate, condense or sublimate, mass is conserved but that these physical changes differ from chemical changes because the material recovers its original properties if the change is reversed.
• 2.3 Explain the changes in arrangement, movement and energy of particles during these interconversions
• 6. Investigate the properties of different materials including solubilities, conductivity, melting points and boiling points.

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Melting point experiment discussion.

The purpose of this lab was to learn how to accurately determine melting points and to use this technique to then determine the melting points of two unkowns. The melting point is a physical property of a solid which can be used to help identify a substance. Usually, a solid will not melt at a specific temperature but instead will melt over a range. When using a melting point range, a narrow range suggests that the compound is relatively pure, whereas a larger range suggests a relative impurity. For this lab, a range of 2 degrees celsius was considered narrow and pure, with any greater range resulting in a retest with a new sample. 

In this lab, the melting points of two unkowns and the three compounds naphthalene, urea and sulfanilamide were to be determined. By using the melting temperature device it was possible to quickly heat the known compounds to 10 degrees celsius below their given melting point range. From there, the heat could ramp up at about 1 degree celsius per minute so that the melting could be observed when it started and when it finished, thus providing a range. 

The observed melting range for naphthalene was 81-83. The narrow range suggests a level of purity for the sample. The expected range was 79-80. The observed result was slightly higher than the given melting point range , but this could stem from the mel-Temp device thermometer being slightly off, or due to the purity of the sample. The observed melting range for urea was 133-135. Again, the narrow 2 degree range suggests the purity of the substance tested. However, here too the observed melting temperature range was slightly different than the given 132-134 range. Here, the difference is by 1 degree and does not suggest any larger error at play. The temperature range difference was slight and could be applicable to the thermometer device. The last given compound was sulfanilamide and it had an observed melting point range fo 165-167. This is the same range that was given for the known compound and fits within the 2 degree temperature range, suggesting that it is relatively pure.

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Melting Point Of Candle Wax

The melting point of wax is between 100 °F and 190 °F for most candles but can fluctuate between different types of wax. Paying attention to the temperature of your wax is critical, especially when adding scents, colors, and while pouring. 

Maintaining the right temperature during the melting and pouring process guarantees a great outcome. Whereas melting or pouring the wax at the wrong temperature can lead to disaster.

Generally, wax’s melting point does not exceed higher than two hundred degrees Fahrenheit. Exceeding the melting point may cause chemical reactions, resulting in irreversible physical change. Since these are chemical reactions, you cannot reverse these effects just by letting the wax cool down again. Moreover, overheating your wax past its melting point can cause your candle’s glass jar or mold to shatter.

Understanding the proper temperature conditions of the different candle waxes is important when preparing your own candles at home. Knowing the melting points of waxes can also help you understand how to prepare your candles and burn them in your home. When crafting candles in your home, always keep the temperature of your candle wax and candle jars (or other molding apparatus) consistent for the best results.

At what temperature does candle wax melt?

The general melting point for candle wax is between 145 °F and 180 °F, but it can vary based on the type of candle wax and the additives. It’s important to warm the wax slowly to prevent overheating, and cool the wax slowly to prevent fat bloom.

As a rule of thumb, waxes with low melting points (like paraffin and coconut wax) can be used to achieve very vibrant colors and strong scent. However, they also tend to burn faster and last not as long.

Candles with a medium to high melting point (such as palm wax or gel wax) normally don’t produce the same vivid colors or strong hot throw. However, they will normally burn considerably longer.

Below you can find the melting points of the most common types of wax used for candle making :

Can you overheat candle wax?

Prevent overheating your candles at all cost. Heating a wax to high above its melting point will result in irreversible chemical change and candles of bad qualities. You might experience bubbling, poor throwing, discoloration, frosting, uneven tops, poor glass adhesion, etc. Sometimes these imperfections are inside the candle, so they aren’t directly obvious by eye.

Heating wax above 200 degrees Fahrenheit will discolor the wax, causing it to brown, fade, or gray. It may also cause a separation of the wax and its additives. In some cases, you can even burn the color additives or fragrance oils , which can results in a really unpleasant hot throw.

When a wax becomes overheated, you cannot fix the damaging effects. It is important to pay attention to the heat while melting your candle wax and the pour heat. If you overheat your wax, you must throw away the batch or the candle. So it’s beneficial to have a thermometer that you can clip to your pan/container, so you don’t overshoot the melting temperature of your wax.

At what temperature should wax be poured?

You normally want to pour the wax at a temperature slightly below the melting point. Pouring it around this temperature guarantees that it will take the form of any mold that you put it in, and all additives will remain consistent throughout the mixture. Since the melting point is different for each type of wax, the ideal pouring temperature differs as well.

Before pouring your wax into your mold or container, check the temperature of your container. Pouring your hot wax into a cold container can lead to cracking, separation, and bubbling. So try to warm up your containers in the oven before pouring the hot wax.

What happens if you pour your candle wax too hot?

Pouring your candle wax too hot can result in many imperfections in your candle such as cracking, poor fragrance throw, bad glass adhesion, uneven tops, etc. Moreover, if the wax is too hot it can also crack a glass container or deform a candle mold.

What happens if you pour wax too cold?

If the wax is too cold while pouring, the candles might experience hollowing or sinking. Because the top dries while the wax underneath is still warm, the wax starts to suck down on itself. If your wax is very cold, you might also have lumps of wax throughout the candle.

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Melting Point Factors for Common Waxes

• Blog & Resources
• July 6, 2023

Wax melting points are essential to consider when choosing a wax for different applications. A wax’s melting point determines its ability to hold shape and withstand heat. Different wax types have varying melting points, which can be influenced by their chemical composition, purity and processing methods. Exceeding a wax’s melting point alters its physical properties.

Here we explore the melting point factors for common waxes, including microcrystalline, paraffin, soy and beeswax. We also discuss how each wax’s features can impact its performance and suitability for different applications.

Microcrystalline Wax

Microcrystalline wax is produced by refining petroleum. It’s a versatile material used in many applications, including the following:

View Our Microcrystalline Wax

• Food preservation and packaging
• Candle production
• Laminated paper products
• Coatings and linings
• Sealing compositions

Microcrystalline wax is known for its water resistance and ability to provide a protective barrier against moisture and other environmental factors. Industries often use it as a binding agent in products like chewing gum and gummy candies.

Microcrystalline wax has a high melting point,  ranging from 145-195 degrees Fahrenheit , depending on the wax grade.

A high melting point makes microcrystalline wax ideal for use in products that require heat resistance. Microcrystalline wax’s melting point is important in candle production, affecting the burn time and overall performance. Waxes with higher melting points tend to burn more slowly and evenly, while waxes with lower melting points may melt too quickly, resulting in a shorter burn time.

In cosmetics and personal care products, microcrystalline wax’s melting point can affect the texture and consistency of the product, as well as its ability to spread and adhere to the skin.

The benefits of using microcrystalline wax in products are that it:

• Enhances the texture of cosmetics such as skincare products, foundation and lipstick
• Enhances consistency by making products firmer, thicker or easily spreadable
• Enhances the visual appeal of cosmetics and personal care products by adding color consistency and shine
• Can keep products like lipstick from sweating during temperature fluctuations
• Is more flexible than other waxes, making products that contain it highly tensile

Paraffin Wax

Paraffin wax is a byproduct of petroleum refinement obtained through crude oil distillation. It’s a soft, often colorless and somewhat translucent wax. 

View Our Paraffin Wax

Paraffin wax is commonly used  in the following applications:

• Lubrication
• Electrical insulation
• Food coatings

One of paraffin wax’s key features is its melting point, which is typically  between 120-160 degrees Fahrenheit . Several factors can affect the melting point of paraffin wax, including the type of wax used, the size and shape of the wax crystals and the presence of any additives or impurities. Generally speaking, paraffin wax is known for its relatively low melting point, making it easy to work with in various applications.

Paraffin wax also has several other valuable properties. For example, it’s relatively odorless and colorless, making it a popular choice for cosmetics and other products with a neutral appearance.

Paraffin wax can help extract perfumes from flowers, form a base for medical ointments, and create a waterproof coating for wood. It also helps ignite wood and paper matchsticks by supplying an easily vaporized hydrocarbon fuel.

Some paraffin waxes may also provide therapeutic heat therapy for the hands and feet, and it has softening and moisturizing effects on the skin. It may help  relieve pain in sore joints and muscles  due to conditions like osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, fibromyalgia and other joint mobility issues.

Soy wax is a vegetable wax made from soybean oil. While soy wax is denser than paraffin wax, it’s typically softer and has a lower melting point. It’s a popular choice for candle making because it’s renewable, biodegradable and burns cleaner than paraffin wax. Soy wax also has a natural, subtle scent that can enhance the fragrance of candles. Other applications include care products like body lotions and lip balms.

View Our Soy Wax

One of the key characteristics of soy wax is its relatively low melting point. Low-melt soy wax  melts at 130 degrees Fahrenheit , while high-melt soy wax melts at 150 degrees Fahrenheit. This low melting point means soy wax candles will begin to melt and release their fragrance at a lower temperature than other types of candles, such as those made from paraffin wax.

Additionally, soy wax  has a longer burn time  than many other types of wax, making it a cost-effective and sustainable choice for candle makers and consumers alike.

Beeswax is a natural wax produced by honeybees in their hives. It’s a versatile material that people have used for centuries in various applications, including candle-making, cosmetics and woodworking. Beeswax is known for its unique features, including its melting point and other properties.

View Our Beeswax

Beeswax has a  melting point of 145 degrees Fahrenheit . This high melting point makes beeswax ideal for use in candles, as it lets them burn at a higher temperature for longer than other types of wax. Beeswax candles produce a natural, subtle scent that’s pleasant and soothing.

Another feature of beeswax is its natural, honey-like color and texture. It is typically a light yellow or brown color, and it has a smooth, waxy texture that’s easy to work with. These features make beeswax ideal for use in cosmetics and skincare products, as it can help moisturize the skin.

In addition to its high melting point and natural color and texture, beeswax has a few other unique properties. For example, it has  natural antiseptic properties , making it useful for wounds and other applications.

Find the Best Wax for Your Application With Blended Waxes

At Blended Waxes, we mix two or more types of waxes to  create a unique blend  with your desired properties. Wax blending can improve the performance and characteristics of wax, such as its melting point, scent throw and burn time.

For example, blending beeswax with soy wax can increase the wax’s melting point and hardness while also enhancing its natural scent and texture. Combining paraffin wax with soy wax creates a wax with an improved scent throw and a longer burn time.

Wax blending can also help reduce costs by combining different wax types to create a more affordable blend that still meets the desired performance and texture requirements.

Blended Waxes can create a blend based on your needs, whether you’re in the cosmetic, art, medical, construction or packaging industry. You can match an existing blend, swap out ingredients or opt for a brand new product with our custom wax blending process.  Reach out to us today  to start a conversation about your wax needs and how we can meet them.

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At What Temperature Does Candle Wax Melt (Wax Melting Point)

Making candles at home can be a lot of fun. You get to choose your designs, fill them with vibrant colors, give them whatever shape you want, and create a lot of memories in the entire candle-making process. But the first thing that you must do to make candles is choosing the right kind of wax.

For a long time since the 19th century, the only wax candle-makers knew about was paraffin. Thanks to many innovations, now you have a lot of different options. The kind of wax you buy depends on the type of candle you wish to make, whether you want your wax to be natural or synthetic, and the melt melting point you will be working with.

At what temperature does candle wax melt? Candle wax melts at temperatures between 75°F and 180°F depending on the type of wax, and the additives used in the wax. Using specific blends of wax or vybar can raise the melt temperature, in addition, using luster crystals can significantly increase the melting point of candle wax.

In addition, be sure to check out our page about calculating how much wax it takes to make candles titled How much wax do I need .

Read on to know more about the different kinds of wax, followed by a small tutorial on how to use a double boiler to melt wax at home.

Different Types & Wax Melting Points

When choosing the right type of wax, you must consider several factors, such as the melting point and the flashpoint of the wax, the versatility, natural scent, and composition. A lot of it depends on the application, so let’s take a look at the different kinds of wax commonly used, along with their pros and cons concerning candle-making.

Below is a list of at what temperature different types of waxes melt.

Melting Point For Different Types Of Wax

You may have come across paraffin in most stores as they have traditionally been most commonly used in candle-making. Paraffin has been always preferred because of its versatility, and so, it can be molded into any shape, to make anything you desire.

Meting Point : Paraffin wax typically melts in the range of 122 to 158 F.

Flashpoint : The flashpoint of paraffin wax is between 392 and 464 F. (Note: flashpoint refers to the temperature at which the wax can ignite into flames).

Pros : The primary advantage of using paraffin wax is that it is easily available and one of the most economic options. Further, it gives you an option to experiment with different additives to get to the desired end product. It also has a good scent throw, so your room would be strongly fragranced in minutes.

Cons : Paraffin is derived during the refinement of crude oil. So, if you are looking for renewable sources for your candle, paraffin may not be the right option. Also, paraffin by itself does not produce glorious results and often needs the help of additives to be successfully designed into beautiful candles. It also emits toxic chemicals and leaves black soot behind, both of which are not friends of your health.

In a hunt for a wax that is natural and yet does not cost a fortune, wax-makers came up with soy wax. Soy wax, as the name suggests, is made from soybean oil. It may be 100% pure soybean oil or blended with other vegetable oils. It is as versatile as paraffin and can easily replace it in making various kinds of candles.

Meting Point : Soy wax melts between 120 and 180 F

Flashpoint : The flashpoint of soy wax can vary according to the blend and is specific to the manufacturing process. Typically, it can be as high as 450 F, but for your safety, always read the labels.

Pros : Soy wax is easy to handle and non-toxic. It is produced from fast-growing crops and hence is readily available and affordable, too. Candles made out of soy wax burn slowly and last longer.

Cons : Soy wax does not offer a scent throw as good as paraffin. This is the reason many prefer to use soy wax only for making container candles. For scented candles, the soy wax either has to be mixed with additives or you may have to purchase blended soy wax. Also, soy is a common allergen and might be harmful to some people. Untreated soy wax can give out a rancid odor, too.

Beeswax has been around forever, at least as long as bees have been in existence. Some historians have spotted the use of beeswax even in pyramids. It is revered in the candle-making process because it is 100% natural. Beeswax is a byproduct of the honey-making process and is, therefore, found in beehives. This wax is filtered and made commercially suitable before it reaches you, the candle-maker.

Meting Point : Beeswax melts at temperatures between 143 and 151 F.

Flashpoint : The flashpoint of Beeswax is in the range of 490 to 525 F.

Pros : Beeswax has all the advantages of being an all-natural product. It is non-toxic and non-allergic, and hence suitable for everyone. It can be molded into different shapes and gives an elegant, charming look to your candles. That too, without any additives!

Cons : The first reason many people refrain from using beeswax to make candles is that it is too expensive, almost 10 times costlier than paraffin. It also has a natural, sweet, honey smell that although smells great by itself, can be difficult to mask when making scented candles . It is stickier than other wax, and spillage is difficult to clean. Lastly, environmental activities do not see the procuring of beeswax kindly because bees are depleting.

Coconut Wax

Of late, there has been a growing interest in wax derived from coconut oil . While extra virgin coconut oil is typically not suitable to make wax, it has been seen that blending coconut oil with other high-quality natural oils can create a wax that has a high melting point.

Meting Point : Coconut wax melts between 75 and 100 F. The wax has a higher melting point than coconut oil because it is hydrogenated in the wax-making process.

Flashpoint : Coconut wax has the lowest flashpoint among all waxes, which is 350 F. So, be careful when working with it.

Pros : Coconut wax is godsent for nature-lovers because uncontrolled deforestation is not required to extract coconut oil. Also, candles made of coconut wax burn slowly, last long, and have an amazing scent throw. And no, your candles will not smell like coconuts because the hydrogenation takes care of the smell.

Cons : Pure coconut wax can be twice as expensive as paraffin and thus, to lure customers, many manufacturers offer cheaper, blended variations that hardly have any coconut oil in them. Also, the low melting point of coconut wax can make it difficult to use, especially in summers or in a tropical climate.

Blended Paraffin

If you are looking to make candles without purchasing a ton of different raw materials, blended paraffin is the way to go. Blended wax is usually made by mixing paraffin with natural wax such as soy, palm, or rapeseed. Additives are also included. All you need to purchase are fragrances and colors.

Meting Point : With wax blends, it is difficult to estimate the melting point unless you know its exact composition. It is best to check labels.

Flashpoint : As with the melting point, the temperature at which the blended wax can burn also depends on the composition.

Pros : Blended wax is preferred by those candle-makers who want something fun and interesting without spending a lot of time. Blends are easy to use and require minimal work. Moreover, with different kinds of blends available, you can easily find an affordable option.

Cons : Blended wax does not give your candle a unique look as opposed to one-ingredient wax such as beeswax or soy wax.

Rapeseed Wax

Rapeseed wax is another plant-based wax that is a viable option for those looking to buy all-natural ingredients. In some cases, rapeseed wax can be blended with other plant-based wax such as soy and in other cases, a blend can be made with paraffin.

Meting Point : Rapeseed wax that is at least 90% pure melts at temperatures between 125 and 136 F.

Flashpoint : Rapeseed wax, also known as canola wax, has a high flashpoint of over 400 F.

Pros : Rapeseed wax holds a good amount of fragrance even without additives, making it all the more suitable for natural product lovers. It also takes dyes well and is easier to work with compared to soy wax.

Cons : Rapeseed can be a popular allergen and so a lot of people may want to steer clear of a candle made of rapeseed wax.

How to Melt Wax for Candle-Making Using a Double Boiler

Once you have decided on the type of wax you want to use and are well-versed with its melting temperature and flashpoint, the next step is to begin melting the wax. It is a lot easier than it sounds when you do it the right way. Let’s look at the steps to melt wax using the double boiler method.

How To Melt Wax Using A Double Boiler

Step1 : Take a large saucepan and fill half of it with water.

Step 2 : Break up the wax you wish to melt.

Step 3 : Place the wax pieces in a smaller saucepan, which fits inside the bigger saucepan.

Step 4 : Place the smaller saucepan inside the bigger saucepan and turn on the flame.

Step 5 : Continue to heat the double boiler on medium heat until the wax melts. Add water to the bigger saucepan if required to ensure the water already present does not evaporate completely.

Step 6 : Use a thermometer to monitor the temperature, stirring the wax every minute or so.

Step 7 : Once the wax reaches the melting point, you may add dyes.

Step 8 : Remove the wax from heat long before it reaches the flashpoint. You may add your fragrances at this time.

Step 9 : Your wax is ready to be molded into any design you like.

Have Fun but Be Safe

Candle-making can be an entertaining activity and does not require a lot of investment when you choose the right kind of wax. As long as you are aware of the melting point and the flashpoint of the wax you are using, making a candle should be an enjoyable task.

Be careful about handling hot wax, though, and never let it out of sight when it is melting, and you should be good. Safety is of prime importance when working with things that burn , and with the right information, it is not challenging to achieve.

So, there you have it. Take your pick from the various types of candle wax, let your imaginations flow, and carve out a design that your guest will adore.

Frequently Asked Questions

The best way to melt candle wax is by using a double boiler. Fill the base pot with water and bring it to a boil while placing the top pot inside the bottom one, filled with wax. The water in the bottom pot will heat the top pot, melting the wax without using direct heat.

You can melt candle wax on the stove by using a double boiler wax melting setup. This setup is the best way to melt wax on a stovetop because it prevents the wax from being in contact with direct heat. In addition, it is one of the most popular and consistent ways to melt candle wax.

Candle wax becomes solid again at between temperatures of 75°F and 180°F. Waxes made from sources such as soy and coconut oil usually harden much faster than types of wax such as paraffin and beeswax. However, this is also impacted by the use of additives such as vybar.

In conclusion, no matter what type of wax you use make sure you research it. Learn what temperatures to add your fragrance oils and at what temperatures to pour the candles.

Knowing the wax melting point for the type of wax you are using and when to add other ingredients will make the candle-making process a whole lot easier.

This will help you make the best candles possible with the least amount of defects. You will be producing candles that you will feel good about sharing with your friends, family, and even selling.

Carl Adamson

Hi, I'm Carl Adamson, one of the founders here at Candleers. A few years ago I got really into the art and craft of candle making, initially with soy wax container candles. My friends started asking me to make candles for them and pretty soon it turned into a nice side-business. I started this website as a way to document what I've learned over the past few years and hopefully help others in the process. I still love candle making but I'm learning that what I enjoy even more is the business side of things - and for this reason I've started consulting others on how to start and grow their own candle-making businesses and side-hustles.

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• Open access
• Published: 05 September 2024

Enhancing the performance of paraffin's phase change material through a hybrid scheme utilizing sand core matrix

• Hossam A. Nabwey 1 , 2 &
• Maha A. Tony 2 , 3  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  20755 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental chemistry
• Environmental sciences

Smart waste management and valorisation is presented in the current investigation. Iron is collected from mining wastewater stream and augmented with sand as a supporting material to produce sand core. The sand core pellets encapsulated in paraffin’s to enhance its feasibility as phase change material (PCM). Sand core was characterized using X-ray diffraction and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) augmented with energy dispersive X-ray spectrum analysis. Experimental test is achieved by mixing sand core/iron and paraffin that is signified as an encapsulated phase change material. The encapsulated sand core-PCM is embedded in varies mass weights of percentages of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0% and labeled as 0.5%-sand core-PCM, 1.0%-sand core-PCM, 1.5%-sand core-PCM and 2.0%-sand core-PCM. The encapsulated sand core-PCM is embedded into a heat exchanger of the vertical type model that is connected with a flat plate solar collector. Such collector is heating the heat transfer carrier, which is exposed to the heat exchanger for melting the PCM. The experimental work is conducted across the solar noon where the solar intensity in the region is reached to 1162 W/m 2 at the time of conducting experiments. Water is applied and supposed as the working heat transfer fluid transporter and pumped into the system at the rate of 0.0014 kg per second. The experimental result revealed that the heat gained recorded an enhancement from 7 to 48 kJ/min when the 1.5%-sand core-PCM system is applied. Thus, the results showed the system is a good candidate by increasing the system efficiency with 92% as a potential solution of solar energy storage at the off-time periods.

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Introduction.

Globally, there is a plentiful upsurge in energy demand with depletion in the conventional fossil fuel. Also, modernization and industrialization are leading to the upsurge in energy depletion as well as the carbon discharges into the environment in the form of emissions that cause environmental pollution 1 , 2 . The consumption of energy in the last decades is in increase with a significance of 20% deduction 3 . In this regard, the role of academia and researchers is looking for an alternative energy source.

Amongst the numerous thermal energy storage (TES) facilities, latent heat TES arrangements are attaining a massive concern 2 . Phase change materials (PCM) is of vast significance because a kind of advanced thermal energy storage necessities since they possess excessive density of TES facility as well as their isothermal nature through the phase change routine. The technique might store massive quantities of thermal energy through changing the physical state transition of the substance 4 , 5 , 6 . Because of its economic cost, chemical stability, the wide-ranging of melting temperatures outline and high heat of fusion/solidification, organic PCM based paraffin is signified as the numerous used organic PCM substance 7 , 8 . But their drawbacks are still standing their applications since their molten state leakage that requires a PCM confinement through encapsulation 9 , 10 . Recent advances in the such field announced cupper nanoparticles into paraffin wax PCM 11 , 12 . Also, alumina nanoparticles are introduced and showed an additional time savings 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 . Further, multi walled carbon nanotubes augmented base PCM is introduced 17 and showed an enhancement in the thermal performance. Nevertheless, nanoparticles’ cost of preparation is still not economic 18 , 19 , 20 . Thus, the design of the cost efficient PCM is essential.

In the building sector and heat soring opportunities, paraffin as an organic phase change material (PCM) that has been signified as an effective PCM in various applications 21 , 22 . Domestic water heating and hot water storage is in signified as inescapable and essential use 23 . The presentation of renewable energy in the method of solar energy storage through PCM storing facility is a viable opportunity 24 , 25 . PCM might store the solar energy at the off-sun periods then could release them at the peak periods. Such material displayed significant results 16 , 26 . But, the unfortunate thermal conductivity of PCM is nevertheless the topmost drawback since its low thermal conductivity 27 , 28 , 29 .

Numerous investigators have introduced the addition of various fillers into the paraffin’s to improve its thermal properties. The performance in all cases is improved than the pristine PCM system with some limitations including the cost of the process 30 . Thus, searching for cost-efficient substances as filler into PCM is attaining the scientists’ attention. On the other hand, with the concept of “ Sustainable Society Approach ”, waste management and valorization is essential for attaining a novel PCM system for a non-polluting model 31 , 32 , 33 . Such concept could be realized through using natural clean materials as well as valorizing the waste streams. For instance, previous investigators have already concluded that elemental recovery from waste stream could be valorized and introduced in numerous applications such as wastewater treatment 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 . But, to the best of the author’ knowledge, such materials are not applied so far in energy storage systems.

To date, numerous literatures cited are based on PCM enhancement through fresh chemicals use. However, the particularity alternative elemental recovery source is still limited. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, PCM designs projected in the previously published literature articles do not investigate the performance of using sand augmented with iron s a core sand supporting paraffin’s is not applied so far.

Phase change materials (PCMs) are such substances that are proficient in storing thermal energy through the absorption or may be releasing the signified term of latent heat by changing in the materials’ physical state for instance their melting and freezing process. PCM materials can be categorized by the existence in at least two structurally distinct solid phases, i.e. amorphous phase and one or may be more in its crystalline phase 15 . Several materials 16 , 18 have been used to improve the heat storage capacity and the thermal behavior of the paraffin’s PCM 38 . Notably, Sand is previously reported that might improve the diffusivity of the PCM, which is enhanced by sand addition. Various chemical bonding occurs among pure and paraffin material. The addition of additive material could be signified as simple and cheap technique that is applied to enhance the paraffin’s’ based PCM substances since their improvement in the performance in thermal energy storage. For lower temperature applications, the addition of sensible heat material like water, rock and sand is considered as the easiest and cheapest way to enhance the paraffin performance. Thus, such combination is showing an increase in temperature since its lower thermal conductivity and high heat capacity, which allows it to retain heat. However, such systems are not combined for thermal energy storage. In this regard, high sustainability and efficiency is attained through such commination of iron 5 and sand 39 as a storage materials in harnessing the full potential of thermal energy storage solution in a sustainable win–win routine since iron is collected from a waste stream.

Herein, in the current study, the recovery of iron from wastewater streams is applied and the recovered iron is supported sand to be a core-sand. The core sand is inserted into the paraffin’s as a PCM material. The energetic performances of the PCM system is investigated and the experimental considerations are studied. Hence, the system is in agreement with the line of sustainable energy tools, since using green and economically well organized environmentally energy storage system.

Experimental section

A commercial organic Paraffin wax that possess a melting temperature ranged from 48–53 °C is used as the base phase change material (PCM). The melting latent heat of fusion of such wax is 190 kJ/kg and the value of the thermal conductivity recorded is 0.21 kJ/kg °C. The full characterization of paraffin PCM is exhibited in Table 1 .

Iron source is precipitated from coal mining wastewater through a selective precipitation route. Then, iron core sand is prepared using beach sand and the iron is precipitated through the previous method 37 by mixing iron with sand prior to oven drying (103ºC) and then repeated three times and afterwards is calcined in an electric oven (500 °C). The amount of iron on the sand surface was 13.5 mg-Fe/gm-sand. The attained material is called core sand. The addition of high thermal conductivity material might elevate the thermal conductivity of paraffin PCM and increase the melting temperature of paraffin. Subsequently, 15 g of pristine Paraffin is mixed with the core sand then subjected for ultrasonic dispersed procedure at 60 °C through the exposure into the ultrasonic technique of a bath type at 40 K Hz using a model (DAIHAN Wisd WUC-A03H). The addition of the core sand into paraffin’s is ranged from 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0% and labeled as 0.5%-sand core-PCM, 1.0%-sand core-PCM, 1.5%-sand core-PCM and 2.0%-sand core-PCM.

Experimental methodology

Vertical type of heat exchanger of a double pipe is linked to a flat plate type of solar concentrator and collector as seen in Fig.  1 is used as the PCM system. The flat plate collector is applied to heat the heating fluid by passing it in a flowing rate of 0.0013 kg/s into the collector. Water is selected to be the heat transfer fluid that is flowing through the collector to be the heat carrier. The system is used around the solar noon at the place of conducting experiment that is located at 30°58′N and 31°01′E. Core sand-PCM Paraffin composite is inserted in the tube of the heat exchanger. The PCM is subjected to charging/discharging cycles for melting and solidification processes to store the heat in the form of hot water through the discharging cycle. The gained heat is stored in the form of hot water, which is stored in a hot water tank that is well insulated to prevent or reduce the heat losses as possible to their minimal values. The hot water storage insulated container is connected on parallel to the heat exchanger.

Schematic graphical design of the core sand-PCM Paraffin system illustration.

In order to thoroughly discuss the influence of the modified phase change energy storage system and the heat released through the discharging system and stored in the form of hot water, intuitive comparison of such modified PCM with the pristine paraffin wax PCM is supported. The comparison is based on the analysis of effective accumulated temperature in the form of the discharged hot water to analyze the regenerative heat storage and release change. Also from the point of thermal analysis of the material, the charging and discharging temperature release through a time interval of a one minute are recorded and compared to investigate the modified system effect (core sand incorporated paraffin) and also recorded the optimal core-sand material addition. Thereby, the data is represented as a relation between temperatures at various time intervals.

Experimental analysis and material characterization

The incident solar radiation intensity at the time of conducting experiment is monitored using Eppley Black and White solar-meter (type 1 8–48) which is mounted beside the solar collector and the sun rays’ intensity is explored from 9.00 am to 5.00 pm.

In order to thoroughly discuss the influence of the modified phase change energy storage system and the heat released through the discharging system and stored in the form of hot water, intuitive comparison of such modified PCM with the pristine paraffin wax PCM is supported. Also, the inlet and outlet temperatures of the heat transfer fluid (water), ambient temperature, phase change composite substance concentrator in the heat exchanger temperature, the air temperatures inside the flat plate collector and the stored hot water gained for the system temperature, all are investigated using thermocouples. The comparison is based on the analysis of effective accumulated temperature in the form of the discharged hot water to analyze the regenerative heat storage and release change. Also, from the point of thermal analysis of the material, the charging and discharging temperature release through a time interval of a one minute are recorded and compared to investigate the modified system effect (core sand incorporated paraffin) and also recorded the optimal core-sand material addition. Thereby, the data is represented as a relation between temperatures at various time intervals.

The prepared material is characterized through X-ray diffraction (XRD), which is signified by by XRPhillips X’pert (MPD3040) X-ray diffractometer supported by a monochromatic source CuKa (k = 1.5406 ο A) with step-scan mode of 0.02° mode and characterized in the range of 10°–80°. Also, the morphology of the composite is identified by field-emission scanning electron microscope (SEM) (FE-SEM, Quanta FEG 250) that is augmented with energy-dispersive spectrum (EDX).

Results and discussion

Characterization of composite.

The XRD diffractogram of the core sand material, the paraffin PCM and the core sand/paraffin PCM are investigated and explored in Fig.  2 a,b and c, respectively. The crystalline phase of core sand substance is recognized and the XRD pattern displays numerous diffraction peaks. Hematite and quartz crystal structures are recognized in the material diffraction pattern. Figure  2 a shows strong broadening peaks from the small crystalline areas of such phases. Therefore, it might be deduced that the silica reinforced iron material comprises of a crystalline silica core augmented hematite shell possess barely precise small crystalline domain. The signified phases of silicon oxide, iron oxide, iron, iron aluminium oxide and iron silicate. Intense peaks of silicon oxide are assigned in the graph since the sand is mainly compromises of silica and that may be the source of those quartz particles. Also, the suspended materials in the iron-based waste are mainly the source of iron and iron oxides that appear as iron oxide, iron and aluminium oxide and iron silicate. Due to the calcination iron augmented with silica and formed iron silicate 38 , 39 .

XRD pattern of ( a ) the prepared core sand composite, ( b ) paraffin PCM and ( c ) core sand/paraffin PCM composite.

Also, the crystallization of paraffin wax is investigated through XRD and the data displayed in Fig.  2 b. It is clear from the data exhibited in such Figure that paraffin wax has two sharp diffraction peaks at 2θ values of 21.6° and 24.0° that are attributed to the typical diffractions crystal planes of [110] and [200] that signified paraffin wax, respectively 41 . Furthermore, Fig.  2 c is representing the core sand/paraffin PCM composite. The sharp peaks indicate that the composite has a crystalline structure. The XRD pattern of the core sand/paraffin PCM composite shows the same peaks as that of paraffin wax. Also, the other peaks can be observed are for the core sand phase presented in the pristine material. Such results confirm the presence of the iron core sand material with the paraffin wax PCM.

SEM and EDX

Figure  3 a,b,c and d illustrates the SEM micrographs images at different magnification of the prepared core sand composite substance to explore its morphology. The SEM micrograph illustrates that mixed shape of the sand particles that is augmented semi-spherical dispersed particles of the iron material on the surface of the core sand.

SEM micrographs of core sand composite at different magnifications ( a – d ) and EDX analysis ( e and f ).

Additionally, elemental analysis of the organized core sand composite substance is exposed through the Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDX). The data displayed in Fig.  3 e and f exposed the composite sample compromises of the dominant elements of O, Si, Al and Fe which conforms their presence in the improvement the PCM system.

Thermal analysis of flat plate collector and the PCM system

As previous studies 13 , 16 , 40 projected, the city that the study is carried out on is in the North of Egypt, Shebin El-Kowm city, Menoufia governorate, is well gifted with high intensity of renewable solar radiation, thereby such place is signified this geographical collection as a superior candidate for gaining a high implementations of solar-energy systems. The location of the study in the north of Egypt is categorized as one of the predominant and plentiful of solar energy towns in the country of Egypt throughout all the seasons especially in the summer periods. The daylight time is ranged from nine to eleven hours per day at the place of the study. The place is located on the latitude of 30.5 16 . Experimental data from the recorded solar energy intensity of the sun radiation in the city of the study of experiment through the hot months of the season of summer is displayed (Fig.  4 ) and the recorded highest solar radiation is around the solar noon and recorded 1162 w/m 2 . Furthermore, the monitored ambient temperature, T a , is explored and recorded an average value of 35 °C.

Thermal behavior of solar irradiance on the place of study.

The air, PCM, water temperatures are measured using digital processing thermocouples thermometers at six locations. Two measuring points are arranged for the inlet and outlet solar collector as well as the air temperature under the glass cover of the collector that is recorded with extra thermocouple. Ambient air temperature surrounding the collector is taken to represent the air temperature at the place of the study. In addition, one thermocouple thermometer was mounted inside the heat exchanger to monitor the PCM temperature through time intervals. The recording interval is one minute. Hot water collected after the discharging cycle is also observed and its temperature is recorded. Furthermore, the solar meter that records the solar radiation intensity is mounted above the ground in the east-south direction at the open area of the location where the solar collector is mounted using Eppley Black-and-White Pyranometer.

Heat charging/discharging of PCM system

In such part, the results achieved from the current work are examined for the concept of investigating and proposing a proficient TES design. The data investigated are explored in expressions of heat transfer improvement and advancement that attained from melting/solidification cycles. Analysis upgrading by applying the implementation indicator for different proportions of core sand supported PCM systems using various concentrations.

The temperature of charging, T c , and the corresponding temperature of discharging, T d , for the varied PCM systems are consistence for the melting and solidification cycles are demonstrated and exhibited in Fig. 5 a and b, respectively at distinctive time profiles. Different mass segments of core sand/PCM systems are attained by adding various proportions of core sand materials, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0% and labeled as 0.5%-sand core-PCM, 1.0%-sand core-PCM, 1.5%-sand core-PCM and 2.0%-sand core-PCM are embedded for the base organic paraffin wax material to assess the optimal mass addition (%) to the pristine PCM.

Temperature profile of the pure PCM material and embedded PCM with core sand for both ( a ) charging and ( b ) discharging cycle.

Notably, as displayed in Fig.  5 a, the fraction of sand core embedded into the PCM system explores a diverse range of melting temperatures profile. A thermal enhancement is detected via the supplement of core sand into the wax up to 1.5%. But, extra addition of core sand into the PCM-system retards the temperature elevation. The T c of the system extended to 71 °C in comparison to 54 °C for the pristine wax. Exceptionally, according to the previous work cited by various researchers in literature 24 , 33 , 41 , the addition of materials into the pristine was PCM supports in a persuade alteration in the profile of the heat flow compared to the pure PCM based wax material. Hence, such change might adapt the significance of the melting temperature of the PCM-phase change wax substance than compromised with core sand. Furthermore, it is projected that the compromised core sand in wax substance improves its latent heat. Moreover, it might be stated that the presence of hematite/silica materials in the phase change substances controls its photodegradation due to it concessions of various components as achieved from EDX examination (Fig.  3 e and f), that suggests the representative signals of iron, silica and aluminum materials that are indicated with their photoactivity 27 , 42 .

The results of the discharging cycle of the different kinds of pure wax PCM as well as wax augmented with varies quantities of core sand is displayed in Fig.  5 b. It is notably from such curves displayed in the figure that elevating the PCM melting temperature, subsequently increases the solidification temperature of its corresponding PCM by 19 °C. However, it is noteworthy to mention that PCM wax embedded with core sand material in comparison to the pristine wax possesses a higher solidification temperature. Also, the temperature variation is dependable on the varied amount of the embedded core sand.

Additionally, according to the results distinguished in Fig.  5 b and a remarkable comparative improvement with the core sand amount addition is linked to the increase in the composite-PCM solidification time. Consequently, the heat attained and acquired through the solidification cycle is additionally elevated. The various system enhancements are achieved through the discharging temperatures of corresponding to the 1.5% mass proportions. This might be associated with the existence of the core sand discrete in the host paraffin organic PCM wax that delivering more inorganic sites that enhances the possibility of absorbing heat that is leading to intensification of the latent heat of fusion of the paraffin wax implanted substance.

But, it is significant that extra upsurge in the added material mass portion leading to a decline in the solidification temperature that makes the procedure undesirable. Previous investigators are previously mentioned such results in their PCM system 14 , 22 , 31 , 42 . This can be demonstrated by the extra supplement of the enhancement materials can decrease the constancy of the PCM rather refining it. In this case the consequence is agglomeration/sedimentation, which might further deduce the PCM effectiveness. Consequently, selecting the optimal enhancers value is vital for charging/discharging system performance to reach to the optimum global system routine. Notably, it is estimated according to the data in Fig.  4 b that the discharging time is increased for the 1.5% core sand addition compared to the other proportions and the pristine PCM. Hence, this takes longer time to complete the discharging cycle.

Transient temperature profiles of core sand PCM existing an extra-designated to represent the melting process. Heat transfer is lasted during conduction from the beginning of the heating cycle till the wax temperature ranges the melting temperature. Thereby, the preliminary melting of core-sand Wax-PCM is fashioned via a complex combination of conduction and convection heat transfer together. But, with the processing of the melting system, the temperature elevation is relatively augmented. This might be investigated and explored by the enhancement in natural convection of the melted wax substance. Previous work is reported previously by other workers 21 , 43 .

The above-mentioned experimental data suggest that the heat storage density is associated with the quantity of the proportions of core sand embedded into the system and the perfect amount portion is recorded at 1.5 wt%. Previous work is previously published in literature 44 .

Heat storage capacity

To attain the thermal consistency of the core sand PCM-Wax system, after discharging cycle, both the amount of heat (Q g ) and the temperature gained (T g ) are monitored. According to the solar heating fluid, water, heating is being in increment. The optimal import to the phase change wax substance is comparably important concerning the quantity of heat multiplied. The data exhibited in Fig.  6 a and b reveals that the augmented core sand wax-PCM might attain an elevated temperature range gained from the PCM that might be stored. The existence of core sand with paraffin wax in an optimized value addition fraction ratio (1.5%) might increase the heat storing temperature. Thereby, the heat stored in comparison to the pure wax is increased. According to the data displayed in Fig.  6 b advancement in the heat achieved from the storing process in the preliminary time interval, which is extended only to 2.2 kJ/min for the pristine paraffin wax configuration.

Heat storage profile ( a ) temperature and ( b ) heat flow rate during discharging cycle from various PCM.

It is noteworthy to mention that such heat amount is increased to reach 7.4 kJ/min for augmented core-sand PCM system storing heat system. This might be illustrated by the role of hematite and silica, which are mainly compromising the core sand substance, the improving the thermal transfer tendency that is the key reliable of a remarkable prospective in enriching the global energy storage efficacy 36 .

According to data exhibited in Fig.  6 b, base pristine wax-PCM scheme achieves minimal heat rate expanded examined through the attained collected hot working fluid “water” that is in comparison to the embedded core sand into the composite PCM system, which is elevated and increased, with the quantity of inserted substance added till the portion of 1.5% mass fraction. Such investigated might be illustrated by the superior thermal conductivity of the managed hybridized scheme 42 .

Overall PCM process efficiency

Generally, all the investigated PCM-systems in the present current study, the whole overall heat attained from the systems are calculated and the investigated data are clearly displayed in Fig.  7 a. The heat rate gained by the PCM is the heat assigned by the working fluid “water” as the heat transfer carrier substance and is investigated through the following Eq. ( 1 ).

where \(\dot{\dot{w}}\) : mass flow rate of heat transfer fluid (g/s); T: Temperature range between inlet and outlet water entering and leaving the collector ad C w : Specific heat capacity of the heat transfer fluid (4.18 kJ/kg K).

Overall PCM-system performance ( a ) comparison of heat gained and ( b ) overall effectiveness.

As the results displayed in Fig.  7 a, the solo paraffin wax PCM system and that inserted system with the core sand filler elucidates the embedded system improves the global heat rate gained from the PCM configuration. The experimental data revealed that the useful rate of heat attained is greater for combination core sand paraffin wax substance (7 kJ/min), which exhibited a noticeable outcome than the heat attained by the pristine paraffin wax (48 kJ/min). Such comparative investigation revealed the noteworthy extra significant pronounced heat rate attained as a result of the enhancement in the heat transfer. This might be attributed by the higher thermal conductivity of the embedded filler in the hybridized PCM mixture, and the rate of heat attained is significant than the solo PCM wax. Moreover, it is important to mention that the heat rate gained could be rises equitably by the upsurge in the core sand weight fraction. Also, throughout the discharging cycle, the overall temperature difference and the quantities of hot water stored are greater. Consequently, the useful heat recorded from the system of the core sand paraffin wax process is higher. Aforementioned examiners in the literature described similar data 9 , 13 , 36 .

Similarly, the global solar energy thermal storing efficacy of such energy storing PCM embedded with the core sand filler system added at different weight mass fractions is investigated and competed as displayed in Fig.  7 b. Concerning the amount of the heat gained via the stored water as the heat transfer carrier is calculated from Eq. ( 1 ) and the heat gained from the core sand substance that is attained from the relation described in Eq. ( 2 ). Thereby, the overall PCM efficacy, \(\text{Y}\) , can be calculated. Process efficacy is recorded from the calculations according to Eq. ( 3 ) that describes the useful energy achieved from the heat transfer fluid to that gained from the PCM 45 .

where, \({m}_{\text{PCM}}\) is the mass of phase change material (Kg), \({C}_{\text{PCM}}\) is the specific heat capacity of PCM (kJ/kg.K), \({\theta }_{PCM}\) is consequent to the T PCM , temperature alteration of inlet and outlet temperatures of the heat exchanger involving core sand/Wax phase change material and L f is the latent heat of fusion of PCM (kJ/kg) 46 , 47 .

It is noticeable from Fig.  7 b that the achieved efficacy is enhanced according to the mass fraction of the core sand supplemented to the pure paraffin’s wax-PCM. The highest overall efficacy, 92%, is corresponding to core sand/Wax compromised of 1.5% weight fraction added. Consequently, such data confirms the greatest storing capacity that is equivalent to the added 1.5% core sand of weight proportion embedded into the paraffin organic PCM wax 48 , 49 , 50 .

Comparative investigation

Numerous paraffin wax-PCM systems enhanced through various system fillers described by different researchers reported in the cited work that are previously published are compared with the current study. The type of system improvement achieved is described in Table 2 . Moreover, the maximum temperatures’ recorded for charging PCM are presented in Table 2 to arrange the progress attained from the current investigation. According to the results exhibited, a significant improvement is attained through the core sand supplement enhancers. The temperatures form the current studied PCM-system accordingly is signified as the greatest values. By applying such metals capsulations as the supplement substance exhibited excellent thermal performance in comparison to the pristine paraffin thermal performance. Although, it is noteworthy to notate that a higher achievement is gained from other reported systems than the current core sand systems; the current study is based on waste by-product substances and naturally abundant materials. Thus, such material is signified as an economic pathway advances.

Core sand supported with hematite from industrial waste particles is prepared and supported paraffin wax. The properties of the core sand material are used to improve the performance of paraffinic PCM. Paraffin wax as base PCM system is applied for latent heat thermal solar energy storage technique. The heat stored through the charging/discharging cycles are assessed for pristine and composite PCM systems. The rate of charging for all composite PCM is better than pristine paraffin where the best charging rate is 80 min. The rate of discharging for all composite PCM is generally better than pristine paraffin where the best discharging rate is 18 min. It can be estimated that the embedded filler PCM based paraffin wax system inserted into a vertical type heat exchanger that is combined with a flat plate collector, possess upsurge thermal performance expressed in its thermal properties. Consequently, core sand dispersed in paraffin wax is an appropriate candidate for latent heat storage substance for further solar heating facility. The highest storing efficiency is corresponding to the addition of 3% core sand into the pristine paraffin’s. The heat attained is enhanced from 7 kJ/min for the solo paraffin wax into 48 kJ/min for the embedded core sand filler into the wax composite when the core sand portion is added in the percent of 1.5% by wt that is signified as the highest efficiency. This system exhibited a good alternative that might be adopted as a cost-efficient alternative. Also, the best operating system condition has been compared to other systems reported in the previous studies, which indicates the promising capabilities of the current study. It is noteworthy to state that excess work is essential to investigate the efficacy on using repeated melting/solidification cycles. However, Cost benefit analysis is required in order to advocate the suitability and sustainability of the material for the real PCM system application.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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The authors extend their appreciation to Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University for funding this research work through the project number (PSAU/2024/01/921606).

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Nabwey, H.A., Tony, M.A. Enhancing the performance of paraffin's phase change material through a hybrid scheme utilizing sand core matrix. Sci Rep 14 , 20755 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-71848-8

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Development and characterization of propolis wax-based oleogel emulsion and its application as shortening replacer in cake

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• Published: 04 September 2024

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• Roghayeh Nasirzadeh 1 ,
• Leila Roufegarinejad   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2310-5732 1 ,
• Mahnaz Tabibiazar 2 ,
• Ainaz Alizadeh 1 &
• Arezou Habibzadeh Khiabani 1 , 3  

This study aimed to develop an oleogel emulsion based on propolis wax (PW) as a potential shortening replacement and reducing the fat content in the cake. According to the microstructure study, the increase in PW concentration increased the number of needle-like crystals, and the increase in oleogel content in the emulsion decreased the size of water droplets. The increasing PW oleogel content in the emulsions enhanced the gel strength, and the emulsions showed a shear-thinning behavior. The smallest particle size was related to the emulsions with 4%wt of PW (60–120 nm). The oxidative stability and oil binding capacity in emulsions were significantly (P < 0.05) improved by increasing oleogel content and the concentration of PW. The emulsion with 4%wt of PW and 50% water content (PW4-E50) was selected as an optimized sample for application in the cake as a shortening replacer. Among the samples , PW4-E50 was chosen as optimized samples in cake formulation due to its lower peroxide value at the end of the 30 day (10.32 ± 0.32 meq O2/kg), highest oil binding capacity (82.52 ± 0.53%), and zeta potential (+ 56.96 ± 0.35 mv). As a result, textural properties revealed that cakes fabricated with emulsions at three substitution levels exhibited a satisfactory texture profile compared to cakes based on oleogel. Formulated cakes with oleogel and emulsion obtained the lowest L* and b* values. The Oleogel emulsion replacing 40% of cake shortening (PW-E40) demonstrated the highest overall acceptability.

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Department of Food Science and Technology, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch, Tabriz, Iran

Roghayeh Nasirzadeh, Leila Roufegarinejad, Ainaz Alizadeh & Arezou Habibzadeh Khiabani

Nutrition Research Center and Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Nutrition and Food Science, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran

Mahnaz Tabibiazar

Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering Faculty, Food Engineering Department, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

Arezou Habibzadeh Khiabani

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Nasirzadeh, R., Roufegarinejad, L., Tabibiazar, M. et al. Development and characterization of propolis wax-based oleogel emulsion and its application as shortening replacer in cake. Food Measure (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-024-02840-z

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Received : 30 January 2024

Accepted : 22 August 2024

Published : 04 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-024-02840-z

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