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• What is a survey?
• Survey Research

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What is survey research.

15 min read Find out everything you need to know about survey research, from what it is and how it works to the different methods and tools you can use to ensure you’re successful.

Survey research is the process of collecting data from a predefined group (e.g. customers or potential customers) with the ultimate goal of uncovering insights about your products, services, or brand overall .

As a quantitative data collection method, survey research can provide you with a goldmine of information that can inform crucial business and product decisions. But survey research needs careful planning and execution to get the results you want.

So if you’re thinking about using surveys to carry out research, read on.

Get started with our free survey maker tool

Types of survey research

Calling these methods ‘survey research’ slightly underplays the complexity of this type of information gathering. From the expertise required to carry out each activity to the analysis of the data and its eventual application, a considerable amount of effort is required.

As for how you can carry out your research, there are several options to choose from — face-to-face interviews, telephone surveys, focus groups (though more interviews than surveys), online surveys , and panel surveys.

Typically, the survey method you choose will largely be guided by who you want to survey, the size of your sample , your budget, and the type of information you’re hoping to gather.

Here are a few of the most-used survey types:

Face-to-face interviews

Before technology made it possible to conduct research using online surveys, telephone, and mail were the most popular methods for survey research. However face-to-face interviews were considered the gold standard — the only reason they weren’t as popular was due to their highly prohibitive costs.

When it came to face-to-face interviews, organizations would use highly trained researchers who knew when to probe or follow up on vague or problematic answers. They also knew when to offer assistance to respondents when they seemed to be struggling. The result was that these interviewers could get sample members to participate and engage in surveys in the most effective way possible, leading to higher response rates and better quality data.

Telephone surveys

While phone surveys have been popular in the past, particularly for measuring general consumer behavior or beliefs, response rates have been declining since the 1990s .

Phone surveys are usually conducted using a random dialing system and software that a researcher can use to record responses.

This method is beneficial when you want to survey a large population but don’t have the resources to conduct face-to-face research surveys or run focus groups, or want to ask multiple-choice and open-ended questions .

The downsides are they can: take a long time to complete depending on the response rate, and you may have to do a lot of cold-calling to get the information you need.

You also run the risk of respondents not being completely honest . Instead, they’ll answer your survey questions quickly just to get off the phone.

Focus groups (interviews — not surveys)

Focus groups are a separate qualitative methodology rather than surveys — even though they’re often bunched together. They’re normally used for survey pretesting and designing , but they’re also a great way to generate opinions and data from a diverse range of people.

Focus groups involve putting a cohort of demographically or socially diverse people in a room with a moderator and engaging them in a discussion on a particular topic, such as your product, brand, or service.

They remain a highly popular method for market research , but they’re expensive and require a lot of administration to conduct and analyze the data properly.

You also run the risk of more dominant members of the group taking over the discussion and swaying the opinions of other people — potentially providing you with unreliable data.

Online surveys

Online surveys have become one of the most popular survey methods due to being cost-effective, enabling researchers to accurately survey a large population quickly.

Online surveys can essentially be used by anyone for any research purpose – we’ve all seen the increasing popularity of polls on social media (although these are not scientific).

Using an online survey allows you to ask a series of different question types and collect data instantly that’s easy to analyze with the right software.

There are also several methods for running and distributing online surveys that allow you to get your questionnaire in front of a large population at a fraction of the cost of face-to-face interviews or focus groups.

This is particularly true when it comes to mobile surveys as most people with a smartphone can access them online.

However, you have to be aware of the potential dangers of using online surveys, particularly when it comes to the survey respondents. The biggest risk is because online surveys require access to a computer or mobile device to complete, they could exclude elderly members of the population who don’t have access to the technology — or don’t know how to use it.

It could also exclude those from poorer socio-economic backgrounds who can’t afford a computer or consistent internet access. This could mean the data collected is more biased towards a certain group and can lead to less accurate data when you’re looking for a representative population sample.

When it comes to surveys, every voice matters.

Find out how to create more inclusive and representative surveys for your research.

Panel surveys

A panel survey involves recruiting respondents who have specifically signed up to answer questionnaires and who are put on a list by a research company. This could be a workforce of a small company or a major subset of a national population. Usually, these groups are carefully selected so that they represent a sample of your target population — giving you balance across criteria such as age, gender, background, and so on.

Panel surveys give you access to the respondents you need and are usually provided by the research company in question. As a result, it’s much easier to get access to the right audiences as you just need to tell the research company your criteria. They’ll then determine the right panels to use to answer your questionnaire.

However, there are downsides. The main one being that if the research company offers its panels incentives, e.g. discounts, coupons, money — respondents may answer a lot of questionnaires just for the benefits.

This might mean they rush through your survey without providing considered and truthful answers. As a consequence, this can damage the credibility of your data and potentially ruin your analyses.

What are the benefits of using survey research?

Depending on the research method you use, there are lots of benefits to conducting survey research for data collection. Here, we cover a few:

1.   They’re relatively easy to do

Most research surveys are easy to set up, administer and analyze. As long as the planning and survey design is thorough and you target the right audience , the data collection is usually straightforward regardless of which survey type you use.

2.   They can be cost effective

Survey research can be relatively cheap depending on the type of survey you use.

Generally, qualitative research methods that require access to people in person or over the phone are more expensive and require more administration.

Online surveys or mobile surveys are often more cost-effective for market research and can give you access to the global population for a fraction of the cost.

3.   You can collect data from a large sample

Again, depending on the type of survey, you can obtain survey results from an entire population at a relatively low price. You can also administer a large variety of survey types to fit the project you’re running.

4.   You can use survey software to analyze results immediately

Using survey software, you can use advanced statistical analysis techniques to gain insights into your responses immediately.

Analysis can be conducted using a variety of parameters to determine the validity and reliability of your survey data at scale.

5.   Surveys can collect any type of data

While most people view surveys as a quantitative research method, they can just as easily be adapted to gain qualitative information by simply including open-ended questions or conducting interviews face to face.

How to measure concepts with survey questions

While surveys are a great way to obtain data, that data on its own is useless unless it can be analyzed and developed into actionable insights.

The easiest, and most effective way to measure survey results, is to use a dedicated research tool that puts all of your survey results into one place.

When it comes to survey measurement, there are four measurement types to be aware of that will determine how you treat your different survey results:

Nominal scale

With a nominal scale , you can only keep track of how many respondents chose each option from a question, and which response generated the most selections.

An example of this would be simply asking a responder to choose a product or brand from a list.

You could find out which brand was chosen the most but have no insight as to why.

Ordinal scale

Ordinal scales are used to judge an order of preference. They do provide some level of quantitative value because you’re asking responders to choose a preference of one option over another.

Ratio scale

Ratio scales can be used to judge the order and difference between responses. For example, asking respondents how much they spend on their weekly shopping on average.

Interval scale

In an interval scale, values are lined up in order with a meaningful difference between the two values — for example, measuring temperature or measuring a credit score between one value and another.

Step by step: How to conduct surveys and collect data

Conducting a survey and collecting data is relatively straightforward, but it does require some careful planning and design to ensure it results in reliable data.

Step 1 – Define your objectives

What do you want to learn from the survey? How is the data going to help you? Having a hypothesis or series of assumptions about survey responses will allow you to create the right questions to test them.

Step 2 – Create your survey questions

Once you’ve got your hypotheses or assumptions, write out the questions you need answering to test your theories or beliefs. Be wary about framing questions that could lead respondents or inadvertently create biased responses .

Step 3 – Choose your question types

Your survey should include a variety of question types and should aim to obtain quantitative data with some qualitative responses from open-ended questions. Using a mix of questions (simple Yes/ No, multiple-choice, rank in order, etc) not only increases the reliability of your data but also reduces survey fatigue and respondents simply answering questions quickly without thinking.

Find out how to create a survey that’s easy to engage with

Step 4 – Test your questions

Before sending your questionnaire out, you should test it (e.g. have a random internal group do the survey) and carry out A/B tests to ensure you’ll gain accurate responses.

Step 5 – Choose your target and send out the survey

Depending on your objectives, you might want to target the general population with your survey or a specific segment of the population. Once you’ve narrowed down who you want to target, it’s time to send out the survey.

After you’ve deployed the survey, keep an eye on the response rate to ensure you’re getting the number you expected. If your response rate is low, you might need to send the survey out to a second group to obtain a large enough sample — or do some troubleshooting to work out why your response rates are so low. This could be down to your questions, delivery method, selected sample, or otherwise.

Step 6 – Analyze results and draw conclusions

Once you’ve got your results back, it’s time for the fun part.

Break down your survey responses using the parameters you’ve set in your objectives and analyze the data to compare to your original assumptions. At this stage, a research tool or software can make the analysis a lot easier — and that’s somewhere Qualtrics can help.

Get reliable insights with survey software from Qualtrics

Gaining feedback from customers and leads is critical for any business, data gathered from surveys can prove invaluable for understanding your products and your market position, and with survey software from Qualtrics, it couldn’t be easier.

Used by more than 13,000 brands and supporting more than 1 billion surveys a year, Qualtrics empowers everyone in your organization to gather insights and take action. No coding required — and your data is housed in one system.

Get feedback from more than 125 sources on a single platform and view and measure your data in one place to create actionable insights and gain a deeper understanding of your target customers .

Automatically run complex text and statistical analysis to uncover exactly what your survey data is telling you, so you can react in real-time and make smarter decisions.

We can help you with survey management, too. From designing your survey and finding your target respondents to getting your survey in the field and reporting back on the results, we can help you every step of the way.

And for expert market researchers and survey designers, Qualtrics features custom programming to give you total flexibility over question types, survey design, embedded data, and other variables.

No matter what type of survey you want to run, what target audience you want to reach, or what assumptions you want to test or answers you want to uncover, we’ll help you design, deploy and analyze your survey with our team of experts.

Ready to find out more about Qualtrics CoreXM?

Get started with our free survey maker tool today

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Home » Questionnaire – Definition, Types, and Examples

Questionnaire – Definition, Types, and Examples

Table of Contents

Questionnaire

Definition:

A Questionnaire is a research tool or survey instrument that consists of a set of questions or prompts designed to gather information from individuals or groups of people.

It is a standardized way of collecting data from a large number of people by asking them a series of questions related to a specific topic or research objective. The questions may be open-ended or closed-ended, and the responses can be quantitative or qualitative. Questionnaires are widely used in research, marketing, social sciences, healthcare, and many other fields to collect data and insights from a target population.

History of Questionnaire

The history of questionnaires can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, who used questionnaires as a means of assessing public opinion. However, the modern history of questionnaires began in the late 19th century with the rise of social surveys.

The first social survey was conducted in the United States in 1874 by Francis A. Walker, who used a questionnaire to collect data on labor conditions. In the early 20th century, questionnaires became a popular tool for conducting social research, particularly in the fields of sociology and psychology.

One of the most influential figures in the development of the questionnaire was the psychologist Raymond Cattell, who in the 1940s and 1950s developed the personality questionnaire, a standardized instrument for measuring personality traits. Cattell’s work helped establish the questionnaire as a key tool in personality research.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the use of questionnaires expanded into other fields, including market research, public opinion polling, and health surveys. With the rise of computer technology, questionnaires became easier and more cost-effective to administer, leading to their widespread use in research and business settings.

Today, questionnaires are used in a wide range of settings, including academic research, business, healthcare, and government. They continue to evolve as a research tool, with advances in computer technology and data analysis techniques making it easier to collect and analyze data from large numbers of participants.

Types of Questionnaire

Types of Questionnaires are as follows:

Structured Questionnaire

This type of questionnaire has a fixed format with predetermined questions that the respondent must answer. The questions are usually closed-ended, which means that the respondent must select a response from a list of options.

Unstructured Questionnaire

An unstructured questionnaire does not have a fixed format or predetermined questions. Instead, the interviewer or researcher can ask open-ended questions to the respondent and let them provide their own answers.

Open-ended Questionnaire

An open-ended questionnaire allows the respondent to answer the question in their own words, without any pre-determined response options. The questions usually start with phrases like “how,” “why,” or “what,” and encourage the respondent to provide more detailed and personalized answers.

Close-ended Questionnaire

In a closed-ended questionnaire, the respondent is given a set of predetermined response options to choose from. This type of questionnaire is easier to analyze and summarize, but may not provide as much insight into the respondent’s opinions or attitudes.

Mixed Questionnaire

A mixed questionnaire is a combination of open-ended and closed-ended questions. This type of questionnaire allows for more flexibility in terms of the questions that can be asked, and can provide both quantitative and qualitative data.

Pictorial Questionnaire:

In a pictorial questionnaire, instead of using words to ask questions, the questions are presented in the form of pictures, diagrams or images. This can be particularly useful for respondents who have low literacy skills, or for situations where language barriers exist. Pictorial questionnaires can also be useful in cross-cultural research where respondents may come from different language backgrounds.

Types of Questions in Questionnaire

The types of Questions in Questionnaire are as follows:

Multiple Choice Questions

These questions have several options for participants to choose from. They are useful for getting quantitative data and can be used to collect demographic information.

• a. Red b . Blue c. Green d . Yellow

Rating Scale Questions

These questions ask participants to rate something on a scale (e.g. from 1 to 10). They are useful for measuring attitudes and opinions.

• On a scale of 1 to 10, how likely are you to recommend this product to a friend?

Open-Ended Questions

These questions allow participants to answer in their own words and provide more in-depth and detailed responses. They are useful for getting qualitative data.

• What do you think are the biggest challenges facing your community?

Likert Scale Questions

These questions ask participants to rate how much they agree or disagree with a statement. They are useful for measuring attitudes and opinions.

How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statement:

“I enjoy exercising regularly.”

• a . Strongly Agree
• c . Neither Agree nor Disagree
• d . Disagree
• e . Strongly Disagree

Demographic Questions

These questions ask about the participant’s personal information such as age, gender, ethnicity, education level, etc. They are useful for segmenting the data and analyzing results by demographic groups.

• What is your age?

Yes/No Questions

These questions only have two options: Yes or No. They are useful for getting simple, straightforward answers to a specific question.

Have you ever traveled outside of your home country?

Ranking Questions

These questions ask participants to rank several items in order of preference or importance. They are useful for measuring priorities or preferences.

Please rank the following factors in order of importance when choosing a restaurant:

• a. Quality of Food
• c. Ambiance
• d. Location

Matrix Questions

These questions present a matrix or grid of options that participants can choose from. They are useful for getting data on multiple variables at once.

The product is easy to use
The product meets my needs
The product is affordable

Dichotomous Questions

These questions present two options that are opposite or contradictory. They are useful for measuring binary or polarized attitudes.

Do you support the death penalty?

How to Make a Questionnaire

Step-by-Step Guide for Making a Questionnaire:

• Define your research objectives: Before you start creating questions, you need to define the purpose of your questionnaire and what you hope to achieve from the data you collect.
• Choose the appropriate question types: Based on your research objectives, choose the appropriate question types to collect the data you need. Refer to the types of questions mentioned earlier for guidance.
• Develop questions: Develop clear and concise questions that are easy for participants to understand. Avoid leading or biased questions that might influence the responses.
• Organize questions: Organize questions in a logical and coherent order, starting with demographic questions followed by general questions, and ending with specific or sensitive questions.
• Pilot the questionnaire : Test your questionnaire on a small group of participants to identify any flaws or issues with the questions or the format.
• Refine the questionnaire : Based on feedback from the pilot, refine and revise the questionnaire as necessary to ensure that it is valid and reliable.
• Distribute the questionnaire: Distribute the questionnaire to your target audience using a method that is appropriate for your research objectives, such as online surveys, email, or paper surveys.
• Collect and analyze data: Collect the completed questionnaires and analyze the data using appropriate statistical methods. Draw conclusions from the data and use them to inform decision-making or further research.
• Report findings: Present your findings in a clear and concise report, including a summary of the research objectives, methodology, key findings, and recommendations.

Questionnaire Administration Modes

There are several modes of questionnaire administration. The choice of mode depends on the research objectives, sample size, and available resources. Some common modes of administration include:

• Self-administered paper questionnaires: Participants complete the questionnaire on paper, either in person or by mail. This mode is relatively low cost and easy to administer, but it may result in lower response rates and greater potential for errors in data entry.
• Online questionnaires: Participants complete the questionnaire on a website or through email. This mode is convenient for both researchers and participants, as it allows for fast and easy data collection. However, it may be subject to issues such as low response rates, lack of internet access, and potential for fraudulent responses.
• Telephone surveys: Trained interviewers administer the questionnaire over the phone. This mode allows for a large sample size and can result in higher response rates, but it is also more expensive and time-consuming than other modes.
• Face-to-face interviews : Trained interviewers administer the questionnaire in person. This mode allows for a high degree of control over the survey environment and can result in higher response rates, but it is also more expensive and time-consuming than other modes.
• Mixed-mode surveys: Researchers use a combination of two or more modes to administer the questionnaire, such as using online questionnaires for initial screening and following up with telephone interviews for more detailed information. This mode can help overcome some of the limitations of individual modes, but it requires careful planning and coordination.

Example of Questionnaire

Title of the Survey: Customer Satisfaction Survey

Introduction:

We appreciate your business and would like to ensure that we are meeting your needs. Please take a few minutes to complete this survey so that we can better understand your experience with our products and services. Your feedback is important to us and will help us improve our offerings.

Instructions:

Please read each question carefully and select the response that best reflects your experience. If you have any additional comments or suggestions, please feel free to include them in the space provided at the end of the survey.

1. How satisfied are you with our product quality?

• Very satisfied
• Somewhat satisfied
• Somewhat dissatisfied
• Very dissatisfied

2. How satisfied are you with our customer service?

3. How satisfied are you with the price of our products?

4. How likely are you to recommend our products to others?

• Very likely
• Somewhat likely
• Somewhat unlikely
• Very unlikely

5. How easy was it to find the information you were looking for on our website?

• Somewhat easy
• Somewhat difficult
• Very difficult

6. How satisfied are you with the overall experience of using our products and services?

7. Is there anything that you would like to see us improve upon or change in the future?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Conclusion:

Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. Your feedback is valuable to us and will help us improve our products and services. If you have any further comments or concerns, please do not hesitate to contact us.

Applications of Questionnaire

Some common applications of questionnaires include:

• Research : Questionnaires are commonly used in research to gather information from participants about their attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and experiences. This information can then be analyzed and used to draw conclusions and make inferences.
• Healthcare : In healthcare, questionnaires can be used to gather information about patients’ medical history, symptoms, and lifestyle habits. This information can help healthcare professionals diagnose and treat medical conditions more effectively.
• Marketing : Questionnaires are commonly used in marketing to gather information about consumers’ preferences, buying habits, and opinions on products and services. This information can help businesses develop and market products more effectively.
• Human Resources: Questionnaires are used in human resources to gather information from job applicants, employees, and managers about job satisfaction, performance, and workplace culture. This information can help organizations improve their hiring practices, employee retention, and organizational culture.
• Education : Questionnaires are used in education to gather information from students, teachers, and parents about their perceptions of the educational experience. This information can help educators identify areas for improvement and develop more effective teaching strategies.

Purpose of Questionnaire

Some common purposes of questionnaires include:

• To collect information on attitudes, opinions, and beliefs: Questionnaires can be used to gather information on people’s attitudes, opinions, and beliefs on a particular topic. For example, a questionnaire can be used to gather information on people’s opinions about a particular political issue.
• To collect demographic information: Questionnaires can be used to collect demographic information such as age, gender, income, education level, and occupation. This information can be used to analyze trends and patterns in the data.
• To measure behaviors or experiences: Questionnaires can be used to gather information on behaviors or experiences such as health-related behaviors or experiences, job satisfaction, or customer satisfaction.
• To evaluate programs or interventions: Questionnaires can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions by gathering information on participants’ experiences, opinions, and behaviors.
• To gather information for research: Questionnaires can be used to gather data for research purposes on a variety of topics.

When to use Questionnaire

Here are some situations when questionnaires might be used:

• When you want to collect data from a large number of people: Questionnaires are useful when you want to collect data from a large number of people. They can be distributed to a wide audience and can be completed at the respondent’s convenience.
• When you want to collect data on specific topics: Questionnaires are useful when you want to collect data on specific topics or research questions. They can be designed to ask specific questions and can be used to gather quantitative data that can be analyzed statistically.
• When you want to compare responses across groups: Questionnaires are useful when you want to compare responses across different groups of people. For example, you might want to compare responses from men and women, or from people of different ages or educational backgrounds.
• When you want to collect data anonymously: Questionnaires can be useful when you want to collect data anonymously. Respondents can complete the questionnaire without fear of judgment or repercussions, which can lead to more honest and accurate responses.
• When you want to save time and resources: Questionnaires can be more efficient and cost-effective than other methods of data collection such as interviews or focus groups. They can be completed quickly and easily, and can be analyzed using software to save time and resources.

Characteristics of Questionnaire

Here are some of the characteristics of questionnaires:

• Standardization : Questionnaires are standardized tools that ask the same questions in the same order to all respondents. This ensures that all respondents are answering the same questions and that the responses can be compared and analyzed.
• Objectivity : Questionnaires are designed to be objective, meaning that they do not contain leading questions or bias that could influence the respondent’s answers.
• Predefined responses: Questionnaires typically provide predefined response options for the respondents to choose from, which helps to standardize the responses and make them easier to analyze.
• Quantitative data: Questionnaires are designed to collect quantitative data, meaning that they provide numerical or categorical data that can be analyzed using statistical methods.
• Convenience : Questionnaires are convenient for both the researcher and the respondents. They can be distributed and completed at the respondent’s convenience and can be easily administered to a large number of people.
• Anonymity : Questionnaires can be anonymous, which can encourage respondents to answer more honestly and provide more accurate data.
• Reliability : Questionnaires are designed to be reliable, meaning that they produce consistent results when administered multiple times to the same group of people.
• Validity : Questionnaires are designed to be valid, meaning that they measure what they are intended to measure and are not influenced by other factors.

Advantage of Questionnaire

Some Advantage of Questionnaire are as follows:

• Standardization: Questionnaires allow researchers to ask the same questions to all participants in a standardized manner. This helps ensure consistency in the data collected and eliminates potential bias that might arise if questions were asked differently to different participants.
• Efficiency: Questionnaires can be administered to a large number of people at once, making them an efficient way to collect data from a large sample.
• Anonymity: Participants can remain anonymous when completing a questionnaire, which may make them more likely to answer honestly and openly.
• Cost-effective: Questionnaires can be relatively inexpensive to administer compared to other research methods, such as interviews or focus groups.
• Objectivity: Because questionnaires are typically designed to collect quantitative data, they can be analyzed objectively without the influence of the researcher’s subjective interpretation.
• Flexibility: Questionnaires can be adapted to a wide range of research questions and can be used in various settings, including online surveys, mail surveys, or in-person interviews.

Limitations of Questionnaire

Limitations of Questionnaire are as follows:

• Limited depth: Questionnaires are typically designed to collect quantitative data, which may not provide a complete understanding of the topic being studied. Questionnaires may miss important details and nuances that could be captured through other research methods, such as interviews or observations.
• R esponse bias: Participants may not always answer questions truthfully or accurately, either because they do not remember or because they want to present themselves in a particular way. This can lead to response bias, which can affect the validity and reliability of the data collected.
• Limited flexibility: While questionnaires can be adapted to a wide range of research questions, they may not be suitable for all types of research. For example, they may not be appropriate for studying complex phenomena or for exploring participants’ experiences and perceptions in-depth.
• Limited context: Questionnaires typically do not provide a rich contextual understanding of the topic being studied. They may not capture the broader social, cultural, or historical factors that may influence participants’ responses.
• Limited control : Researchers may not have control over how participants complete the questionnaire, which can lead to variations in response quality or consistency.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Research Methodologies: Research Instruments

• Research Methodology Basics
• Research Instruments
• Types of Research Methodologies

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Types of Research Instruments

A research instrument is a tool you will use to help you collect, measure and analyze the data you use as part of your research.  The choice of research instrument will usually be yours to make as the researcher and will be whichever best suits your methodology. 

There are many different research instruments you can use in collecting data for your research:

• Interviews  (either as a group or one-on-one). You can carry out interviews in many different ways. For example, your interview can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. The difference between them is how formal the set of questions is that is asked of the interviewee. In a group interview, you may choose to ask the interviewees to give you their opinions or perceptions on certain topics.
• Surveys  (online or in-person). In survey research, you are posing questions in which you ask for a response from the person taking the survey. You may wish to have either free-answer questions such as essay style questions, or you may wish to use closed questions such as multiple choice. You may even wish to make the survey a mixture of both.
• Focus Groups.  Similar to the group interview above, you may wish to ask a focus group to discuss a particular topic or opinion while you make a note of the answers given.
• Observations.  This is a good research instrument to use if you are looking into human behaviors. Different ways of researching this include studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in their everyday life, or something more structured. A structured observation is research conducted at a set time and place where researchers observe behavior as planned and agreed upon with participants.

These are the most common ways of carrying out research, but it is really dependent on your needs as a researcher and what approach you think is best to take. It is also possible to combine a number of research instruments if this is necessary and appropriate in answering your research problem.

Data Collection

How to Collect Data for Your Research   This article covers different ways of collecting data in preparation for writing a thesis.

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Research Instrument

Ai generator.

A research instrument is a tool or device used by researchers to collect, measure, and analyze data relevant to their study. Common examples include surveys, questionnaires , tests, and observational checklists. These instruments are essential for obtaining accurate, reliable, and valid data, enabling researchers to draw meaningful conclusions and insights. The selection of an appropriate research instrument is crucial, as it directly impacts the quality and integrity of the research findings.

What is a Research Instrument?

A research instrument is a tool used by researchers to collect and analyze data. Examples include surveys, questionnaires, and observation checklists. Choosing the right instrument is essential for ensuring accurate and reliable data.

Examples of Research Instruments

• Surveys: Structured questionnaires designed to gather quantitative data from a large audience.
• Questionnaires: Sets of written questions used to collect information on specific topics.
• Interviews: Structured or semi-structured conversations used to obtain in-depth qualitative data.
• Observation Checklists: Lists of specific behaviors or events that researchers observe and record.
• Tests: Standardized exams used to assess knowledge, skills, or abilities.
• Scales: Tools like Likert scales to measure attitudes, perceptions, or opinions.
• Diaries: Participant logs documenting activities or experiences over time.
• Focus Groups: Group discussions facilitated to explore collective views and experiences.

Examples of a Quantitative Research Instruments

• Structured Surveys: These are detailed questionnaires with predefined questions and response options, designed to collect numerical data from a large sample. They are often used in market research and social sciences to identify trends and patterns.
• Standardized Tests: These are assessments that measure specific knowledge, skills, or abilities using uniform procedures and scoring methods. Examples include IQ tests, academic achievement tests, and professional certification exams.
• Closed-Ended Questionnaires: These questionnaires contain questions with a limited set of response options, such as multiple-choice or yes/no answers. They are useful for gathering specific, quantifiable data efficiently.
• Rating Scales: These tools ask respondents to rate items on a fixed scale, such as 1 to 5 or 1 to 10. They are commonly used to measure attitudes, opinions, or satisfaction levels.
• Structured Observation Checklists: These checklists outline specific behaviors or events that researchers observe and record in a systematic manner. They are often used in studies where direct observation is needed to gather quantitative data.
• Statistical Data Collection Tools: These include various instruments and software used to collect and analyze numerical data, such as spreadsheets, databases, and statistical analysis programs like SPSS or SAS.
• Likert Scales: A type of rating scale commonly used in surveys to measure attitudes or opinions. Respondents indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a series of statements on a scale, such as “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.”

Examples of a Qualitative Research Instruments

• Open-Ended Interviews: These interviews involve asking participants broad, open-ended questions to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences in depth. This method allows for rich, detailed data collection.
• Focus Groups: A small, diverse group of people engage in guided discussions to provide insights into their perceptions, opinions, and attitudes about a specific topic. Focus groups are useful for exploring complex behaviors and motivations.
• Unstructured Observation: Researchers observe participants in their natural environment without predefined criteria, allowing them to capture spontaneous behaviors and interactions in real-time.
• Case Studies: In-depth investigations of a single individual, group, event, or community. Case studies provide comprehensive insights into the subject’s context, experiences, and development over time.
• Ethnographic Studies: Researchers immerse themselves in the daily lives of participants to understand their cultures, practices, and perspectives. This method often involves long-term observation and interaction.
• Participant Diaries: Participants keep detailed, personal records of their daily activities, thoughts, and experiences over a specific period. These diaries provide firsthand insights into participants’ lives.
• Field Notes: Researchers take detailed notes while observing participants in their natural settings. Field notes capture contextual information, behaviors, and interactions that are often missed in structured observations.
• Narrative Analysis: This method involves analyzing stories and personal accounts to understand how people make sense of their experiences and the world around them.
• Content Analysis: Researchers systematically analyze textual, visual, or a content to identify patterns, themes, and meanings. This method is often used for analyzing media, documents, and online content.
• Document Analysis: Researchers review and interpret existing documents, such as reports, letters, or official records, to gain insights into the context and background of the research subject.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

• Validity: A good research instrument accurately measures what it is intended to measure. This ensures that the results are a true reflection of the concept being studied.
• Reliability: The instrument produces consistent results when used repeatedly under similar conditions. This consistency is crucial for the credibility of the research findings.
• Objectivity: The instrument should be free from researcher bias, ensuring that results are based solely on the data collected rather than subjective interpretations.
• Sensitivity: The instrument is capable of detecting subtle differences or changes in the variable being measured, allowing for more nuanced and precise data collection.
• Practicality: It is easy to administer, score, and interpret. This includes being time-efficient, cost-effective, and user-friendly for both researchers and participants.
• Ethical Considerations: The instrument respects the rights and confidentiality of participants, ensuring informed consent and protecting their privacy throughout the research process.
• Comprehensiveness: It covers all relevant aspects of the concept being studied, providing a complete and thorough understanding of the research topic.
• Adaptability: The instrument can be modified or adapted for different contexts, populations, or research settings without losing its effectiveness.
• Clarity: The questions or items in the instrument are clearly worded and unambiguous, ensuring that participants understand what is being asked without confusion.
• Cultural Sensitivity: The instrument is appropriate for the cultural context of the participants, avoiding language or content that may be misinterpreted or offensive.

Research Instrument Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a versatile and widely used research instrument composed of a series of questions aimed at gathering information from respondents. It is designed to collect both quantitative and qualitative data through a mix of open-ended and closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions allow respondents to express their thoughts in their own words, providing rich, detailed insights, while closed-ended questions offer predefined response options, facilitating easier statistical analysis. Questionnaires can be administered in various formats, including paper-based, online, or via telephone, making them accessible to a wide audience and suitable for large-scale studies.

The design of a questionnaire is crucial to its effectiveness. Clear, concise, and unbiased questions are essential to ensure reliable and valid results. A well-crafted questionnaire minimizes respondent confusion and reduces the risk of biased answers, which can skew data. Moreover, the order and wording of questions can significantly impact the quality of the responses. Properly designed questionnaires are invaluable tools for a range of research purposes, from market research and customer satisfaction surveys to academic studies and social science research. They enable researchers to gather a broad spectrum of data efficiently and effectively, making them a cornerstone of data collection in many fields.

Research instrument Sample Paragraph

A research instrument is a vital tool used by researchers to collect, measure, and analyze data from participants. These instruments vary widely and include questionnaires, surveys, interviews, observation checklists, and standardized tests, each serving distinct research needs. For example, questionnaires and surveys are commonly employed to gather quantitative data from large groups, providing statistical insights into trends and patterns. In contrast, interviews and focus groups are used to delve deeper into participants’ experiences and perspectives, yielding rich qualitative data. The careful selection and design of a research instrument are crucial, as they directly impact the accuracy, reliability, and validity of the collected data,

How to Make Research Instrument

Creating an effective research instrument involves several key steps to ensure it accurately collects and measures the necessary data for your study:

1. Define the Research Objectives

• Identify the Purpose : Clearly outline what you aim to achieve with your research.
• Specify the Variables : Determine the specific variables you need to measure.

2. Review Existing Instruments

• Literature Review : Look at existing studies and instruments used in similar research.
• Evaluate Suitability : Assess if existing instruments can be adapted for your study.

3. Select the Type of Instrument

• Choose the Format : Decide whether a survey, questionnaire, interview guide, test, or observation checklist best fits your needs.
• Determine the Method : Consider whether your data collection will be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods.

4. Develop the Content

• Draft Questions or Items : Write questions that align with your research objectives and variables.
• Ensure Clarity and Relevance : Make sure each question is clear, concise, and directly related to the research objectives.
• Use Simple Language : Avoid jargon to ensure respondents understand the questions.

5. Validate the Instrument

• Expert Review : Have experts in your field review the instrument for content validity.
• Pilot Testing : Conduct a pilot test with a small, representative sample to identify any issues.

6. Refine the Instrument

• Revise Based on Feedback : Modify the instrument based on feedback from experts and pilot testing.
• Check for Reliability : Ensure the instrument consistently measures what it is supposed to.

7. Finalize the Instrument

• Create Instructions : Provide clear instructions for respondents on how to complete the instrument.
• Format Appropriately : Ensure the layout is user-friendly and the instrument is easy to navigate.

8. Implement and Collect Data

• Administer the Instrument : Distribute your instrument to the target population.
• Monitor Data Collection : Ensure the data collection process is conducted consistently.

FAQ’s

How do you choose a research instrument.

Select based on your research goals, type of data needed, and the target population.

What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research instruments?

Qualitative instruments collect non-numerical data, while quantitative instruments collect numerical data.

Can you use multiple research instruments in one study?

Yes, using multiple instruments can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem.

How do you ensure the reliability of a research instrument?

Test the instrument multiple times under the same conditions to check for consistent results.

What is the validity of a research instrument?

Validity refers to how well an instrument measures what it is intended to measure.

How can you test the validity of a research instrument?

Use methods like content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity to test an instrument.

What is a pilot study?

A pilot study is a small-scale trial run of a research instrument to identify any issues before the main study.

Why is a pilot study important?

It helps refine the research instrument and improve its reliability and validity.

What is an unstructured interview?

An unstructured interview allows more flexibility, with open-ended questions that can adapt based on responses.

What is the role of observation in research?

Observation allows researchers to collect data on behaviors and events in their natural settings.

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• Survey Guide >

Types of Survey

There are various types of surveys you can choose from. Basically, the types of surveys are broadly categorized into two: according to instrumentation and according to the span of time involved. The types of surveys according to instrumentation include the questionnaire and the interview. On the other hand, the types of surveys according to the span of time used to conduct the survey are comprised of cross-sectional surveys and longitudinal surveys.

This article is a part of the guide:

• Response Scales
• Example - Questionnaire
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Surveys and Questionnaires - Guide
• Personal Interview

Browse Full Outline

• 1 Surveys and Questionnaires - Guide
• 2.1 Research and Surveys
• 2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
• 2.3 Survey Design
• 2.4 Sampling
• 3.1 Defining Goals
• 4.1 Survey Layout
• 4.2 Types of Questions
• 4.3 Constructing Questions
• 4.4 Response Formats
• 4.5 Response Scales
• 5.1 Selecting Method
• 5.2 Personal Interview
• 5.3 Telephone
• 5.4.1 Preparing Online Surveys
• 5.4.2 Online Tools
• 5.5 Focus Group
• 5.6 Panel Study
• 6.1 Pilot Survey
• 6.2 Increasing Response Rates
• 7.1 Analysis and Data
• 7.2 Conclusion
• 7.3 Presenting the Results
• 8 Example - Questionnaire
• 9 Checklist

According to Instrumentation

In survey research, the instruments that are utilized can be either a questionnaire or an interview (either structured or unstructured).

1. Questionnaires

Typically, a questionnaire is a paper-and-pencil instrument that is administered to the respondents. The usual questions found in questionnaires are closed-ended questions, which are followed by response options. However, there are questionnaires that ask open-ended questions to explore the answers of the respondents.

Questionnaires have been developed over the years. Today, questionnaires are utilized in various survey methods , according to how they are given. These methods include the self-administered, the group-administered, and the household drop-off. Among the three, the self-administered survey method is often used by researchers nowadays. The self-administered questionnaires are widely known as the mail survey method. However, since the response rates related to mail surveys had gone low, questionnaires are now commonly administered online, as in the form of web surveys.

• Advantages: Ideal for asking closed-ended questions; effective for market or consumer research
• Disadvantages: Limit the researcher’s understanding of the respondent’s answers; requires budget for reproduction of survey questionnaires

2. Interviews

Between the two broad types of surveys, interviews are more personal and probing. Questionnaires do not provide the freedom to ask follow-up questions to explore the answers of the respondents, but interviews do.

An interview includes two persons - the researcher as the interviewer, and the respondent as the interviewee. There are several survey methods that utilize interviews. These are the personal or face-to-face interview, the phone interview , and more recently, the online interview .

• Advantages: Follow-up questions can be asked; provide better understanding of the answers of the respondents
• Disadvantages: Time-consuming; many target respondents have no public-listed phone numbers or no telephones at all

According to the Span of Time Involved

The span of time needed to complete the survey brings us to the two different types of surveys: cross-sectional and longitudinal.

1. Cross-Sectional Surveys

Collecting information from the respondents at a single period in time uses the cross-sectional type of survey. Cross-sectional surveys usually utilize questionnaires to ask about a particular topic at one point in time. For instance, a researcher conducted a cross-sectional survey asking teenagers’ views on cigarette smoking as of May 2010. Sometimes, cross-sectional surveys are used to identify the relationship between two variables , as in a comparative study. An example of this is administering a cross-sectional survey about the relationship of peer pressure and cigarette smoking among teenagers as of May 2010.

2. Longitudinal Surveys

When the researcher attempts to gather information over a period of time or from one point in time up to another, he is doing a longitudinal survey. The aim of longitudinal surveys is to collect data and examine the changes in the data gathered. Longitudinal surveys are used in cohort studies , panel studies and trend studies.

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Sarah Mae Sincero (Sep 21, 2012). Types of Survey. Retrieved Jun 28, 2024 from Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/types-of-survey

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A quick guide to survey research

1 University of Cambridge,, UK

2 Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust,, UK

Questionnaires are a very useful survey tool that allow large populations to be assessed with relative ease. Despite a widespread perception that surveys are easy to conduct, in order to yield meaningful results, a survey needs extensive planning, time and effort. In this article, we aim to cover the main aspects of designing, implementing and analysing a survey as well as focusing on techniques that would improve response rates.

Medical research questionnaires or surveys are vital tools used to gather information on individual perspectives in a large cohort. Within the medical realm, there are three main types of survey: epidemiological surveys, surveys on attitudes to a health service or intervention and questionnaires assessing knowledge on a particular issue or topic. 1

Despite a widespread perception that surveys are easy to conduct, in order to yield meaningful results, a survey needs extensive planning, time and effort. In this article, we aim to cover the main aspects of designing, implementing and analysing a survey as well as focusing on techniques that would improve response rates.

Clear research goal

The first and most important step in designing a survey is to have a clear idea of what you are looking for. It will always be tempting to take a blanket approach and ask as many questions as possible in the hope of getting as much information as possible. This type of approach does not work as asking too many irrelevant or incoherent questions reduces the response rate 2 and therefore reduces the power of the study. This is especially important when surveying physicians as they often have a lower response rate than the rest of the population. 3 Instead, you must carefully consider the important data you will be using and work on a ‘need to know’ rather than a ‘would be nice to know’ model. 4

After considering the question you are trying to answer, deciding whom you are going to ask is the next step. With small populations, attempting to survey them all is manageable but as your population gets bigger, a sample must be taken. The size of this sample is more important than you might expect. After lost questionnaires, non-responders and improper answers are taken into account, this sample must still be big enough to be representative of the entire population. If it is not big enough, the power of your statistics will drop and you may not get any meaningful answers at all. It is for this reason that getting a statistician involved in your study early on is absolutely crucial. Data should not be collected until you know what you are going to do with them.

Directed questions

After settling on your research goal and beginning to design a questionnaire, the main considerations are the method of data collection, the survey instrument and the type of question you are going to ask. Methods of data collection include personal interviews, telephone, postal or electronic ( Table 1 ).

Advantages and disadvantages of survey methods

Method of data collection	Advantages	Disadvantages
Personal	• Complex questions	• Expensive
	• Visual aids can be used	• Time inefficient
	• Higher response rates	• Training to avoid bias
Telephone	• Allows clarification	• No visual aids
	• Larger radius than personal	• Difficult to develop rapport
	• Less expensive or time consuming
	• Higher response rates
Postal	• Larger target	• Non-response
	• Visual aids (although limited)	• Time for data compilation
	• Lower response rates
Electronic	• Larger target	• Non-response
	• Visual aids	• Not all subjects accessible
	• Quick response
	• Quick data compilation
	• Lower response rates

Collected data are only useful if they convey information accurately and consistently about the topic in which you are interested. This is where a validated survey instrument comes in to the questionnaire design. Validated instruments are those that have been extensively tested and are correctly calibrated to their target. They can therefore be assumed to be accurate. 1 It may be possible to modify a previously validated instrument but you should seek specialist advice as this is likely to reduce its power. Examples of validated models are the Beck Hopelessness Scale 5 or the Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination. 6

The next step is choosing the type of question you are going to ask. The questionnaire should be designed to answer the question you want answered. Each question should be clear, concise and without bias. Normalising statements should be included and the language level targeted towards those at the lowest educational level in your cohort. 1 You should avoid open, double barrelled questions and those questions that include negative items and assign causality. 1 The questions you use may elicit either an open (free text answer) or closed response. Open responses are more flexible but require more time and effort to analyse, whereas closed responses require more initial input in order to exhaust all possible options but are easier to analyse and present.

Questionnaire

Two more aspects come into questionnaire design: aesthetics and question order. While this is not relevant to telephone or personal questionnaires, in self-administered surveys the aesthetics of the questionnaire are crucial. Having spent a large amount of time fine-tuning your questions, presenting them in such a way as to maximise response rates is pivotal to obtaining good results. Visual elements to think of include smooth, simple and symmetrical shapes, soft colours and repetition of visual elements. 7

Once you have attracted your subject’s attention and willingness with a well designed and attractive survey, the order in which you put your questions is critical. To do this you should focus on what you need to know; start by placing easier, important questions at the beginning, group common themes in the middle and keep questions on demographics to near the end. The questions should be arrayed in a logical order, questions on the same topic close together and with sensible sections if long enough to warrant them. Introductory and summary questions to mark the start and end of the survey are also helpful.

Pilot study

Once a completed survey has been compiled, it needs to be tested. The ideal next step should highlight spelling errors, ambiguous questions and anything else that impairs completion of the questionnaire. 8 A pilot study, in which you apply your work to a small sample of your target population in a controlled setting, may highlight areas in which work still needs to be done. Where possible, being present while the pilot is going on will allow a focus group-type atmosphere in which you can discuss aspects of the survey with those who are going to be filling it in. This step may seem non-essential but detecting previously unconsidered difficulties needs to happen as early as possible and it is important to use your participants’ time wisely as they are unlikely to give it again.

Distribution and collection

While it should be considered quite early on, we will now discuss routes of survey administration and ways to maximise results. Questionnaires can be self-administered electronically or by post, or administered by a researcher by telephone or in person. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are summarised in Table 1 . Telephone and personal surveys are very time and resource consuming whereas postal and electronic surveys suffer from low response rates and response bias. Your route should be chosen with care.

Methods for maximising response rates for self-administered surveys are listed in Table 2 , taken from a Cochrane review.2 The differences between methods of maximising responses to postal or e-surveys are considerable but common elements include keeping the questionnaire short and logical as well as including incentives.

Methods for improving response rates in postal and electronic questionnaires 2

Postal	Electronic
Monetary or non-monetary incentives	Non-monetary incentives
Teaser on the envelope	Personalised questionnaires
Pre-notification	Include pictures
Follow-up with another copy included	Not including ‘survey’ in subject line
Handwritten addresses	Male signature
University sponsorship	White background
Use recorded delivery	Short questionnaire
Include return envelope	Offer of results
Avoid sensitive questions	Statement that others have responded

• – Involve a statistician early on.
• – Run a pilot study to uncover problems.
• – Consider using a validated instrument.
• – Only ask what you ‘need to know’.
• – Consider guidelines on improving response rates.

The collected data will come in a number of forms depending on the method of collection. Data from telephone or personal interviews can be directly entered into a computer database whereas postal data can be entered at a later stage. Electronic questionnaires can allow responses to go directly into a computer database. Problems arise from errors in data entry and when questionnaires are returned with missing data fields. As mentioned earlier, it is essential to have a statistician involved from the beginning for help with data analysis. He or she will have helped to determine the sample size required to ensure your study has enough power. The statistician can also suggest tests of significance appropriate to your survey, such as Student’s t-test or the chi-square test.

Conclusions

Survey research is a unique way of gathering information from a large cohort. Advantages of surveys include having a large population and therefore a greater statistical power, the ability to gather large amounts of information and having the availability of validated models. However, surveys are costly, there is sometimes discrepancy in recall accuracy and the validity of a survey depends on the response rate. Proper design is vital to enable analysis of results and pilot studies are critical to this process.

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• What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023 by Pritha Bhandari.

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall research objectives and approach
• Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative approach	Quantitative approach
	and describe frequencies, averages, and correlations about relationships between variables

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

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Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

• Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships
• Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

Type of design	Purpose and characteristics
Experimental	relationships effect on a
Quasi-experimental	)
Correlational
Descriptive

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.

Type of design	Purpose and characteristics
Grounded theory
Phenomenology

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

• Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling	Non-probability sampling

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question .

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews .

Questionnaires	Interviews
	)

Observation methods

Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Quantitative observation

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

Field	Examples of data collection methods
Media & communication	Collecting a sample of texts (e.g., speeches, articles, or social media posts) for data on cultural norms and narratives
Psychology	Using technologies like neuroimaging, eye-tracking, or computer-based tasks to collect data on things like attention, emotional response, or reaction time
Education	Using tests or assignments to collect data on knowledge and skills
Physical sciences	Using scientific instruments to collect data on things like weight, blood pressure, or chemical composition

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

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As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.

Operationalization

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

Reliability	Validity
	) )

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ).

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

Approach	Characteristics
Thematic analysis
Discourse analysis

There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:

• Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.
• Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships .

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

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Research Instruments: Surveys, Questionnaires, and other Measurement Tools

• Descriptions and Search Tips

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Resources: Descriptions and Search Tips
Sources	Description	Search Tips
	indexes Nursing and Allied Health literature and provides the detailed descriptions of over 350 popular instruments.	Search by instrument name or acronym and limit to the Publication Type: Questionnaire/Scale [documents with partial or complete examples of questionnaires or scales] or Research Instrument [special CINAHL records that describe research instruments and may have an instrument appended]; Search by keyword in the Instrumentation field and/or limit to the Publication Type: Tests/Questionnaires; OR search by keyword in the Instrumentation Index (click on More at the navigation bar at the top of the page and select Indexes) Search by instrument name and additional subject headings such as (MH "Reliability and Validity+"); OR limit search results by selecting Publication Types: Research Instrument Utilization or Research Instrument Validation
(Education Resources Information Center)	largest database of education literature in the world; includes a variety of document types including journal articles, research reports, curriculum and teaching guides, conference papers, and books	Search by instrument name or acronym and limit to Publication Type: Tests/Questionnaires [articles where an instrument is included]  Search by keyword and limit results to Document type: Test/Questionnaires Search by instrument name and additional keyword or thesaurus terms such as test validity, content validity, construct validity, interrater reliability, test reliability, test reviews, etc. in the Descriptor field
	database of descriptive information for over 20,000 tests from varying fields with an emphasis on education	Search by instrument name  Search by keyword in SubjectSearch
	comprehensive bibliographic coverage of a wide variety of evaluation and measurement tools for health and psychosocial studies, includes instruments not commercially or widely available	Search by instrument name or acronym in the TI or AC field. Select Primary Source in search options under Source Code. View individual records to see the source reference. Search by keyword in the Measure field Search by instrument name or acronym and select the Source Code: Review Source
	describes more than 2,000 standardized English-language tests that assess personality, aptitude, achievement, intelligence, and other neuropsychological behavior. Only the descriptive material and reviews are available full-text. The tests are available for purchase. Coverage is 1989 - present.	Search by instrument name or acronym  Search by keyword Click on the Has Review box Limit
	public repository of information on evidence-based care quality measures and measure sets, sponsored by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)	Search by keyword or click on Measures to browse by category; use Advanced Search to limit by age, population, etc.
	comprehensive index to dissertations and theses from all fields of study, 1861-present. Full text of any dissertations not online is available through interlibrary loan.	Search by instrument name or by variable.  Check the appendices of dissertations for the full-text instruments used.
	produced by the American Psychological Corporation, index of citations to the international literature of psychology	Search by instrument name or acronym in one search box; in another search box type in the word ‘appended’ and select the Tests and Measures field. OR Search by keyword in the Tests and Measures field  Search by instrument name in the Tests & Measures or Keyword or Abstract fields; add additional thesauraus terms such as Test Validity, Test Reliability in the Subjects field
	provides access to primarily unpublished tests developed by researchers. All records include a summary of the test as well as the history of its development. What sets PsycTESTS apart is, in many cases, the inclusion of the actual testing instrument.	Search by instrument name or acronym  Search by keyword Limit to Record Type Test Review
	biomedical database including MEDLINE	Search by instrument name or acronym Search by keyword Use keywords such as validity, reliability or use MeSH terms such as validation studies[pt], validation studies as topic[mh], reproducibility of results[mh]
	"All of the surveys and tools from RAND Health are public documents, available without charge (for non-commercial purposes). Some materials listed are not available from RAND Health. Links will take you to other websites, where you will find instructions for use."	Click on Surveys, browse by categories such as quality of life
"Curated instruments have been approved for inclusion by the REDCap Library Oversight Committee (REDLOC) after review for research relevance, accuracy in coding and function, and copyright issues."	Click on the Library tab to see a list of instruments and measures. Full text of instrument is included.
	bibliographic database of over 1,800 journals, conference papers, dissertations, book reviews and selected sociology books on sociology, social welfare, social planning and development.	Search by instrument name and additional terms such as Measures (Instruments) in the Subject Headings field Search by keyword and additional terms such as  Measures (Instruments) in the Subject Headings field OR questionnaire*, test*, scale*, measure*, etc. in the Identifier field  Search by instrument name or acronym and additional thesaurus terms such as reliability, validity, etc. in the Subject Heading field
	database of over 225 questionnaires and interviews intended to assist treatment providers and researchers with screening and assessment of substance use and substance use disorders. Measures that are widely used and have proven reliability and validity are noted with a gold star.	Search or browse by instrument name or acronym; view full records to see the Use & Availability and Copy of Instrument fields Search by variable Search or browse by instrument name or acronym; brief synopsis of reliability and validity included; references provided
	multidisciplinary databases covering journals in the sciences, social sciences, and arts and humanities, with searchable cited references.	Search by instrument name and sort results by times cited; view original articles describing the instrument development for clues on how to obtain Search by keyword and limit  Run Cited Reference Search on the original article describing the instrument to find citing articles that may discuss validity and/or reliability of the instrument; OR search by instrument name in the Title field and additional terms such as validity, validation, reliability, etc. in the Topic field

• Last Updated: Apr 4, 2024 1:48 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.uvm.edu/researchinstruments

Research Instruments

• Resources for Identifying Instruments
• Assessing Instruments
• Obtaining the Full Instrument
• Getting Help

What are Research Instruments?

A research instrument is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data related to  your subject.

Research instruments can  be tests , surveys , scales ,  questionnaires , or even checklists .

To assure the strength of your study, it is important to use previously validated instruments!

Getting Started

Already know the full name of the instrument you're looking for? 

• Start here!

Finding a research instrument can be very time-consuming!

This process involves three concrete steps:

It is common that sources will not provide the full instrument, but they will provide a citation with the publisher. In some cases, you may have to contact the publisher to obtain the full text.

Research Tip :  Talk to your departmental faculty. Many of them have expertise in working with research instruments and can help you with this process.

• Next: Identifying a Research Instrument >>
• Last Updated: Aug 27, 2023 9:34 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.duq.edu/researchinstruments

Survey Research and Administration

Survey research is a method in which data is collected from a target population, called the sample, by personal interviews, online surveys, the telephone, or paper questionnaires. Some forms of survey research such as online surveys may be completed in an automated fashion.  The professionals at Statistics Solutions provide survey administration help to master’s and doctoral candidates in the survey administration phase of their research. The choice of survey instrument(s) used to gather data for your thesis or dissertation is critical.  If you are planning to create your own survey instrument and administer it online (e.g., SurveyMonkey, QuestionPro, PsychData or Zoomerang), Statistics Solutions can help you create the survey questions and any subscales so they can be easily analyzed and answer your research questions.  Our consultants can then help you validate your instrument and expedite the IRB approval process by helping you avoid the typical university and committee pitfalls. If you are using an established instrument , our statistical consultants will help you understand the validity and reliability information and the statistical analysis appropriate for the instrument constructs.  Our statistical consultants will then help you integrate this information into your dissertation.

Discover How We Assist to Edit Your Dissertation Chapters

Aligning theoretical framework, gathering articles, synthesizing gaps, articulating a clear methodology and data plan, and writing about the theoretical and practical implications of your research are part of our comprehensive dissertation editing services.

• Bring dissertation editing expertise to chapters 1-5 in timely manner.
• Track all changes, then work with you to bring about scholarly writing.
• Ongoing support to address committee feedback, reducing revisions.

Key Terms and Concepts: Survey instrument: The questionnaire or response item posed to a respondent is called a survey research instrument .  The instrument may be a questionnaire or an interview; it depends on the survey research. Interviews and questionnaires: An interview uses face-to-face interaction, whereas a questionnaire uses the mail and other indirect methods of taking responses from a respondent. Response structure: In survey research, the response structure is the format of the item.  Structures may be open-ended, close-ended, multi-response, dichotomous, a ranking system, or a variety of other formats. Survey error: In survey research, survey errors includes factors such as the selection of the wrong sample, the wrong coding in a questionnaire, a tabulating error, data processing errors, interviewer bias, researcher bias, and misinterpretation of data. Pretesting: Pretesting refers to all the essential steps involved in survey research before selecting the final sample.  According to Converse and Presser (1986: 65), two pretests should be conducted before selecting the final sample . Analysis of non-response: In survey research, some respondents do not fill out the entire questionnaire.  The unanswered questions in this case become the missing values .  We should exclude those values during the analysis or we should fill those missing values by using missing value analysis.

Data Collection Methods: Face-to-face interview: In survey research, this is the most expensive but reliable method for data collection. In face-to-face interviews, most of the respondents give complete and accurate answers.  This method is used when the research requires deep exploration of opinion. Mail Survey: This method uses the Internet or sends mail to the respondents.  There is no bias on the part of the interviewer in this method, but there is no control over respondent interaction. Telephone: This method is a fast method of data collection in survey research.  This method supports open-ended responses and moderate control over interviewer bias. Web survey: This is a less expensive method and it is also the fastest method of data collection.  This method is appropriate when we need data from a large population or when we need international data.  This method is more suitable when we need unscientific but quick responses.

Survey Design Considerations: Survey layout: For Internet surveys or mail surveys, the layout of the survey should be attractive and easy to use; for example, the survey should avoid multiple fonts, the response area should be on the right side, there should be a clear separation of questions, and the survey should be an attractive color. Survey length: In survey research, the length of the survey should be as long as needed within the constraint of the respondent’s attention span. The surveys need to have a minimum of three items for testing a particular hypothesis.

Item bias in survey research: Ambiguity: Questions should be specific.  We should avoid questions that make the respondent uncomfortable in giving the answer to that particular question. Rank lists: Respondents should not be asked to rank more than four or five items.  Beyond that, respondents may give an arbitrary ranking just to get past the item. Unfamiliar terms and jargon: In survey research, we should not use unfamiliar words.  Respondents must be able to answer the questions easily, and they cannot do this if the survey uses unfamiliar words or jargon. Poor grammatical format: In survey research, weak grammatical format can introduce bias.  We should avoid poor grammatical format. Hypothetical items: We should not include hypothetical items.  Hypothetical items make it difficult for the respondent to answer that particular question. Language differences: Items must have the same meaning when the questionnaire is given to populations speaking different languages. Types of items: Model items are those that measure variables in the survey model. Filter items: In survey research, filter items are those items which eliminate the unqualified respondents during post processing. Cross-check items: In survey research, cross-check items are those items which are used for consistency with the respondent.  For example, at one place one can ask for the age of the respondent, and at another place, one can ask the data for the respondent’s birth.  This will yield consistency of data.

Survey Administration Help Resources

Diment, K., & Garrett-Jones, S. (2007). How demographic characteristics affect mode preference in a postal/web mixed-mode survey of Australian researchers. Social Science Computer Review, 25 (3), 410-417.

Ehrlich, H. J. (1969). Attitudes, behavior, and the intervening variables. American Sociologist, 4 (1), 29-34.

Göritz , A. S. (2006). Cash lotteries as incentives in online panels. Social Science Computer Review, 24 (4), 445-459. Göritz, A. S., & Wolff, H. -G. (2007). Lotteries as incentives in longitudinal web studies. Social Science Computer Review, 25 (1), 99-110.

Groves, R. M., Cialdini, R. B., & Couper, M. P. (1992). Understanding the decision to participate in a survey. Public Opinion Quarterly, 56 (4), 475-495.

Healey, B. (2007). Drop downs and scroll mice: The effect of response option format and input mechanism employed on data quality in web surveys. Social Science Computer Review, 25 (1), 111-128.

Lee, S. (2006). An evaluation of nonresponse and coverage errors in a prerecruited probability web panel survey. Social Science Computer Review, 24 (4), 460-475.

Related Pages:

• Directory of Survey Instruments
• Missing Values in Data

Finding Research Instruments, Surveys, and Tests: Home

• Create Tests
• Search for Tests
• Online Test Sources
• Dissertations/Theses
• More about ERIC
• Citing in APA Style
• More about MMY
• More about PsycINFO

What are Research Instruments

A research instrument is a survey, questionnaire, test, scale, rating, or tool designed to measure the variable(s), characteristic(s), or information of interest, often a behavioral or psychological characteristic. Research instruments can be helpful tools to your research study.

"Careful planning for data collection can help with setting realistic goals. Data collection instrumentation, such as surveys, physiologic measures (blood pressure or temperature), or interview guides, must be identified and described. Using previously validated collection instruments can save time and increase the study's credibility. Once the data collection procedure has been determined, a time line for completion should be established." (Pierce, 2009, p. 159)

• Pierce, L.L. (2009). Twelve steps for success in the nursing research journey. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing 40(4), 154-162.

A research instrument is developed as a method of data generation by researchers and information about the research instrument is shared in order to establish the credibility and validity of the method. Whether other researchers may use the research instrument is the decision of the original author-researchers. They may make it publicly available for free or for a price or they may not share it at all. Sources about research instruments have a purpose of describing the instrument to inform. Sources may or may not provide the instrument itself or the contact information of the author-researcher. The onus is on the reader-researcher to try to find the instrument itself or to contact the author-researcher to request permission for its use, if necessary.

How to choose the right one?

Are you trying to find background information about a research instrument? Or are you trying to find and obtain an actual copy of the instrument?

If you need information about a research instrument, what kind of information do you need? Do you need information on the structure of the instrument, its content, its development, its psychometric reliability or validity? What do you need?

If you plan to obtain an actual copy of the instrument to use in research, you need to be concerned not only with obtaining the instrument, but also obtaining permission to use the instrument. Research instruments may be copyrighted. To obtain permission, contact the copyright holder in writing (print or email).

If someone posts a published test or instrument without the permission of the copyright holder, they may be violating copyright and could be legally liable. 

What are you trying to measure? For example, if you are studying depression, are you trying to measure the duration of depression, the intensity of depression, the change over time of the episodes, … what? The instrument must measure what you need or it is useless to you.

Factors to consider when selecting an instrument are • Well-tested factorial structure, validity & reliability • Availability of supportive materials and technology for entering, analyzing and interpreting results • Availability of normative data as a reference for evaluating, interpreting, or placing in context individual test scores • Applicable to wide range of participants • Can also be used as personal development tool/exercise • User-friendliness & administrative ease • Availability; can you obtain it? • Does it require permission from the owner to use it? • Financial cost • Amount of time required

Check the validity and reliability of tests and instruments. Do they really measure what they claim to measure? Do they measure consistently over time, with different research subjects and ethnic groups, and after repeated use? Research articles that used the test will often include reliability and validity data.

How Locate Instrument

Realize that searching for an instrument may take a lot of time. They may be published in a book or article on a particular subject. They be published and described in a dissertation. They may posted on the Internet and freely available. A specific instrument may be found in multiple publications and have been used for a long time. Or it may be new and only described in a few places. It may only be available by contacting the person who developed it, who may or may not respond to your inquiry in a timely manner.

There are a variety of sources that may used to search for research instruments. They include books, databases, Internet search engines, Web sites, journal articles, and dissertations.

A few key sources and search tips are listed in this guide.

Permission to Use the Test

If you plan to obtain an actual copy of the instrument to use in research, you need to be concerned not only with obtaining the instrument, but also obtaining permission to use the instrument. Research instruments are copyrighted. To obtain permission, contact the copyright holder to obtain permission in writing (print or email). Written permission is a record that you obtained permission.

It is a good idea to have them state in wiritng that they are indeed the copyright holder and that they grant you permission to use the instrument. If you wish to publish the actual instrument in your paper, get permission for that, too. You may write about the instrument without obtaining permission. (But remember to cite it!)

If someone posts a published test or instrument without the permission of the copyright holder, they are violating copyright and could be legally liable. 

Subject Guide

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• Last Updated: Jun 12, 2024 11:12 PM
• URL: https://library.indianastate.edu/instruments

Developing Your Research Instruments – Survey Questionnaires

This page is intended to help graduate students on academic sabbatical who are designing research projects that include the administration of a survey questionnaire at their Employer Organization.

When you are designing a survey, I think it helps to think of yourself as an Experience Designer who is crafting an experience for the Participants in your Study. If you embrace this stance and design the best possible experience, then your target [Sample] Population is more likely to embrace your research and complete your Survey Questionnaire. Win-Win. – Sean M. HACKETT

STEP ①: Preparing to Request Permission to Administer a Survey: Develop the  Research Instrument(s) and Supporting Documents

• If you are planning on surveying your colleagues, then you might need to request permission from your employer. Obtaining permission can take time; please allow enough time to clear all administrative hurdles.
• Step-by-step instructions on how you will conduct the survey. (This is so others could replicate your methods if they wanted to do so.)
• Include a description of your target Sample Population and the required minimum number of respondents.
• Please talk about your D.V. only in broad, non-academic terms; if you provide information about the I.V. you risk biasing the participant. 
• Non-Disclosure: Explain that the individual-level identity of participants will not be revealed. Results will be published in aggregate; i.e. not at the individual level. 
• 4. Follow-up Cover Letter (E-mail) to Participants: Gentle Reminder Requesting Your Participation in the Survey and URL link to the Survey Questionnaire
• This is the Research Instrument that you use to collect the data. (Items 1-4 are the Supporting Documents).
• Note: If this is your first significant academic Research Project, then you should almost definitely use published, validated scales for the key items in your Survey Questionnaire.

STEP ②: Process Leading Up to Administering A Survey

• Receive a green light from the professor to conduct the study. (The light is only actually “green” after you receive permission from your employer organization to administer the Survey Questionnaire).
• Successfully defend your Thesis Proposal and make any required improvements specified at or after the Defense.
• Receive a green light from your Employer Organization to administer the Survey Questionnaire?

STEP ③: Administering the Survey Questionnaire

• Send 3. Cover Letter (E-mail) to Participants: Requesting Participation in the Survey and URL link to the  [5.] Survey Questionnaire  to the target Sample Population
• One week later send 4. Follow-up Cover Letter (E-mail) to Participants: Gentle Reminder Requesting Your Participation in the Survey and URL link to the  [5.] Survey Questionnaire  to the Sample Population asking them to complete the survey if they have not already done so.

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• OT ejournals

About Research Instruments

Databases for finding research instruments, find research instruments in instrument databases, find research instruments in literature databases.

• Scoping Reviews
• Health Statistics and Data
• Writing Resources
• Transformative Agreements / Read and Publish
• Anatomy Resources
• Step 1: ASK
• Step 2: ACQUIRE/ACCESS
• Step 3: APPRAISE
• Steps 4 & 5: APPLY & ASSESS
• Mobile Apps
• NBCOT Exam Prep
• Library Instruction and Tutorials
• Research instruments are measurement tools, such as questionnaires, scales, and surveys, that researchers use to measure variables in research studies.  
• In most cases, it is better to use a previously validated instrument rather than create one from scratch.
• Always evaluate instruments for relevancy, validity, and reliability. 
• Many older yet relevant, valid and reliable instruments are still popular today. It is time consuming and costly to validate instruments, so re-using instruments is common and helpful for connecting your study with an existing body of research.
• Although you can conduct an internet search to find research instruments on publisher and organization websites, library databases are usually the best resources for identifying relevant, validated and reliable research instruments. 
• Locating instruments takes time and requires you to follow multiple references until you reach the source. 
• Databases provide information about instruments, but they do not provide access to the instruments themselves. 
• In most cases, to access and use the actual instruments, you must contact the author or purchase the instrument from the publisher. 
• In many cases, you will have to pay a fee to use the instrument.
• Even if the full instrument is freely available, you should contact the owner for permission to use and for any instructions and training necessary to use the instrument properly. 
• CINAHL Complete This link opens in a new window Most comprehensive database of full-text for nursing & allied health journals from 1937 to present. Includes access to scholarly journal articles, dissertations, magazines, pamphlets, evidence-based care sheets, books, and research instruments.
• Health and Psychosocial Instruments (HAPI) This link opens in a new window Locate measurement instruments such as surveys, questionnaires, tests, surveys, coding schemes, checklists, rating scales, vignettes, etc. Scope includes medicine, nursing, public health , psychology, social work, communication, sociology, etc.
• Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMY) This link opens in a new window Use MMY to find REVIEWS of testing instruments. Actual test instruments are NOT provided. Most reviews discuss validity and reliability of tool. To purchase or obtain the actual test materials, you will need to contact the test publisher(s).
• PsycINFO This link opens in a new window Abstract and citation database of scholarly literature in psychological, social, behavioral, and health sciences. Includes journal articles, books, reports, theses, and dissertations from 1806 to present.
• PsycTESTS This link opens in a new window PsycTESTS is a research database that provides access to psychological tests, measures, scales, surveys, and other assessments as well as descriptive information about the test and its development. Records also discuss reliability and validity of the tool. Some records include full-text of the test.

• Rehabilitation Measures Database RMD is a web-based, searchable database of assessment instruments designed to help clinicians and researchers select appropriate measures for screening, monitoring patient progress, and assessing outcomes in rehabilitation. more... less... This database allows clinicians and researchers to search for instruments using a word search or specific characteristics of an instrument, such as the area of assessment, diagnosis, length of test, and cost. The search function returns relevant results and provides the user with the ability to refine the search. The instruments listed in the database are described with specific details regarding their reliability, validity, mode of administration, cost, and equipment required. Additionally, information to support the user in interpreting the results, such as minimal detectable change scores, cut-offs, and normative values are included. A sample copy of the instrument is also provided when available.

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Model-Assisted Survey Estimation (mase)

Having precise estimates of our forest characteristics is important if we want to assess the status of our forests, detect change, or monitor trends. New statistical estimators enable us to improve precision by merging forest inventory data with data from a variety of remote sensing instruments but often pose computational challenges. This new tutorial and R software package, known as mase (model-assisted survey estimation) makes both old and new survey estimation tools easily accessible.

Focusing on the broad class of model-assisted estimators under the umbrella of generalized regression estimators, we provide a tutorial that steps the reader through 7 estimators including Horvitz-Thompson, ratio, post-stratification, regression, lasso, ridge, and elastic net. Using forest inventory data from Daggett county in Utah as an example, we illustrate how to construct, as well as the relative performance of, these estimators. Each estimator is made readily accessible through the new R package, mase, available on the Comprehensive R Archival Network . We provide guidelines in the form of a decision tree on when to use which estimator in forest inventory applications.  

McConville, K. G.G. Moisen, T.S. Frescino. [In review.] A tutorial in model-assisted estimation with application to forest inventory. Canadian Journal of Forest Research.

McConville, K., B. Tang, G. Zhu, S. Cheung, and S. Li. 2017. mase: Model-Assisted Survey Estimation. R package version 0.1.1 https://github.com/Swarthmore-Statistics/mase .

Gretchen Moisen

Tracey frescino.

• Kelly S. McConville, F. Jay Breidt, Thomas C. M. Lee, Gretchen G. Moisen. 2017. Model-assisted survey regression estimation with the lasso

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Preface to focus section on new frontiers and advances in global seismology

Over the last century, many of the fundamental advances in our understanding of the solid Earth have been underpinned by seismic observations recorded on long‐running networks of globally distributed seismic instruments (e.g., Agnew et al., 1976; Romanowicz et al., 1984; Hanka and Kind, 1994; Peterson and Hutt, 2014; Ringler et al., 2022a). During this time, seismic data quality and the speed of dissemination have improved substantially from early analog paper records to digital, very broadband data transmitted in near‐real time (Steim, 2015) and rapidly archived in online data repositories with...

Citation Information

Publication Year	2024
Title	Preface to focus section on new frontiers and advances in global seismology
DOI
Authors	Robert E. Anthony, Nicolas Leroy, Robert Mellors, Adam T. Ringler, Joachim Saul, Martin Vallée, David C. Wilson
Publication Type	Article
Publication Subtype	Journal Article
Series Title	Seismological Research Letters
Index ID
Record Source
USGS Organization	Geologic Hazards Science Center - Seismology / Geomagnetism

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Robert e anthony, research geophysicist, adam ringler, ph.d., physical scientist, david wilson, supervisory research geophysicist.

Public ranks long-term challenges and health determinants as top priorities for new EU

To enhance public health, the post-election European Union (EU) should prioritise long-term challenges such as climate change and the ageing population, as well as factors that influence our health, according to a new report . The findings, derived from a seven-month public debate led by the European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, highlight a collective call for the EU to play a more significant role in health.

The report, which is based on the public debate commissioned by the European Commission’s Directorate General for Health and Food Safety ( DG SANTE ), outlines the key priorities and actions desired by citizens and stakeholders from a wide range of sectors and mostly from Europe. The analysis included more than 800 responses in conference polls and a survey, plus comprehensive inputs across three webinars .

The large and participatory initiative allowed to collect public opinion on nine critical health topics: health security; determinants of health; health system transformation; the health workforce; universal health coverage; digital solutions and AI; performance and resilience; long-term challenges like climate change and ageing; and the EU’s global role in health.

The public’s calls for action – including across sectors

Participants called for the European Commission to coordinate across its different policy branches. Collaborating across sectors is considered key to deliver health priorities, making the concepts of ‘ Health in All Policies’ and ‘Health for All Policies ’ important tools for addressing the determinants of health. Interestingly, the topics which garnered the highest consensus in the discussion framework were those least controlled by the health sector alone.

Significant measures should be taken to mitigate the health impacts of environmental risks, including promoting environmental health and supporting health equity through integrated policies. Participants also considered addressing the needs of an ageing population essential, by improving health services and ensuring that health systems are prepared to meet the demands of older adults.

The public opinion suggested several actions to achieve universal health coverage (UHC) across the EU, such as ensuring equal access to comprehensive health care services for all EU citizens and financial protection for all. Other recommendations ranged from establishing a common minimum coverage package and a European health insurance scheme to focusing on underserved groups, improving health literacy, and including mental health in UHC policies.

What role for the EU?

Participants highlighted the importance of EU legal frameworks and instruments in promoting and safeguarding health, such as funding and technical support. They advocated both for new tools and for better implementation and coordination of existing mechanisms.

Aligning educational standards was raised as a key topic in the context of addressing shortages of health workers , regional disparities and managing the demands for new skills. Better addressing health workforce needs and improving their working conditions to mitigate existing gaps was also discussed. There was consensus on the need for EU approaches to health workforce issues, including better coordination of initiatives and pursuit of EU wide policies.

Digital solutions , health security and strengthening the EU’s global voice and leadership were widely discussed but ranked slightly lower. Possible explanations outlined in the report include the “transversal nature of digital solutions, which voters may have perceived as a means to achieving other priorities”. The COVID-19 pandemic and sustained EU action on health security may have elicited some voters to opt for other topics that have received less policy attention in recent years.

Survey, webinars, and conference polls

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