(0.026)
Notes: ***, **, and * indicate significance at the levels of 1%, 5%, and 10%, respectively. The values in parentheses are standard errors robust to heteroskedasticity. ‘Yes’ means the corresponding variables are controlled in the regression, while ‘No’ means they are not controlled.
In addition, the benchmark estimates also show that the effect of the Internet on interpersonal interactions is very notable. Holding other factors constant, for each one-standard-deviation increase in Internet usage (17.921 h per week), the weekly communication with family members increases by an average of 102.150 min (17.921 × 0.095 × 60), while there is an average increase of 54.838 min in interactions with friends. This demonstrates that while Internet usage has significantly positive effects on communications with both family and friends, it plays a more prominent role in facilitating interactions among family members.
In order to examine the robustness of the relationship between Internet usage and interpersonal communications, and to tackle potential endogeneity problems, this paper conducts a series of robustness and endogeneity checks.
Considering the fact that the dependent variables, which represent the time spent on communicating with family and friends, are discrete non-negative integers and fit the Poisson distribution, we use the Poisson model to conduct the robustness test. Table 3 shows that when using the Poisson model for communications with both family and friends, the estimated coefficients of Internet usage are all significantly positive at the 1% level. In addition, with the controlling characteristics as different aspects, the estimated coefficients of Internet usage fluctuate slightly but are generally very stable. This further confirms that our findings regarding Internet usage promoting people’s interpersonal communications do not rely on the selection of the OLS model.
Robustness checks using the Poisson model.
Model | (1) Poisson | (2) Poisson | (3) Poisson | (4) Poisson | (5) Poisson | (6) Poisson |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Family Communication | Family Communication | Family Communication | Friends Communication | Friends Communication | Friends Communication |
Internet usage | 0.004 *** (0.001) | 0.004 *** (0.001) | 0.004 *** (0.001) | 0.006 *** (0.001) | 0.005 *** (0.001) | 0.006 *** (0.001) |
Demographic Characteristics | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Working Characteristics | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Human Capital Characteristics | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Social Characteristics | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Family Characteristics | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Province dummies | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Constant | 2.226 *** (0.185) | 2.076 *** (0.205) | 1.753 *** (0.238) | 2.481 *** (0.194) | 2.194 *** (0.224) | 1.702 *** (0.262) |
Observations | 3740 | 3532 | 3527 | 3722 | 3514 | 3507 |
Notes: *** indicate significance at the levels of 1%, respectively. The values in parentheses are standard errors robust to heteroskedasticity. ‘Yes’ means the corresponding variables are controlled in the regression, while ‘No’ means they are not controlled.
In benchmark regression, we use the time spent on communications with family and friends to characterize interpersonal interaction. However, there may be measurement errors in some people’s perceptions of time. Furthermore, communication time may not adequately characterize the frequency of interpersonal communications. Based on this theory, to test the robustness of the findings, this paper further uses the frequencies of communication with family and friends as dependent variables, denoted as “Family communication frequency” and “Friends communication frequency”. These are derived from the respondents’ responses to “How often do you keep in touch with your family, on average?” and “How often do you keep in touch with your friends, on average?”. Answers are classified based on an eight-level scale from 1 to 8, representing “never”, “rarely”, “several times a year”, “once a month”, “2–3 times a month”, “once a week”, “several times a week”, and “every day”, respectively. Since they are ordered and explained variables for which the disparities between different levels of the scale are not equivalent, ordered Probit (Oprobit) and Logit (Ologit) models, as well as the OLS model, are used for estimation. The regression results are shown in Table 4 . It is clear that when using these kinds of dependent variables to measure interpersonal communications, and no matter which model is applied, Internet usage has a significantly positive effect on the frequency of people’s interactions with family and friends, which further confirms the robustness of the findings.
Robustness checks, using other indicators of interpersonal communications.
Model | (1) OLS | (2) Oprobit | (3) Ologit | (4) OLS | (5) Oprobit | (6) Ologit |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Family Communication Frequency | Family Communication Frequency | Family Communication Frequency | Friends Communication Frequency | Friends Communication Frequency | Friends Communication Frequency |
Internet usage | 0.004 * (0.002) | 0.002 ** (0.001) | 0.004 * (0.002) | 0.014 *** (0.002) | 0.008 *** (0.001) | 0.013 *** (0.002) |
Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Province dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | 3.659 *** (0.461) | 6.828 *** (0.380) | ||||
Observations | 3205 | 3205 | 3205 | 3217 | 3217 | 3217 |
There may be endogeneity problems in the benchmark estimates, therefore, the significant relationship between Internet usage and interpersonal communications may be a correlation rather than causality. The endogeneity problems may result from two aspects, comprising reverse causality and omitted variable bias. Regarding reverse causality, we suggest that people may use the Internet more frequently because they are more willing to communicate with family members and friends. For example, individuals who live alone, who frequently travel and migrate, may use the Internet because of the need to communicate remotely with their friends and family. With respect to omitted variable bias, although we have controlled as comprehensively as possible those elements that affect interpersonal communications, there may still be factors that are difficult to characterize. In order to examine the causal relationship between Internet usage and interpersonal interactions and to tackle potential endogeneity problems, the following instrumental variable models are applied for carrying out further checks.
A I i is the instrumental variable, which is the degree of artificial intelligence’s application in an individual, i ’s, work. Model (2) performs first-stage regression, using A I i to estimate I n t e r n e t _ u s a g e i . In model (3), second-stage regression is conducted to examine the effect of Internet usage on interpersonal communications, using the predicted values in the first-stage estimation. The A I i indicator comes from Mihaylov and Tijden [ 92 ]. Existing studies have shown that the higher the application of artificial intelligence in their work, the higher the requirements for people’s skills in using the Internet [ 93 ], and thus, the more likely they are to show increased Internet usage. Therefore, the instrumental variable satisfies the correlation requirement. In addition, since artificial intelligence is an exogenous technological change and is, thus, not related to micro individual characteristics, this variable satisfies the exogeneity condition. As shown in Table 5 , results of the instrumental variable method with the two-stage least square (2SLS) method robustly prove that Internet usage has significantly positive impacts on interactions with family members and friends. This means that the significant relationship between Internet usage and interpersonal communications is causal rather than being a simple correlation.
Endogeneity tests: impacts on communications using an instrumental variable.
Model | (1) First Stage | (2) 2SLS Second Stage | (3)First Stage | (4) 2SLS Second Stage |
---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Internet Usage | Family Communication | Internet Usage | Friends Communication |
Internet usage | 0.606 ** (0.293) | 0.249 ** (0.117) | ||
Artificial Intelligence | 7.440 *** (1.729) | 7.704 *** (1.723) | ||
Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Province dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | 58.925 *** (6.060) | −44.955 ** (19.463) | 56.252 *** (5.730) | −5.896 (7.888) |
Observations | 1889 | 1889 | 1880 | 1880 |
Notes: *** and ** indicate significance at the levels of 1% and 5%, respectively. The values in parentheses are standard errors robust to heteroskedasticity. ‘Yes’ means the corresponding variables are controlled in the regression, while ‘No’ means they are not controlled.
There are missing data in this research, with a missing rate of (3740−3507)/3740 = 6.223%. Although it seems that the missing rate is not high, missing data may cause sample selection problems, leading to biased and inconsistent statistical results, because the information may be missing but not at random. Considering that the dataset is cross-sectional rather than longitudinal and when referring to Ibrahim and Molenberghs [ 94 ], Kropko et al. [ 95 ], and Baraldi and Enders [ 96 ], we further tested whether the findings of this paper could be affected by the missing data problem, applying the following widely accepted approach. Specifically, we replace the missing values with the mean of the remaining values. Results using this approach are shown in Table 6 and it is clear that they are consistent with the benchmark estimations in this paper.
Replacing the missing values with the mean of the remaining values (OLS model).
Model | (1) OLS | (2) OLS | (3) OLS | (4) OLS | (5) OLS | (6) OLS |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Family Communication | Family Communication | Family Communication | Friends Communication | Friends Communication | Friends Communication |
Internet usage | 0.094 *** (0.026) | 0.098 *** (0.027) | 0.111 *** (0.027) | 0.050 *** (0.012) | 0.051 *** (0.012) | 0.058 *** (0.012) |
Demographic Characteristics | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Working Characteristics | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Human Capital Characteristics | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Social Characteristics | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Family Characteristics | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Province dummies | No | No | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Constant | 3.642 (3.713) | 1.317 (3.952) | −6.838 (4.692) | 11.160 *** (1.646) | 9.288 *** (1.712) | 5.222 *** (1.967) |
Observations | 3740 | 3740 | 3740 | 3740 | 3740 | 3740 |
Adjusted R | 0.009 | 0.011 | 0.051 | 0.012 | 0.014 | 0.036 |
6.1. effects of internet usage on loneliness.
It has been confirmed in the sections above that Internet usage facilitates communications with family and friends. Furthermore, studies have shown that interpersonal communications are beneficial to increasing social support and reducing people’s loneliness [ 97 , 98 , 99 ]. Therefore, we are interested in whether Internet usage helps to reduce loneliness by increasing people’s interpersonal contacts. To test this hypothesis, we use an indicator to characterize loneliness, denoted as “Lonely”. It is taken from respondents’ answers to the question “I feel lonely”, which is based on the Likert scale from 1–5, representing “never”, “seldom”, “sometimes”, “often”, and “frequently”. The larger the values of the two variables, the higher the level of loneliness.
The first columns in Table 7 demonstrate the effect of Internet usage on loneliness, wherein the estimated coefficients of Internet usage are all significantly negative. This indicates that Internet usage significantly reduces loneliness. Meanwhile, columns (2) and (4) in Table 7 are the regression results of the impacts of Internet usage on communication with family members and friends, which are consistent with those in Table 3 . Columns (3) and (5) present the results for when the indicators of family communication and friends communication are further included in regressions. The estimated results in column (3) of Table 7 show that communication with friends does not significantly affect people’s loneliness. However, in column (5), the estimates of family communication are significantly negative at the 1% level, implying that interactions with family help to decrease loneliness. At the same time, after the mediating variables, interpersonal communications are included in the regression, where the estimated coefficients of Internet usage remain significantly negative. Additionally, in column (5) of Table 7 , the absolute values of the Internet usage estimates decrease, further proving that communication with family members plays a mediating role between using the Internet and loneliness. This implies that Internet usage reduces the feeling of loneliness by facilitating communication among family members. Family members are particularly important for Chinese people and the Chinese culture; therefore, relationships among family members have a more prominent impact on personal feelings [ 100 ]. Thus, compared with communication with friends, contacts with family members mediate the impact of the Internet in reducing loneliness more significantly.
Further impacts on loneliness.
Model | (1) Oprobit | (2) Poisson | (3) Oprobit | (4) Poisson | (5) Oprobit |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Lonely_1 | Friends Communication | Lonely_1 | Family Communication | Lonely_1 |
Internet usage | −0.003 ** (0.001) | 0.006 *** (0.001) | −0.003 ** (0.001) | 0.004 *** (0.001) | −0.002 * (0.001) |
Friends communication | 0.000 (0.002) | ||||
Family communication | −0.005 *** (0.001) | ||||
Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Province dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | 1.702 *** (0.262) | 1.753 *** (0.238) | |||
Observations | 3615 | 3507 | 3499 | 3527 | 3518 |
The above analysis shows the positive impact of the Internet on interpersonal communications, but it is not correct to assume that this usage has only a positive dimension. Further analysis using CGSS data, as shown in column (1) of Table 8 , demonstrates that the more time people spend online, the easier it is to get addicted to the Internet, resulting in spending a longer time online than was planned. In addition, people who frequently use the Internet are more likely to feel anxious if they do not go online for a while (column (2) in Table 8 ). This is consistent with the existing studies, reporting that people tend to have difficulty controlling their time, and it is easier for them to become addicted to the Internet and the online world [ 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ]. Furthermore, we find that going online reduces the amount of time people spend outdoors (column (3) in Table 8 ) and leads to more family complaints that they spend too much time online (column (4) in Table 8 ). Although we cannot directly verify the effect of Internet usage on face-to-face interpersonal communication, due to data availability, this is an indirect way to test whether Internet use reduces people’s face-to-face contact with the outside world and results in increased complaints from family members. Moreover, in terms of physical health, it was also found that more Internet usage also causes people to have worse eyesight (column (5) in Table 8 ), as well as neck and shoulder pain (column (6) in Table 8 ). The above analysis is based on six Likert 5-point scale variables from the responses to the question, “How do the following descriptions fit your situation?”: “I often spend more time online than I planned”, “If I don’t go online for a while, I will be anxious and restless”, “I spend less time outdoors because of using the Internet”, “My family complains that I spend too much time online”, “My eyesight has become worse because of using the Internet”, “I have neck and shoulder pain because of using the Internet”. Their responses are: “1—very untrue of me”, “2—untrue of me”, “3—neutral”, “4—true of me”, and “5—very true of me”.
Other effects of internet usage (overlong usage and anxiety).
Model | (1) OLS | (2) OLS | (3) OLS | (4) OLS | (5) OLS | (6) OLS |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Overtime Online | Anxiety When Offline | Less Outdoor Activities | Family Complaints | Vision Impairment | Neck and Shoulder Pain |
Internet usage | 0.010 *** (0.001) | 0.008 *** (0.001) | 0.007 *** (0.001) | 0.006 *** (0.001) | 0.008 *** (0.002) | 0.008 *** (0.002) |
Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Province dummies | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | 3.502 *** (0.267) | 2.940 *** (0.275) | 3.164 *** (0.287) | 3.847 *** (0.280) | 3.373 *** (0.305) | 2.942 *** (0.310) |
Observations | 2198 | 2206 | 2206 | 2204 | 2200 | 2203 |
Ajusted/Pseudo R | 0.105 | 0.080 | 0.101 | 0.103 | 0.055 | 0.038 |
This paper further examines the heterogeneities of the impact of Internet usage on communications in different subgroups. First, in terms of the purposes of Internet usage, it is naturally hypothesized that if people use the Internet mainly for working or entertainment, rather than for interpersonal contact, then Internet usage should have no significant effect on their communications with family members and friends. This hypothesis is tested as follows. Specifically, this research divides the sample into subgroups, with different degrees of online social interactions and different preferences for online self-presentation, based on whether respondents frequently use social networking sites (including email, QQ, WeChat, Skype, etc.) to communicate with others, and whether they often post their updates on the social platforms (including WeChat, Moments, Qzone, Weibo, etc.). The regression results of Table 9 show that the impacts of Internet usage on communication with family and friends are only significant among those who often use the Internet to socialize, confirming the above hypothesis. In addition, posting updates regarding life and work via Internet social platforms also brings more online contacts. Table 10 shows that for individuals with a greater online presence, the positive effect of Internet usage on interpersonal communications is more pronounced. This means that for people who are more socially connected to the Internet, online activities significantly promote their interpersonal contacts. The heterogeneity results in this aspect also demonstrate that online social contact facilitates communications with family and friends and further confirm the robustness of the findings of this paper.
Heterogeneity analysis, in terms of online contacts.
Model | (1) OLS | (2) OLS | (3) OLS | (4) OLS |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample | Less Online Social Contact | More Online Social Contact | Less Online Social Contact | More Online Social Contact |
Variable | Family Communication | Family Communication | Friends Communication | Friends Communication |
Internet usage | 0.055 (0.081) | 0.105 *** (0.031) | 0.033 (0.025) | 0.053 *** (0.013) |
Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | 10.825 (12.224) | −6.455 (5.955) | −0.647 (4.453) | 10.655 *** (2.724) |
Observations | 1701 | 1826 | 1685 | 1822 |
Heterogeneity analysis in terms of online posts.
Model | (1) OLS | (2) OLS | (3) OLS | (4) OLS |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample | Fewer Online Posts | More Online Posts | Fewer Online Posts | More Online Posts |
Variable | Family Communication | Family Communication | Friends Communication | Friends Communication |
Internet usage | 0.050 (0.047) | 0.129 *** (0.037) | 0.036 ** (0.019) | 0.051 *** (0.015) |
Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | 0.503 (7.625) | −12.146 * (7.119) | 4.028 (2.927) | 7.587 ** (3.146) |
Observations | 2284 | 1242 | 2260 | 1246 |
Furthermore, considering that communications via the Internet require certain online skills, it is naturally hypothesized that for individuals with better Internet skills, Internet usage should be more conducive to improving their interpersonal communication. This paper conducts a heterogeneity test for this hypothesis. According to whether the respondents are able to communicate with others proficiently online (the corresponding question in the CGSS questionnaire is: “Do you know how to express your thoughts and proficiently communicate with others online?”), the following subsample analysis is performed. The estimated results in columns (1) and (2) of Table 11 show that in terms of communications with family members, the positive effects of Internet usage are greater and are only statistically significant for those with more online skills. Columns (3) and (4) of Table 11 demonstrate that in terms of communications with friends, the role of Internet usage is significant for the two subgroups, but the estimated coefficient is larger for individuals skilled in online communications. This confirms that the impact of Internet usage on interpersonal contacts is more pronounced for people with better online skills.
Heterogeneity analysis, in terms of Internet skills.
Model | (1) OLS | (2) OLS | (3) OLS | (4) OLS |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample | Less Skilled in Internet | More Skilled in Internet | Less Skilled in Internet | More Skilled in Internet |
Variable | Family Communication | Family Communication | Friends Communication | Friends Communication |
Internet usage | 0.025 (0.061) | 0.118 *** (0.033) | 0.041 * (0.024) | 0.049 *** (0.014) |
Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | 24.445 (16.486) | −10.005 (6.167) | −6.478 (4.713) | 10.110 *** (2.915) |
Observations | 1836 | 1675 | 1821 | 1670 |
Notes: *** and * indicate significance at the levels of 1% and 10%, respectively. The values in parentheses are standard errors robust to heteroskedasticity. ‘Yes’ means the corresponding variables are controlled in the regression, while ‘No’ means they are not controlled.
Moreover, it has been shown in the existing literature that there are disparities in Internet usage and interpersonal communication among individuals of different ages and educational backgrounds [ 34 , 47 , 61 ]. Therefore, we further examine the heterogeneities of the impacts of Internet usage in the different subgroups, with different demographic characteristics. Table 12 shows that the impacts of Internet usage on communications with family and friends are significantly positive for both younger and older respondents. However, their effect is greater on the younger group under the age of 35, which may be due to the fact that young people are more inclined to use new online applications and are more skilled in Internet use. Therefore, the positive effect of Internet usage is more prominent in the younger cohort. The mean time of Internet usage for young individuals under 35 in CGSS is 23.59, which is much greater than that of their older counterparts, which is 7.56.
Heterogeneity analysis, in terms of age.
Model | (1) OLS | (2) OLS | (3) OLS | (4) OLS |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample | Younger than 35 | Older than 35 | Younger than 35 | Older than 35 |
Variable | Family Communication | Family Communication | Friends Communication | Friends Communication |
Internet usage | 0.133 *** (0.045) | 0.058 * (0.035) | 0.059 *** (0.020) | 0.039 *** (0.013) |
Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | 2.054 (4.982) | 12.371 *** (3.118) | 6.489 *** (1.970) | 1.786 * (1.079) |
Observations | 842 | 2685 | 845 | 2662 |
The results of the heterogeneity analysis in terms of education level are shown in Table 13 . It is demonstrated that regardless of whether the respondents have a bachelor’s degree or above, the positive effect of Internet usage on interpersonal communications is significant. However, the Internet’s impact is more pronounced for those with higher educational levels. This may be due to the fact that the more educated groups have greater opportunities to learn and master the skills of using the Internet. In the CGSS sample, the average time of Internet usage among people with higher educational levels is much higher than the lower educated respondents (25.03 > 9.70).
Heterogeneity analysis, in terms of education level.
Model | (1) OLS | (2) OLS | (3) OLS | (4) OLS |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample | Lower Education | Higher Education | Lower Education | Higher Education |
Variable | Family Communication | Family Communication | Friends Communication | Friends Communication |
Internet usage | 0.077 ** (0.031) | 0.147 ** (0.060) | 0.044 *** (0.012) | 0.089 *** (0.034) |
Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | −4.015 (5.388) | −9.295 (14.546) | 3.895 * (2.298) | 12.099 ** (5.454) |
Observations | 3141 | 386 | 3123 | 384 |
In addition, in terms of regional heterogeneity, it is clear from Table 14 that the impact of Internet usage on communications with family and friends is more prominent for urban residents. Compared with their rural counterparts, urban residents are more familiar with the Internet in their work and daily life, due to faster technological development and better network infrastructure. Therefore, the descriptive statistics for the two subsamples show that the mean hours of Internet usage for residents in rural and urban areas are 16.29 and 8.64, respectively.
Heterogeneity analysis in terms of region.
Model | (1) OLS | (2) OLS | (3) OLS | (4) OLS |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample | Rural Residents | Urban Residents | Rural Residents | Urban Residents |
Variable | Family Communication | Family Communication | Friends Communication | Friends Communication |
Internet usage | 0.086 ** (0.041) | 0.096 ** (0.038) | 0.041 *** (0.014) | 0.058 *** (0.018) |
Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | 1.852 (6.737) | −12.355 (7.981) | 4.046 * (2.349) | 9.693 ** (3.826) |
Observations | 2235 | 1280 | 2226 | 1269 |
In addition, the Internet can help people to break geographical restrictions and realize remote communication, consequently shortening the distances between each other [ 19 ]. Therefore, it is natural to hypothesize that the role of Internet usage in facilitating communication may be more prominent for migrants. The regression results of Table 15 show that Internet usage has significant effects on promoting interpersonal communications, for both migrants and non-migrants. In particular, columns (1) and (2) show that in terms of family communication, the impact of Internet usage on migrants is more prominent than on non-migrants. However, columns (3) and (4) do not show a similar pattern in terms of communicating with friends. This is logical, since blood relationships among family members do not change due to migration, while friends can be found wherever you live. Migration leads to people moving further away from their families, geographically; consequently, the role of Internet usage in enhancing communications with family members is more prominent for migrants.
Heterogeneity analysis in terms of migration.
Model | (1) OLS | (2) OLS | (3) OLS | (4) OLS |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sample | Non-Migrants | Migrants | Non-Migrants | Migrants |
Variable | Family Communication | Family Communication | Friends Communication | Friends Communication |
Internet usage | 0.077 ** (0.035) | 0.112 ** (0.045) | 0.055 *** (0.016) | 0.037 ** (0.017) |
Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | −5.386 (6.598) | −10.688 (7.774) | 1.386 (2.558) | 10.472 *** (3.601) |
Observations | 2422 | 1094 | 2406 | 1089 |
This paper empirically examines the impact of Internet usage on interpersonal communications with data from the Chinese General Social Survey to answer whether the Internet brings people closer together or further apart. The empirical results demonstrate that first, Internet usage helps to significantly increase the time and frequency of communications with family and friends, rather than causing people to feel more disconnected and isolated. This positive effect is robust when using various regression models and interpersonal contact measures, as well as the instrumental variable method. Specifically, the positive effects of Internet usage in promoting people’s interpersonal communications do not rely on the selection of regression models and are robustly significant regarding both the time that people spend on interactions, as well as the frequency of daily contacts. Furthermore, the relationship between Internet usage and interpersonal communications is proven to be causal rather than being a simple correlation, using the instrumental variable approach.
Second, Internet usage contributes to decreased loneliness, and it exerts this effect primarily by improving people’s interactions with their family members. However, communications with friends do not significantly mediate such impacts. This implies that the Internet reduces the feeling of loneliness by facilitating communication among family members, who are much more important in the Chinese culture, and therefore relationships among family members have a more important impact on personal feelings.
Third, the positive role of Internet usage on communications is more prominent for people with more frequent online socialization and self-presentation, higher online skills, younger age, higher educational levels and living in urban areas. In addition, the beneficial effects of Internet usage are larger on communications with family members for migrants. The reason may be that the blood relationships among family members do not change due to migration, while friends can be found anywhere.
9.1. theoretical implications.
This paper clarifies the net effect of Internet usage on interpersonal communications. Research has shown that Internet technology has tremendously enriched communication channels and modes [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 87 , 89 ]. Moreover, compared with traditional communication methods, such as phone calls and text messages, the Internet helps people to establish a much wider social network and achieve effective remote communication at a lower cost, as well as with greater efficiency [ 69 , 70 , 90 , 101 ]. Nevertheless, other studies reveal that Internet usage may distract people’s attention [ 10 , 11 , 65 , 66 , 83 ], reduce their social skills [ 47 , 67 , 68 , 84 , 85 ], and may even increase negative emotions [ 10 , 11 , 53 , 73 , 86 ]. The impact of Internet usage in this aspect would hinder interpersonal communications. No direct evidence is provided on how the Internet influences interpersonal communications. Therefore, according to theoretical analyses based on the existing literature, the net effect of Internet usage on interpersonal contacts is still unclear because of the coexistence of the complementarity and interference aspects. This research contributes to the literature by clarifying that the net effect of Internet usage on interpersonal communications is positive. The more that people use the Internet, the more they can interact with their family and friends. This positive effect is confirmed via various endogeneity and robustness checks. This paper shows that although the Internet may have both pros and cons, its overall impact is positive regarding interpersonal communication.
In addition, this paper further verifies the role of the Internet in reducing people’s loneliness, which is an important factor affecting well-being. Loneliness not only leads to depression but also reduces people’s life satisfaction and overall well-being [ 102 , 103 ]. Interpersonal interaction is an important element impacting loneliness [ 104 ]. Since Internet usage promotes communication, a natural question arises regarding whether it helps to decrease loneliness through this mechanism. If this speculation holds true, the robustness of the conclusions in this paper would be confirmed further. The existing research demonstrates that the Internet has enriched interpersonal communication channels [ 105 ]. Moreover, other studies reveal that interactions can help reduce loneliness, improve people’s well-being, and decrease depression [ 89 , 91 , 106 ]. In this paper, we present our findings that Internet usage lowers loneliness by promoting people’s communications with family and friends. Therefore, this study also contributes to the literature by elucidating the mechanisms underlying the well-being and emotional benefits of Internet use [ 107 ].
Furthermore, compared with previous studies supporting the positive effects of Internet usage [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 87 , 89 ], we also find heterogeneities in its impact from multiple perspectives. It is clear that not everyone gains equally from Internet use. The positive role of the Internet on interpersonal communication is more prominent for people with more frequent online socialization and wider self-presentation, better online skills, a younger age, higher educational levels, and who are living in urban areas. Some subgroups benefit more from Internet usage, while those who have been left behind in the digital age gain less. Heterogeneity analysis enriches the literature on the impact of the Internet, helping us to better identify vulnerable groups in the Internet era and create effective public policies accordingly.
With the rapid progress of online technology, traditional face-to-face communication is gradually shifting toward social networking via the Internet as people are becoming immersed in the digital age. The Internet not only drives economic development but also helps people to interact with each other at a lower cost and in a more convenient way. The policy implications of this paper include the following recommendations.
First, the network infrastructure should be improved and updated to make better use of the Internet, to facilitate interpersonal communication among people. In the fast-changing world of information, the Internet has provided people with more and more convenient communication channels. We should continue to make better use of more advanced Internet technologies and improve the quality of the network, in order to enhance people’s online experience. Emerging technologies, such as 5G, should be applied to help people obtain more convenient and cheaper access to the Internet to improve their interpersonal communication and enhance social welfare.
Second, this paper reports that the Internet promotes interpersonal contact, thereby weakening people’s sense of loneliness. Therefore, establishing high-quality online communities via social networks is needed to help people enhance their well-being through further interactions. For those who suffer from loneliness, providing them with better access to the Internet may be an effective way to enhance their welfare. From the perspective of mental health, loneliness is related to an increased risk of mental disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and even dementia. Therefore, it is worth recommending that sufferers use the Internet to enhance their communications with others. For people with communication difficulties, online interactions can help them overcome their fear and help them to get in touch with others, thus establishing better social networks [ 90 ].
Third, policymakers should pay more attention to vulnerable subgroups in the Internet age, including older people and those with poorer online skills, those who are less well-educated, and those living in rural areas. These groups gain fewer benefits from Internet usage. Therefore, it is important to help them master the necessary online skills and provide them with more convenient and less expensive access to the Internet. For example, the network coverage should be extended to more remote and rural areas and the Internet connectivity there needs to be improved so that as many people as possible have equal access to the Internet. In addition, with the rapid development of Internet technology, individuals with lower education levels and older age may not be able to update their Internet skills. This may mean that they are unable to gain the benefits of Internet usage in terms of interpersonal communication. Therefore, in the context of the rapid application of emerging online technologies, enhancing the Internet skills of these vulnerable subgroups should be emphasized.
First, since CGSS data is based on subjective answers, both the explanatory and explained variables in this paper are subjective indicators and there may, thus, be measurement errors caused by subjectivity. Although different variables are used as dependent variables in the robustness checks, confirming the positive effect of Internet usage on interpersonal interactions, these measures are also subjective. Therefore, we look forward to further testing the relationship between Internet usage and interpersonal contacts based on objective indicators in the future.
Second, as CGSS does not provide detailed information concerning the amount of time that people spend on the Internet for various purposes, we are unable to examine the effects of different types of online activities on interpersonal communications. In this regard, if people use the Internet mainly for working or for entertainment, rather than for interpersonal contacts, then online activities may well have a different effect on their communications with family members and friends. In the heterogeneity analysis, this research divided the sample into subgroups with different degrees of online social interactions and different preferences for online self-presentation. The results show that the impacts of Internet usage on communication with family and friends are only significant among those who habitually use the Internet to socialize and post updates. This indirectly examines the impact of different types of Internet usage on communications. We look forward to further investigating this issue in the future, on the basis of more detailed online data.
Third, this paper examines the impact of Internet usage on interpersonal communications in general. However, it is still not clear how Internet usage affects people’s face-to-face interactions. Due to data limitations, we are unable to directly test the quality of offline personal relationships, for example, changes in conversational topics, the willingness to broach topics discussed on the Internet, and the inclination to reveal true thoughts in a face-to-face relationship. The effects of Internet use on the quality of offline communications will be a very valuable research direction in the future.
This research was funded by the Humanities and Social Science Research Project of the Ministry of Education of China (grant number 19YJC790055); the Project of the Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number 71973081); the Project of the Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province, China (grant number ZR2020QG038); the Project of the Social Science Foundation of Shandong Province, China (grant number 19DJJJ08), and the Project of Teaching Reform of Shandong University (grant number Y2022007).
C.L. contributed to the conception and design of the study and performed the statistical analysis. Y.X. generated the tables and figures, respectively, based on C.L.’s analysis. C.L. wrote the first draft of the manuscript. G.N., K.G. and Q.L. worked on revisions of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner.
Please note : Some confusion may occur between the argumentative essay and the expository essay. These two genres are similar, but the argumentative essay differs from the expository essay in the amount of pre-writing (invention) and research involved. The argumentative essay is commonly assigned as a capstone or final project in first year writing or advanced composition courses and involves lengthy, detailed research. Expository essays involve less research and are shorter in length. Expository essays are often used for in-class writing exercises or tests, such as the GED or GRE.
Argumentative essay assignments generally call for extensive research of literature or previously published material. Argumentative assignments may also require empirical research where the student collects data through interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments. Detailed research allows the student to learn about the topic and to understand different points of view regarding the topic so that she/he may choose a position and support it with the evidence collected during research. Regardless of the amount or type of research involved, argumentative essays must establish a clear thesis and follow sound reasoning.
The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the following.
In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students should set the context by reviewing the topic in a general way. Next the author should explain why the topic is important ( exigence ) or why readers should care about the issue. Lastly, students should present the thesis statement. It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay.
Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will collapse. Transitions should wrap up the idea from the previous section and introduce the idea that is to follow in the next section.
Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. Some paragraphs will directly support the thesis statement with evidence collected during research. It is also important to explain how and why the evidence supports the thesis ( warrant ).
However, argumentative essays should also consider and explain differing points of view regarding the topic. Depending on the length of the assignment, students should dedicate one or two paragraphs of an argumentative essay to discussing conflicting opinions on the topic. Rather than explaining how these differing opinions are wrong outright, students should note how opinions that do not align with their thesis might not be well informed or how they might be out of date.
The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate, detailed, and current information to support the thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal evidence should support the thesis. However, students must consider multiple points of view when collecting evidence. As noted in the paragraph above, a successful and well-rounded argumentative essay will also discuss opinions not aligning with the thesis. It is unethical to exclude evidence that may not support the thesis. It is not the student’s job to point out how other positions are wrong outright, but rather to explain how other positions may not be well informed or up to date on the topic.
It is at this point of the essay that students may begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize the information presented in the body of the essay. Restate why the topic is important, review the main points, and review your thesis. You may also want to include a short discussion of more research that should be completed in light of your work.
Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If I were to discuss the cause of World War II and its current effect on those who lived through the tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In fact, if I were to end the argument in the middle of my second point, questions would arise concerning the current effects on those who lived through the conflict. Therefore, the argumentative essay must be complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or argument.
A common method for writing an argumentative essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is, however, by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that is because it is; in fact, the method consists of (a) an introductory paragraph (b) three evidentiary body paragraphs that may include discussion of opposing views and (c) a conclusion.
Complex issues and detailed research call for complex and detailed essays. Argumentative essays discussing a number of research sources or empirical research will most certainly be longer than five paragraphs. Authors may have to discuss the context surrounding the topic, sources of information and their credibility, as well as a number of different opinions on the issue before concluding the essay. Many of these factors will be determined by the assignment.
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The goal of an argumentative essay is to persuade the reader to understand and support your position on an issue by presenting your reasoning along with supporting evidence. It’s important to find the right balance between giving your opinions and presenting established research.
These essays discuss issues around a range of topics, including science, technology, politics, and healthcare. Whether you’re a teacher looking for essay topics for your students or a student tasked with developing an idea of your own, we’ve compiled a list of 50 argumentative essay topics to help you get started!
● Does texting hinder interpersonal communication skills?
● Should there be laws against using devices while driving?
● Do violent video games teach or encourage people to behave violently?
● Should social media sites be allowed to collect users’ data?
● Should parents limit how long their children spend in front of screens?
● Is AI helping or hurting society?
● Should cyber-bullying carry legal consequences?
● Should Supreme Court justices be elected?
● Is war always a political decision?
● Should people join a political party?
● Is capitalism ethical?
● Is the electoral college an effective system?
● Should prisoners be allowed to vote?
● Should the death penalty be legal?
● Are governments around the world doing enough to combat global warming?
● Is healthcare a fundamental human right?
● Should vaccinations be mandated for children?
● Are there any circumstances under which physician-assisted suicides should be legal?
● Should parents be able to choose specific genetic modifications of their future children?
● Should abortion be legal?
● Is it ethical to perform medical experiments on animals?
● Should patients who lead unhealthy lifestyles be denied organ transplants?
● Should doctors be able to provide medical care to children against their parents’ wishes?
● What causes the stigma around mental health?
● Discuss the link between insufficient access to mental health services and the high suicide rates among veterans.
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● Should cannabis be used as a treatment for patients with mental disorders?
● Is there a link between social media use and mental disorders?
● Discuss the effect of physical activity on mental health.
● Should sports be segregated by gender?
● Should male and female athletes be given the same pay and opportunities?
● Are professional athletes overpaid?
● Should college athletes be paid?
● Should sports betting be legal?
● Should online access to art such as music be free?
● Should graffiti be considered art or vandalism?
● Are there any circumstances under which books should be banned?
● Should schools be required to offer art courses?
● Is art necessary to society?
● Should schools require uniforms?
● Should reciting the Pledge of Allegiance be required in schools?
● Do standardized tests effectively measure intelligence?
● Should high school students take a gap year before pursuing higher education?
● Should higher education be free?
● Is there too much pressure on high school students to attend college?
● Are children better off in two-parent households?
● Should LGBTQ+ partners be allowed to adopt?
● Should single people be able to adopt children as easily as couples?
● Is it okay for parents to physically discipline their children?
● Does helicopter parenting help or hurt children?
● Should parents monitor their children’s Internet use?
An argument could also be made for the importance of proofreading your essay ! The reader can focus more on your message when your writing is clear, concise, and error-free, and they won’t question whether you’re knowledgeable on the issues you’re presenting. Once you have a draft ready, you can submit a free trial document to start working with our expert editors!
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Published on August 14, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.
An essay outline is a way of planning the structure of your essay before you start writing. It involves writing quick summary sentences or phrases for every point you will cover in each paragraph , giving you a picture of how your argument will unfold.
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Organizing your material, presentation of the outline, examples of essay outlines, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about essay outlines.
At the stage where you’re writing an essay outline, your ideas are probably still not fully formed. You should know your topic and have already done some preliminary research to find relevant sources , but now you need to shape your ideas into a structured argument.
Look over any information, quotes and ideas you’ve noted down from your research and consider the central point you want to make in the essay—this will be the basis of your thesis statement . Once you have an idea of your overall argument, you can begin to organize your material in a way that serves that argument.
Try to arrange your material into categories related to different aspects of your argument. If you’re writing about a literary text, you might group your ideas into themes; in a history essay, it might be several key trends or turning points from the period you’re discussing.
Three main themes or subjects is a common structure for essays. Depending on the length of the essay, you could split the themes into three body paragraphs, or three longer sections with several paragraphs covering each theme.
As you create the outline, look critically at your categories and points: Are any of them irrelevant or redundant? Make sure every topic you cover is clearly related to your thesis statement.
When you have your material organized into several categories, consider what order they should appear in.
Your essay will always begin and end with an introduction and conclusion , but the organization of the body is up to you.
Consider these questions to order your material:
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Within each paragraph, you’ll discuss a single idea related to your overall topic or argument, using several points of evidence or analysis to do so.
In your outline, you present these points as a few short numbered sentences or phrases.They can be split into sub-points when more detail is needed.
The template below shows how you might structure an outline for a five-paragraph essay.
You can choose whether to write your outline in full sentences or short phrases. Be consistent in your choice; don’t randomly write some points as full sentences and others as short phrases.
Examples of outlines for different types of essays are presented below: an argumentative, expository, and literary analysis essay.
This outline is for a short argumentative essay evaluating the internet’s impact on education. It uses short phrases to summarize each point.
Its body is split into three paragraphs, each presenting arguments about a different aspect of the internet’s effects on education.
This is the outline for an expository essay describing how the invention of the printing press affected life and politics in Europe.
The paragraphs are still summarized in short phrases here, but individual points are described with full sentences.
The literary analysis essay outlined below discusses the role of theater in Jane Austen’s novel Mansfield Park .
The body of the essay is divided into three different themes, each of which is explored through examples from the book.
If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!
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You will sometimes be asked to hand in an essay outline before you start writing your essay . Your supervisor wants to see that you have a clear idea of your structure so that writing will go smoothly.
Even when you do not have to hand it in, writing an essay outline is an important part of the writing process . It’s a good idea to write one (as informally as you like) to clarify your structure for yourself whenever you are working on an essay.
If you have to hand in your essay outline , you may be given specific guidelines stating whether you have to use full sentences. If you’re not sure, ask your supervisor.
When writing an essay outline for yourself, the choice is yours. Some students find it helpful to write out their ideas in full sentences, while others prefer to summarize them in short phrases.
You should try to follow your outline as you write your essay . However, if your ideas change or it becomes clear that your structure could be better, it’s okay to depart from your essay outline . Just make sure you know why you’re doing so.
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.
Caulfield, J. (2023, July 23). How to Write an Essay Outline | Guidelines & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 18, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/essay-outline/
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Your students may shine in verbal discussions, but it can be more challenging for them to translate their ideas into a coherent argumentative essay. Fortunately, you can use Kialo Edu’s free, adaptable written discussions to support students’ argumentative essay writing skills.
Kialo discussions guide students to clearly express viewpoints, address counterarguments, and provide compelling evidence. This sharpens students’ reasoning, argumentative, and critical thinking skills , empowering them to explore and defend complex issues through writing.
Let’s see how you can use Kialo discussions to enhance argumentative essay writing for your students!
Crafting a compelling argumentative essay begins with selecting the right topic. Follow the tips below to guide your students in making a strong selection.
This will help boost students’ engagement with the essay, while their personal insights will add authenticity to their arguments.
Such topics are more likely to capture interest, boosting audience engagement with the essay.
If viewpoints on a topic are already universally accepted, their essay may lack depth and purpose.
This helps students find adequate evidence to support their arguments before finalizing their topic.
Our Topic Library is bursting with hundreds of relevant, engaging (and free!) argumentative essay ideas, organized by curriculum subject and age range.
Students can practice writing their argumentative essays on Kialo. First, students should add a thesis statement. Then, students can write pro and con claims to develop lines of reasoning that act as supporting arguments while addressing counter arguments.
This mirrors a traditional essay format, where students present the thesis in the introduction and develop their arguments in the paragraphs of the body.
Let’s take a closer look at how each section in a traditional argumentative essay corresponds to parts of a Kialo discussion.
Kialo discussion: thesis and background information.
Students begin their argument by adding a thesis — a concise statement that articulates the main argument of the essay.
They can also provide context in the Background Information to give an overview or abstract of their essay.
Kialo discussion: pro and con claims.
Students use Kialo’s branching discussion framework to present the main arguments in support of their thesis. The visual discussion format reduces the cognitive load for students, freeing them up to concentrate on structuring their argument.
Students begin each branch with a top-level pro claim — the equivalent of a topic sentence — and then support this with further pro claims. The branching structure encourages students to make one claim at a time, directly addressing the previous point.
For those students who tend to overlook opposing perspectives, they can easily see both the supporting and opposing viewpoints that appear side by side in a Kialo discussion. This helps prompt students to consider and come up with counterarguments, as well as rebuttals to these counterarguments to further strengthen their main argument.
As students build their arguments, connective lines illustrate the logical relationships between each claim. This approach helps students understand how broader arguments are built on detailed evidence, enabling them to construct clear and precise arguments that develop specific lines of reasoning.
Finally, to help students avoid gaps in their reasoning, they can choose to view their argument in a unique “sunburst” mini-map , helping them identify knowledge gaps and thereby strengthening their argument.
Kialo discussion: collaborative evaluation.
When students’ arguments reach their conclusion, the collaborative nature of Kialo discussions means students can progress beyond simply summarizing their claims.
Instead, students can vote on the impact of each other’s claims and add evaluative comments, while educators can provide Grading and Feedback on individual claims and the overall discussion. With comments and feedback that target specific claims, students can easily improve their arguments without engaging in extensive rewrites.
Kialo discussion: linking sources to claims and using the sources sidebar.
Throughout the discussion, students can strengthen claims by adding links to supporting evidence , including statistics, expert opinions, and real-world examples. This boosts the credibility of their claims and enables readers to verify the information.
Encourage students to add sources by enabling Tasks . You can specify the number of sources students must link to, tailoring the lesson to your learning objectives to monitor students’ progress.
And once students have completed their argument, they’ll find all their sources compiled into a reference list in the Sources sidebar!
Whether it’s selecting topics , writing arguments, or organizing sources, Kialo Edu’s free written discussion format will empower your students to excel in their argumentative essays. Get started today by signing up at Kialo Edu !
We’d love to hear how using Kialo has helped your students improve their argumentative essays. Contact us at [email protected] or on social media.
Sign up for free and use Kialo Edu to have thoughtful classroom discussions and train students’ argumentation and critical thinking skills.
COMMENTS
Internet use allows people who are interested and have the knowledge about it access a lot of information which range from different subjects hence it is able to meet the needs of diversified population that use the Internet. In this light, the invention of the Internet has been accompanied by many benefits that has turned the world into a ...
A report by the BBC reveals that since the arrival of the internet, "pornography is far more readily available and less regulated" (1). Without the internet, it would be harder for people to access pornographic material. The society would therefore be protected from the negative effects of this decadent material.
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Learn how to write a clear and concise thesis statement for your essay or research paper. Follow four simple steps: start with a question, write your initial answer, develop your answer, and refine your thesis statement.
This essay argues that the internet has negative effects on social relations and child development due to overuse and exposure to inappropriate content. It cites research studies and examples to support its position and refute the opposite view.
Learn how to structure an argumentative essay using three formats: Classical, Rogerian, and Toulmin. See examples and templates for each format and tips on how to organize your thesis, evidence, and reasoning.
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In 2017, we compiled a list of 401 argumentative writing prompts, all drawn from our daily Student Opinion column. Now, we're rounding up 130 more we've published since then (available here as ...
The effects of Internet use on the quality of offline communications will be a very valuable research direction in the future. Funding Statement. This research was funded by the Humanities and Social Science Research Project of the Ministry of Education of China (grant number 19YJC790055); the Project of the Natural Science Foundation of China ...
Learn how to write an argumentative essay with clear thesis, logical transitions, evidential support, and conclusion. Find out the difference between argumentative and expository essays, and the five-paragraph approach for writing an argumentative essay.
Find 50 ideas for persuasive essays on various topics, such as technology, politics, healthcare, sports, arts, and education. Learn how to write an argumentative essay with reasoning and evidence, and get proofreading and editing tips.
Learn how to plan the structure of your essay before you start writing with an essay outline. See examples of outlines for different types of essays, such as argumentative, expository, and literary analysis.
Learn the definition, structure, and techniques of argumentative essays, which use factual evidence and logical support to convince the reader of a certain point of view. Find out how to choose the best format, present your argument, and refute opposing perspectives in your essay.
Our Topic Library is bursting with hundreds of relevant, engaging (and free!) argumentative essay ideas, organized by curriculum subject and age range. How to write an argumentative essay on Kiao Edu. Students can practice writing their argumentative essays on Kialo. First, students should add a thesis statement.
an argumentative essay an example of argumentative essay scribbr: introduction: the spread of the internet has had effect, not least on the world of education ... The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure ...