essays about legalization of marijuana

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The Evidence—and Lack Thereof—About Cannabis

Research is still needed on cannabis’s risks and benefits. 

Lindsay Smith Rogers

Although the use and possession of cannabis is illegal under federal law, medicinal and recreational cannabis use has become increasingly widespread.

Thirty-eight states and Washington, D.C., have legalized medical cannabis, while 23 states and D.C. have legalized recreational use. Cannabis legalization has benefits, such as removing the product from the illegal market so it can be taxed and regulated, but science is still trying to catch up as social norms evolve and different products become available. 

In this Q&A, adapted from the August 25 episode of Public Health On Call , Lindsay Smith Rogers talks with Johannes Thrul, PhD, MS , associate professor of Mental Health , about cannabis as medicine, potential risks involved with its use, and what research is showing about its safety and efficacy. 

Do you think medicinal cannabis paved the way for legalization of recreational use?

The momentum has been clear for a few years now. California was the first to legalize it for medical reasons [in 1996]. Washington and Colorado were the first states to legalize recreational use back in 2012. You see one state after another changing their laws, and over time, you see a change in social norms. It's clear from the national surveys that people are becoming more and more in favor of cannabis legalization. That started with medical use, and has now continued into recreational use.

But there is a murky differentiation between medical and recreational cannabis. I think a lot of people are using cannabis to self-medicate. It's not like a medication you get prescribed for a very narrow symptom or a specific disease. Anyone with a medical cannabis prescription, or who meets the age limit for recreational cannabis, can purchase it. Then what they use it for is really all over the place—maybe because it makes them feel good, or because it helps them deal with certain symptoms, diseases, and disorders.

Does cannabis have viable medicinal uses?

The evidence is mixed at this point. There hasn’t been a lot of funding going into testing cannabis in a rigorous way. There is more evidence for certain indications than for others, like CBD for seizures—one of the first indications that cannabis was approved for. And THC has been used effectively for things like nausea and appetite for people with cancer.

There are other indications where the evidence is a lot more mixed. For example, pain—one of the main reasons that people report for using cannabis. When we talk to patients, they say cannabis improved their quality of life. In the big studies that have been done so far, there are some indications from animal models that cannabis might help [with pain]. When we look at human studies, it's very much a mixed bag. 

And, when we say cannabis, in a way it's a misnomer because cannabis is so many things. We have different cannabinoids and different concentrations of different cannabinoids. The main cannabinoids that are being studied are THC and CBD, but there are dozens of other minor cannabinoids and terpenes in cannabis products, all of varying concentrations. And then you also have a lot of different routes of administration available. You can smoke, vape, take edibles, use tinctures and topicals. When you think about the explosion of all of the different combinations of different products and different routes of administration, it tells you how complicated it gets to study this in a rigorous way. You almost need a randomized trial for every single one of those and then for every single indication.

What do we know about the risks of marijuana use?  

Cannabis use disorder is a legitimate disorder in the DSM. There are, unfortunately, a lot of people who develop a problematic use of cannabis. We know there are risks for mental health consequences. The evidence is probably the strongest that if you have a family history of psychosis or schizophrenia, using cannabis early in adolescence is not the best idea. We know cannabis can trigger psychotic symptoms and potentially longer lasting problems with psychosis and schizophrenia. 

It is hard to study, because you also don't know if people are medicating early negative symptoms of schizophrenia. They wouldn't necessarily have a diagnosis yet, but maybe cannabis helps them to deal with negative symptoms, and then they develop psychosis. There is also some evidence that there could be something going on with the impact of cannabis on the developing brain that could prime you to be at greater risk of using other substances later down the road, or finding the use of other substances more reinforcing. 

What benefits do you see to legalization?

When we look at the public health landscape and the effect of legislation, in this case legalization, one of the big benefits is taking cannabis out of the underground illegal market. Taking cannabis out of that particular space is a great idea. You're taking it out of the illegal market and giving it to legitimate businesses where there is going to be oversight and testing of products, so you know what you're getting. And these products undergo quality control and are labeled. Those labels so far are a bit variable, but at least we're getting there. If you're picking up cannabis at the street corner, you have no idea what's in it. 

And we know that drug laws in general have been used to criminalize communities of color and minorities. Legalizing cannabis [can help] reduce the overpolicing of these populations.

What big questions about cannabis would you most like to see answered?

We know there are certain, most-often-mentioned conditions that people are already using medical cannabis for: pain, insomnia, anxiety, and PTSD. We really need to improve the evidence base for those. I think clinical trials for different cannabis products for those conditions are warranted.

Another question is, now that the states are getting more tax revenue from cannabis sales, what are they doing with that money? If you look at tobacco legislation, for example, certain states have required that those funds get used for research on those particular issues. To me, that would be a very good use of the tax revenue that is now coming in. We know, for example, that there’s a lot more tax revenue now that Maryland has legalized recreational use. Maryland could really step up here and help provide some of that evidence.

Are there studies looking into the risks you mentioned?

Large national studies are done every year or every other year to collect data, so we already have a pretty good sense of the prevalence of cannabis use disorder. Obviously, we'll keep tracking that to see if those numbers increase, for example, in states that are legalizing. But, you wouldn't necessarily expect to see an uptick in cannabis use disorder a month after legalization. The evidence from states that have legalized it has not demonstrated that we might all of a sudden see an increase in psychosis or in cannabis use disorder. This happens slowly over time with a change in social norms and availability, and potentially also with a change in marketing. And, with increasing use of an addictive substance, you will see over time a potential increase in problematic use and then also an increase in use disorder.

If you're interested in seeing if cannabis is right for you, is this something you can talk to your doctor about?

I think your mileage may vary there with how much your doctor is comfortable and knows about it. It's still relatively fringe. That will very much depend on who you talk to. But I think as providers and professionals, everybody needs to learn more about this, because patients are going to ask no matter what.

Lindsay Smith Rogers, MA, is the producer of the Public Health On Call podcast , an editor for Expert Insights , and the director of content strategy for the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.

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THREE ESSAYS ON THE EFFECT OF LEGALIZING MARIJUANA ON HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND SOCIAL SECURITY

The legalization of marijuana has emerged as a critical public policy issue, with far-reaching implications for health, education, and government programs at both the state and federal levels. The three essays of this dissertation show that medical marijuana legalization (MML) has a negative effect in each of these areas. The first essay shows, that the enactment of MMLs can exacerbate the crisis of overdose deaths in the United States. The study analyzes three key areas: the rate of overdose deaths caused by both legal and illegal drugs, the impact of MML on social norms regarding the perceived harm of marijuana, and an investigation into the gateway theory by examining the use of other addictive drugs. I find that MMLs increase deaths attributed to overdose by 21.5% population. MMLs s also indicate increase the number of deaths due to prescribed opioids by 44.6%, and deaths from all opioids (heroin and cocaine in addition to prescribed opioids) by 37.2 % Results suggest an overall increase in the use of marijuana, primarily due to lower perceived risk among adolescents. Additionally, results show an increase in hospital admissions due to substance abuse. The analysis suggests that legalizing medical marijuana may exaggerate the current problem of drug overdose in the United States. The second essay examines the impact of improved access to medical marijuana, measured by the proximity of schools to the nearest dispensary, on the academic performance of high school students in California. Students in schools farther from a marijuana dispensary have higher academic performance as measured through AP, ACT, SAT scores, and average GPA, and lower number of suspensions due to violence and illicit drug use. To show this, I construct the first geocoded dataset on marijuana dispensary and high school locations, use newly developed difference-in-differences estimators that rule out any bias due to heterogeneous treatment effects over time, and explore dynamic responses. This essay reveals the importance of ensuring a largest possible distance between schools and dispensaries to protect adolescents from the potential harm caused by medical marijuana. Finally, the third essay shows that in the long term, MMLs increase the number of disabled workers who receive Social Security Disability Income (SSDI) because of mental health issues. SSDI is a major social insurance program that provides benefits to workers who become disabled, and understanding how policy changes in other areas may impact this program is important. In this study, there were important differences between the results of a two-way fixed effects model and a new model by Callaway and Santa’Anna. MMLs, in theory, could either increase or decrease the number of SSDI recipients, and traditional fixed effects models suggest both could be at play; however, only the negative effect is robust to correction for heterogeneous effects. This highlights the need for future research to understand the true impact of medical marijuana legalization

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Home » Uncategorized » Five Reasons Why We Should Legalize Cannabis

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Five Reasons Why We Should Legalize Cannabis

Cannabis use in the United States has had a long and complicated history. For decades, people who used cannabis were subject to social ostracization and criminal prosecution. However, attitudes toward cannabis have been evolving in recent years. An increasing number of states have started to legalize cannabis for medical or recreational use. This shift in policy has been driven by a variety of factors including changing public attitudes and the potential economic benefits of legalization. In this article, we will explore the potential benefits of legalizing cannabis in our country.

1. Legalization for the Environment

Legalizing cannabis can have significant benefits for the environment. When cannabis is grown illegally, it is often done in environmentally damaging ways, such as using chemical pesticides or clearing primary forests to make room for crops. Legalization could allow customers to support more environmental growers. This will incentivize more responsible growing practices, such as the use of organic farming methods or the use of renewable energy sources to power indoor grow operations. In addition, the culture of growing cannabis can help to discover and preserve precious marijuana seeds , increasing biodiversity and facilitating a deeper understanding of cannabis plants and their cultivation.

2. Legalization for Justice

Where cannabis is illegal, people are being arrested and charged for possession or sale, which leads to costly court cases and a burden on the criminal justice system. Legalization would free up law enforcement resources to focus on more serious crimes and simultaneously reduce the number of people incarcerated for non-violent drug offenses. This could help to reduce the overall prison population and save taxpayers money.

In addition, legalization can have significant benefits for justice and equity, particularly for marginalized communities that have been disproportionately affected by the criminalization of cannabis. Communities of color have been particularly affected by the war on drugs, with Black Americans being nearly four times more likely to be arrested for cannabis possession than white Americans, despite similar rates of use.

By regulating cannabis cultivation and sales, legalization can help to eliminate the black market and reduce the involvement of criminal organizations in the cannabis industry. This can lead to safer communities and reduced drug-related violence in communities that have been most affected by the criminalization of cannabis.

3. Legalization for Public Health

Cannabis has been shown to have many beneficial and therapeutic effects on both physical and mental health. However, people may be hesitant to seek medical marijuana treatment due to fear of legal repercussions if cannabis is illegal. Legalization can allow more people to enjoy better health outcomes. It can also promote the safer use of cannabis by educating the public on appropriate cannabis use and providing quality control measures for cannabis products. Legalization can also lead to increased research into potential medical applications of cannabis and could lead to the development of innovative treatments.

Another potential perk of cannabis legalization is that it could reduce the use of more harmful drugs. In the absence of cannabis, people may turn to more dangerous drugs like heroin or fentanyl to manage chronic pain or other conditions. By legalizing cannabis, we can provide a safer alternative for these individuals and could reduce the overall demand for these more dangerous drugs. States that have legalized cannabis found a decrease in opioid overdose deaths and hospitalizations, suggesting that cannabis are an effective alternative to prescription painkillers.

4. Legalization for the Economy

The legalization of cannabis can generate significant tax revenue for governments and create new economic opportunities. When cannabis is illegal, it is sold on the black market, and no taxes are collected on these sales. However, when it is legal, sales can be regulated, and taxes can be imposed on those sales. In states that have legalized cannabis, tax revenue from cannabis sales has been in the millions of dollars , with California registering a whopping $1.2 billion in cannabis tax revenue in 2021. This impressive income can be used to reduce budget deficits, fund various public services such as education and healthcare, and create new opportunities for investment in projects that revitalize the economy.

Aside from tax revenue, legalizing cannabis can create new jobs. The cannabis industry is a rapidly growing industry, and legalization could lead to the creation of new jobs in areas such as cultivation, processing, and retail sales. This can help to reduce unemployment and create new gainful opportunities for people who may have struggled to find employment in other industries. Legalization can also lead to increased investment in related industries, such as the development of new products or technologies to improve cannabis cultivation or the creation of new retail businesses. There are now several venture capital funds and investment groups that focus solely on cannabis-related enterprises.

5. Legalization for Acceptance

Finally, legalization could help reduce the stigma surrounding cannabis use. Before cannabis legalization, people who use the plant were often viewed as criminals or deviants. Legalization can help change this perception and lead to more open and honest conversations about cannabis use. Ultimately, legalization could lead to a more accepting and inclusive society where individuals are not judged or discriminated against for their personal and healthcare choices. By legalizing cannabis, we can harness the power of a therapeutic plant. Legalization can heal not just physical and mental ailments of individuals but also the social wounds that have resulted from its criminalization.

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2018 Theses Doctoral

Essays on Cannabis Legalization

Thomas, Danna Kang

Though the drug remains illegal at the federal level, in recent years states and localities have increasingly liberalized their marijuana laws in order to generate tax revenue and save resources on marijuana law enforcement. Many states have adopted some form of medical marijuana and/or marijuana decriminalization laws, and as of 2017, Washington, Colorado, Maine, California, Oregon, Massachusetts, Nevada, Alaska, and the District of Columbia have all legalized marijuana for recreational use. In 2016 recreational marijuana generated over $1.8 billion in sales. Hence, studying marijuana reforms and the policies and outcomes of early recreational marijuana adopters is an important area of research. However, perhaps due to the fact that legalized recreational cannabis is a recent phenomenon, a scarcity of research exists on the impacts of recreational cannabis legalization and the efficacy and efficiency of cannabis regulation. This dissertation aims to fill this gap, using the Washington recreational marijuana market as the primary setting to study cannabis legalization in the United States. Of first order importance in the regulation of sin goods such as cannabis is quantifying the value of the marginal damages of negative externalities. Hence, Chapter 1 (co-authored with Lin Tian) explores the impact of marijuana dispensary location on neighborhood property values, exploiting plausibly exogenous variation in marijuana retailer location. Policymakers and advocates have long expressed concerns that the positive effects of the legalization--e.g., increases in tax revenue--are well spread spatially, but the negative effects are highly localized through channels such as crime. Hence, we use changes in property values to measure individuals' willingness to pay to avoid localized externalities caused by the arrival of marijuana dispensaries. Our key identification strategy is to compare changes in housing sales around winners and losers in a lottery for recreational marijuana retail licenses. (Due to location restrictions, license applicants were required to provide an address of where they would like to locate.) Hence, we have the locations of both actual entrants and potential entrants, which provides a natural difference-in-differences set-up. Using data from King County, Washington, we find an almost 2.4% decrease in the value of properties within a 0.5 mile radius of an entrant, a $9,400 decline in median property values. The aforementioned retail license lottery was used to distribute licenses due to a license quota. Retail license quotas are often used by states to regulate entry into sin goods markets as quotas can restrict consumption by decreasing access and by reducing competition (and, therefore, increasing markups). However, license quotas also create allocative inefficiency. For example, license quotas are often based on the population of a city or county. Hence, licenses are not necessarily allocated to the areas where they offer the highest marginal benefit. Moreover, as seen in the case of the Washington recreational marijuana market, licenses are often distributed via lottery, meaning that in the absence of an efficiency secondary market for licenses, the license recipients are not necessarily the most efficient potential entrants. This allocative inefficiency is generated by heterogeneity in firms and consumers. Therefore, in Chapter 2, I develop a model of demand and firm pricing in order to investigate firm-level heterogeneity and inefficiency. Demand is differentiated by geography and incorporates consumer demographics. I estimate this demand model using data on firm sales from Washington. Utilizing the estimates and firm pricing model, I back out a non-parametric distribution of firm variable costs. These variable costs differ by product and firm and provide a measure of firm inefficiency. I find that variable costs have lower inventory turnover; hence, randomly choosing entrants in a lottery could be a large contributor to allocative inefficiency. Chapter 3 explores the sources of allocative inefficiency in license distribution in the Washington recreational marijuana market. A difficulty in studying the welfare effects of license quotas is finding credible counterfactuals of unrestricted entry. Therefore, I take a structural approach: I first develop a three stage model that endogenizes firm entry and incorporates the spatial demand and pricing model discussed in Chapter 2. Using the estimates of the demand and pricing model, I estimate firms' fixed costs and use data on locations of those potential entrants that did not win Washington's retail license lottery to simulate counterfactual entry patterns. I find that allowing firms to enter freely at Washington's current marijuana tax rate increases total surplus by 21.5% relative to a baseline simulation of Washington's license quota regime. Geographic misallocation and random allocation of licenses account for 6.6\% and 65.9\% of this difference, respectively. Moreover, as the primary objective of these quotas is to mitigate the negative externalities of marijuana consumption, I study alternative state tax policies that directly control for the marginal damages of marijuana consumption. Free entry with tax rates that keep the quantity of marijuana or THC consumed equal to baseline consumption increases welfare by 6.9% and 11.7%, respectively. I also explore the possibility of heterogeneous marginal damages of consumption across geography, backing out the non-uniform sales tax across geography that is consistent with Washington's license quota policy. Free entry with a non-uniform sales tax increases efficiency by over 7% relative to the baseline simulation of license quotas due to improvements in license allocation.

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• v.109(2); Mar-Apr 2012

Legalization, Decriminalization & Medicinal Use of Cannabis: A Scientific and Public Health Perspective

Empirical and clinical studies clearly demonstrate significant adverse effects of cannabis smoking on physical and mental health as well as its interference with social and occupational functioning. These negative data far outweigh a few documented benefits for a limited set of medical indications, for which safe and effective alternative treatments are readily available. If there is any medical role for cannabinoid drugs, it lies with chemically defined compounds, not with unprocessed cannabis plant. Legalization or medical use of smoked cannabis is likely to impose significant public health risks, including an increased risk of schizophrenia, psychosis, and other forms of substance use disorders.

Introduction

In recent years, there has been a strong pressure on state legislatures across the US to legalize or decriminalize use and possession of specified amounts of cannabis and/or to pass laws that allow smoking of crude cannabis plant (also known as marijuana, weed, Mary Jane, pot, reefers, ganja, joint and grass) for prescribed medical purposes (so called “medical marijuana”). Advocacy groups claim that smoking cannabis is a safe and effective treatment for various psychological and medical conditions, ranging from stress and anxiety to Alzheimer’s dementia and Parkinson’s disease, even though cannabis is not approved for such use by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Legalization of cannabis is the process of removing all legal prohibitions against it. Cannabis would then be available to the adult general population for purchase and use at will, similar to tobacco and alcohol. Decriminalization is the act of removing criminal sanctions against an act, article, or behavior. Decriminalization of cannabis means it would remain illegal, but the legal system would not prosecute a person for possession under a specified amount. Instead, the penalties would range from no penalties at all, civil fines, drug education, or drug treatment.

No state has legalized cannabis thus far. It remains a US federally-controlled substance, which makes possession and distribution illegal. However, at the time of this writing, 26 states in the US have passed either medical cannabis laws, cannabis decriminalization laws, or both. See Table 1 . A major concern of this commentary is that both the medicinal use of smoked cannabis plant and legalization/decriminalization of cannabis are being advocated in a way that circumvents the normal testing and regulatory processes by the FDA that is otherwise required for all drugs marketed for human use in the US. By circumventing this process, advocacy groups put state legislatures and/or voters in the position to decide on proposals with a certain impact on public health and medical treatment without necessarily being qualified to understand the pertinent scientific evidence.

US Cannabis Use Legislated into Law without FDA Approval

Taking advantage of the obscure legal status of cannabis (i.e., federally banned illicit drug but approved by local governments for medical and/or recreational purposes), businesses involving sales of cannabis are flourishing and even stock-market investments are available. For example, CannabisInvestments.com provides information on ways one can invest in hemp-related and medical marijuana products and companies. These business interest groups are ratcheting pressure on state legislatures to decriminalize or medicalize cannabis, counting on support of millions of addicted users and politicians looking for re-election votes and unaware of the dangers of such a legislative act.

History and Legal Status of Cannabis

Historically, cannabis has been used in various cultures and populations as indigenous therapy for a range of medical ailments (e.g., fever, insomnia, cachexia, headache, constipation, rheumatic pain) and diseases (e.g., venereal disease, malaria). Due to its presumed medical benefits, cannabis was recognized as an official, licit drug and listed in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia in 1850. Recreational use of cannabis surged in the 1930s during the Prohibition Era. In 1937, the Marijuana Tax Act effectively thwarted all cannabis use without criminalizing its possession or use. In 1970, the Controlled Substances Act classified cannabis as schedule I illicit drugs, the most restrictive category, and made possession a federal crime.

Reefer Madness is a well-known 1936 American propaganda exploitation film revolving around the melodramatic events that ensue when high school students are lured by pushers to try “marijuana” — from a hit and run accident, to manslaughter, suicide, attempted rape, and descent into madness.

The Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), which administers the Controlled Substances Act, continues to support the Schedule I assignment (and FDA concurred) noting that cannabis meets the three criteria for such placement under 21 U.S.C. 812(b):

• high potential for abuse;
• no currently accepted medical use in the US; and
• lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision.

A past evaluation by several Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) agencies, including FDA, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) and National Institute for Drug Abuse (NIDA), concluded that no sound scientific studies supported medical use of marijuana and no animal or human data supported the safety or efficacy of marijuana for general medical use. 1

Popular Perception of Cannabis Use

In the public debate, cannabis has been considered a relatively benign recreational drug in comparison to opiates, stimulants, even alcohol. The favorable popular perception of cannabis presumably reflects the absence of dramatic physical signs of intoxication or withdrawal. Incidentally, cessation of cannabis use does cause withdrawal, but the severity is masked by the gradual release of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the major psychoactive ingredient in cannabis, from fat tissue (adipocytes) where it accumulates during chronic use. The process is not unlike the tapering of medication during detoxification.

The general public has not been adequately informed about recent scientific findings demonstrating major adverse effects of smoking cannabis on physical and especially mental health, the latter varying in range from cognitive dulling, brief psychotic experiences, to long-term addiction and chronic psychosis. 2 , 3

Epidemiology of Cannabis Use and Addiction

Cannabis (here referring to smoking of cannabis plants) is the most commonly used illicit drug in the US. Data from The National Survey on Drug Use and Health 4 , 5 indicate that 44% of males and 35% of females have used marijuana at least once in their life time. More recent studies suggest that regular use of marijuana is increasing. Data from National Survey on Drug Use and Health 6 indicate that in persons over the age of 12, the rate of past month cannabis use and the number of users in 2009 (6.6 percent or 16.7 million) were higher compared to 2008 (6.1% or 15.2 million) and 2007 (5.8% or 14.4 million).

Medicinal Use of Cannabinoids in Pill Form

Since THC was first isolated and purified 7 from the cannabis plant in 1965, more than 400 chemicals have been isolated, approximately 60 of which are cannabinoids, compounds that are the active agents of cannabis. Reflecting a rapidly growing interest in the therapeutic potential of cannabis, about 21 cannabinoids are currently under study by the US FDA. 8

More recently, two types of cannabinoid receptors have been identified: CB1 found mostly in the central nervous system and responsible for psychoactive properties of cannabis, and CB2 found mostly in the spleen, immune tissues, and peripheral blood, and responsible for immunological and anti-inflammatory effects of cannabis. 9 , 10 A group of endo-cannabinoids has been also identified, e.g., arachidonoylethanolamine or anandamide, as endogenous chemical modulators which mimic the actions of phytocannabinoids and activate cannabinoid receptors. 10 These discoveries have led to the development of numerous CB receptor agonists and antagonists and numerous studies have tested therapeutic indications for these compounds. Medications containing natural or synthetic cannabinoids currently approved or being considered for approval for medicinal use are listed below:

Dronabinol (proprietary name Marinol), a synthetic THC, is FDA approved as an antiemetic in patients undergoing cancer chemotherapy, as an appetite stimulant for weight loss/decreased food intake in AIDS patients, and less frequently to augment analgesic treatment. Dronabinol is a Schedule III medication, indicating it has some potential for psychological and physical dependence.

Nabilone (proprietary name Cesamet), is a synthetic cannabinoid. FDA approved for peroral treatment of nausea and vomiting in chemotherapy patients who have not responded to conventional antiemetics, and anorexia and weight loss in patients with AIDS. Nabilone is a Schedule II medication, with high potential for mental health side effects and addiction.

Sativex , a liquid extract from cannabis plant, is used as oral spray (“liquid marijuana”), contains THC, cannnabidiol (CBD), and other cannabinoids. Sativex has been approved for neuropathic pain, emesis, overactive bladder, and spasticity in several countries including England, Canada, and Spain. Phase III studies of Sativex are currently underway in the US, thus it does not have a schedule assigned to it.

These medications have been approved for specific indications (nausea, vomiting, cachexia) and are currently studied for a number of new indications, such as spastic syndromes, neurological disorders, neuropathic pain, and other pain syndromes, among others. Note that use of medications that have been tested and approved by the FDA is not controversial. What is objectionable is that current efforts to legalize cannabis crude plant use state legislative processes to bypass federal regulatory processes that were put in place specifically to protect the public health.

Suggested Non-FDA Approved Uses of Cannabinoids and Smoked Cannabis

Suggested but as of yet not FDA-approved indications for smoked cannabis and/or cannabinoids include spastic syndromes in neurological disorders, pain syndromes, and glaucoma. We reviewed about 70 studies of oral cannabinoids and the few available studies of smoked cannabis for a number of medical indications. As expected, prescription cannabinoids are effective antiemetics and appetite stimulants, and some studies report their effectiveness as adjunct therapy in chronic pain syndromes, spasticity, and glaucoma. Similar results are reported by the few studies of smoked cannabis plant for these same indications. As noted earlier, safe and effective alternative treatments for all these syndromes are available. Studies assessing psychological aspects of smoked cannabis and prescription cannabinoids uniformly report undesired effects: acute psychosis, poorer prognosis of chronic psychosis, or cognitive dulling in medical patients. In other words, in addition to a number of adverse medical effects (next section), psychological effects of cannabis are common and detrimental. Unfortunately, we found no long-term studies investigating whether and how frequently chronic use of small amounts of cannabis for medicinal purposes develops into cannabis abuse and/or addiction.

Adverse Medical Effects of Cannabis and THC

The extant scientific literature by and large reflects the harmful effects of inhaled cannabis smoke. In what follows we review some of these reports.

Respiratory

Many of the same mutagens and carcinogens found in tobacco smoke are found in marijuana smoke as well. 11 Marijuana smoking has been shown to decrease pulmonary function, produce chronic cough, airway inflammation and abnormal cell growth that may antecede the onset of cancer. 12 However, the International Agency for Research on Cancer found the epidemiologic data inconclusive as to the increased risk of cancer from cannabis use versus that of tobacco smokers. 13 In contrast to tobacco, marijuana-smoking lung injury is not reversed on abstinence. 14

Immunologic

In humans, an increase in mortality of HIV-positive cannabis users has been observed. 15

Cardiovascular

Direct stimulation of the cardiac pacemaker by marijuana leads to an increase in heart rate making THC unsafe in cardiac patients. 14

Daily cannabis use is a risk factor for fibrosis progression via steatogenic effects, thus, daily cannabis use in patients with liver disease is contraindicated. 16 Cannabis users metabolize and activate or inactivate drugs more slowly than normal, 17 potentiating the deleterious effects of the drugs.

Endocrine and Reproductive Systems

In preclinical studies, cannabinoids have shown inhibitory effects on pituitary luteinizing hormone, prolactin, growth hormone, and thyroid stimulating hormone with little effect on follicle-stimulating hormone. 18 , 19 Marijuana can disrupt female reproductive health. 20 Women who smoke marijuana during pregnancy are more likely to have low birth weight infants possibly from a shorter gestation. 21 The effects of maternal marijuana use on infant development have not been systematically studied. However, the lipid solubility of THC allows for rapid transit in breast milk, where it has been shown to accumulate and eventually pass to the newborn. 22

Carcinogenesis

Cannabis use increases the incidence of testicular germ cell tumors – TGCT. 23 The authors observed a 70% increased risk of TGCT associated with current marijuana use, and the risk was particularly elevated for current use that was at least weekly or that began in adolescence. These associations were independent of known TGCT risk factors.

Effects of Smoked Cannabis on Mental Health

Smoking cannabis has a number of acute and chronic pathogenic effects on human mental health. 3 , 24 Direct causal effects of chronic use are difficult to scientifically establish because the condition cannot be randomly assigned or manipulated experimentally for ethical reasons. Nevertheless, prospective population studies indicate that early cannabis use frequently serves as a prelude (or “gateway”) to other illicit drug use. Despite occasional non-confirmatory results, the “gateway sequence” is the most common pattern in the sequential progression in drug use, 25 where marijuana use often is the initial step leading towards more powerful and more harmful drugs.

The mental effects of smoked cannabis include mental slowness, “relaxation”, tiredness, euphoria, and some users report anxiety and paranoia. Acute negative effects on cognition and performance, limited to periods of intoxication, have been all well-documented. 26 , 27 Long-term effects of cannabis use on cognitive performance involve subtle and selective impairments of specific higher cognitive functions 27 , 28 including an impaired ability to focus attention and filter out irrelevant information, which is progressive with the cumulative duration of exposure to cannabis. 29 These effects of chronic use recover only partially in ex-cannabis users, but the past duration of cannabis use continued to have an adverse effect on the ability to effectively reject complex irrelevant information. 30

Remodeling of Brain Reward Circuits - Cannabis Addiction

Active ingredients in cannabis, THC in particular, affect neurophysiological and behavioral systems in ways similar to addictive drugs. 31 Cannabis use is associated with reinforcing pleasurable feelings of reward and euphoria either through direct effects on CB1 receptors expressed in N. Accumbens or through collateral circuits (including endogenous opiate receptors) with similar effects on the reward pathway in the brain. 31 In most cases, addictive drugs “reset” the threshold for stimulation of the reward pathway at a higher level, where only supraphysiological stimulation by drugs can generate the desired feeling of reward. This “hijacking” of the reward pathway reduces the motivational power of natural rewards (e.g. food, opportunity to mate, relationships, etc) and thus reshapes normal motivational priorities. With repeated stimulation of this pathway, cannabis use induces neural plasticity and alters reward-based learning, 32 all leading to phenomenological and behavioral features typical of addiction. Suggestive of its high addictiveness, cannabis is the most commonly used illicit drug in the US and rate of its use continues to rise. 4 , 5 , 6

Cannabis Use and Well-Being

Proponents of cannabis use argue that smoking cannabis provides relaxation and pleasure, enhances the sense of well being, contributes to stress-relief, and helps to deal with hard reality. Of course, any enhancement of well being of a mentally healthy person through use of a psychoactive substance is some sense an oxymoron. Furthermore, cannabis use decreases cortical dopamine 33 which plays a major role in higher cognitive functions, working memory, executive function, etc. Hence, the “relaxed” feeling most cannabis users report as a desirable acute effect, in all likelihood reflects cognitive dulling (“amotivational syndrome”) caused by decreases in cortical dopamine. In other words, the weight of evidence indicates that cannabis creates cognitive dulling rather than reduction in anxiety, indifference rather than relaxation, and amotivation rather than inner peace, all closer to psychopathology than to well being.

Cannabis Use and Work Performance

There is an ongoing debate whether cannabis use interferes with people’s ability to work, relate to others, and/or live a normal life. Recent research clearly shows that any work that requires cognitive involvement and decision making is affected by cannabis use. 27 , 28 , 29 , 34 In a study of young, otherwise mentally and physically healthy cannabis users, Wadsworth et al 28 report an association between cannabis use and impairment in cognitive function and mood but not with workplace errors (although there was an association with lower alertness and slower response organization). Users experienced working memory problems at the start, and psychomotor slowing and poorer episodic recall at the end of the work week. This highlights the importance of the timing of testing within the context and routine of everyday life. In a separate study of the same sample, cannabis use had a significant negative impact on safety at work (such as self-reported accidents), road traffic accidents, and minor injuries. 34 Those who had higher levels of other risk factors associated with accidents and who also used cannabis were more likely to report an accident in the previous year. Thus, it is possible that cannabis-related effects were linked to an amplification of other risk factors associated with accidents and injuries. 34

Cannabis Use and Mental Health in the General Population

According to the study 35 of 18,500 cannabis smokers published by Statistics Netherlands in October 2010, cannabis users suffer mental health problems twice as often as nonusers. The relative risk of mental problems was doubled in male and female cannabis users (20% and 28%, respectively) compared to male and female nonusers (10% and 14%, respectively). Most common mental health issues reported by cannabis users were anxiety, melancholy, sadness, and impatience. In contrast, physical health of users and nonusers barely differed. Though technically illegal, the Netherlands decriminalized the consumption and possession of less than 5 grams (0.18 ounces) of cannabis in 1976 under an official “tolerance” policy.

Taking advantage of the obscure legal status of cannabis, businesses involving sales of cannabis are flourishing and even stock-market investments are available.

For example, CannabisInvestments. com provides information on ways one can invest in hemp-related and medical marijuana products and companies.

CNS Effects of Chronic Cannabis Use

Recently, specific pathogenic effects of cannabis on human brain tissue have been documented. Using high-resolution (3-T) structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Yucel et al 36 determined long-term heavy cannabis use is associated with gross anatomical abnormalities in two cannabinoid receptor–rich regions of the brain, the hippocampus and the amygdala. Subects were healthy males with long-term (more than 10 years) and heavy (more than five joints daily) cannabis use with no history of poly-drug use or neurologic/mental disorders. Cannabis users had bilaterally and significantly reduced hippocampal and amygdala volumes, with changes greater in the hippocampus. In fact, left hemisphere hippocampal volume was inversely associated with cumulative exposure to cannabis during the previous 10 years as well as with subthreshold positive psychotic symptoms. Positive psychosis symptom scores were also associated with cumulative exposure to cannabis.

Cannabis Use and the Risk of Schizophrenia, Psychosis, and Affective Disorders

Cannabis use is among the environmental factors associated with increased risk and worsened prognosis of schizophrenia and some data suggest a causal effect. 3 Cannabis use also is associated with more prevalent expressions of a wider psychosis phenotype. Isolated psychotic symptoms have reported prevalences of 5–15% among chronic cannabis users. 2 , 3 Although causality remains difficult to infer from observational studies, the weight of the evidence appears to favor a causal contribution from cannabis use for the development of Schizophrenia and psychosis. 2

Recent meta-analyses lend further support to the hypothesis that cannabis use causally contributes to the increased risk of development of schizophrenia. In a comprehensive and systematic meta-analysis, Moore et al 37 determined whether cannabis use contributes causally to the development of nonsubstance psychiatric illness, such as schizophrenia and affective disorders. The study was designed to address as much as possible two of the most important methodological problems in studying the relation between cannabis use and psychosis: 1) the potential for reverse causality (where psychosis causes cannabis use and not vice versa) and 2) the transitory intoxication effects (that is misinterpreted as psychosis as the false positive error). The results indicated that the risk of psychosis is increased by roughly 40% (pooled adjusted OR: 1.41) in cannabis users. The results were not as impressive for affective disorders. Within the users, a dose-response effect was observed with the risk more than doubled (OR =2.1) in the most frequent users. For cannabis and psychosis, there was evidence of confounding effects, but the associations persisted in almost all studies, even after adjustment for comprehensive lists of variables. The authors concluded that “there is now sufficient evidence to warn young people that using cannabis could increase their risk of developing a psychotic illness later in life” (page 319).

In a meta analysis of peer-reviewed publications in English reporting age at onset of psychotic illness in substance using and non–substance using groups Large et al 38 found an association between cannabis use and earlier onset of psychosis (the effect was not seen with alcohol). The authors suggest the need for renewed warnings about the potentially harmful effects of cannabis. Similar findings are reported by other authors. 39

Genetic Moderation of Cannabis Effect on Psychosis

One of the most puzzling aspects of cannabis-associated psychosis is that schizophrenia is not rising in incidence to reflect prevalent cannabis use. The likely answer is that there is variation in individual sensitivity to the psychosis-inducing effects of cannabis. In other words, individuals who have a greater biological vulnerability to psychosis are more likely to develop psychotic experiences when exposed to cannabis. As an example, the COMT Val/Val genotype is a risk factor for schizophrenia in the general population 40 presumably by providing a pathological substrate, such as low dopamine in the frontal cortex 40 and high mesolimbic dopamine. 41 Both conditions are believed to contribute to schizophrenia symptoms. Carriers of the COMT Val/Val genotype have low cortical dopamine but do not automatically develop schizophrenia. Rather, this genotype is considered to be a matter of individual variability in the level of cortical dopamine. Hovever, carriers of this genotype, who were also chronic cannabis users as adolescents, have a dramatically (up to 10 times) higher risk of psychosis 42 compared to adult-onset cannabis users with the same genotype. Cannabis use is reported to further decrease cortical 33 and increase mesolimbic dopamine 43 possibly amplifying the preexisting, genetically created dopamine deficit. If occurring during the sensitive developmental period of adolescence, such augmentation may synergistically facilitate the onset of psychosis. Similar interactive synergism was recently described for the AKT1 gene and cannabis. 45

Finally, recent study by Welch et al 44 was the first longitudinal study to demonstrate an association between thalamic volume loss and exposure to cannabis in people currently unaffected by Schizophrenia but with increased risk for the illness due to positive family history. As Welch et al 44 conclude, this finding may be important in understanding the link between cannabis exposure and the subsequent development of Schizophrenia.

Empirical and clinical studies reviewed here clearly demonstrate pathological effects of cannabis smoking on physical and especially mental health as well as its interference with social and occupational functioning. We did not find a single methodologically sound study to suggest that the benefits of smoking cannabis outweigh the associated risks. These negative data far outweigh documented benefits for a limited set of medical indications for which safe and effective alternative treatments are readily available. However, advocacy groups are pursuing legalization or medical use of smoked cannabis, largely ignoring pills containing extracted THC and other cannabinoids. It appears therefore that it is not the benefit of active cannabis ingredients, but the route of administration, a wider set of indications, and the ritual of use that’s being advocated. Based on the empirical and clinical evidence reviewed here, it seems safe to conclude that, if there is any medical role for cannabinoid drugs, it lies with chemically modified extracts, not with unprocessed cannabis plant.

Dragan M. Svrakic, MD, PhD, and Patrick J. Lustman, PhD, practice at the Washington University School of Medicine and the Veterans Administration Medical Center in St. Louis. Ashok Mallya, MD, Taylor Andrea Lynn, PhD, and Rhonda Finney, RN, practice at the Veterans Administration Medical Center. Neda M. Svrakic, is at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Contact: [email protected]

None reported.

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One-year high: the impacts of maryland’s legalization of marijuana.

Mario Macis, professor of economics, health, and management and organization at the Johns Hopkins Carey Business School, shares how tax revenue is up, crime is down, and a recent gubernatorial declaration changes thousands of lives.

Nearly a year after legalizing marijuana in Maryland, some of the early effects of this legislation are beginning to show, marking just the beginning of a broader understanding of its impacts.

On July 1, 2023, Maryland legalized the recreational use of marijuana for individuals 21 years and older. This significant change, affirmed by 67% of voters in the November 2022 Question 4 referendum, comes more than a decade after the state initially authorized medical marijuana use in 2012. Under the new legislation, individuals are allowed to possess up to 1.5 ounces for personal use, cultivate up to two plants at home, and gift cannabis to others without monetary compensation. 

Erasing crime?

On June 16, 2024, Maryland Governor Wes Moore announced pardons for 175,000 persons convicted of crimes related to the possession of cannabis and cannabis paraphernalia. The governor’s action is in line with other governors who have previously legalized marijuana. This provision has important societal implications, influencing the broader opportunities and life outcomes for convicted individuals and their families. 

In Maryland, the pardon applies to everyone convicted of marijuana possession—a population that is  disproportionately Black. Although Black and African American persons make up 33% of Maryland's population, they comprise 70% of persons incarcerated in the state. This has real impacts in Black communities. Convictions on-record make it harder for someone to obtain housing, employment, and education, all of which are crucial for achieving financial stability and building long-term wealth for future generations.

The legislation sparked extensive debates. Detractors express concerns about increased consumption—particularly among youth—a rise in addiction, and elevated crime rates. Proponents counter these arguments by referencing historical events like the Prohibition Era, where criminal activities burgeoned due to the illegal alcohol trade. In fact, legalizing and regulating marijuana can decrease organized crime, enhance consumer safety, and ensure product quality.

Evidence from states where marijuana has been previously legalized tends to support these counterarguments, as detailed in studies such as the one published in the Journal of Economic Literature in 2023 by economists Mark Anderson and Daniel Rees, titled "The Public Health Effects of Legalizing Marijuana." This research contributes to the understanding of the broader impacts of marijuana legalization on public health, crime, and other outcomes, although it is difficult to draw firm conclusions for most outcomes without more post-reform data.

Statistics reveal that crime rates don't necessarily surge post-legalization. This could be because states reallocate law enforcement resources to more severe criminal activities. Various studies have also attempted to shed light on the impact of medical and recreational marijuana legalization on consumption patterns and public health. Youth consumption has not been shown to increase significantly after legalization. Meanwhile, marijuana appears to be a substitute for alcohol, leading to decreased consumption and instances of binge drinking.

That makes a difference, because alcohol is correlated with violence. Several studies suggest that legalization could reduce non-drug related crimes, such as homicides, assaults, rapes, and thefts. The decrease in crime following marijuana legalization can be attributed to a few key factors, including the potential reduction in alcohol use, as well as the elimination of illicit marketplaces that often lead to violence and criminal activity, and the reallocation of law enforcement resources towards more serious offenses. However, the effects of opening and closing dispensaries on crime rates and other societal factors still require more rigorous investigation.

As for the notorious “gateway drug” theory, the evidence doesn't convincingly connect marijuana legalization to increased usage of other, “harder” drugs. In fact, preliminary studies suggest a reduction in opioid use post-legalization. However, these findings require further research to confirm.

Market and tax impacts

The law is reshaping Maryland's cannabis market. In March 2024, Maryland regulators awarded 174 adult-use marijuana social equity licenses from a pool of 1,515 eligible applicants. This was part of a lottery conducted on March 14, which included six different license types, reflecting the state's effort to ensure equitable distribution of licenses in the burgeoning industry. The state distributed licenses across 44 geographic pools, with the number of licenses per area varying based on population density and demand. 

A sales tax on marijuana products has generated significant revenue for the state. According to the Marijuana Policy Project, from July 1, 2023, through March 2024, tax revenues from cannabis sales totaled $40,230,000. In addition to tax revenues, the state benefits from the redirection of resources previously expended on law enforcement, court proceedings, and imprisonment associated with marijuana consumption, letting the state spend more on societal needs.

Public and mental health

Marijuana has shown positive impacts on mental health, with some studies indicating a decrease in prescription medications for mental health conditions. Additionally, while the effect of recreational marijuana on road safety remains under examination, some evidence points to improved road safety following the legalization of medical marijuana.

What to Read Next

career outcomes

Maryland's journey toward fully understanding the ripple effects of marijuana legalization is just beginning. The state's focus on regulation, equity, and a data-driven approach aims to guide the comprehensive exploration of the benefits and potential hurdles brought about by this new cannabis policy era. However, the post-legalization data is still limited, preventing firm conclusions and highlighting the need for ongoing research and monitoring to fully assess the effects of the new regulations.

Authored by Mario Macis, PhD

Mario Macis, PhD , is a professor of economics at the Johns Hopkins Carey Business School. He is an applied economist who studies the role of incentives in shaping pro-social behavior, attitudes toward morally contentious exchanges and, more generally, the determinants of social support for market-based solutions to social problems. He is also interested in various topics in health, development, labor and organizational economics. 

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Brazil Becomes the Largest Nation to Decriminalize Marijuana

The country’s Supreme Court voted to remove criminal penalties for possession of up to 40 grams of marijuana.

By Jack Nicas and Ana Ionova

Reporting from Rio de Janeiro

Brazil decriminalized marijuana for personal use on Wednesday, making the nation of 203 million the largest to take such a measure and the latest sign of a growing global acceptance of the drug.

Brazil’s Supreme Court ruled that Brazilians could possess up to 40 grams of cannabis — roughly enough for 80 joints — without facing penalties, a decision that would take effect within days and stand for the next 18 months.

The court asked Brazil’s Congress and health authorities to then set the permanent amount of marijuana that citizens could possess. Selling marijuana remains a criminal offense.

Thousands of Brazilians are serving prison sentences for possessing an amount of marijuana below the new threshold, legal analysts said. It is unclear how the decision would affect those convictions.

Many are Black men, who represent 61 percent of drug-trafficking prosecutions but 27 percent of the population. Studies have shown thousands of Black Brazilians have been convicted in situations that have led to lesser or no charges against white people.

Brazil has long taken a harsh criminal approach to drugs, so its decision to effectively allow citizens to smoke marijuana is part of a remarkable shift in public opinion and public policy on the drug over the past two decades. More than 20 countries have now decriminalized or legalized recreational use of marijuana, most in Europe and the Americas.

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Opinion: Why legal weed is one of the most successful — yet disappointing — social movements

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Cannabis prohibition remains central to America’s failed war on drugs — upwards of half a million people were arrested for a cannabis offense in the U.S. in 2018, accounting for more than 43 % of all drug arrests .

But times are changing: Cannabis reform is one of the most successful social movements in recent memory. Today, 24 states and Washington, D.C., allow cannabis for adult use. Although the drug remains prohibited at the federal level, the Biden administration recently began the process of reclassifying cannabis as a less dangerous substance (going from Schedule I to Schedule III). This will dramatically loosen federal restrictions on the U.S. cannabis industry, which is forecast to generate more than $30 billion in retail sales in 2024.

Editorial: Reclassifying marijuana is not decriminalization, but is a welcome step in that direction

Taking cannabis out of the most-dangerous-drug category is almost literally the least the federal government can do on the subject. Further work is needed to catch up with Americans’ knowledge and practice.

May 1, 2024

Yet legal cannabis has been something of a disappointment. High barriers to entry prevent many small-business owners from breaking into the industry. A 2023 survey found that less than 25% of U.S. cannabis businesses are profitable, with most of the money going to a small group of large multistate corporate operators led by predominantly white ownership groups. A 2021 report found that less than 2% of U.S. cannabis business owners are Black.

These are the somewhat predictable outcomes of concessions cannabis activists made to the business community. States that have yet to pursue legal cannabis should take heed of the dangers of these compromises, or they will end up replicating the very power dynamics that legalization was supposed to disrupt.

Equity has always been a priority for some legal cannabis activists. Washington state legalized cannabis for adult use in 2012 with a law drafted by a small team of local activists and supported by the American Civil Liberties Union. Advocates were primarily concerned with protecting small independent operators, including protections such as residency requirements for cannabis license holders, caps on the number of licenses owned and tight limits on the amount of “canopy” a cannabis cultivator was permitted to grow. This has allowed small operators to gain a larger share of the market in Washington than in other states .

The dirty secret of California’s legal weed

An L.A. Times/WeedWeek investigation finds alarming levels of pesticides in cannabis products at dispensaries across the state

June 14, 2024

But by the time California legalized cannabis in 2016, corporations had come to realize the enormous profit potential of legal weed. Local activists spent years drafting a progressive legalization initiative in California that included many of the same protections implemented in Washington. This effort was backed by prominent national cannabis advocacy groups such as the Drug Policy Alliance and the Marijuana Policy Project. Before they could qualify their amendment for the ballot, however, Silicon Valley billionaire Sean Parker backed another legalization campaign with $8.5 million of his own money . Some groups pulled funding from the older draft legislation and pressured local activists to support the new, better-resourced campaign instead, which led to a more business-friendly bill without residency requirements or license caps.

In other states, activists have tried to develop consumer- and patient-focused legalization bills. Michigan’s cannabis industry, for example, enjoys relatively low barriers to entry, making it easier for small operators to establish themselves, increasing competition and lowering costs for consumers. This came about only because local activists resisted corporate influence. In the run-up to the 2018 Michigan campaign, they were pressured to draft a business-friendly cannabis legalization bill by national groups and corporate donors seeking the same types of market advantages enjoyed in California. They bucked the pressure and as a result lost a considerable amount of financial support; on average, pro-legalization ballot measure campaigns outraise their opponents by more than 400% , but in Michigan campaign spending was much closer. Voters still overwhelmingly supported the bill.

Even so, Michigan has struggled with one of the most stubborn challenges of legalization: racial equity. A 2021 study found that just about 3.8% of cannabis business owners in Michigan were Black and only around 1.5% were Latino.

Inside California’s pot legalization failures: Corporate influence, ignored warnings

Years after California legalized cannabis with Proposition 64, some supporters say it has not met expectations, while those who opposed the initiative say it has proved worse than they feared.

Sept. 22, 2022

Some states have been experimenting with ways to address these concerns, with mixed results. In 2019 Illinois became the first state to build specific racial equity provisions into its cannabis law , creating a social equity applicant system, providing technical and financial assistance to first-time business owners and distributing 25% of cannabis tax receipts to communities disproportionately affected by the war on drugs. A recent report estimates that 27% of legal cannabis business owners in Illinois are Black — but only 5% identify as Latino, and 3% as Asian.

New York’s cannabis law, passed in 2021, followed in Illinois’ footsteps and has been hailed as the most progressive cannabis law instituted, with a goal of awarding at least 50% of its cannabis licenses to equity applicants. But delivering on that promise has so far proved elusive. After the New York cannabis market gained momentum this year, the initial results have been disappointing for equity advocates.

Still, these more progressive laws make achieving equity easier. Among the biggest barriers for people of color seeking to enter the industry are excessive regulations and fees, which tend to disproportionately affect small operators. Passing reforms has been challenging because stakeholders that benefit from the current system fight hard to protect their piece of the market, even when the regulations they are protecting make little practical sense.

And the reforms that make it face an uphill battle. In Washington, activists finally passed reforms designed to help equity applicants succeed in the cannabis industry in 2020, eight years after marijuana was legalized in that state. Yet in recent years, the percentage of the state’s cannabis business owners who are Black has been stuck at 4% .

It may be too late to prevent corporate domination of the cannabis industry. The California market is already showing the effects of consolidation : The number of cannabis licenses in the state has fallen from a high of 18,000 to 4,000. Where Californians once had about 6,000 cannabis brands to choose from, now only 1,600 are sold legally in the state. A 2022 L.A. Times analysis found that the 10 companies with the largest growing operations in California hold 22% of the state’s cultivation licenses.

But the beer industry suggests it is possible to secure more for the small operators who are more likely to be people of color. Independently operated craft breweries have grown their market share, hitting the small but significant level of 13% in 2021.

If legal cannabis isn’t pushed in a more diverse and progressive direction, it will fail to deliver the social change that motivated many activists to pursue it in the first place.

Joseph Mello is an associate professor of political science at DePaul University and author of, most recently, “ Pot for Profit: Cannabis Legalization, Racial Capitalism and the Expansion of the Carceral State .”

More to Read

Kika Keith: Top equity advocate in California’s cannabis industry

June 23, 2024

A new threat to cannabis users: Smuggled Chinese pesticides

Granderson: Bring on the cannabis cafes, California. Our nation needs them

May 24, 2024

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How to Write Legalization of Marijuana Essays

By: Angelina Grin

Since the legalization of marijuana has been a heated subject in recent years, many teachers give essay writing assignments on this to judge a student's knowledge of current affairs. Although you may have a basic understanding of what an essay on the legalization of marijuana is and how to write one, it is critical to continue to improve your research, composition, and essay structure. You can always build in some respects.

Essay Sample: Should Marijuana Be Legalized?

Health benefits of legalizing marijuana, negative effects of legalizing marijuana, use of medical studies, use of sub-headings and sub-points, references to use in the essay.

Studybay has provided a sample essay, its analysis, reviewed some essay fundamentals, and what the examiner will be looking for. If you want to go the extra mile, you can also seek   homework help . 

Marijuana is one most vehement adversaries in the war on drugs by Americans. And, given that alcohol and tobacco, two life-threatening drugs, are legal, it's fair to wonder why medical marijuana is prohibited. When taxpayers in America fill out their tax forms and hear the government's hash argument against marijuana, they will partially address this issue.

Marijuana, which is derived from Cannabis plants, is known by a variety of names. Marijuana has a variety of nicknames, ranging from cannabis to ganja to weed. Marijuana is made up of the leaves and flowers of the Cannabis plant. 

THC, or delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, is the primary active ingredient in marijuana. It enters the bloodstream and travels to the brain. This substance induces a state of relaxation in the body.

There have been several debates on whether or not marijuana should be legalized. Many people assume that this substance is toxic to the human body, but there is hard evidence to the contrary. Marijuana has real advantages that can outweigh the ostensibly negative consequences. Arguments for drug legalization began in the United States of America. It has been shown to have many medical benefits, including anxiety relief, pain relief, nausea relief, and the reduction of epileptic seizures. A significant number of states in the United States allow for the use of marijuana on a prescription basis.

Medical Cannabis is commonly used to treat sleeping problems, appetite deficiency, autism, and cancer therapies such as chemotherapy. Cannabis can also be used to cure anorexia until it is approved. Emotion and mood control are two immediate effects of cannabis for medicinal purposes. Marijuana has been shown to have mild side effects when used in controlled doses.

The legalization of marijuana is expected to improve the country's economic development. If state officials vote to legalize marijuana, they will save a lot of money for taxpayers. 

State officials spend a lot of money on the branches of law enforcement that are in charge of enforcing drug prohibition laws. Every year, thousands of people are prosecuted for either using or possessing marijuana, and governments pay vast sums of money to keep them locked up. Legalizing marijuana would save this money.

Marijuana has not caused any apparent harm in countries where cannabis has been legalized. Marijuana users are thought to be abusive, according to some stereotypes. However, there is no concrete evidence to back up this claim to date. In the United States, several states have allowed marijuana for both medicinal and recreational uses, with no harmful consequences. In contrast, Colorado has seen a decline in marijuana-related property destruction and crime.

Essay Analysis

The essay example above is a fairly insightful work that covers many of the essential facets of essay composition. There are, however, certain main segments and points that are required. The aspects that should have been included are as follows:

A Strong Argument

Since we don't necessarily agree with what's right or rational, a well-crafted argument will assist us in determining what's fair or real. It's used to resolve disagreements to find the facts. Argument shows us how to analyze competing theories, as well as how to evaluate proof and inquiry processes. Argument teaches one how to explain our views and express them clearly and objectively and how to respectfully and critically evaluate the ideas of others.

In the above sample, the following sections on the effects of marijuana can be added:

• Pharmaceutical cannabis has been   shown in studies   to reduce nausea caused by cancer chemotherapy and almost entirely prevent vomiting.
• Marijuana can help with muscle spasticity, which is   often linked to multiple sclerosis   and paralysis.
• Marijuana can aid in the   treatment of appetite loss   caused by HIV/AIDS and some forms of cancers.
• Certain forms of chronic pain, such as neuropathic pain, may be   relieved by marijuana .
• When isolated, as CBD has been, these compounds can contribute to   further advances in medical treatment options   without the "high" provided by THC.
• Regular usage of marijuana causes a   negative impact   on your short-term memory.
• Smoking any substance, whether nicotine or marijuana,   will cause significant lung harm .
• Due to drug abuse, marijuana has a high potential for violence and addiction.
• Marijuana has been linked   to a large number of car collisions and industrial accidents.

No wild claims have been made. All the pros and cons are back up with solid evidence from studies and proper medical research journals. 

On this point, there are some vital benefits you should note while writing your essay:

• It adds creativity and interest to your essay.
• You have a lot of options for adding information.
• Your essay would be 100% original.
• Your ideas would be clearer and more efficient.

Headings describe the paper's main themes and supporting theories, subheadings, bullets, numbered lists, etc. They use visual cues to communicate significance levels. Readers can discern the key points from the others thanks to differences in text size.

For instance, in point 1, we see the sub-headings as 'Pros and Cons of Legalizing Marijuana' further by sub-points in alphabetical order. 

The sample essay lacks a summary, an analysis, or a conclusion to the topic. The following paragraph could have been added as a conclusion:

While medical marijuana is still controversial, it is gaining popularity as a legal treatment option for several ailments. Although many states have approved cannabis for medical uses (and a few for commercial use), it would require more lawmakers and the federal government to make it accepted and sold around the country. However, proving or disproving the effectiveness of medical marijuana and eventually loosening the prohibitions on its use would almost certainly necessitate a much broader body of legal clinical study.

Additional Points

The following points can be expanded upon in this essay:

• History of drug use in the medical history and as a recreational drug
• Recreational purposes of marijuana
• Decriminalization on the federal level
• How to approach the marijuana-related drug policy
• Other illegal drugs and their usage

You can also opt for   essay help   in covering the main points from professional services.

Here are some valuable research papers and sources to include and quote to get good grades:

• FDA and Cannabis: Research and Drug Approval Process
• Legalization of Marijuana: Potential Impact on Youth
• Experimenting with Pot: The State of Colorado's Legalization of Marijuana 
• Legalizing Marijuana: California's Pot of Gold?   (Covers the economic benefits)
• Medicinal and Recreational Marijuana Use by Patients Infected with HIV

After you've finished writing your cannabis Sativa legalization essay, be sure to address the following points:

• The grammar and distinctiveness of the marijuana essay have been double-checked and revised.
• A solid a backed up by ideas, arguments, and proof.
• The overview and analysis of the research and opinions of other authors.
• An introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion are all part of a coherent framework.

Keep in mind that you can get expert essay assistance from Studybay when writing your   research paper .

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Despite my relatively young age, I am a professional writer with more than 14 years of experience. I studied journalism at the university, worked for media and digital agencies, and organized several events for ed-tech companies. Yet for the last 6 years, I've worked mainly in marketing. Here, at Studybay, my objective is to make sure all our texts are clear, informative, and engaging.

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Community Voice

Steve Alm: Marijuana Legalization Carries Risks For Hawaii

The Honolulu prosecutor says greater usage would mean more negative and harmful consequences.

By Steve Alm

June 27, 2024 · 10 min read

About the Author

As an active participant in the effort to stop commercial (recreational) legalization of marijuana (personal use has already been decriminalized), I read Neal Milner’s recent column with great interest ( “How Both Sides In Marijuana Debate Blew Smoke Up Our Okole” ).

There are a number of points that Milner got wrong in his article.

First, there is a lot of good research now from credible sources that show the negative consequences of using marijuana. There is also good research that concludes that legalizing the commercial (recreational) sale of marijuana increases usage. As a result, more usage would mean more negative consequences that would be harmful for Hawaii.

I have pointed to some of these sources in some of my past articles and testimony and I have included some of them later in this article. Milner is either unaware of or has ignored the existence of this research.

Second, Milner supports the Rand Corporation’s advice to rely on transparent, nonpartisan and impartial review processes to arrive at a shared set of facts to guide better policymaking. That is exactly what I am doing in citing sources such as the Journal of the American Medical Association, the New England Journal of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health.

More research is certainly needed on the cost/benefit effects of legalization, looking at a specific state with its unique features, like Hawaii, with our overwhelming reliance on the tourist industry.  We asked a committee chair at the legislature to do a cost/benefit analysis for Hawaii and he was not interested. I would argue that until that is done, there are enough red flags in the current research done by reputable organizations about marijuana that should give us all pause.

Third, while legislation and policymaking may be done by other people through feelings and beliefs, all of which is passed off as unadorned “real” facts, that is not the case with us here. Our criminal justice policy positions are based on facts and are backed up by well-researched studies.

I didn’t publicly comment on the marijuana legalization issue before or during the 2023 legislative session because I had not yet done my due diligence in researching it. I had an open mind when looking at the marijuana of today and in carefully considering the evidence, pro and con.

Currently, in Hawaii, medical marijuana is available and personal use has been decriminalized.

The pros that I identified include the following: First, there will be some tax money collected (although it may be negated by resultant social costs). Second, a number of people will be employed at the marijuana stores and in the grow fields. The more stores and fields, the more people employed.

Third, if testing is done at the stores, they should be able to control for harmful additives like fentanyl. At the same time, many people will still buy from the sources they have always bought their marijuana from, as the black market, without taxes, will always be cheaper.

Fourth, depending on what legislative bill might actually pass, possession of up to 30 grams (60 joints) would no longer be illegal. Now, possession of up to an ounce (28.34 grams) is a petty misdemeanor, typically punished by a fine. Possession of three grams (6 joints) or less is a violation.

Fifth, those favoring legalization might say it will remove the stigma and marijuana possession and use. Those opposed would say legislation of this new powerful drug would send the wrong message to kids that, if it is legal, it must be safe.

Finally, some would argue that “social equity” provisions would help disadvantaged individuals and communities that had been disproportionately impacted by marijuana laws.

Pot Lowers IQs

Next, I shall include but a small sample of the good research from reputable sources that I found compelling. Due to space considerations, I am not including research showing, for example, how the proportion of drivers involved in fatal car crashes who test positive for marijuana increases or how marijuana grows negatively impact the environment and water usage, or how the black market for marijuana actually increases after legalizing commercial (recreational) marijuana.

Studies point to a decline in IQ among cannabis users, especially in teenagers. In 2021, the National Institutes of Health, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration published a systemic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies of frequent and dependent cannabis use in adolescents. The researchers found an average decline of approximately two IQ points following exposure to cannabis in youth.

Further, a study published by the National Institutes of Health, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration in 2013 surveyed 1,037 people in New Zealand and found that those who were dependent on cannabis before age 18 lost an average of eight IQ points.

For this group, “quitting or cutting back their cannabis use did not fully eliminate the IQ loss.” The authors, from Duke University, King’s College London and The University of Otago said “their findings accord with other data that have suggested that cannabis use may harm the developing brain.”

Marijuana use also leads to a number of health problems. In February 2024, the Journal of the American Heart Association published a study by the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, which analyzed survey data from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention of 434,104 adults from 2011 to 2020.

Any use of marijuana was linked to a higher risk of heart attack and stroke, with daily users having a 25% increased likelihood of a heart attack and a 42% increased risk of a stroke.

Studies point to a decline in IQ among cannabis users, especially in teenagers.

Noted local physician, Dr. Scott Miscovich, has pointed to studies in Canada that looked at cannabis emergency department poisoning over two periods of legalization: when cannabis was legalized in 2018, and when the sale of cannabis edibles (e.g., gummies, chocolates, and baked goods) was legalized in 2020.

The New England Journal of Medicine published a study in August 2022 about the unintentional marijuana poisoning in children across Canada. Hospitalization rates were 2.6 times as high as before legalization. When edibles were legalized, the hospitalization rates were 7.5 times as high as before legalization.

“Our data indicates that legalization was associated with increases in hospitalizations for cannabis poisoning in children. Most of the increase occurred after legalization of cannabis edibles and despite strict regulations aimed at reducing poisoning in children,” according to the study.

More Emergency Room Visits

A study published by the Journal of the American Medical Association in May 2024 found that, for older adults, the rate of emergency department visits for cannabis poisoning was substantially higher than pre-legalization (15.4 versus 5.8 per 100,000 person-years.)

The rate of emergency department visits was even higher, at 21.1 per 100,000 person-years. During the eight-year study period, there were 2,322 emergency department visits for cannabis poisoning in older adults whose average age was 69.5 years.

Even some of the data from a resource that was touted by Milner is alarming. He points us, through a link, to a September 2023 publication by the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, “Economic Benefits and Social Costs of Legalizing Recreational Marijuana.”

The authors said, “Given the significant increase in the number of states that have legalized recreational use over the past decade, this paper aims to fill a gap in the literature by considering both the potential benefits and costs using state-level data from every U.S. state.”

They found that “Post-legalization, average state income grew by 3%, house prices by 6% and population by 2%. However, substance use disorders, chronic homelessness and arrests increased by 17, 35 and 13% respectively.

The marijuana of today is much more potent than it was in the past. A study published in 2023 by Deepak Cyril D’Souza and Albert E. Kent, professors of psychiatry at the Yale School of Medicine, noted: “In 1995, the average THC content in cannabis seized by the Drug Enforcement Administration was about 4%. By 2017, it had increased to 17% and continues to increase.”

Beyond the plant, a staggering array of other cannabis products with an even higher THC content like dabs, oils and edibles are readily available — some as high as 90%.

States that have legalized commercial (recreational) marijuana have higher usage rates. A study published in the Journal of Addiction Medicine (July-August 2020), titled “Differences in Opinions About Marijuana Use and Prevalence of Use by State Legalization Status,” found that prevalence of past-year use of any form of marijuana use was more common among residents of recreationally legal states compared with other states (20.3% in recreationally legal states, 15.4% in medically legal states and 11.9% in non-legal states) is concerning.

This survey sampled a representative sample of U.S. adults, comprising 16,280 participants.

Additionally, in a study published in the Addictions journal in 2022, researchers from the University of Colorado’s Boulder Center for Antisocial Drug Dependence and the Minnesota Center for Twin and Family Research in Minneapolis found that usage increased with legalization among the 3,452 surveyed. The study looked at cannabis usage before 2014, when it was illegal to sell recreational cannabis, and after 2014, when it became legal to sell in Colorado. Only medical cannabis was legal in Minnesota during the post-2014 portion of the study.

The participants, many of whom were born in Colorado and Minnesota, but had since relocated, were surveyed pre- and post–2014 on the number of days they used cannabis in the previous six months. Researchers found there was about a 24% increase in usage in states that legalized recreational cannabis compared with ones that did not.

Based on where the subjects were living at the time of the surveys, nearly every state was represented, along with Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico. The study included 111 pairs of identical twins, as well, with one twin living in a state that legalized recreational cannabis and the other in a state that did not legalize.

Among the identical twins, researchers found that marijuana usage increased about 20% in states that legalized recreational cannabis compared with ones that did not. As identical twins share so many similarities, that percentage is a more accurate estimate of the causal influence of commercial legalization on cannabis use, according to lead researcher Stephanie Zellers, now a researcher at the University of Helsinki. Co-author John Hewitt stated, “This is the first study to confirm that the association between legal cannabis and increased use holds within families in genetically identical individuals. That makes it much more likely that legalization does, in itself, result in increased use.”

Being cautious about legalizing commercial (recreational) marijuana is prudent in the face of these, and other studies. An action such as this would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to reverse. It is not “overselling limited evidence or generating more heat than light.” Why expose ourselves to the potential harm shown in study after study, all for the sake of a few tax dollars?

I commend the Legislature for doing the right thing in declining to legalize commercial (recreational) marijuana in the 2024 session. I, and others, will continue our efforts to keep providing relevant research and information to assist the legislators in making research- and data-informed policies and decisions.

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Waikiki Needs A Campaign To Clean Up All The Litter

By Helena Andrade · June 28, 2024 · 6 min read

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Steve Alm is the prosecuting attorney for the City and County of Honolulu.

Latest Comments (0)

Religion kills more brain cells than marijuana. It's much more addictive. It ruins many more lives. Any intellectually honest discussion about the government dictating what we can eat, drink, smoke, think, etc must begin there.

kamthecolonizer · 19 hours ago

Put it on the ballot and let the voters decide.

Rewards_Card · 23 hours ago

Can someone educate me why in the US a prosecutor can voice bias, I thought his job is to follow the law not influence it or make it.I will wait for his opinion on Alcohol, as the data is far worse than weed.

Isambard · 1 day ago

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Nine In 10 Americans Back Marijuana Legalization: What It Means For The Future Of Cannabis

Zinger key points.

• Public support for marijuana legalization is on the rise in the US, with 90% in favor in some form.
• Benzinga's Cannabis Capital Conference offers networking and deal-making opportunities in the growing industry.

Public support for marijuana legalization in the United States has rapidly increased over recent years. Despite federal laws prohibiting its use, nearly three-quarters of states have legalized marijuana for medical or recreational purposes.

According to a January 2024 Pew Research Center survey , about nine in 10 Americans believe marijuana should be legal in some form, with 32% supporting its use for medical purposes only and 57% backing both medical and recreational use. Only 11% think it should remain illegal in all forms.

Here’s what Americans want for the future of cannabis.

See Also: Trump Vs. Biden — The President Plays The Marijuana Rescheduling Card, Voters Like The Thought Of It

Differences Across Demographics

Support for marijuana legalization varies widely among different demographic groups.

• Youth : 71% of those under 30 support both medical and recreational use, compared to just 31% of those aged 75 and older.
• Political affiliation : 72% of Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents support full legalization. Only 42% of Republicans and GOP-leaning independents agree.
• Race/Ethnicity : 45% of Hispanic and Asian Americans support full legalization, compared to 65% of Black adults and 59% of White adults.

Expanding Legalization and Economic Impact

As of March 2024, 24 states and the District of Columbia have legalized marijuana for both medical and recreational use.

Fourteen states have approved it for medical use only.

Moreover, around 26 states and D.C. have at least partially decriminalized recreational marijuana use.

This legal expansion has led to more than half of Americans living in states where marijuana is legal for both purposes, and nearly eight in 10 residing in counties with at least one cannabis dispensary.

Opinions on the economic and social impacts of marijuana legalization are varied. Approximately 52% of adults believe that legalizing recreational marijuana benefits local economies, while 17% disagree, and 29% think it has no impact.

Views on the criminal justice system are split: 42% say legalization makes the system fairer, 18% believe it makes it less fair, and 38% see no effect. Additionally, community safety and drug use opinions vary, with many people believing that legalization has either a positive or neutral impact.

Where To Learn More

Amid these changing public opinions and legal trends, Benzinga is set to host its Fall Cannabis Capital Conference on Oct. 8-9 in Chicago. This event, known for its focus on cannabis investment and branding, follows a successful Spring edition in Hollywood, Florida, which attracted over 2,000 participants, including more than 200 investors.

The conference aims to bring together top executives, political leaders, and capital markets decision-makers, offering valuable opportunities for networking and deal-making within the cannabis industry.

The increasing support for marijuana legalization highlights the importance of such events, providing a platform to discuss the future of cannabis within the legal and economic framework of the United States.

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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Marijuana Legalization — The Pros and Cons of Marijuana Legalization

The Pros and Cons of Legalizing Marijuana

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Published: Oct 17, 2018

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Introduction, pros and cons of marijuana legalization (essay), conclusion and reflection.

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Argumentative Essay On Marijuana Legalization

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Why Marijuana Should be Legalized Argumentative Essay Outline

Introduction.

Thesis: Marijuana should be legalized as it is more beneficial that it may be detrimental to society.

Paragraph 1:

Marijuana has not caused turmoil in some of the countries where it has been legalized.

• Marijuana does not increase violent, and property crimes as many suggest.
• Studies reveal that in Colorado, violent crimes have declined following the legalization of marijuana.

Paragraph 2:

Prohibiting use of marijuana does not limit its consumption.

• In spite of the many laws prohibiting the use of marijuana, it is one of the most highly abused drugs.
• 58% of young people from all over the world use marijuana.
• It has not been attributed to any health complications.

Paragraph 3:

Legalization of marijuana would help state governments save taxpayers money.

• Governments spend lots of funds on law enforcement agencies that uphold laws restricting the use of marijuana.
• They also spend vast sums of money on sustaining arrested dealers and consumers in prison.
• Legalizing marijuana would result in saving vast sums of money.

Paragraph 4:

Marijuana is less noxious than other legal substances.

• Marijuana has less health side effects than other legal substances such as alcohol and tobacco.
• Alcohol is 114 times more destructive than marijuana.

Paragraph 5:

Marijuana has been proven to have medical benefits.

• Marijuana helps stop seizures in epileptic patients.
• It helps stop nausea in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy .

Paragraph 6:

Marijuana has been proven to be a stress reliever.

• Marijuana relieves stress and depression in their users by causing excitement.
• Its use reduces violence and deaths related to stress and depression.

Conclusion.

There are many misconceptions about marijuana existent in the modern world. People have continued to ignore health benefits linked to this substance citing their unproven beliefs. Owing to its ability to stop seizures, nausea, and stress in individuals governments should highly consider marijuana legalization. Its legalization will also help state governments reduce expenses that result from maintaining suspects convicted of marijuana possession and consumption.

Why Marijuana Should be Legalized Argumentative Essay

The argument that marijuana use should be made legal has gained momentum both in the U.S. and elsewhere in the world in recent years. This has seen the drug being legalized in some states in the U.S. such that by 2013, twenty states had legalized medical marijuana. As of the same year, Colorado and Washington had legalized recreational marijuana. The arguments behind the push for legalization majorly revolve around the idea that the drug has medicinal effects. However, there are also arguments that there are serious health effects associated with the drug and this has only further fueled the already raging debate. This paper argues that marijuana should be legalized as it is more beneficial that it may be detrimental to society.

Marijuana has not caused any notable negative effects in countries where it has been legalized. There is a general belief that marijuana consumers are violent. However, no authentic research can prove these assertions. As already seen, some states in the United States have legalized both medicinal and recreational marijuana. In spite of this, no cases of marijuana-related violence have been recorded so far in such states (Markol, 2018). Reports reveal that the rate of violence and property crimes have decreased in Colorado following the legalization of the drug. If marijuana does not increase violent crimes, there is no reason as to why it should not be legalized.

It is also noteworthy that prohibiting marijuana use does not limit its consumption. Less than 10% of countries in the world prevent the use of marijuana, but according to research, 58% of young people in most of these countries are marijuana users (Head, 2016). General reports reveal that marijuana is one of most commonly abused drug in the world. It is also readily available in most states as it is a naturally growing plant (Head, 2016). In spite of its continued use, there are few cases, if any, of marijuana-related health complications that have been reported in any of these countries (Head, 2016). Therefore, if the illegality of marijuana does not limit its consumption, then state governments should consider its legalization.

Legalization of marijuana would further help state governments save taxpayers’ money. It is widely known that in countries where marijuana is illegal, authorities are stringent and will arrest any individual found in possession of the drug (Sanger, 2017). However, as earlier mentioned, laws prohibiting the use of the drug do not prevent its consumption, and this means that many people are arrested and prosecuted for possessing it (Sanger, 2017). State governments therefore use a lot of funds to support law enforcement agencies that seek to uphold laws prohibiting the use of marijuana (Sanger, 2017). Many people have been arrested and incarcerated for either possessing or consuming the drug, and the government has to use taxpayers’ money to sustain such people in prison. Since these actions do not limit consumption of marijuana, state governments should legalize the drug so as to save taxpayers money.

Another advantage of marijuana is that it is less noxious than other legal substances. According to research, marijuana is the least harmful drug among the many legal drugs existent in the world today (Owen, 2014). There are millions of campaigns every year cautioning people against smoking cigarettes, but there has been none seeking to warn people about marijuana consumption (Owen, 2014). Lobby groups have even been making efforts to push for legalization of marijuana. If marijuana had severe health effects as many purport, state governments would be investing heavily in campaigns aimed at discouraging its consumption (Owen, 2014). According to studies, alcohol, which is legal in many countries, is 114 times more harmful than marijuana (Owen, 2014). Therefore, if such harmful substances can be legalized, then there are no justifications as to why marijuana should not be legalized.

Further, marijuana has been proven to have medicinal benefits. Several countries, particularly in Europe, and the United States have legalized both medicinal and recreational marijuana. Their move to legalize marijuana was based on medical reports that showed a variety of health benefits linked to the drug (Noonan, 2017). Research shows that marijuana can reduce seizures in epileptic persons. Several studies have also proven that the drug indeed has a variety of health benefits. For instance, Charlotte Figi, who is now aged 10, used to have more than 100 seizures every month at age three, but since Colorado legalized medicinal and recreational marijuana, her parents started treating her with the substance, and today her seizures have significantly reduced (Noonan, 2017). Marijuana has as well been proven to reduce nausea in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. Owing to this medicinal value, state governments should consider legalizing the drug.

Additionally, marijuana has been proven to be a stress reliever. Consumption of the drug causes excitement among its users enabling them to forget about troubling situations. Unlike alcohol which is likely to aggravate stress and depression, marijuana works wonders in alleviating anxiety and depression (Sanger, 2017). There are many health and social effects associated with stress, including mental disorders and violence against others (Sanger, 2017). To avoid cases of stress-related violence and mental disorders, state governments should make marijuana consumption legal.

There are many misconceptions about marijuana in the world today. People have continued to ignore the health benefits linked with this substance and have instead focused on citing yet-to-be proven misconceptions. Owing to the ability of the drug to stop seizures, nausea, and stress in individuals, governments should seriously consider its legalization. The legalization will also help state governments reduce expenses that result from sustaining suspects convicted of marijuana possession and consumption. So far, there is more than enough evidence proving that marijuana has lots of benefits to individuals, the society, and the government, and therefore should be legalized.

Head, T. (2016). “8 reasons why marijuana should be legalized”. ThoughtCo . Retrieved June 27, 2020 from https://www.thoughtco.com/reasons-why-marijuana-should-be-legalized-721154

Markol, T. (2018). “5 reasons why marijuana should be legalized”. Marijuana Reform . Retrieved June 27, 2020 from http://marijuanareform.org/5-reasons-marijuana-legalized/

Noonan, D. (2017). “Marijuana treatment reduces severe epileptic seizures”. Scientific American . Retrieved June 27, 2020 from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/marijuana-treatment-reduces-severe-epileptic-seizures/

Owen, P. (2014). “6 powerful reasons to legalize marijuana”. New York Times . Retrieved June 27, 2020 from https://www.alternet.org/drugs/6-powerful-reasons-new-york-times-says-end-marijuana-prohibition

Sanger, B. (2017). “10 legit reasons why weed should be legalized right now”. Herb . Retrieved June 27, 2020 from https://herb.co/marijuana/news/reasons-weed-legalized

Why Marijuana Should be Legal Essay Outline

Thesis:  Marijuana has health benefits and should thus be legal.

Benefits of Marijuana

Marijuana slows and stops the spread of cancer cells.

• Cannabidiol can turn off a gene called Id-1 and can therefore stop cancer.
• In an experiment, researchers were able to treat breast cancer cells with Cannabidiol.

Marijuana helps with pain and nausea reduction for people going through chemotherapy.

• Cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy suffer from severe pains and nausea.
• This can further complicate their health.
• Marijuana can stir up their appetite, decrease nausea, and reduce pain.

Paragraph  3:

Marijuana can control epileptic seizure.

• Marijuana extract stopped seizures in epileptic rats in ten hours.
• The seizures were controlled by the THC.

Disadvantages of Marijuana

Marijuana is addictive.

• One in ten marijuana users become addicted over time.
• If one stops using the drug abruptly, they may suffer from such withdrawal symptoms.

Marijuana use decreases mental health.

• Users suffer from memory loss and restricted blood flow to the brain.
• Users have higher chances of developing depression and schizophrenia.

Marijuana use damages the lungs more than cigarette smoking .

• Marijuana smokers inhale the smoke more deeply into their lungs and let it stay there for longer.
• The likelihood of lung cancer can be increased by this deeper, longer exposure to carcinogens.

Why Marijuana Should Be Legal

Paragraph 7:

Improved quality and safety control.

• Legalization would lead to the creation of a set of standards for safety and quality control.
• Users would know what they exactly get in exchange for the money they offer.
• There would be no risks of users taking in unknown substances mixed in marijuana.

Paragraph 8:

Marijuana has a medicinal value.

• Medical marijuana treats a wide assortment of “untreatable” diseases and conditions.
• Public health would be improved and the healthcare system would experience less of a drain.  

Paragraph 9: 

Among the major arguments against marijuana legalization is often that legalization would yield an increase in drug-impaired driving.

• This argument holds that even now when the drug is yet to be fully legalized in the country, it is a major causal factor in highway deaths, injuries, and crushes.
• It however beats logic why marijuana is illegalized on the ground that it would increase drug-impaired driving while alcohol is legal but also significantly contributes to the same problem.

Legalization of marijuana would have many benefits. The drug is associated with the treatment of many serious illnesses including the dreaded cancer. Legalization would also save users from consuming unsafe marijuana sold by unscrupulous people.

Why Marijuana Should Be Legal Essay

There is an ongoing tension between the belief that marijuana effectively treats a wide range of ailments and the argument that it has far-reaching negative health effects. There has nevertheless been a drive towards legalization of the drug in the United States with twenty nine states and the District of Columbia having legalized it for medical and recreational purposes. It was also found by a study that there is a sharp increase in the use of marijuana across the country (Kerr, Lui & Ye, 2017). Major public health concerns are being prompted by this rise. This should however not be the case because marijuana has health benefits and should thus be legal.

Marijuana slows and stops the spread of cancer cells. A study found that Cannabidiol can turn off a gene called Id-1 and can therefore stop cancer. A 2007 report by researchers at California Pacific Medical Center in San Francisco also indicated that the spread of cancer may be prevented by Cannabidiol. In their lab experiment, the researchers were able to treat breast cancer cells with this component (Nawaz, 2017). The positive outcome of the experiment showed that Id-1 expression had been significantly decreased.

Marijuana also helps with pain and nausea reduction for people going through chemotherapy. Cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy suffer from severe pains, appetite loss, vomiting, and painful nausea. This can further complicate their already deteriorating health. Marijuana can be of help here by stirring up the appetite, decreasing nausea, and reducing pain (Nawaz, 2017). There are also other cannabinoid drugs used for the same purposes as approved by the FDA.

It was additionally shown by a 2003 study that the use of marijuana can control epileptic seizure. Synthetic marijuana and marijuana extracts were given to epileptic rats by Virginia Commonwealth University’s Robert J. DeLorenzo. In about ten hours, the seizures had been stopped by the drugs (Nawaz, 2017). It was found that the seizures were controlled by the THC which bound the brain cells responsible for regulating relaxation and controlling excitability.

Some scientists claim that marijuana is addictive. According to them, one in ten marijuana users become addicted over time. They argue that if one stops using the drug abruptly, they may suffer from such withdrawal symptoms as anxiety and irritability (Barcott, 2015). However, the same argument could be applied to cigarette smoking, which is notably legal. There is need for more studies to be conducted into this claim being spread by opponents of marijuana legalization.

It is also argued that marijuana use decreases mental health. Those opposed to the legalization of recreational marijuana like to cite studies that show that users of the drug suffer from memory loss and restricted blood flow to the brain. They also argue that users have higher chances of developing depression and schizophrenia. However, these assertions have not yet been completely ascertained by science (Barcott, 2015). The claim about depression and schizophrenia is particularly not clear because researchers are not sure whether the drug triggers the conditions or it is used by smokers to alleviate the symptoms.

It is further claimed that marijuana use damages the lungs more than cigarette smoking. It is presumed that marijuana smokers inhale the smoke more deeply into their lungs and let it stay there for longer. The likelihood of lung cancer, according to this argument, can be increased by this deeper, longer exposure to carcinogens. However, the argument touches not on the frequency of use between marijuana and cigarette smokers (Barcott, 2015). It neither takes into account such alternative administration methods as edibles, tinctures, and vaporizing.

Legalization of marijuana would lead to improved quality and safety control. Purchasing the drug off the street provides end users with no means of knowing what they are exactly getting. On the other hand, legalizing it would immediately lead to the creation of a set of standards for safety and quality control (Caulkins, Kilmer & Kleiman, 2016). This would certainly work in the marijuana industry just as it is working in the tobacco and alcohol industries. Users would be able to know what they exactly get in exchange for the money they offer. Additionally, there would be no risks of users taking in unknown substances mixed in marijuana sold on the streets.

Marijuana should also be legal because it has a medicinal value. It has been proven that medical marijuana treats a wide assortment of “untreatable” diseases and conditions. These include problems due to chemotherapy, cancer, post-traumatic stress disorder, migraines, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and Crohn’s disease (Caulkins, Kilmer & Kleiman, 2016). Public health would be improved and the healthcare system would experience less of a drain if medical cannabis products were made available to those suffering from the mentioned conditions. Consequently, more public funds would be available for such other public service initiatives as schools and roads.

Among the major arguments against marijuana legalization is often that legalization would yield an increase in drug-impaired driving. This argument holds that even now when the drug is yet to be fully legalized in the country, it has already been cited to be a major causal factor in highway deaths, injuries, and crushes. Among the surveys those arguing along this line might cite is one that was conducted back in 2010, revealing that of the participating weekend night-time drivers, “8.6 percent tested positive for marijuana or its metabolites” (“Why We Should Not Legalize Marijuana,” 2010). It was found in yet another study that 26.9% of drivers who were being attended to at a trauma center after sustaining serious injuries tested positive for the drug (“Why We Should Not Legalize Marijuana,” 2010). It however beats logic why marijuana is illegalized on the ground that it would increase drug-impaired driving while alcohol is legal but also significantly contributes to the same problem.

As the discussion reveals, legalization of marijuana would have many benefits. The drug is associated with the treatment of many serious illnesses including the dreaded cancer. Legalization would also save users from consuming unsafe marijuana sold by unscrupulous people. There are also other health conditions that can be controlled through the drug. Arguments against its legalization based on its effects on human health also lack sufficient scientific support. It is thus only safe that the drug is legalized in all states.

Barcott, B. (2015).  Weed the people: the future of legal marijuana in America . New York, NY: Time Home Entertainment.

Caulkins, J. P., Kilmer, B., & Kleiman, M. (2016).  Marijuana legalization: what everyone needs to know . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Kerr, W., Lui, C., & Ye, Y. (2017). Trends and age, period and cohort effects for marijuana use prevalence in the 1984-2015 US National Alcohol Surveys.  Addiction ,  113 (3), 473-481.

Nawaz, H. (2017).  The debate between legalizing marijuana and its benefits for medical purposes: a pros and cons analysis . Munich, Germany: GRIN Verlag.

Why We Should Not Legalize Marijuana. (2010). In  CNBC . Retrieved June 25, 2020 from  https://www.cnbc.com/id/36267223 .

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The Legalization of Prostitution in Nevada: a Complex Interplay of Law and Society

This essay about the legalization of prostitution in Nevada explores the complex interplay between law, morality, and societal impact. It examines Nevada’s unique approach of permitting regulated brothels in select rural counties since the mid-20th century. Advocates argue that legalization enhances safety and rights for sex workers, while critics raise ethical concerns about commodification and exploitation. Nevada’s decentralized model allows counties to decide on brothel legality, reflecting the state’s commitment to local governance and adapting laws to fit regional values. Historical context reveals Nevada’s evolution from frontier days to current regulations, highlighting ongoing debates over personal freedoms, public health, and moral considerations in the regulation of sensitive social issues.

How it works

In the vast expanse of the American West lies Nevada, a state known not only for its arid landscapes but also for its unique stance on prostitution. Since the mid-20th century, Nevada has permitted legal brothels to operate in select rural counties under strict regulations. This approach has sparked considerable debate, intertwining moral, legal, and societal considerations in a way that reflects the diverse perspectives within the state.

Advocates of legalized prostitution in Nevada argue that regulation provides essential protections for sex workers.

By operating within a controlled environment, proponents contend that workers can access healthcare, legal recourse, and safety measures that are often absent in illegal markets. This perspective emphasizes the pragmatic benefits of legalization, suggesting that it offers a safer alternative to the risks associated with underground activities.

From a legal standpoint, Nevada’s decentralized approach to prostitution regulation is noteworthy. By allowing individual counties to decide on the legality of brothels through local ordinances, the state embraces a model of governance that respects regional autonomy. This localized decision-making reflects Nevada’s historical commitment to adapting laws to fit local values and needs, demonstrating a pragmatic approach to addressing societal issues.

Critics of legalized prostitution in Nevada, however, raise ethical concerns about the commercialization of sex. They argue that legitimizing prostitution perpetuates the objectification of individuals and undermines societal norms regarding intimacy and human dignity. Despite regulatory measures, opponents highlight instances of exploitation and abuse within legal brothels, challenging the notion that legalization effectively safeguards the well-being of all involved.

Historically, Nevada’s stance on prostitution dates back to its frontier days, where brothels operated openly alongside mining camps and railroad construction sites. As societal attitudes evolved, regulations were introduced to manage the industry, reflecting shifting moral and legal landscapes. Today, Nevada stands as a unique outlier in the United States, where legal brothels continue to operate under stringent guidelines despite ongoing debates over their societal impact.

In conclusion, Nevada’s approach to legalized prostitution offers a multifaceted lens through which to examine the interplay of law, morality, and public policy. Advocates and critics alike acknowledge the complexities of regulating an industry that intersects with deeply held beliefs about personal autonomy and societal values. Nevada’s decentralized model underscores the ongoing debate over how best to balance individual freedoms with broader social responsibilities within a legal framework.

The legalization of prostitution in Nevada presents a compelling case study in governance and societal attitudes toward controversial issues. It prompts reflection on the role of law in shaping public behavior and the ethical considerations that accompany regulatory decisions. As debates persist and perspectives evolve, Nevada’s experience serves as a testament to the complexities of addressing sensitive social matters through legal means while navigating the diverse values and beliefs of its communities.

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PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Legalization of Prostitution in Nevada: A Complex Interplay of Law and Society . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-legalization-of-prostitution-in-nevada-a-complex-interplay-of-law-and-society/ [Accessed: 28-Jun-2024]

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Debates Around Legalization of Medical Marijuana Argumentative Essay

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The emergence of scientific evidence on the effects of the main chemical components in marijuana has initiated a metamorphosis of the perception of marijuana as a drug that warrants legalization due to its medical and socioeconomic benefits.

The supporters and opponents of the legalization of marijuana have opted to focus on either the positive or the negative aspects of the effects of the drug to support their views on policies to legalize or criminalize the drug. The US Congress passed laws that placed marijuana in the Schedule 1 of the controlled substances in 1972.

A significant number of states in the US, 21 out of 50, have adopted laws to legalize the medical use of marijuana. The essay analyzes the rationale for the support of the legalization of marijuana for medical use and the rationale for the counter argument.

The ability of marijuana components to alleviate symptoms associated with medical conditions such as cancer, AIDS, pain, epilepsy and glaucoma has prompted increased support for laws that allow the use of medical marijuana.

Reports and studies from renowned medical personnel and organizations highlight the significance of harnessing marijuana’s main components, THC and CBD, to treat various medical conditions. Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) helps to relieve pain by mimicking compounds such as dopamine and anandamide, which occur naturally in the human brain.

Clinical trials have shown the effectiveness of THC in the treatment of spasticity due to sclerosis and spinal cord injury (Brashear & Elovic, 2011). The compound has had satisfactory levels of success in reducing pain, tremor and ataxia in patients (Columbus, 2005).

THC helps in the treatment of glaucoma by reducing intraocular pressure by about 30 percent (ElSohly, 2007). Cannabidiol (CBD) relieves convulsions in epileptic patients, acts as an anti-inflammatory agent and reduces nausea and vomiting in patients undergoing chemotherapy (Russo, 2001).

CBD inhibits the growth of cancerous cells by coordinating cross talk between apoptosis and autophagy (Shrivastava et al., 2011). Marijuana is useful in treating psychiatric problem such as schizophrenia due to the antipsychotic effects of CBD.

Opponents of the legalization of medical marijuana argue that the availability of FDA-approved drugs that can serve the supposed medical purposes of marijuana eliminates the need to legalize the drug. The existence of conflicting evidence on the medical benefits of marijuana in the long-term necessitates the continued prohibition of the drug.

For example, the treatment of nausea and vomiting requires the administration of high THC dosage, which increases the likelihood of addiction (Haerens, 2013). Studies show that mainstream drugs such as metoclopramide have higher efficiency in treating nausea and vomiting compared to marijuana. The use of marijuana in treating epilepsy can induce convulsions in patients (Kanner & Schachter, 2008).

Opponents of medical marijuana cite the numerous peer-reviewed reports, which indicate that marijuana has psychoactive components that impair normal human abilities such as driving and interferes with the functioning of the immune system, respiratory system and neural system (Iversen, 2000).

THC effects such as euphoria and altered space-time perception can have counter effects on the use of the drug in the treatment of psychiatric symptoms such as sleep disorders, anxiety disorders and schizophrenia (Joy et al., 1999).

The psychotic effects of THC can worsen the psychiatric symptoms of patients using medical marijuana. The use of drugs such as amisulpride has minimal side effects on the treatment of psychiatric problems compared to marijuana (Lambert, 2009).

Brashear, A., & Elovic, E. (2011). Spasticity diagnosis and management . New York: Demos Medical Pub..

Columbus, F. H. (2005). Treatment and management of multiple sclerosis . New York: Nova Science Publishers.

ElSohly, M. A. (2007). Marijuana and the cannabinoids . Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press.

Haerens, M. (2013). Medical marijuana . Detroit: Greenhaven Press.

Iversen, L. L. (2000). The science of marijuana . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Joy, J. E., Watson, S. J., & Benson, J. A. (1999). Marijuana and medicine assessing the science base . Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Kanner, A. M., & Schachter, S. C. (2008). Psychiatric controversies in epilepsy . Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press.

Lambert, D. M. (2009). Cannabinoids in nature and medicine . Zürich: Verlag Helvetica Chimica Acta ;.

Russo, E. (2001). Cannabis therapeutics in HIV/AIDS . New York: Haworth Integrative Healing Press.

Shrivastava, A., Kuzontkoski, P. M., Groopman, J. E., & Prasad, A. (2011). Cannabidiol Induces Programmed Cell Death in Breast Cancer Cells by Coordinating the Cross-talk between Apoptosis and Autophagy. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics , 10 (7), 1161-1172.

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IvyPanda. (2019, June 20). Debates Around Legalization of Medical Marijuana. https://ivypanda.com/essays/legalization-of-medical-marijuana/

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IvyPanda . 2019. "Debates Around Legalization of Medical Marijuana." June 20, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/legalization-of-medical-marijuana/.

1. IvyPanda . "Debates Around Legalization of Medical Marijuana." June 20, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/legalization-of-medical-marijuana/.

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