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Environmental Justice Research: Contemporary Issues and Emerging Topics

Environmental justice (EJ) research seeks to document and redress the disproportionate environmental burdens and benefits associated with social inequalities. Although its initial focus was on disparities in exposure to anthropogenic pollution, the scope of EJ research has expanded. In the context of intensifying social inequalities and environmental problems, there is a need to further strengthen the EJ research framework and diversify its application. This Special Issue of the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) incorporates 19 articles that broaden EJ research by considering emerging topics such as energy, food, drinking water, flooding, sustainability, and gender dynamics, including issues in Canada, the UK, and Eastern Europe. Additionally, the articles contribute to three research themes: (1) documenting connections between unjust environmental exposures and health impacts by examining unsafe infrastructure, substance use, and children’s obesity and academic performance; (2) promoting and achieving EJ by implementing interventions to improve environmental knowledge and health, identifying avenues for sustainable community change, and incorporating EJ metrics in government programs; and (3) clarifying stakeholder perceptions of EJ issues to extend research beyond the documentation of unjust conditions and processes. Collectively, the articles highlight potentially compounding injustices and an array of approaches being employed to achieve EJ.

Environmental justice (EJ) research seeks to document and redress the disproportionate environmental burdens and benefits associated with social inequalities. Although its initial focus was on anthropogenic pollution, the scope of EJ research has expanded significantly in recent years to encompass other phenomena—for example, access to healthful food and climate change—with disparate negative impacts on particular social groups. Dimensions of social inequality examined have expanded beyond race and socioeconomic status to focus to some degree on ethnicity, immigration status, gender, sexual orientation, age, as well as intersections between dimensions of inequality. In the context of intensifying social inequalities and environmental problems, there is a need to further strengthen the EJ research framework and diversify its application. This Special Issue of the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) incorporates 19 articles that collectively advance EJ scholarship in conceptual, methodological, and empirical terms.

These articles demonstrate how the scope and purpose of EJ research have broadened significantly in recent years and continue to expand in new directions, both topically and geographically. Several articles in this Special Issue break new ground by extending the EJ research framework to consider emerging issues such as energy [ 1 , 2 ], food [ 3 ], drinking water [ 4 , 5 ], flooding [ 6 , 7 ], sustainability initiatives [ 8 , 9 ], and gender dynamics [ 10 ], including EJ concerns in Canada [ 5 , 11 ], the UK [ 12 ], and Eastern Europe [ 13 ]. Finley-Brook and Holloman [ 1 ] explore the EJ implications of energy production in the U.S. Their study demonstrates how the transition from high carbon energy sources such as coal and oil contribute to environmental injustices, and proposes priorities for a new energy justice research agenda that combines advocacy, activism, and academics. Kyne and Bolin [ 2 ] focus on nuclear hazards associated with both the U.S. weapons programs and civilian nuclear power. Their article argues that nuclear power plants, uranium mining, and waste disposal raise a variety of EJ issues that encompass distributive, procedural, recognition, and intergenerational justice. Carrel et al. [ 3 ] examine the EJ impacts of animal feeding operations in Iowa, USA. Their findings underscore the need to understand the structural, political, and economic factors that create an environmentally unjust landscape for swine production in the U.S. Midwest. Galway [ 4 ] investigates access to safe and reliable drinking water in First Nations communities in Ontario, Canada, based on drinking water advisory data. The study highlights the prevalence of drinking water advisories as a growing problem that needs to be addressed. Campbell et al. [ 5 ] focus on the governmental failures in treating the municipal water system that led to the poisoning of hundreds of children and adults in Flint, Michigan, USA, and discuss how such tragic events can be prevented in the future. Maldonado et al. [ 6 ] examine if Hispanic immigrants are disproportionately exposed to flood hazards compared to other racial/ethnic groups in the Houston and Miami metropolitan areas, USA, based on household-level survey data. Their divergent findings for these two urban areas suggest that future EJ research on flooding should distinguish between Hispanic subgroups based on nativity status and other local contextual factors. Muñoz and Tate [ 7 ] focus on the EJ consequences of disaster recovery, based on a case study of three communities in Iowa, USA, that were affected by severe flooding in 2008. Their analysis of the two federal programs that funded property acquisitions indicated that households in socially vulnerable areas were less likely to obtain full financial compensation and endured longer waiting periods before receiving acquisition funds. Jennings et al. [ 8 ] examine another emerging issue in EJ research: advancing sustainability by ensuring that urban ecosystem services and related health benefits are equally distributed across all population groups. Their article integrates complementary concepts from multiple disciplines to illustrate how cultural ecosystem services from urban green spaces are associated with equity and social determinants of health. Hornik et al. [ 9 ] explore how people conceptualize the connection between EJ and sustainability, based on analyzing stakeholder perspectives in Milwaukee, WI, USA. Bell [ 10 ] addresses an important gap in prior EJ research by providing a gender perspective and exploring women’s experience of EJ, based on a review of the existing literature and her own prior experiences as a scholar and activist. Bell’s analysis confirms that women tend to experience inequitable environmental burdens and are less likely than men to have control over environmental decisions, both of which lead to disproportionate health impacts.

In addition to broadening the scope of EJ scholarship by exploring these new frontiers, our Special Issue contributes to three specific research themes: (a) documenting connections between unjust environmental exposures and health impacts; (b) promoting and achieving EJ; and (c) clarifying stakeholder perceptions of EJ issues. These themes and related articles are described below.

Documenting connections between unjust environmental exposures and health impacts : As the EJ framework has expanded in new directions, recent research has emphasized the need to examine health outcomes and health disparities associated with exposure to environmental hazards, thus extending EJ to environmental health justice. Several articles in this Special Issue advance environmental health justice scholarship by documenting linkages between unequal environmental exposure and adverse health impacts associated with unsafe infrastructure and homes [ 5 , 14 ], substance use and addiction [ 15 ], and children’s obesity and academic performance [ 16 ]. Campbell et al. [ 5 ] provide a detailed assessment of the recent drinking water crisis and lead poisoning in Flint, USA. In addition to describing how this tragedy happened and why socially disadvantaged populations are at particularly high risk for lead exposure, Campbell et al. discuss how childhood lead exposure and Flint-like events can be prevented from occurring in the future. Mankikar et al. [ 14 ] examine whether participation in a two-month long environmental education intervention program reduces exposure to homebased environmental health hazards and asthma-related medical visits. Their home intervention program in southeastern Pennsylvania, USA, focused on low-income households where children had asthma, were at risk for lead poisoning, or faced multiple unsafe housing conditions. Cleaning supplies (e.g., a microfiber cloth, soap), safety supplies (e.g., CO detector, fire alarm) and pest management tools (e.g., caulk, roach bait) were provided along with educational materials and face-to-face instruction. Their findings indicate that low-cost comprehensive home interventions are effective in reducing environmental home hazards and improve the health of asthmatic children in the short term. Mennis et al.’s [ 15 ] review article seeks to extend EJ research by including environmental factors influencing substance use disorders—one of the most pressing global public health problems. They demonstrate why inequities in risky substance use environments should be considered as an EJ issue and conclude that future research needs to examine where, why, and how inequities in risky substance use environments occur, the implications of such inequities for disparities in substance use disorders and treatment outcomes, and the implications for tobacco, alcohol, and drug policies as well as prevention and treatment programs. Clark-Reyna et al. [ 16 ] focus on chemicals known as metabolic disruptors that are of specific concern to children’s health and development. Their article examines the effect of residential concentrations of metabolic disrupting chemicals on children’s school performance in El Paso, Texas, USA. Results indicate that concentrations of metabolic disruptors are significantly associated with lower grade point averages directly and indirectly through body mass index. Findings from this study have important implications for future EJ research and chemical policy reform in the U.S.

Promoting and achieving EJ : While EJ scholars often focus on describing the injustices experienced by socially disadvantaged communities, several articles in this Special Issue direct attention toward efforts to achieve EJ through implementation of interventions to improve environmental knowledge and health [ 14 , 17 ], identification of avenues for sustainable and just community and societal change [ 1 , 8 , 9 , 13 ], and incorporation of EJ metrics in government programs [ 12 ]. In the area of interventions, Ramirez-Andreotta et al. [ 17 ] examine parental perceptions of the “report back” process after an exposure assessment. Results showed that parents coped with their challenging circumstances using data and that they made changes to reduce children’s exposure to contaminants. The findings suggest that providing information to EJ community members could be an effective strategy to reduce exposure, when immediate wider scale remediation is not possible. While Mankikar et al. [ 14 ] was summarized above, what is relevant here is that low income communities disproportionately face challenges from poor quality housing, especially renters. The promise of the type of intervention conducted by Mankikar et al. for achieving EJ is that it works to improve the environmental health of children. In terms of identifying avenues for change, Hornik et al. [ 9 ] examine stakeholder beliefs about how positive change should be made to ameliorate injustices related to water pollution in Milwaukee, WI, USA. In order to work towards EJ, the authors argue that is important to build mutual understanding among stakeholders and acknowledge the potential for complex interactions across scales of governance in order to mitigate conflicts. Related to avenues for achieving EJ, Finley-Brook and Holloman [ 1 ] emphasize the importance of involving communities in the participatory design of solutions and fairly distributing benefits. The energy case studies they review suggest that empowering approaches are feasible, but also highlight the potential for conflict between what is “green” and what is “just”. Petrescu-Mag et al. [ 13 ] explore EJ issues in a Roma community in Romania beset by environmental challenges associated with a landfill. Researchers engaged community residents in discussions about potential action options, and residents strongly preferred improving local on-site living opportunities at the dump. An examination of the process of selecting this option suggests that negotiations among stakeholders are required in order to begin to address environmental injustices. Jennings et al. [ 8 ] argue that it is critical for all communities to have access to cultural ecosystem services that influence social determinants of health in order to achieve health equity and promote physical and psychological well-being. Taking a different approach, Fairburn et al. [ 12 ] trace the development and diffusion of indices of multiple deprivation (IMD). EJ scholars have impacted public policy through the incorporation of environmental data into IMD in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and evidence suggests that IMD are potential catalysts for EJ as they enable decision-makers to make more equitable decisions.

Clarifying stakeholder perceptions of EJ issues : The EJ research framework has focused on objectively documenting conditions and processes that constitute environmental injustices. Based on this materialist foundation, less emphasis in EJ research has been placed on people’s subjectivities. Several articles in this Special Issue advance EJ research by examining and clarifying stakeholder subjectivities regarding EJ issues [ 9 , 11 , 18 , 19 ], which extends the research framework beyond the documentation of unjust conditions and processes. In Hornik et al.’s [ 9 ] study, which clarifies community group perceptions of EJ in the context of water sustainability initiatives in Milwaukee, WI, USA, stakeholders shared similar perspectives on environmental injustice as an everyday experience. However, they had divergent perspectives on how environmental injustices are produced and most effectively redressed, which has implications for promoting initiatives for EJ and sustainability. Teixeira and Zuberi [ 18 ] examine neighborhood perceptions of environmental health hazards among black youth in Pittsburgh, PA, USA. Youth identified the intersection of race and poverty, poor waste management, housing abandonment, and crime as salient neighborhood environmental concerns, and understood correctly (based on the authors’ analysis of secondary spatial data) that black vs. white neighborhoods in the city are characterized by unequal environments. Findings suggest that environmental conditions provide clearly recognizable indicators of injustice for youth, and, furthermore, that youth interpret the lack of response to unjust conditions to imply that no one cares. Songsore and Buzzelli [ 11 ] examine the role of Ontario, Canada media in amplifying people’s perceptions of wind energy development (WED) health risks and injustices. Scientific evidence for negative health effects of wind turbines is contested, yet provincial media legitimated concerns about serious health impacts, which amplified public health risk perceptions and aroused claims of procedural injustice regarding the lack of community participation in Ontario’s WED process. Findings highlight the importance of media in shaping perceptions of environmental injustice, and reveal how public perceptions of injustice may be cultivated to impede societal transitions toward renewable energy sources. Ard et al. [ 19 ] use multilevel models in a US national study of the roles of neighborhood social capital and exposure to industrial air pollution in explaining the racial gap in self-rated health between black, Hispanic, and white individuals. They found that individuals’ feelings of trust in neighbors of different social standing and perceptions of political empowerment largely accounted for lower self-rated health among African Americans (and partially accounted for it among Hispanics) relative to whites, while exposure to industrial air pollution was statistically irrelevant. Results suggest that people’s perceptions of well-being may be shaped largely by their social contexts, and that harmful environmental exposures may not always be of paramount importance in shaping those perceptions. Taken together, these articles underscore how people’s subjectivities deeply matter: they influence which phenomena are contested as EJ issues and condition possibilities for redressing environmentally unjust arrangements.

The wide array of environmental health hazards, communities, and countries represented in this Special Issue reflect the expanding scope and purpose of EJ research, which has broadened and transformed significantly in recent years. The articles cover topics ranging from energy, food, water, obesogenic chemicals, landfills, and greenspace. They document connections between unjust environmental exposures and health impacts; provide ideas for how to promote and achieve EJ; and clarify stakeholder perceptions of EJ issues. In doing so, the Special Issue illustrates the existence of multiple and compounding marginalities, but also the wide variety of approaches being employed to achieve EJ, in its many diverse forms.

Author Contributions

All three authors contributed to the organization, writing, and editing of this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Environmental Justice Research: Contemporary Issues and Emerging Topics

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Sociology & Anthropology, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA. [email protected].
• 2 Department of Sociology & Anthropology, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA. [email protected].
• 3 Department of Sociology & Anthropology, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA. [email protected].
• PMID: 27809294
• PMCID: PMC5129282
• DOI: 10.3390/ijerph13111072

Environmental justice (EJ) research seeks to document and redress the disproportionate environmental burdens and benefits associated with social inequalities. Although its initial focus was on disparities in exposure to anthropogenic pollution, the scope of EJ research has expanded. In the context of intensifying social inequalities and environmental problems, there is a need to further strengthen the EJ research framework and diversify its application. This Special Issue of the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) incorporates 19 articles that broaden EJ research by considering emerging topics such as energy, food, drinking water, flooding, sustainability, and gender dynamics, including issues in Canada, the UK, and Eastern Europe. Additionally, the articles contribute to three research themes: (1) documenting connections between unjust environmental exposures and health impacts by examining unsafe infrastructure, substance use, and children's obesity and academic performance; (2) promoting and achieving EJ by implementing interventions to improve environmental knowledge and health, identifying avenues for sustainable community change, and incorporating EJ metrics in government programs; and (3) clarifying stakeholder perceptions of EJ issues to extend research beyond the documentation of unjust conditions and processes. Collectively, the articles highlight potentially compounding injustices and an array of approaches being employed to achieve EJ.

Keywords: air pollution; energy; environmental justice; flood; food; green space; health; social inequality; sustainability; water pollution.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Environmental Justice Research at the EPA

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Toward Environmental Justice: Key Concepts

Environmental justice results from the equitable distribution of environmental benefits and harms through the restructuring of systems of oppression.

When you first learned about the climate crisis, what did you hear? In my high school environmental science class, we talked extensively about the possible extinction of polar bears due to sea level rise and the chance of a silent spring due to the biodiversity crisis. While these issues are of grave importance, they felt very distant and unrelated to the everyday issues I saw in my hometown of Durham, North Carolina. The movement around climate crisis felt like a faraway issue—temporally and spatially—so I engaged in other social movements that felt more pressing. It wasn’t until I learned about environmental justice that I developed a language to describe some of the intersectional issues that I’d experienced, such as my home being closer to a landfill than a decent grocery store, and began to reconnect with my environment and my community in a more meaningful way.

Environmental justice, a term coined by Robert Bullard, Paul Mohai, Robin Saha, and Beverly Wright in the 1980s, describes the equitable distribution of environmental benefits and harms experienced as a result of rectifying systems of oppression. In the groundbreaking work “ Toxic Waste and Race ,” Bullard et al. argued that across the US South, landfills were disproportionately sited in low-income communities of color—leading to disparate human health impacts, lower economic value of property, and less greenspace available for these communities. While the concept of environmental justice has been understood for centuries, it wasn’t until the convergence of the US Civil Rights, Chicano, LGBTQ+, and Feminist movements that the specific intersection around race, class, gender, and environment became better understood systemically and institutionally. This reading list provides an overview of the most pressing issues, questions, and discourses in environmental justice.

Laura Pulido and Devon Peña, “ Environmentalism and Positionality: The Early Pesticide Campaign of the United Farm Workers’ Organizing Committee, 1965–71 .” Race, Gender & Class 6, no. 1 (1998): 33–50.

Pulido and Peña unpack what it means for an environmental issue to become one of environmental justice. Is it at the intersection of environmental and social concerns? Or is it defined by the socio-economic status of the participations? In this process of what the authors deemed as issue identification , positionality is key. Positionality refers to an individual’s unique perspective due to lived experiences, worldviews, and their identity. Pulido and Peña problematize how an environmental justice issue comes about, using the case study of the Early Pesticide Campaign of the United Farm Worker’s Organizing Committee . Anti-pesticide movements haven’t necessarily been considered a “movement” within environmental justice. That is, not until it was recognized that farm workers experience harm from pesticides at a “confluence of forces” dictated by race and class. It was this combination of viewpoints and backgrounds that turned the anti-pesticide movement from one of purely ecological underpinnings to one of social justice.

Manuel Pastor, Robert Bullard, James K. Boyce, Alice Fothergill, Rachel Morello-Frosch, and Beverly Wright, “ Environment, Disaster, and Race After Katrina ,” Race, Poverty & the Environment 13, no. 1 (2006): 21–26.

Pastor et al. redefine the concept of a natural “disaster”—interrogating whether it’s the hazard itself or the social systems in place that turn a hazard into a disaster . The authors make clear that Hurricane Katrina exposed the racialized, gendered, and classist underpinnings of US institutions and systems. Pastor’s research team draws upon the lived experiences of different communities across Louisiana to understand the disparate impact of Katrina, centering attention on the power asymmetries that caused different levels of disaster vulnerability and impact. Post-Katrina , they demonstrate that systems of governance perpetuated the crisis by continuing to under-provision social services and basic needs to communities most impacted by the hurricane.

Eric Holt-Giménez and Yi Wang, “ Reform or Transformation? The Pivotal Role of Food Justice in the U.S. Food Movement ,” Race/Ethnicity: Multidisciplinary Global Contexts 5, no. 1 (2011): 83–102.

Environmental justice is inextricably linked to the calls for food security , food sovereignty , and food justice. One-sixth of the US population is designated as food insecure. Holt-Giménez and Wang trace the political economy of food injustice in the US, finding that the foundational issues for the disproportionate distribution of safe, healthy, culturally relevant foods are the corporate food regime, globalization, and free trade. Holt-Giménez and Wang argue that without solutions that address these systems directly, they remain merely reforms in a movement that demands revolution. The authors question how a food revolution could materialize, exploring avenues for community food sovereignty including local food supply chains and family farming.

Robert D. Bullard and Beverly Hendrix Wright, “ The Politics of Pollution: Implications for the Black Community ,” Phylon (1960-) 47, no. 1 (1986): 71–78.

Clean air is vital to human health and wellbeing and ecosystem functioning. It’s often overlooked and taken for granted in policy spaces, which allows for polluting facilities to exist in places where there is a “path of least resistance.” Bullard and Wright observe that these areas are typically politically disempowered, poorer, and disproportionately home to Black people. This has allowed for vulnerable communities to become “sacrifice zones,” where landfills, incinerators , smelters, and US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designated Superfund sites are located, despite the health and economic impacts on surrounding communities. Bullard and Wright draw upon case studies from Houston, Texas, and North Carolina to interrogate how institutionalized racism affects the politics of pollution.

Melanie Barron, “ Remediating a Sense of Place: Memory and Environmental Justice in Anniston, Alabama ,” Southeastern Geographer 57, no. 1 (2017): 62–79.

Environmental injustices cannot, and should not, be devoid from space and place. Barron, in a story-like fashion, engages with the legacy of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) pollution left by the Monsanto Company in Anniston, Alabama, and the “violence of forgetting” by systems of governance that have created vulnerability in West Anniston’s Black community. The legacy has materialized in human health consequences, as “Anniston residents are routinely cited in EPA documentation as having the highest levels of PCBs in their blood of any known population.” Barron deems this lack of investment in environmental and pollution remediation measures a “slow violence” against the people of West Anniston and understands this inaction as the “erasure of Black life.”

Pavithra Vasudevan and Sara Smith, “ The Domestic Geopolitics of Racial Capitalism ,” Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space 38, no. 7–8 (2020): 1160–1179.

Drawing upon lived experiences from Badin, North Carolina, and Flint, Michigan, Vasudevan and Smith explore how the racialized burden of living in toxicity is embodied at work and at home. By being in community with smelt workers in Badin, North Carolina, and activists in Flint, Michigan, the authors are able to explain how toxic exposure has rendered these communities as “sacrifice zones and colonial subjects…not citizenry.”  The authors define this analytical lens as “domestic geopolitics,” revealing how racialized communities within the US operate as internal colonies within the nation’s borders. Framing the issue as domestic geopolitics also allows the reader to understand how environmental injustices such as toxicity permeate the “intimate sphere of social life that constitutes the home, family, and community.”

Chelsea Grimmer, “ Racial Microbiopolitics: Flint Lead Poisoning, Detroit Water Shut Offs, and The ‘Matter’ of Enfleshment ,” The Comparatist 41 (2017): 19–40.

Michel Foucault, famed philosopher of political economy, coined the term biopolitics , defining it as the power of a system, institution, or individual to “make live and let die.” This term has been used to describe how institutions, particularly governing bodies, are informed by systems of oppression to render some bodies as worthy of living and others as forgettable. Grimmer builds upon Foucault’s theory of power to understand how the Flint Water Crisis operated as what she deems racial microbiopolitics, or “the mattering of lives at the level of the flesh’s relationship to life and its molecular registers.” The Flint Water Crisis arose from an attempt to secure cheap, maltreated water for the predominantly low-income community of color that is Flint, Michigan, resulting in the lead poisoning of the community by the lead piping system. Rather than positing the crisis as the fault of simple mismanagement, Grimmer challenges the reader to interpret it as a form of violence against the people of Flint, materialized at the molecular level.

Carolyn Finney, Wairimü Njambi, Audrey Peterman, William O’Brien, “ Race and Parks ,” View 18 (2018): 52–57.

Visitors to national parks, conservation areas, and greenspace in urban areas tend to be overwhelmingly white and well-off and disproportionately underrepresent other ethnic minorities. “Race and Parks” brings together three scholars of critical race theory and environmental justice for a roundtable discussion on why these disparities exist and how to overcome them. Njambi and Finney both note how these visitation patterns are informed by a history of white supremacy, exclusion, segregation, and violence, leading African Americans to have a warped connection with natural spaces. Finney additionally dives into the coloniality of enclosing natural spaces, questioning “who becomes invisible, forgotten and erased in the stories about land and belonging?” Issues of ownership, discovery, memory, and legacies are interrogated in this conversation.

Salvatore Saporito and Daniel Casey, “ Are There Relationships Among Racial Segregation, Economic Isolation, and Proximity to Green Space? ” Human Ecology Review 21, no. 2 (2015): 113–32.

Saporito and Casey explore the question of correlation between racial segregation, economic opportunity, and proximity to environmental benefits, specifically looking at urban landscapes. Greenspace provides humans with innumerable environmental services, such as carbon dioxide sequestration, natural cooling (mitigating the urban heat island effect), water and air quality improvement, natural hazard defense, and stormwater management. Using data from the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, which signifies where healthy vegetation is via remote sensing, the authors analyze several US cities to discover where there were differences in exposure to vegetation between and among racial and economic groups. While their results indicate a statistically significant relationship between these variables, there are some key limitations to their study that restrict the conclusions that can be drawn from it. Research such as this indicates that there’s a need for more qualitative and quantitative data exploring the explanatory relationship between racial segregation, socio-economic status, and proximity to environmental benefits, such as greenspace.

Kyle Whyte, “ Settler Colonialism, Ecology, and Environmental Injustice ,” Environment and Society 9 (2018): 125–44.

The United States is a settler-colonial state , meaning that it’s occupied by permanent settlements of colonizers that have sought the displacement and replacement of Indigenous communities to create a dominant society that exercises full political, economic, and cultural control. Whyte looks at two ways settler colonialism and environmental justice intersect: vicious sedimentation and insidious loops. Drawing upon Anishinaabe intellectual traditions, Whyte explores the concept of collective continuance —a way of maintaining Indigenous social resilience and autonomy. He explains how acts of environmental injustice undermined Indigenous collective continuance, such as the depiction of Indigenous lands as empty, yet savage, therefore deserving of domination. He concludes by providing a theoretical outline of how to facilitate justice and reconciliation despite a settler colonial legacy.

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Remote sensing in environmental justice research—a review.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction: Urbanization and the Inequity of Environmental Burdens

1.1. health burdens of environmental exposure: a historical perspective, 1.2. spatial scale in environmental justice research, 1.3. socioeconomic status and individual behavior affecting health, 1.4. aim and outline of this review, 2. remote sensing of environmental health burdens, 2.1. green space, 2.2. air pollution, 2.5. (intra-) urban structure, 2.6. summary, 3. the importance of space for modeling environmental justice, 3.1. scales, 3.2. ecological fallacy and the modifiable areal unit problem, 3.3. combining remote sensing and socioeconomic data, 4. discussion, 4.1. establishing remote sensing as a valuable source of spatial data, 4.2. levels of analysis, 4.3. limitations, 4.4. future pathways.

• Remote sensing should be considered a valuable data source for the description, derivation, and quantification of environmental characteristics and their spatial disparities, especially in the heterogeneous urban landscape.
• Either by physical measurements (e.g., for green spaces, heat islands, or air pollution) or through the provision of spatial proxy information (e.g., noise or urban structure), environmental studies can benefit by means of descriptions of environmental characteristics.
• In addition to that, remote sensing can extend existing techniques of describing the physical environment, such as modeling or in-situ measurements, when direct derivation are not possible.
• Remote sensing data can be used to derive information about multiple environmental burdens at various spatial scales.
• Large area coverage and powerful processing infrastructures will bring sustainable changes to the usage of geographic data in environmental justice research by facilitating analyses on regional and national scale.
• Historic and future data in combination with longitudinal survey data can be utilized to study the long-term effects of (changing) urban environments on human health in broad study designs (see also [ 188 ]).
• In order to increase public health, remote sensing methods can be applied to build monitoring services of health relevant environmental conditions on national or even international level.

5. Conclusions

Author contributions, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Weigand, M.; Wurm, M.; Dech, S.; Taubenböck, H. Remote Sensing in Environmental Justice Research—A Review. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2019 , 8 , 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi8010020

Weigand M, Wurm M, Dech S, Taubenböck H. Remote Sensing in Environmental Justice Research—A Review. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information . 2019; 8(1):20. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi8010020

Weigand, Matthias, Michael Wurm, Stefan Dech, and Hannes Taubenböck. 2019. "Remote Sensing in Environmental Justice Research—A Review" ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 8, no. 1: 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi8010020

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Environmental justice and policy research

Environmental justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of ethnicity, color, national origin, social status or income, with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. The goal is for everyone to have the same degree of protection from health hazards in the environment, as well as equal access to the decision-making processes that contribute to a healthy living environment.

This collection calls for papers from a broad range of subject areas that shed light on the contribution that evidence-based research can give to develop better practices and policies towards stronger environmental justice. Articles may include, but are not limited to, research about air pollution, sewage management, water systems management, drinking water quality, pesticides and much more. 

The following journals are accepting submissions to the series:

• BMC Public Health
• Environmental Health
• Environmental Sciences Europe
• Globalization and Health
• One Health Outlook

Submission Instructions

Manuscripts should be formatted according to the individual journal’s instructions for authors and submitted via the online submission system. Please indicate clearly in the title page that the manuscript is to be considered for the thematic series 'Environmental Justice and policy research'. Manuscripts will be peer-reviewed independently by the respective journal, in accordance with each journal’s peer-review policy. Accepted articles will be published online on a continuous basis.

Submission deadline: November 30th 2021

Published articles in this collection:

Comprehensive evaluation of community human settlement resilience and spatial characteristics based on the supply–demand mismatch between health activities and environment: a case study of downtown Shanghai, China

Under globalization, human settlement has become a major risk factor affecting life. The relationship between humans and the environment is crucial for improving community resilience and coping with globalizat...

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Road traffic density and recurrent asthma emergency department visits among Medicaid enrollees in New York State 2005–2015

Environmental exposures such as traffic may contribute to asthma morbidity including recurrent emergency department (ED) visits. However, these associations are often confounded by socioeconomic status and hea...

Both parents matter: a national-scale analysis of parental race/ethnicity, disparities in prenatal PM 2.5 exposures and related impacts on birth outcomes

Most U.S. studies that report racial/ethnic disparities in increased risk of low birth weight associated with air pollution exposures have been conducted in California or northeastern states and/or urban areas...

Pervasive structural racism in environmental epidemiology

Epistemological biases in environmental epidemiology prevent the full understanding of how racism’s societal impacts directly influence health outcomes. With the ability to focus on “place” and the totality of...

Mixture toxicity, cumulative risk, and environmental justice in United States federal policy, 1980–2016

Toxic chemicals — “toxicants” — have been studied and regulated as single entities, and, carcinogens aside, almost all toxicants, single or mixed and however altered, have been thought harmless in very low dos...

What agro-input dealers know, sell and say to smallholder farmers about pesticides: a mystery shopping and KAP analysis in Uganda

Pesticides can have negative effects on human and environmental health, especially when not handled as intended. In many countries, agro-input dealers sell pesticides to smallholder farmers and are supposed to...

Characterizing environmental geographic inequalities using an integrated exposure assessment

At a regional or continental scale, the characterization of environmental health inequities (EHI) expresses the idea that populations are not equal in the face of pollution. It implies an analysis be conducted...

Joint effects of ethnic enclave residence and ambient volatile organic compounds exposure on risk of gestational diabetes mellitus among Asian/Pacific Islander women in the United States

Asian/Pacific Islander (API) communities in the United States often reside in metropolitan areas with distinct social and environmental attributes. Residence in an ethnic enclave, a socially distinct area, is ...

Two communities, one highway and the fight for clean air: the role of political history in shaping community engagement and environmental health research translation

This paper explores strategies to engage community stakeholders in efforts to address the effects of traffic-related air pollution (TRAP). Communities of color and low-income communities are disproportionately...

Greenness, civil environment, and pregnancy outcomes: perspectives with a systematic review and meta-analysis

Various maternal conditions, especially in utero conditions and prenatal exposure to environments with air pollution and greenness, have been reviewed to address the enhancement and prevention of susceptibilit...

A systematic review and meta-analysis of haematological malignancies in residents living near petrochemical facilities

The petrochemical industry is a major source of hazardous and toxic air pollutants that are recognised to have mutagenic and carcinogenic properties. A wealth of occupational epidemiology literature exists aro...

Associations of ambient air pollutants with regional pulmonary tuberculosis incidence in the central Chinese province of Hubei: a Bayesian spatial-temporal analysis

Air pollution and pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) are still serious worldwide problems, especially in areas of developing countries. Whether there is an association between high ambient air pollutant concentratio...

The association between ambient temperature and sperm quality in Wuhan, China

Few epidemiological investigations have focused on the influence of environmental temperature on human sperm quality. Here, we evaluated the potential association between ambient temperature and human sperm qu...

Metal air pollution partnership solutions: building an academic-government-community-industry collaboration to improve air quality and health in environmental justice communities in Houston

From 2006 to 2011, the City of Houston received nearly 200 community complaints about air pollution coming from some metal recycling facilities. The investigation by the Houston Health Department (HHD) found t...

Association between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and prevalence of diabetes mellitus among Malaysian adults

Malaysia has the highest rate of diabetes mellitus (DM) in the Southeast Asian region, and has ongoing air pollution and periodic haze exposure.

Implementation of the Minamata Convention to manage mercury pollution in India: challenges and opportunities

The Minamata Convention (MC), a multilateral environmental agreement (MEA), aims to protect human health and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and its compounds. The success ...

Future pesticide risk assessment: narrowing the gap between intention and reality

Environmental justice and drinking water quality: are there socioeconomic disparities in nitrate levels in u.s. drinking water.

Low-income and minority communities often face disproportionately high pollutant exposures. The lead crisis in Flint, Michigan, has sparked concern about broader socioeconomic disparities in exposures to drink...

Environmental Justice Research Paper Topics

This guide provides a comprehensive list of environmental justice research paper topics , meticulously organized into ten categories, each featuring ten unique and engaging subjects. It also offers expert advice on how to select a topic and how to structure and write an environmental justice research paper. Furthermore, it introduces iResearchNet’s professional writing services, which can assist students in creating custom research papers on any topic.

100 Environmental Justice Research Paper Topics

Environmental justice is a significant and dynamic field of study. It intersects with various disciplines, including law, policy, public health, urban planning, and climate science. The following comprehensive list of environmental justice research paper topics is divided into ten categories, each with ten topics. These topics are designed to inspire students to explore the diverse aspects of environmental justice and contribute to this important discourse.

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Environmental Justice and Policy

• The role of policy in promoting environmental justice
• The impact of the Clean Air Act on marginalized communities
• Environmental justice in urban planning policies
• The role of the EPA in ensuring environmental justice
• Policy analysis of the National Environmental Policy Act
• The influence of local government on environmental justice outcomes
• The role of international policy in promoting environmental justice
• Environmental justice implications of waste management policies
• The impact of zoning laws on environmental justice
• Policy solutions for addressing environmental racism

Case Studies in Environmental Justice

• Flint water crisis: A case study in environmental injustice
• The impact of Hurricane Katrina on low-income communities
• Case study of indigenous rights and environmental justice
• Environmental justice issues in the Dakota Access Pipeline project
• Case study: Environmental justice in the aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill
• The impact of industrial pollution: A case study of Cancer Alley, Louisiana
• Case study: The fight for environmental justice in the Amazon Rainforest
• The impact of mining activities on local communities: A case study
• Case study: Environmental justice and the Navajo Nation
• The Love Canal disaster: A case study in environmental injustice

Environmental Justice and Health

• The impact of environmental injustice on public health
• Correlation between air pollution and health disparities
• The impact of water pollution on marginalized communities
• Environmental racism and its impact on health outcomes
• The relationship between food deserts and environmental justice
• The health impacts of hazardous waste disposal in marginalized communities
• The correlation between environmental justice and mental health
• The impact of noise pollution on health in urban areas
• Health outcomes related to poor housing and environmental justice
• The role of occupational health in environmental justice

Environmental Justice and Climate Change

• The impact of climate change on marginalized communities
• Climate justice: Ensuring fair adaptation strategies
• The role of climate change in exacerbating environmental injustices
• The impact of sea-level rise on low-income coastal communities
• Climate change, environmental justice, and the Paris Agreement
• The role of climate justice in international climate negotiations
• The impact of extreme weather events on marginalized communities
• Climate refugees: An emerging environmental justice issue
• The intersection of climate justice and renewable energy policies
• The role of climate change in urban heat islands and environmental justice

Environmental Justice and Activism

• The role of activism in promoting environmental justice
• The environmental justice movement in the 1980s
• The impact of social media on environmental justice activism
• The role of youth activism in the environmental justice movement
• The influence of the Black Lives Matter movement on environmental justice
• The role of indigenous activism in promoting environmental justice
• Activism strategies for addressing environmental racism
• The impact of community organizing on local environmental justice outcomes
• The role of art and culture in environmental justice activism
• Activism and the fight for clean water in Flint, Michigan

Environmental Justice and Education

• The role of education in promoting environmental justice
• Environmental justice in the school curriculum
• The impact of environmental education on community awareness and action
• The role of higher education institutions in promoting environmental justice
• Environmental justice and science education
• The role of environmental education in empowering marginalized communities
• Environmental justice education programs
• The impact of environmental education on policy and legislation
• Environmental justice in environmental studies programs
• The role of experiential learning in environmental justice education

Environmental Justice and Indigenous Rights

• The impact of environmental injustice on indigenous communities
• Indigenous rights and environmental justice in the Amazon
• The role of indigenous knowledge in environmental justice
• The impact of land rights on environmental justice in indigenous communities
• The Dakota Access Pipeline and indigenous rights
• Indigenous rights and the fight against deforestation
• The impact of mining on indigenous communities and lands
• Indigenous rights in international environmental law
• The role of indigenous communities in biodiversity conservation and environmental justice

Environmental Justice and Urban Planning

• The role of urban planning in promoting or hindering environmental justice
• The impact of gentrification on environmental justice
• Urban green spaces and environmental justice
• The role of transportation planning in environmental justice
• Environmental justice in urban redevelopment projects
• The impact of housing policy on environmental justice
• Urban agriculture and environmental justice
• The role of community participation in urban planning for environmental justice
• Urban heat islands and environmental justice
• The impact of urban sprawl on environmental justice

Environmental Justice and Corporate Responsibility

• The role of corporations in promoting or hindering environmental justice
• Corporate pollution and environmental justice
• The impact of corporate social responsibility initiatives on environmental justice
• The role of the fossil fuel industry in environmental justice
• The impact of corporate lobbying on environmental justice policies
• Environmental justice and the tech industry
• The role of greenwashing in environmental justice
• Corporate accountability and environmental justice
• The impact of supply chains on environmental justice
• Environmental justice in the garment industry

Environmental Justice and International Perspectives

• Comparative analysis of environmental justice in different countries
• The role of international law in promoting environmental justice
• Environmental justice in the Global South
• The impact of globalization on environmental justice
• Environmental justice and the European Union
• The role of international organizations in promoting environmental justice
• Environmental justice in developing vs. developed countries
• The impact of international trade on environmental justice
• Environmental justice and the United Nations
• The role of international climate agreements in promoting environmental justice

In conclusion, these environmental justice research paper topics provide a broad overview of the various aspects of environmental justice. They highlight the intersectionality of environmental justice, touching on policy, health, climate change, activism, education, indigenous rights, urban planning, corporate responsibility, and international perspectives. Each topic offers a unique opportunity to delve into the complexities of environmental justice and contribute to this important field of study. Remember, the goal is not just to understand the issues but also to explore potential solutions and strategies for achieving environmental justice.

Environmental Justice Research Guide

In today’s world, environmental justice has become a crucial topic of concern for environmental scientists, policymakers, and communities around the globe. The concept of environmental justice centers on the fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens, ensuring that all individuals, regardless of their race, socioeconomic status, or geographical location, have equal access to a clean and healthy environment. As students studying environmental science, it is vital to delve into the realm of environmental justice and explore its multifaceted dimensions. One powerful way to do so is through research papers that shed light on various aspects of environmental justice and propose solutions to the challenges faced.

This page aims to provide a comprehensive resource for students in the field of environmental science who are interested in writing research papers on environmental justice. Whether you are exploring this topic for the first time or seeking to deepen your understanding of specific issues, this page will guide you through the process of choosing compelling environmental justice research paper topics, offering expert advice on effective research methodologies, and providing insights on how to structure and write an impactful environmental justice research paper.

The field of environmental justice encompasses a broad range of topics, including but not limited to pollution disparities, environmental racism, indigenous rights, climate justice, and sustainable development. By delving into these areas, you can contribute to the growing body of knowledge surrounding environmental justice and play a role in advocating for a more equitable and sustainable world.

As environmental science students, you possess a unique opportunity to make a difference through your research. By studying environmental justice and shedding light on its complexities, you can contribute to the development of evidence-based policies, raise awareness among communities, and drive positive change. This page will serve as your guide, equipping you with the necessary tools, knowledge, and inspiration to embark on a meaningful research journey focused on environmental justice.

Throughout this page, you will find valuable resources, expert advice, and practical tips to assist you in selecting an impactful research paper topic, conducting rigorous research, and effectively communicating your findings. Additionally, we will introduce you to the writing services offered by iResearchNet, which provide expert assistance and support in crafting custom environmental justice research papers tailored to your unique requirements.

Choosing an Environmental Justice Research Topic

Choosing the right environmental justice research paper topic is a critical step in your journey to explore and address the complexities of environmental justice issues. To help you in this process, we have compiled expert advice and practical tips to guide your selection. By following these recommendations, you can ensure that your research paper tackles a relevant and impactful aspect of environmental justice. Consider the following tips:

• Identify your area of interest : Start by reflecting on your personal interests within the field of environmental justice. Consider environmental justice research paper topics that resonate with you, whether they relate to climate change, pollution, indigenous rights, urban planning, or other related areas. Engaging with a topic you are passionate about will enhance your motivation and dedication to the research process.
• Stay informed : Keep yourself updated on current environmental justice issues through reputable sources such as academic journals, policy reports, and news articles. This will help you identify emerging environmental justice research paper topics and gaps in the existing literature, allowing you to contribute new insights and perspectives.
• Narrow down your focus : Environmental justice is a broad field, so it is important to narrow down your focus to a specific aspect or dimension. This could be based on geographic location, affected communities, policy frameworks, or specific environmental challenges. A focused research question will enable you to delve deeper into the topic and provide a more comprehensive analysis.
• Conduct preliminary research : Before finalizing your research topic, conduct preliminary research to gain a better understanding of the existing literature and identify any gaps or areas that require further investigation. This will inform your research question and help you refine your topic.
• Engage with diverse perspectives : Environmental justice encompasses various social, economic, and political dimensions. Consider incorporating diverse perspectives into your research by examining different stakeholder viewpoints, marginalized communities, or international perspectives. This will provide a more comprehensive understanding of environmental justice issues.
• Consider interdisciplinary approaches : Environmental justice is inherently interdisciplinary, as it intersects with fields such as sociology, political science, economics, and law. Explore opportunities to integrate insights from different disciplines into your research to offer a holistic perspective on the topic.
• Collaborate with experts : Engage with professors, mentors, or professionals who specialize in environmental justice. Seek their guidance in refining your research topic, accessing relevant resources, and connecting with experts in the field. Collaborative discussions can provide valuable insights and help shape your research direction.
• Assess feasibility : Evaluate the feasibility of your research topic in terms of data availability, research methods, and time constraints. Ensure that you have access to relevant data sources, methodologies to analyze the data, and sufficient time to conduct your research effectively.
• Consider real-world implications : Environmental justice research should have practical implications and contribute to positive change. Assess how your research can inform policy development, influence community actions, or contribute to environmental justice movements. Aim for research that goes beyond academic exploration and has tangible impacts.
• Seek feedback : Share your research topic and ideas with peers, professors, or experts in the field. Seek their feedback and suggestions to refine your topic and ensure its relevance and significance. Incorporating multiple perspectives will strengthen the quality and impact of your research.

By considering these expert tips, you will be equipped with the necessary guidance to select a compelling and meaningful environmental justice research paper topic. Remember, the topic you choose will shape the direction and impact of your research, so invest time and thought into this crucial step. Embrace the opportunity to contribute to the ongoing dialogue on environmental justice and strive to make a positive difference in the lives of affected communities.

How to Write an Environmental Justice Research Paper

Writing an environmental justice research paper requires careful planning, organization, and a deep understanding of the subject matter. To help you navigate this process and produce a high-quality research paper, we have compiled a list of ten practical tips. By following these guidelines, you can effectively convey your ideas, analyze complex issues, and contribute to the field of environmental justice. Consider the following tips:

• Define your research question : Start by clearly defining your research question or objective. This will provide a focused direction for your paper and guide your research efforts. Ensure that your research question is specific, concise, and relevant to the field of environmental justice.
• Conduct a literature review : Before diving into your research, conduct a comprehensive literature review to familiarize yourself with the existing knowledge and research gaps in the area of environmental justice. This will help you situate your work within the broader context and identify key themes, theories, and methodologies that have been employed in previous studies.
• Gather and analyze data : Environmental justice research often involves collecting and analyzing various types of data, including quantitative data, qualitative data, and case studies. Depending on your research question, determine the most appropriate data collection methods and analytical tools to support your analysis.
• Consider ethical considerations : Environmental justice research often involves working with marginalized communities or studying sensitive environmental justice research paper topics. Take into account ethical considerations, such as informed consent, privacy, and confidentiality, when conducting research. Ensure that your research adheres to ethical guidelines and safeguards the rights and well-being of the participants.
• Adopt an interdisciplinary approach : Environmental justice issues are complex and multifaceted, requiring an interdisciplinary approach. Draw insights from various disciplines such as environmental science, sociology, law, policy studies, and economics. Integrate different perspectives to gain a holistic understanding of the issues at hand.
• Use appropriate research methodologies : Select research methodologies that align with your research question and objectives. This could include qualitative methods such as interviews, focus groups, or case studies, or quantitative methods such as surveys or statistical analysis. Justify your choice of methodology and ensure its appropriateness for your research.
• Structure your paper effectively : Organize your research paper into logical sections, including an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, analysis, and conclusion. Ensure a clear and coherent flow of ideas throughout the paper, with each section contributing to the overall argument or research objective.
• Provide critical analysis : In an environmental justice research paper, it is essential to provide critical analysis of the data and literature. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of existing studies, identify gaps in knowledge, and propose new insights or alternative approaches to addressing environmental justice issues.
• Support your arguments with evidence : Use empirical evidence, data, and scholarly sources to support your arguments and claims. Cite relevant research studies, reports, and legal documents to strengthen the credibility of your analysis. Ensure proper citation and referencing using the appropriate style guide (e.g., APA, MLA).
• Consider policy implications: Environmental justice research often has policy implications. Discuss the potential policy recommendations or interventions that arise from your findings. Consider how your research can inform decision-making processes, advocate for social justice, or contribute to the development of more equitable environmental policies.

By following these tips, you can navigate the process of writing an environmental justice research paper with confidence. Remember to maintain a clear focus, critically analyze the literature and data, and contribute new insights to the field. With careful planning and rigorous research, your paper can make a valuable contribution to the understanding and advancement of environmental justice.

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• In-depth research : Our writers are skilled in conducting thorough research on environmental justice topics. They have access to a wide range of scholarly resources and databases, ensuring that your paper is well-researched and based on credible sources.
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• Top quality : We strive for excellence in every aspect of our writing services. Our writers are committed to delivering high-quality papers that meet academic standards and demonstrate critical thinking, analytical skills, and a deep understanding of environmental justice issues.
• Customized solutions : We understand that each research paper is unique, and we tailor our services to your specific needs. Whether you require assistance with topic selection, data analysis, or literature review, we can provide customized solutions to meet your requirements.
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The Alliance for Citizen Engagement

Clarisse Goetzen

• October 20, 2021
• , Environmental Policy , Human Rights and Equality , Issue Research

Table of Contents

Executive summary.

Environmental justice is both a field of study and a powerful social movement that is concerned with the unequal distribution of environmental benefits (e.g. clean water, parks, healthy food, etc.) and costs (e.g. unsafe housing, air pollution, soil pollution, etc.) between different social groups. Environmental justice is an intersectional concept that includes both environmental conservation and social justice elements, as issues that impact the environment have disproportionate impacts on certain people who live there. Environmental justice aims to ensure that everyone, regardless of socioeconomic status, has the same degree of environmental protection and equal access to the processes that directly impact the communities they live in. Although the concept of environmental justice emerged as recently as the early 1980’s, it has since gained significant political attention. Its goals have been incorporated into national, state, and local policies across the country.

The history of environmental justice within the United States predates the country’s initial founding and begins with the earliest European settlements of the 15th century. European colonization forced indigenous groups away from their traditional lands and ignored the methods they used to manage land sustainably. Throughout the years, environmental injustices continued to take on various forms as the country evolved. For example, larger populations created a need for increased city planning, and urban developers placed most waste incinerators in predominantly low-income and minority communities . Today, environmental injustices are observable in a wide variety of circumstances, ranging from food deserts, to water pollution, to flooding vulnerability. Our understanding of environmental injustices has evolved especially quickly over the last few decades, as the reality of climate change and its repercussions are more widely recognized by both the public and policymakers. For instance, as natural disasters exacerbated by climate change threaten the nation’s wellbeing, we find that those unable to evacuate, adequately prepare, and recover are already-vulnerable communities. 

Elected officials across the United States have made attempts to address and combat environmental injustice on all levels of government. Local attempts have been made through municipal bans on certain activities, strengthened environmental review processes, enforced public health codes, and many other methods. While not every state has embraced environmental justice goals, many states such as California, Virginia, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and several others have committed to environmental equity by creating Offices for Environmental Justice, prioritizing environmental justice through legislation, enforcing environmental justice-focused programs, and more. Federal responses to environmental injustices have varied dramatically over the last few administrations, with some being less favorable to environmental justice advocates than others. However, with a new administration now in place, many are hopeful that current President Joe Biden will live up to the promises he has made to reduce the environmental burden faced by marginalized communities across the nation. 

Ongoing efforts to improve the environmental conditions of overburdened populations exist both across the country and abroad. Further reforms are also being discussed, with many pushing for potential solutions such as encouraging and valuing indigenous voices on environmental topics , better educating students on environmental injustices , mandating environmental justice analyses for all land use projects, and more.

Introduction

Marginalized Communities and Environmental Justice

Marginalized communities are communities that face discrimination and exclusion in various forms based on their identities. The norms and processes affecting marginalized groups put them at a severe social, cultural, economic, and political disadvantage. Marginalized communities typically include racial/cultural/religious minorities, low-income and homeless individuals, immigrants, disabled individuals, refugees, and more. Some examples of exclusion and discrimination faced by such groups include, but are not limited to, disenfranchisement, unequal representation in politics, unequal pay, and harassment.

Environmental justice is an immensely important topic, as marginalized communities often face significantly worse environmental conditions than those who are of a higher socioeconomic status. Because marginalized communities have fewer resources, less time, and less political power to resist unequal environmental conditions, they will continue to have less of an influence over the environmental policies that affect them most. Marginalized communities experiencing environmental inequities are often referred to as environmental justice communities . 

Examples of Environmental Injustices

Environmental injustices can be observed in a number of situations. These examples have changed over time as the United States has grown and modernized. During European colonization of the Americas, examples of environmental injustices included indigenous exclusion and displacement from ancestral lands. Today, examples of modern environmental injustices have expanded to include a large variety of concerns, and the list continues to grow as climate change poses new and worsening challenges. The following list describes 10 ongoing environmental justice concerns within the United States and its territories, but this list is not exhaustive.

• Water pollution and access: Drinking water violations are issued when a water system does not meet the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) healthy drinking water standard. Polluted drinking water can arise from a wide variety of sources, such as corroded pipes or industrial discharge. A 2019 study of drinking water violations across the United States confirmed that the rate of such violations is higher in communities with more low-income individuals, racial minorities, and non-native English speakers. Increased drinking water violations were also observed in areas with less reliable access to transportation and more crowded living conditions. Furthermore, these communities experience slow and poor enforcement of laws ensuring clean water access, meaning that these communities face unsafe drinking water conditions more frequently, and for longer . The health implications from contaminant exposure can range from gastroenteritis, to decreased immune system functioning, to cancer. 
• Air pollution: Marginalized communities are more likely to live near highways, industrial plants, waste incinerators, and other significant sources of air pollution. Studies show that approximately 79% of solid waste incinerators within urban areas are located in marginalized communities. The EPA also classifies air pollution as an environmental justice concern due to the fact that marginalized communities are disproportionately impacted by hazardous air quality, and are at a higher risk of developing health issues such as asthma, cardiovascular disease, and reduced lung function.
• Soil pollution: Contaminated sites are areas of land that contain hazardous waste and/or other substances that could potentially harm property, people, or animals. Because those living within a close proximity to such areas tend to be ethnic minorities and lower-class individuals , this raises environmental injustice concerns. Living near contaminated sites puts individuals at a higher risk of developing cancer, experiencing developmental disabilities, birthing children with congenital defects, and more.
• Food deserts: Food deserts are regions where healthy food options are not easily accessible to residents due to insufficient amounts of grocery stores within a practical traveling distance. Food deserts predominantly affect low-income people of color, as research shows that wealthy neighborhoods have 3 or more times the amount of grocery stores than poorer neighborhoods. Food deserts are an environmental justice issue because the lack of affordable, nutritional food is a harmful environmental condition affecting society’s most vulnerable communities. The negative health impacts residents of food deserts face include malnutrition, diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, and a host of other concerns.
• Wildfire resilience: Wildfires are one type of natural disaster exacerbated by the rising global temperatures associated with climate change. Wildfires, a common occurrence across much of the United States, are burning longer and covering more area than prior decades. With wildfires destroying thousands of homes and other structures each year, those that suffer most are low-income and under-insured individuals who struggle to recover from such significant losses.
• Flooding vulnerability: Climate change increases flooding severity. Whether through weather events or sea level rise, flooding will disproportionately affect already-vulnerable communities. One study estimates that one in ten low-income housing projects are located in areas with a direct risk of flooding, affecting nearly half a million people. This estimate is likely to be even higher, as it is based off of historical climate data and did not account for recently observed changes in climate. Additionally, with the often unaffordable $700/year cost of flood insurance, many low-income individuals and families cannot financially recover from property loss or damage.
• Hurricane preparation and resilience: Climate change increases the wind speeds, rain levels, and storm surges of hurricanes, making them more destructive and deadly . Inequalities in community preparation and recovery from hurricanes negatively impact already-disadvantaged communities. One example of these injustices can be seen in Puerto Rico’s nearly 11-month long delay in electricity restoration following Hurricane Maria. Another example can be seen in how poor and disabled Houston residents were unable to heed Hurricane Harvey evacuation notices , likely a result of not having sufficient resources or capabilities to do so. 
• Pesticide exposure: Pesticides are potent chemical substances used to control insects, rodents, molds, and other organisms that pose a threat to agricultural yields. Pesticide exposure is an environmental justice issue that most affects the United States’ low-income and primarily Hispanic farmworker population . These workers often suffer from disproportionate and chronic exposures to harmful pesticide components such as chlorpyrifos, paraquat, and phorate. Scientists link pesticides to a host of harmful health impacts , and farmworkers have suffered from illnesses ranging from Parkinson’s disease, to blindness, to a long list of cancers . 
• Climate migration: Climate migration describes the forced movement of people from their region of residence because of climate change-related concerns. Climate migration can refer to movement across state or international borders, and can be caused by many dangerous environmental conditions such as sea level rise, drought, frequent hurricanes, deadly wildfires, and more. Because climate change will undoubtedly hit marginalized populations the hardest, those forced to become climate migrants will likely be low-income and minority individuals. 
• Inadequate governmental preparation for natural disasters in disadvantaged communities: With climate change resulting in increasingly severe natural disasters, sufficient planning to ensure human safety is vital. However, in the face of natural disasters, socioeconomic disparities in governmental preparation puts marginalized communities at a much higher risk. For example, this lack of preparation proved immensely fatal during Hurricane Katrina in 2005, where over 1,800 New Orleans residents lost their lives. The improper maintenance of dams and levees in predominantly black neighborhoods allowed them to fail and create massive floods. Additionally, the government did not correctly prepare or implement evacuation procedures, leading to hundreds of avoidable deaths.

Image 2.1 – This image illustrates the noticeable difference in the number of evacuees between wealthier and poorer New Orleans neighborhoods during Hurricane Barry. The French Quarter, a more affluent region of New Orleans, saw higher rates of evacuations in response to a dangerous flood warning (colored in red). Poorer individuals from the Lower Ninth-Ward neighborhoods were unable to evacuate as well (colored in blue), likely due to fewer financial resources for alternative housing and/or a lack of transportation.

Image 2.2 – Created by the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, this image details Minnesota’s ongoing struggle with environmental injustices. Overwhelming data supports the idea that Minnesota’s low-income communities and communities of color experience air pollutant exposure on a higher level than the state average. 

Arguments Against Environmental Justice

As previously discussed, the Environmental Justice Movement aims to create a society where everyone, regardless of socioeconomic status, experiences the same degree of environmental protection and access to environmental benefits. Thus, environmental justice advocates commonly believe citizens have a right to environmental equity, and therefore work to promote both environmental conservation and social justice. However, not everyone agrees with the goals and methods of the Environmental Justice Movement. Critics of environmental justice believe that the resulting increase in government intervention (e.g., stricter regulations) is unnecessary, and only provides politicians with more power to harm and control American citizens. They claim the stricter rules and regulations following environmental justice advancements would inadvertently prevent the creation of jobs and reduce economic output .

Furthermore, because climate change itself is an environmental justice issue that puts disadvantaged groups in an even more vulnerable position, climate change deniers and/or those who dismiss the seriousness of climate change perpetuate these unjust conditions. Denying or diminishing the impact of humans on the global climate can promote environmentally harmful activities such as fossil fuel combustion, and those consequences most affect marginalized communities. In other words, if someone does not view climate change as an issue, they will not have motivation to address it or its environmental justice implications. 

Finally, because environmental injustices widely impact low-income and homeless communities, some are hesitant to offer forms of aid and protection as they believe poverty is simply a result of one’s work ethic . They attribute economic success to persistence, grit, and effort, and economic deprivation to laziness, substance abuse, and low moral values. External factors and other uncontrollable circumstances are usually considered less relevant to economic circumstances. As a result, some believe that those disproportionately burdened by poor environmental conditions are either deserving of their current circumstances, or are simply not doing enough to improve them.

Appendix 1 provides a description of key terms relating to environmental justice. For those new to the field of environmental justice, it can be helpful to either read Appendix 1 in advance or refer to it while reading the report. 

Further Reading

• https://furmancenter.org/files/NYUFurmanCenter_HousingInTheFloodplain_May2017.pdf
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901121001015
• https://inequality.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/media/_media/pdf/key_issues/Environment_policy.pdf
• https://psci.princeton.edu/tips/2020/8/15/racial-disparities-and-climate-change
• https://earthjustice.org/blog/2021-march/overlooked-connections-between-black-injustice-and-environmentalism

Historical Overview

The Historical Overview section begins with an analysis of European colonization’s influences on today’s environmental injustices, continues with descriptions of early conservation movements hostile to indigenous peoples, describes increasing attention to civil rights and environmental issues during the mid-20th century, and concludes with a discussion of modern environmental discourse and its resulting social movements. 

15th century-19th century: European Arrival, Colonization, and Racism

European colonization of lands now known as the Americas continues to greatly influence the way many Americans treat the natural environment, as well as one another. The beliefs held by many early European settlers persisted across several centuries and created a tradition of racism and anti-environment sentiments that have contributed to, and continue to exacerbate, environmental injustices. 

Indigenous peoples throughout North America give deep spiritual, social, economic, and cultural significance to their traditional lands. Viewing themselves as a part of nature rather than separate from it, native groups sought to protect the environment and ensure proper and sustainable management practices. For example, indigenous groups recognized the importance of fires in certain ecosystems, and would often carry out strategic land burnings to promote nutrient cycling, foster ecological health, and prevent uncontrollable wildfires. 

Unlike indigenous peoples, however, European colonizers believed that humans were separate from nature, and that nature was something to be conquered, commodified, and exploited . European settlers’ disregard for sustainable indigenous practices led to severe environmental degradation that persists today. Overfishing and overhunting of many wildlife species led to severe population declines and/or extinctions . Aggressive wildfire suppression over centuries results in increasingly destructive fires fueled by years of plant debris accumulation. Widespread deforestation reduced the United States forest cover by hundreds of millions of acres , and exacerbated climate change by decreasing carbon sequestration rates.

Additionally, racist beliefs held by European colonizers perpetuated the idea that certain races and ethnicities are inferior and less deserving of dignified lifestyles. Natives faced cruelty and violence at the hands of European colonizers, such as massacres, forced removal from their ancestral homelands, forced cultural assimilation , mass starvations via food supply limitations, and more. Today, those anti-indigenous beliefs have translated into many native groups being subjected to some of the worst environmental conditions in the nation. Major concerns on native lands include abandoned and contaminated uranium mines, leaking oil-transportation pipelines , disparities in clean water access , and air pollution , to name a few. However, European colonizers’ racism extended past indigenous groups and also included a variety of other ethnicities.

Another major manifestation of European settlers’ racism is seen in the enslavement of Africans. Selling human beings as property to be exploited for labor severely dehumanized enslaved individuals. Treated as sub-human, enslaved Africans were often subjected to notoriously poor conditions at the hands of both slave-owners and many white community members. The end of slavery in the mid-1800’s was not the end of racism against black individuals, as discriminatory beliefs against African Americans passed down from generation to generation still permeated many aspects of American life . Today, one example of continued racism against black communities can be seen in the variety of environmental injustices they face. In comparison to white communities, black communities are 75% more likely to be located near oil and gas refineries, are more likely to live in regions with uncontrolled toxic waste , and are at a higher risk of developing air pollution-related illnesses such as asthma. Furthermore, African Americans own significantly less wealth than non-Hispanic white individuals, experience higher rates of food insecurity, and are more economically vulnerable to natural disasters . The environmental inequities faced by black communities come in many forms, and many are rooted in the racism they have experienced for centuries. In short, hundreds of years of European colonization and racism has played a major role in many of the environmental injustices observable today.  

Image 3.1 : This image contains information on the Dakota Access Pipeline, an underground oil transportation line that spans approximately 1200 miles through 4 different states. This pipeline created significant controversy due to its likelihood of contaminating the environment and the water supplies many Indigenous tribes rely on. This image details how close the pipeline runs to various Native reservations, which puts their health at risk. 

19th Century-early 20th Century: Early Conservation Movement and the Rise of Anti-Asian Discrimination

The mid-19th century marked the beginning of the American conservation movement, a period of time where many advancements towards wilderness preservation took place. Prominent voices of this time period included President Theodore Roosevelt , Henry David Thoreau , and John Muir . Conservationists of this time period sought to protect nature’s scenic beauty. Many of the protected areas established during the early American conservation movement still stand today, such as Yosemite National Park, Mesa Verde National Park, and the Grand Canyon National Park. These protected areas not only allow wildlife species to thrive within their boundaries, they also foster environmental stewardship amongst the American public and provide valuable ecosystem services such as water and air purification. 

However, even when advances were made towards environmental preservation, those efforts were largely harmful to indigenous peoples, as they tended to exclude and displace these groups from their ancestral lands. Native groups were often quickly and violently removed from their homes, or pushed out over several decades. For example, in 1886 the United States Army forcefully gained control of the Yellowstone National Park region and used violent measures to discourage Natives from returning. In 1895 the Blackfeet tribe, faced with starvation from the US government’s widespread buffalo killings and insufficient rations , sold 800,000 acres of their reservation in order to purchase food and supplies for their people. By 1897, that land was designated as a forest reserve, and was later used to establish Glacier National park in 1910. John Muir, one of the most prominent faces of the early conservation movement, stated that indigenous peoples “ have no right place in the landscape .” Early conservation efforts were almost exclusively made with the intent to benefit white, middle- and upper-class citizens. 

Anti-Asian discrimination also became more prevalent during the latter half of the 19th century as more Asians immigrated to America to pursue job opportunities. Their early contributions were vital in aiding the country’s development , as they worked as farmers, miners, fishermen, railroad constructors, and factory workers. Throughout their long history of settlement in the United States, however, Asian Americans have continuously faced labor exploitation , exclusion , violence , xenophobia , and many other forms of inequities. The legacy of early anti-Asian racism still harms today’s Asian communities in a number of ways, including environmental injustices . To name a few examples, Asian Americans often live in areas with uncontrolled and dangerous waste sites , work in overcrowded and chemical-laden garment factories , and face greater cancer risks from air pollution than white individuals. Although environmental injustices against Asians are under-researched and often under-discussed, it is nevertheless important to acknowledge the inequities they face. 

Mid-20th Century: Civil Rights Movement and the Modern American Conservation Movement

The modern conservation movement of the 1960’s and onwards was another important era for environmental policy. This era saw increasing attention and political energy centered around the public and ecological health effects of various human activities such as pollution and chemical use. Unlike the early conservation movement which predominantly focused on natural resource protection for aesthetic and recreational purposes, this movement also centered around less-apparent human and ecological health implications. 

In 1962, Rachel Carson published Silent Spring , a now-famous book exposing the dangerous environmental and human health effects of widespread pesticide usage, something once thought to be relatively harmless. Carson dedicates most of the book to discussing the environmental effects , such as bioaccumulation, and how pesticides cause significantly more wildlife deaths than those they intend to kill. She also examines cases of human poisoning from pesticides, such as a physician who experienced permanent nerve damage after a year of using a lawn pesticide. The public outcry following Silent Spring ’s publication served as one major catalyst for stronger pieces of environmental legislation, and a “Golden Age” of environmental policy followed. Many strong environmental laws, agencies, and policies were created between the 1960’s and 1970’s , including the Clean Air Act of 1963, the Clean Water Act of 1972, and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. The EPA was also established in December of 1970.

While this time period was marked by major environmental protection efforts, many policymakers had not yet understood that the burden of unhealthy environmental conditions were disproportionately placed onto marginalized communities. The country was still grappling with basic civil rights concerns such as segregation, disenfranchisement, and legalized racism. 

The civil rights movement of the 1960’s was notable for many reasons , such as securing voting rights for black individuals, prohibiting segregation, and increasing economic opportunities for African Americans. While it did not directly evolve into today’s environmental justice movement, the civil rights movement paved the way for environmental justice discourse by emphasizing the public health dangers faced by communities of color.

1980’s to the Present: Environmental Justice Movement

The 1980’s marked the beginning of the modern environmental justice movement. Coherent discourse of environmental justice began in the United States when Dr. Robert Bullard , now known as the “father of environmental justice” began studying how waste disposal sites were distributed across Houston, Texas. His initial beliefs that the placement of these sites were racially motivated were later confirmed. Bullard discovered that the vast majority of waste dumps and incinerators were located in black communities, despite African Americans only accounting for 25% of the city’s population. This prompted Bullard to become a leading academic and activist campaigner against environmental racism, helping to shape our understanding of environmental injustice and combat its many sources.

Environmental justice was not immediately recognized by policymakers and members of the general public; grassroots efforts by early environmental justice advocates led, and still lead, the Environmental Justice Movement we know today. Pioneered primarily by people of color who saw first-hand the public health dangers posed by poor environmental quality in their communities, they sought to find solutions that would ensure the health of themselves and their loved ones. 

One of the earliest and most important fights for environmental justice occurred in 1982 during a nonviolent sit-in against Warren County’s PCB Landfill. PCB stands for polychlorinated biphenyls, which are highly toxic organic compounds known to cause birth defects, skin ailments, cancer, and more. North Carolina planned to dispose of 120 million pounds of soil contaminated with PCB in Warren County, a region of the state housing predominantly poor, African American families. Concerned for the health of their community , hundreds of peaceful protesters fought against these plans. Although the protest was ultimately unsuccessful, it spurred the beginning of the Environmental Justice Movement and motivated citizens to examine other instances of environmental injustices across the country. 

Throughout the years, the Environmental Justice Movement has had a large number of notable successes, such as national policy changes and strong pieces of environmental legislation. Now a mainstream movement, many local, state, and federal governments actively work towards achieving its goals. The Environmental Justice Movement also constantly evolves, with today’s movement now tackling new types of environmental injustices and embracing the fight against climate change . Although a lack of environmental justice awareness caused generations of marginalized communities to suffer, many are hopeful the future will continue to bring even more positive change. 

• https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice/environmental-justice-timeline
• https://www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Global-Warming/Reports/TribalLands_ExtremeWeather_Report.ashx
• https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/rachel-carson-silent-spring.html
• https://www.ucc.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/toxic-wastes-and-race-at-twenty-1987-2007.pdf
• https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2020/09/22/climate-change-environmental-justice/
• https://www.intermountainhistories.org/tours/show/30
• https://www.humanrightspulse.com/mastercontentblog/environmentalism-and-the-legacy-of-colonialism

Current Policies and Challenges

The Current Policies and Challenges section will discuss existing environmental justice policies on a local, state, and national level, examine the ever-changing challenges posed by worsening wealth inequalities, climate change repercussions, and conflicting political party stances on environmental justice issues. 

Local Policies

Over the last few decades, elected officials on local, state, and federal levels have tried to tackle environmental injustices through legislation and policy changes. Policies on environmental justice are most varied at the local level, and have brought about significant change within their respective communities. 

Local policies and laws aimed at combating environmental justice issues are predominantly found in large coastal cities. Although these policies do exist in other areas of the United States, municipalities along the continental coastlines tend to have larger, more established environmental justice communities, as well as political environments that are more accepting of environmental justice reforms. Municipalities typically work towards environmental justice using six strategies :

• Bans: Banning specific land uses or industries is a direct and effective way to prevent harmful human activities that put humans and the environment at risk. For example, California’s Oakland region issued Ordinance 13385 in 2016 which stopped coal loading, unloading, storage, stockpiling, and handling within the city. This benefited environmental justice communities who would have faced the greatest environmental burdens and health repercussions from coal facilities. 
• Environmental Justice Policies and Programs: Establishing policies and instituting programs that affect local decision-making are another way municipalities further environmental justice. An example can be seen in San Francisco’s Environmental Justice Program, which includes a diverse set of steps and programs to promote environmental equity within the city. Those include the creation of parks and open-space areas, a Community Health Plan, and millions of dollars in community grants to nonprofit groups helping vulnerable individuals. 
• Review Processes: Before a proposed urban development project (e.g. buildings, roads, etc.) can be constructed and put into operation, review processes must first be carried out in order to assess its environmental impact. Municipalities aiming to reduce local environmental injustices often add an environmental justice component to the review process, ensuring that new developments do not disproportionately impact communities already burdened by poor environmental quality. For example, Cincinnati’s 2009 Environmental Justice Ordinance states that all proposed development projects within the city must first obtain an environmental justice permit from the Cincinnati Office of Environmental Quality before operation can begin.
• Proactive Planning: Anticipating future city development requires special foresight and planning. Some municipalities address environmental justice by creating comprehensive guides and goals that promote the development of cities in an environmentally equitable way. For example, Eugene, Oregon’s 2013 Envision Eugene Development Plan guides policies for land use planning that consider environmental justice goals.
• Targeting Existing Land Uses: Environmental injustices are commonly a result of past permitting of toxic facilities, decades of economic disinvestment, and poor enforcement of environmental standards. It is relatively easier to plan appropriately and prevent environmental injustices from occurring than to deal with existing land use issues. Sometimes, the environmental burdens faced by marginalized communities are so difficult to tackle through land use and zoning approaches that other methods become necessary. Instead, municipalities can utilize targeted mitigation efforts such as the phasing out of harmful land uses, ensuring stronger code enforcement, and creating buffer zones.
• Public Health Codes and Policies: Cities adopt and enforce codes that protect citizens from various forms of pollution. These forms of pollution include soil water, and air pollution, and can also include other forms such as noise pollution, odor pollution, and light pollution. One example of cities using health codes to advance environmental equity can be seen in San Francisco’s Health Code Article 38 . For new residential construction projects located in areas with poor air quality (commonly areas with large minority and low-income communities), this code protects public health by requiring the installation of stronger ventilation. 

Image 4.1 : This image from the Natural Resources Defense Council highlights the diversity found in local policies that work towards environmental justice. Although this image is not comprehensive of all local environmental justice policies within the United States, it shows the presence of bans, proactive planning, and other types of reform in various parts of the country. 

State Policies 

State-level involvement to address environmental injustice can take similarly diverse forms as those seen in local governments. Statewide bans on certain activities, strengthened review processes, establishments of environmental justice programs, and more, are commonly seen in states committed to furthering environmental justice. Some examples of states promoting environmental justice include:

• New York: New York’s 2019 Climate Leadership and Community Protection Act is one of the world’s most ambitious climate laws, and a monumental environmental justice effort . As written in the law, actions aimed at reducing the state’s greenhouse gas emissions “should prioritize the safety and health of disadvantaged communities, control potential regressive impacts of future climate change mitigation and adaptation policies on these communities, and prioritize the allocation of public investments in these areas.” 
• Oregon: In 1997, Oregon’s Department of Environmental Quality adopted an Environmental Justice Policy in order to ensure environmental equity within the state. Some of the principles outlined within the policy included contaminated land cleanups in marginalized communities, encouraging public feedback for the Oregon Environmental Quality Commission, and supporting local environmental justice groups. 
• California : In 2016, California became the first state to require environmental justice considerations within general city plans . It also provides environmental justice communities with financial benefits taken from the state’s cap-and-trade program on greenhouse gases. 

Figure 4.2: This image, taken from a 2021 study on state trends in environmental justice legislation, details which states adopted, or are attempting to adopt, laws that promote environmental justice. Although less than half of all states have fully enacted environmental justice regulations and policies, many others have attempted to do so as well. 

National Policies

The federal response to environmental justice issues has not historically been as direct and ambitious as policies found on state and local levels. Environmental justice was first federally validated through Executive Order (EO) 12898 , which was signed by President Clinton in 1994. This order instructed federal agencies to identify environmental injustices, implement environmental justice strategies, and promote political participation in decision-making processes. Among EO 12898’s more notable contributions towards environmental equity was aligning the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) with environmental justice goals. Although its initial creation in 1969 did not discuss environmental justice, NEPA now strongly encourages federal agencies to consider environmental justice implications before taking any major federal actions or activities. 

More recently, the Biden Administration has made strides towards a more environmentally equitable country that is unmatched by past presidencies. In order to protect communities with less political power, Biden has guided agencies to direct funding for environmental justice advancements, incorporated environmental justice goals into environmental reviews, and more. Biden has embraced environmental justice in a way no prior administration has, and many are hopeful that his steps will continue to reduce the environmental burdens experienced by the country’s vulnerable communities. 

Challenges: Climate Change

Climate change poses new environmental justice challenges that disproportionately impact already-vulnerable communities. Oftentimes, those who produce the fewest greenhouse gas emissions experience climate change’s greatest risks . Some of the new climate change-related challenges include:

• Higher wildfire risks
• Extreme high heat levels
• Greater heatwave frequency
• Greater hurricane severity
• Increased flooding severity
• Extreme low temperature levels
• Reduced agricultural yields
• Stronger droughts
• Rising sea levels
• Increasingly dangerous winter storms

Challenges: Wealth Inequality

The wealth divide among upper-income families and middle- and lower-income families has risen sharply over the last few decades. Increasingly severe income inequalities between different classes of Americans puts many citizens at an environmental disadvantage. As previously discussed, being low-income or homeless makes one more likely to experience poor environmental conditions such as polluted air, water, and soil. Additionally, as the wealth divide pushes more Americans further into poverty, it reduces their ability to access the decision-making process that shapes the environment in which they live.

Figure 4.3 : This image, taken from a 2020 Pew Research Center study, details the increasing wealth gap between American economic classes. Over the last few decades, it is evident that upper income families hold significantly more wealth than years prior, meanwhile lower and middle income families have seen little to no increase.

Challenges: Political Party Conflict

The United States is a hyperpolarized nation, with Democrats and Republicans often finding themselves at opposite ends of many conversations, including those involving environmental justice. According to a 2014 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center, the last few decades have seen more Democrats align with consistently liberal beliefs, and Republicans with consistently conservative beliefs. Partisan animosity is also on the rise , with more Democrats and Republicans harboring highly negative opinions of the opposing party. This hyperpolarization is not only apparent among everyday American citizens; it is especially evident amongst the elected officials who shape the country’s laws and policies. 

Donald Trump, America’s 45th President, was known for his denial of climate change . His administration undermined efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions by withdrawing from the 2015 Paris Climate Accord , weakening greenhouse gas regulations, and aiming to revive the coal mining industry . Furthermore, the Trump Administration reversed environmental policies which greatly affected low-income communities. Some of these examples include:

• Restricting funding for the EPA, including its environmental justice programs
• Relaxing coal ash regulations under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Because power plants that produce toxic coal ash are usually located in environmental justice communities, this decision had negative implications for vulnerable residents nearby. 
• Removing the ban on chlorpyrifos, a pesticide with harmful health impacts that primarily impact low-income farm workers.
• Cutting funding for environmental law enforcement, creating opportunities for environmental injustices to go unnoticed and unmitigated. 

In contrast, the current President Joe Biden expressed a strong commitment to delivering environmental justice early in his presidency. Within the first 90 days of being sworn into office, he:

• Supported legislation funding environmental justice programs  
• Signed Executive Order 14008 to address climate change and environmental justice issues
• Created two White House councils in order to address environmental justice implementation
• Appointed Michael Regan as head of the EPA, who aligned all EPA offices with environmental justice goals

As evidenced by the last two administrations’ stances on climate change and environmental justice, Democrats and Republicans generally do not share similar beliefs and priorities regarding these issues. Without bipartisan agreements and cooperation, progress towards environmental equity may become increasingly difficult to achieve. 

Image 4.4 – This image illustrates how the American public has become increasingly politically polarized over the last few decades. Beliefs shared by members of both parties became more divided, with Democrats expressing more consistently liberal opinions and Republicans expressing more consistently conservative opinions. 

• https://dc.law.utah.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1173&context=scholarship
• https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2020/01/09/trends-in-income-and-wealth-inequality/
• https://www.nrdc.org/stories/global-climate-change-what-you-need-know
• https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/local-policies-environmental-justice-national-scan-tishman-201902.pdf
• https://www.waste360.com/legislation-regulation/state-trends-environmental-justice-legislation

Policy Alternatives and Reforms

The Policy Alternatives and Reforms section discusses recent and ongoing efforts to reduce environmental inequities in the United States, and suggestions for how to adequately address environmental injustices moving forward. 

Recent and Ongoing Efforts Within the United States

As of September 2020, New Jersey is now home to one of the United States’ strongest pieces of legislation combating environmental injustices. In September 2020, Governor Phil Murphy signed Senate Bill 232 . This bill made it mandatory for certain facilities to undergo a comprehensive review of public health impacts on overburdened communities before an operational permit can be issued. Because this law ensures that the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection will deny permits to facilities who disproportionately harm vulnerable communities, it is a large and historic step towards environmental equity within the state. 

In March 2021, Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker signed a Climate Law aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and protecting overburdened populations. This new legislation seeks to achieve Net Zero emissions by 2050, and mandates environmental impact assessments for any project that may affect air quality in vulnerable communities.

Six Georgia Representatives recently introduced House Bill 432 in February 2021. If approved, this law would be Georgia’s first-ever piece of legislation that directly addresses environmental inequity. The bill aims to create Georgia’s first Environmental Justice Commission, a group of 22 individuals from diverse backgrounds who analyze facilities across the state and their environmental justice impacts. The Commission would also publicize their findings, and guide legislative efforts it deems necessary to mitigate the burdens faced by disadvantaged communities.

New Jersey Senator Cory Booker recently reintroduced a Congressional bill looking to advance environmental justice goals on a federal level. In August 2021, Booker reintroduced the Environmental Justice Act, stating that “ clean air and clean water shouldn’t be luxuries for the privileged ”. The bill seeks to advance environmental justice by codifying and expanding EO 12898, requiring cumulative impact analyses under the Clean Water Act and Clean Air Act, Congressionally authorizing environmental justice grant programs, and more. 

More Potential Reforms

Combating Food Deserts/Food Insecurity

• Supporting community gardens and farmers markets for low-income individuals facing food insecurity
• Improving public transportation to provide rural and/or car-less individuals with better access to grocery stores
• Building affordable, government-owned grocery stores selling fresh produce in regions with food deserts

Preparing for Climate Change-Related Disasters

• Relocating low-income housing projects away from regions especially vulnerable to flooding
• Ensuring proper evacuation of environmental justice communities when faced with wildfire risks, hurricane warnings, etc. through improved public transportation and other evacuation assistance programs
• Providing housing for disadvantaged individuals facing severe property damage and/or loss following natural disasters

Monetary Support

• Provide financial compensation to residents facing health consequences associated with environmental injustices
• Reduce poverty and financially uplift disadvantaged communities
• Financially aid the relocation of vulnerable individuals and families living in environmentally harmful/risky regions (e.g. within a close proximity to waste incinerators)

Cleaning Contaminated Environments

• Prioritizing environmental cleanups within disadvantaged communities
• Repurposing abandoned/underutilized urban lots to create green spaces in disadvantaged communities

Valuing Marginalized Voices

• Mandating discussions with tribal governments/indigenous communities before making decisions that affect their lands

Spreading Awareness

• Encouraging schools to educate students on environmental justice

Reflection Questions

• How important is environmental inequity to you? Would you vote for a candidate who did not share your views on this issue?
• Can you name any instances where environmental injustices impacted your life/the life of someone you know?
• Are you satisfied with the level of attention and political energy environmental justice currently receives? Would you like to see more/less of it?
• Do you believe one answer to environmental injustice is increased government intervention and creating more environmental regulations? 
• Would you consider environmental justice to be in the top tier of your political priorities? 
• How has your opinion on the importance of environmental justice as a policy issue changed, if at all?

Make Your Voice Heard

Taking action to promote environmental equity does not have to be a daunting task. In fact, there are many ways one can stay involved and bring about meaningful change.

• The EPA’s environmental justice resource webpage : Includes a long list of websites you can visit to learn more essential information relating to environmental justice.
• The EPA’s EJSCREEN mapping tool is one you can use to explore environmental injustices within your community and beyond. 
• The EJAtlas is a tool you can use to research documented environmental justice issues around the world. 
• Educate others: Help spread the message of environmental justice by sharing this page and additional ACE resources, such as the environmental justice brief .
• Register to vote
• Find your House Representative 
• Find your Senators 
• Sample email: Dear [Their name], My name is [Your name] and I am a resident of [your district/state]. I am very concerned about ongoing environmental injustices and I want to see concrete steps to effectively work towards a more environmentally equitable future. The main reforms I would like to see are [list your main issues, for example: making environmental justice analyses mandatory, adequately informing marginalized community members of the environmental risks they face, etc.]. Thank you for your time, and I hope you will take the matter seriously.
• President Joe Biden
• Massachusetts Senator Ed Markey
• New Jersey Senator Cory Booker
• Illinois Senator Tammy Duckworth
• California Representative Raul Ruiz  
• Contact the EPA about environmental justice concerns
• Report environmental violations that you or someone you know has encountered
• WE ACT for Environmental Justice
• Environmental Justice Foundation
• Climate Justice Alliance
• Indigenous Environmental Network
• Communities for a Better Environment

Appendix 1: Key Terms

1.1 Environmental Justice

Environmental justice can take on one of two meanings. First, it is commonly used to describe a field of study concerned with the disproportionate environmental burdens and risks experienced by disadvantaged communities. Researchers studying environmental justice often investigate how land use plans, pollution, emergency preparedness, climate change, and other environmental issues unfairly afflict the country’s most vulnerable individuals.

Second, environmental justice can also be used to describe the growing social movement aimed at reducing environmental inequities. The Environmental Justice Movement works to promote and achieve both social justice and environmental conservation goals. Advocates also fight for improvements in the social participation and political engagement of marginalized groups. Greater input from disadvantaged communities ensures that their voices are heard by policymakers, and allows them to shape the decisions that directly affect their lives.

1.2 Environmental Racism

Environmental racism is a concept that stems from the study of environmental justice. Environmental racism falls under the scope of environmental injustices, but is a more specific term that describes environmental inequities arising from one’s race. Dr. Robert Bullard, the father of environmental justice, defines environmental racism as “any policy, practice, or directive that differentially affects or disadvantages (whether intended or unintended) individuals, groups, or communities based on race or color.”

1.3 Climate Change

Climate change describes the long-term changes to Earth’s wind, precipitation, temperature patterns. Current observable changes in the global climate are largely attributable to human activity, such as fossil fuel combustion and other greenhouse gas emissions. These gases enter the Earth’s atmosphere where they absorb heat and radiate it back towards Earth’s surface. Climate change contributes to rising global temperatures, stronger heat waves, drought, sea level rise, destructive hurricanes, and a host of other negative effects. Climate change is an environmental justice issue because its resulting environmental challenges will disproportionately impact already-vulnerable communities.

1.4 Reforms

Political reforms are attempts to improve systems, policies, institutions, or practices that are seen as unsatisfactory. Many environmental justice advocates fight for political reforms that reduce the environmental burdens and risks experienced by disadvantaged communities. 

1.5 Grassroots Movement

Grassroots movements are political campaigns organized by everyday people. Through the use of collective action, grassroots groups fight for political change on the local, state, federal, and even international level. Grassroots groups in support of environmental justice continuously work to improve government regulations, environmental policies, and political participation amongst underrepresented groups.

1.6 Colonialism Colonialism refers to the violent political and economic control of one country/territory over another. Colonialism aims to exploit dominated regions economically and occupy them with settlers. During colonialism, colonizers often force their religion, culture, language, and economic systems upon the colonized. Today, the United States’ legacy of colonialism continues to harm indigenous communities and the lands they inhabited for millennia

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Nih environmental justice initiative.

September 13, 2024

NIH Environmental Justice Scholars Program Informational Webinar

Webinar Date/Time: Friday, September 13, 2024, at 11:00 AM - 12:00 PM EDT

The NIH established the Environmental Justice (EJ) Scholars Program to learn from research scholars, academics, public health and health care professionals, and EJ leaders at community-based organizations with the goal of advancing EJ efforts at various Institutes, Centers, and Offices across the NIH.

In this 60-minute webinar, interested applicants will learn more about the newly established EJ Scholars Program, including goals, eligibility, activities, NIH interest statements, and application materials. The program team will respond to common questions that they have already received. There will be ample Question and Answer time for attendees to ask questions to the program team. In addition, when you register for the event, you have the option to submit questions you would like to have answered.  

Register Today (registration required): https://nih.zoomgov.com/meeting/register/vJIsc-mvqTIuG8DDHzQMhd6K1Kp_qKAxo8M#/registration

OMB No.: 0925-0740 Expiration Date: 09/30/2025 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 3 minutes per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. An agency may not conduct or sponsor, and a person is not required to respond to, a collection of information unless it displays a currently valid OMB control number. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden to: NIH, Project Clearance Branch, 6705 Rockledge Drive, MSC 7974, Bethesda, MD 20892-7974, ATTN: PRA (0925-0740). Do not return the completed form to this address.

Privacy Act Statement  Name, email, and affiliation are primarily collected for communications and program planning. If this information is not provided, you will not be able to participate in this webinar. It is optional to include job title, submit questions, and opt in to receiving future program email communications. The webinar will be recorded, capturing images and audio (it will be optional to use camera or microphone), and shared on YouTube. Collection of this information is authorized under 42 U.S.C. 203, 241, 289l-1 and 44 U.S.C. 3101, and Section 301 and 493 of the Public Health Service Act. The Privacy Act System of Records Notices (SORNs) that cover collection of this information are  09-25-0156 Records of Participants in Programs and Respondents in Surveys Used to Evaluate Programs of the Public Health Service, HHS/PHS/NIH/OD  and  09-90-1901 HHS Correspondence, Comment, Customer Service, and Contact List Records .

This page last reviewed on September 3, 2024

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