case studies research in education

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Research Guides

Case Studies

Dee Degner; Amani Gashan; and Natalia Ramirez Casalvolone

Description

Creswell and Poth (2018) define case study as a strategy that involves the study of an issue explored through one or more cases within a bounded system (i.e., a setting or a context), a methodology, a type of design in qualitative research, or an object of study, as well as a product of the inquiry.

Flyvbjerg (2011) defines case study as an intensive analysis of an individual unit (as a person or community) stressing developmental factors in relation to the environment. Case study methodology aims to describe one or more cases in depth. It examines how something may be occurring in a given case or cases and typically uses multiple data sources to gather information. Creswell and Poth also argue that the use of different sources of information is to provide depth to the case description. Case study methodology aims to describe one or more cases in depth. It examines how something may be occurring in a given case or cases and typically uses multiple data sources to gather the information. This is the first step of data analysis in a qualitative case study. Following this, researchers must decide whether there is a case study to analyze, determine the boundaries of their case study and its context, decide whether they wish to use single or multiple case studies, and explore approaches to analyzing themes and articulating findings. Creswell and Poth (2018) are an ideal resource for defining case study, learning about its parts, and executing case study methodology.

Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research: choosing among five approaches (4th ed.) . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2011). Case study. In N. K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (pp. 301-316 ). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Key Research Books and Articles on Case Study Methodology

Ashley, L. D. (2017). Case study research. In R. Coe, M. Waring, L. Hedges & J. Arthur (Eds), Research methods & methodologies in education (2nd ed., pp. 114-121). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

This edited text discusses several research methods in education. Dr. Laura Day Ashley, a professor at the University of Birmingham in the United Kingdom, contributes a chapter on case study research. Using research on how private and public schools impact education in developing countries, she describes case studies and gives an example.

Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. Qualitative Report, 13 (4), 544-559.  http://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1573&context=tqr

The authors of this study presented an account of the qualitative case study methodology that can provide beneficial tools for researchers to explore any phenomenon under study within its context. The aim of this study was to guide novice researchers in understanding the required information for the design and implementation of any qualitative case study research project. This paper offers an account of the types of case study designs along with practical recommendations to determine the case under study, write the research questions, develop propositions, and bind the case. It also includes a discussion of data resources and the triangulation procedure in case study research.

Creswell, J. W. & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research: choosing among five approaches (4th ed.) . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.

The authors are both recognized academics in the field of qualitative research; Dr. Creswell has authored many articles and 26 books on topics such as mixed-methods research, qualitative research, and research design, and Dr. Poth has written more than 30 peer reviewed journal articles and was a guest co-editor at the International Journal of Qualitative Methods. The book thoroughly reviews and compares five qualitative and inquiry designs, including research, phenomenological research, grounded theory research, ethnographic research, and case study research. Chapter 4, which is titled Five Qualitative Approaches, gives a thorough description and explanation of what a case study research contemplates. It discusses its definition and origins, its features, the types of case study procedures to follow when doing a case study, and the challenges faced during case study development. In the appendix, on page 119, the authors offer an example of a case study and a question that can be used for discussion. The entire book has pertinent information for both novice and experienced researchers in qualitative research. It covers all parts of the research process, from posing a framework to data collection, data analysis, and writing up.

Yin, R. K. (2016). Qualitative research from start to finish . New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Yin is the CEO of an applied research firm. He has authored numerous articles in many fields, including education. He also authored Case Study Research, which is now in its Sixth Edition. This book uses three approaches (practical, inductive, and adaptive) to highlight many important aspects of Qualitative Research. He provides a definition of case study and references how case study differs from other types of research.

Recent Dissertations Using Case Study Methodology

Clapp, F. N. (2017). Teachers’ and researchers’ beliefs of learning and the use of learning progressions (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 10261732)

This study from Colorado State University was designed to identify the beliefs and discourse that both the Learning Progressions (LP) developers and the intended LP implementers held around student learning, teaching, and learning progressions. The study’s research questions were examined through the use of an instrumental case study. The researchers were deliberate in applying theory and study phenomena in their context, as it investigated teachers’ practices in the context of their respective classrooms.

Applying theory to the study phenomena, this study provided insight into the relationship between LP models and teachers’ perceptions about how students learn content in a particular context. The data was collected using interviews with teachers who participated in a year-long teacher-in-residence program. Researchers and content experts who conceptualized the LP were also interviewed to study the impact that it had on participants’ perceptions of the LP and any teacher reported changes in their respective classrooms. The findings of this study inform literature on both science teacher professional development and LP’s theory to practice.

Ruiz, A. M. (2011). Teachers and English language learners experiencing the secondary mainstream classroom: A case study (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 3471646)

This study from Georgia State University answered the following questions: 1) How does a secondary mainstream teacher experience the phenomenon of the inclusion of ELLs in a mainstream content area classroom? 2) How do ELLs experience the phenomenon of inclusion within the secondary mainstream content area classrooms? 3) How do the points of interaction between the secondary mainstream teacher, the English language learners, the content and the context shape the experiences of the inclusive classroom?

To comprehend the socio-constructivist learning theory which guided the design of this study, one must begin with understanding the epistemological stance of constructionism. Constructionism is seated within an interpretivist paradigm which asserts that reality does exist outside the realm of human interpretation; rather, it is human interpretation which makes meaning of this reality. The researcher applied Denzin and Lincoln’s (2004) bricoleur approach to this study, as it offered them the opportunity “to piece together a set of representations that is fitted to the specifics of this complex situation in an overlapping series of events” (p. 4). The researcher stated that his worldview shaped his research questions which called for a single case study research design.

Smith, P. H. (2000). Community as resource for minority language learning: A case study of Spanish-English dual-language schooling (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 304578045)

The author studied a school where a dual language (Spanish- English) program was being developed. He focused on the role of the community and the students’ acquisition of Spanish. Through a case study design, his theoretical framework was contemplated under the fields of language planning, language revitalization, and funds of knowledge. The author believed that minority language (Spanish) acquisition could be supported by incorporating local language resources, and in this way undermine the strong influence of the English language. To analyze his data, he went through a triangulation process of participant observation in classrooms, literacy instruction, teacher, parent and community interviews, and document and archival analysis. Findings showed that minority language resources are less often incorporated in the curriculum than those of the language majority. Thus the study suggested that these types of programs should include the funds of knowledge and available resources of the language minority communities.

Internet Resources

Graham R Gibbs. (2012, October 24). Types of Case Study. Parts 1-3 on Case Studies .

This series of videos by Graham R. Gibbs at the University of Huddersfield effectively explains case studies. Some of Gibbs’ books on qualitative research include Qualitative Data Analysis: Explorations with NVivo (2002) and Analyzing Qualitative Data (2018).

Graham R Gibbs. (2012, October 24). Types of Case Study. Part 1 on Case Studies . Retrieved from https://youtu.be/gQfoq7c4UE4

The first part of this series is an attempt to define case studies. Dr. Gibbs argued that it is a contemporary study of one person, one event, or one company. This contemporary phenomenon cab be studied in its social life context by using multiple sources of evidence.

When completing a case study, we either examine what affects our case and what effect it has on others, or we study the relationship between “the case” and between the other factors. In a typical case study approach,  you choose one site to do your work and then you collect information by talking to people, using observations, interviews, or focus groups at that location. Case study is typically descriptive, meaning “you write what you see”, but it could also be exploratory or explanatory.

Types of Case Study:

• Individual case study: One single person
• Set of individual case studies: Looking at three single practices
• Community studies: Many people in one community
• Social group studies: The case representing social phenomenon “how something is defined in a social position”
• Studies of organizations and institutions: The study of “election, ford, or fielding”
• Studies of events, roles, and relationships: Family relationships

Graham R Gibbs. (2012, October 24). Planning a case study. Part 2 on Case Studies . Retrieved from https://youtu.be/o1JEtXkFAr4

The second part of this series explains how to plan a case study. Dr. Gibbs argues that when planning to conduct a case study, we should think about the conceptual framework, research questions, research design, sampling/replication strategy, methods and instruments, and analysis of data.

For any type of research, a good source of inspiration could be either from personal experiences or from talking with people about a certain topic that we can adopt.

The Conceptual Framework: Displays the important features of a case study; shows the relationships between the features; makes assumptions explicit; is selective, iterative, and based on theory; takes account of previous research; includes personal orientations, and includes overlap and inconsistency.

Research questions should:

• Be consistent with your conceptual framework.
• Cover conceptual framework.
• Be structured and focused.
• Be answerable.
• Form a basis for data collection.

Graham R Gibbs. (2012, October 24). Replication or Single Cases. Part 3 of 3 on Case Studies . https://youtu.be/b5CYZRyOlys

In the final part of the three videos of case study, Dr. Gibbs examines case study designs and variations that are possible. He also discusses replication strategies which help give the studies reliability and test to see if they can be generalized. Dr. Gibbs highlights the methods and instruments used, how to analyze the data, and concludes with problems of validity you may encounter and common pitfalls of case study research. In summary, case studies can involve gathering a lot of data and you can start analyzing the data while collecting and going through it.

shirlanne84. (2014). Different types of case study </. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/tWsnvYs9Brs

In this short video (1.49 min.), three kinds of case studies (exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory) are described, as well as rationales for using them. These rationales are as follows:

• Exploratory: If you know nothing about the case.
• Descriptive: When you write what you see, you are describing the situation.
• Explanatory: When you try to understand why things are happening, then you explain them.

Shuttleworth, M. (2008, Apr. 1). Case study research design [website]. Retrieved Feb 20, 2018 from https://explorable.com/case-study-research-design

This is a useful website that provides a guide to almost all of the research methods. It offers a clear explanation about what a case study is, the argument for and against the case study research design, how to design and conduct a case study, and how to analyze the results. This source provides a journey from the introduction of case study until the analysis of your data.

Case Studies Copyright © 2019 by Dee Degner; Amani Gashan; and Natalia Ramirez Casalvolone is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Using Case Study in Education Research

• Lorna Hamilton - University of Edinburgh, UK
• Connie Corbett-Whittier - Friends University, Topeka, Kansas
• Description

This book provides an accessible introduction to using case studies. It makes sense of literature in this area, and shows how to generate collaborations and communicate findings.

The authors bring together the practical and the theoretical, enabling readers to build expertise on the principles and practice of case study research, as well as engaging with possible theoretical frameworks. They also highlight the place of case study as a key component of educational research.

With the help of this book, graduate students, teacher educators and practitioner researchers will gain the confidence and skills needed to design and conduct a high quality case study.

Should you need additional information or have questions regarding the HEOA information provided for this title, including what is new to this edition, please email  [email protected] . Please include your name, contact information, and the name of the title for which you would like more information. For information on the HEOA, please go to  http://ed.gov/policy/highered/leg/hea08/index.html .

We hope you'll consider this SAGE text. Email us at  [email protected] , or click here to find your  SAGE rep .

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'Drawing on a wide range of their own and others' experiences, the authors offer a comprehensive and convincing account of the value of case study in educational research. What comes across - quite passionately - is the way in which a case study approach can bring to life some of the complexities, challenges and contradictions inherent in educational settings. The book is written in a clear and lively manner and should be an invaluable resource for those teachers and students who are incorporating a case study dimension into their research work' - Ian Menter, Professor of Teacher Education, University of Oxford

'This book is comprehensive in its coverage, yet detailed in its exposition of case study research. It is a highly interactive text with a critical edge and is a useful tool for teaching. It is of particular relevance to practitioner researchers, providing accessible guidance for reflective practice. It covers key matters such as: purposes, ethics, data analysis, technology, dissemination and communities for research. And it is a good read!' - Professor Anne Campbell, formerly of Leeds Metropolitan University

'This excellent book is a principled and theoretically informed guide to case study research design and methods for the collection, analysis and presentation of evidence' -Professor Andrew Pollard, Institute of Educaiton, University of London

This publication provides easy text, giving differing viewpoints to establish definitions for case study research. This book has been recommended to the Fd students to support projects of action research.

This has again been recommended for students on the Foundation Degree and Degree programmes as it is an easy text, providing differing viewpoints to establish definitions for case study research. Additionally recommended on the reading list for the BA programmes to provide a clearer insight into using Case Studies in preschool and school environments.

This is an excellent book - very clear

This text clearly discusses the case study approach and would be useful for both undergraduate and post graduate learners.

An easily accessible text, giving alternative points of view on what case study research actually is and how it might be interpreted at doctoral level.

This is a pleasant read with a number of useful group and individual tasks for students to engage with as they think through designing and doing a project. These tasks for useful not just for case studies but can be adapted as students consider other research designs.

Offers a good understanding of case study research in a clear and accessible manner. A perfect starting point for the researcher new to the case study method and will also offer the experienced researcher some useful tips and insights.

This text is clearly written and argues strongly for using case study in educational research, despite the challenges this approach faces in the dynamic world of shifting research paradigms. Step-by-step guidance from initial ideas through to the reality of undertaking case study in educational research is helpful

The book is written in a practical way, which gives a clear guide for undergraduate students especially for those who are using case study in education research. I will definitely add this book to recommended reading lists.

Preview this book

Sample materials & chapters.

Additional Resource 1

Additional Resource 2

Sample Chapter - Chapter 1

Activity 6.12 Observation 1 p98

Activity 6.12 Observation 2 p98

Activity 6.12 Observation 3 p98

Activity 6.18 Interview pupils

Activity 6.18 Interview schedule 1

Activity 6.19 and 6.20 Questionnaire P110

Activity 6.20 Questionnaire 2 p110

Activity 6.21 Sample interview teachers

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You are here

The Sage website, including online ordering services, may be unavailable due to system maintenance on September 7th between 2:00 am and 8:00 am BST. If you need assistance, please  visit our Contact us page .

Thank you for your patience and we apologise for the inconvenience.

Using Case Study in Education Research

• Lorna Hamilton - University of Edinburgh, UK
• Connie Corbett-Whittier - Friends University, Topeka, Kansas
• Description

The authors bring together the practical and the theoretical, enabling readers to build expertise on the principles and practice of case study research, as well as engaging with possible theoretical frameworks. They also highlight the place of case study as a key component of educational research.

With the help of this book, M-Level students, teacher educators and practitioner researchers will gain the confidence and skills needed to design and conduct a high quality case study.

Dr Lorna Hamilton is a Senior Lecturer in Education Research at the University of Edinburgh. Dr Connie Corbett-Whittier is an Associate Professor of English and Humanities at Friends University, Topeka, Kansas.

'Drawing on a wide range of their own and others' experiences, the authors offer a comprehensive and convincing account of the value of case study in educational research. What comes across - quite passionately - is the way in which a case study approach can bring to life some of the complexities, challenges and contradictions inherent in educational settings. The book is written in a clear and lively manner and should be an invaluable resource for those teachers and students who are incorporating a case study dimension into their research work.' -Ian Menter, Professor of Teacher Education, University of Oxford

'This book is comprehensive in its coverage, yet detailed in its exposition of case study research. It is a highly interactive text with a critical edge and is a useful tool for teaching. It is of particular relevance to practitioner researchers, providing accessible guidance for reflective practice. It covers key matters such as: purposes, ethics, data analysis, technology, dissemination and communities for research. And it is a good read!' -

Professor Anne Campbell, formerly of Leeds Metropolitan University

'This excellent book is a principled and theoretically informed guide to case study research design and methods for the collection, analysis and presentatin of evidence' - Professor Andrew Pollard, Institute of Education, University of London

Research Methods in Education series:

Each book in this series maps the territory of a key research approach or topic in order to help readers progress from beginner to advanced researcher.

Each book aims to provide a definitive, market-leading overview and to present a blend of theory and practice with a critical edge. All titles in the series are written for Master's-level students anywhere and are intended to be useful to the many diverse constituencies interested in research on education and related areas.

Other books in the series:

- Qualitative Research in Education, Atkins and Wallace

- Action Research in Education, McAteer

- Ethnography in Education, Mills and Morton

'Drawing on a wide range of their own and others' experiences, the authors offer a comprehensive and convincing account of the value of case study in educational research. What comes across - quite passionately - is the way in which a case study approach can bring to life some of the complexities, challenges and contradictions inherent in educational settings. The book is written in a clear and lively manner and should be an invaluable resource for those teachers and students who are incorporating a case study dimension into their research work' - Ian Menter, Professor of Teacher Education, University of Oxford

'This book is comprehensive in its coverage, yet detailed in its exposition of case study research. It is a highly interactive text with a critical edge and is a useful tool for teaching. It is of particular relevance to practitioner researchers, providing accessible guidance for reflective practice. It covers key matters such as: purposes, ethics, data analysis, technology, dissemination and communities for research. And it is a good read!' - Professor Anne Campbell, formerly of Leeds Metropolitan University

'This excellent book is a principled and theoretically informed guide to case study research design and methods for the collection, analysis and presentation of evidence' -Professor Andrew Pollard, Institute of Educaiton, University of London

This publication provides easy text, giving differing viewpoints to establish definitions for case study research. This book has been recommended to the Fd students to support projects of action research.

This has again been recommended for students on the Foundation Degree and Degree programmes as it is an easy text, providing differing viewpoints to establish definitions for case study research. Additionally recommended on the reading list for the BA programmes to provide a clearer insight into using Case Studies in preschool and school environments.

This is an excellent book - very clear

This text clearly discusses the case study approach and would be useful for both undergraduate and post graduate learners.

An easily accessible text, giving alternative points of view on what case study research actually is and how it might be interpreted at doctoral level.

This is a pleasant read with a number of useful group and individual tasks for students to engage with as they think through designing and doing a project. These tasks for useful not just for case studies but can be adapted as students consider other research designs.

Offers a good understanding of case study research in a clear and accessible manner. A perfect starting point for the researcher new to the case study method and will also offer the experienced researcher some useful tips and insights.

This text is clearly written and argues strongly for using case study in educational research, despite the challenges this approach faces in the dynamic world of shifting research paradigms. Step-by-step guidance from initial ideas through to the reality of undertaking case study in educational research is helpful

The book is written in a practical way, which gives a clear guide for undergraduate students especially for those who are using case study in education research. I will definitely add this book to recommended reading lists.

Preview this book

Sample materials & chapters.

Additional Resource 1

Additional Resource 2

Sample Chapter - Chapter 1

Activity 6.12 Observation 1 p98

Activity 6.12 Observation 2 p98

Activity 6.12 Observation 3 p98

Activity 6.18 Interview pupils

Activity 6.18 Interview schedule 1

Activity 6.19 and 6.20 Questionnaire P110

Activity 6.20 Questionnaire 2 p110

Activity 6.21 Sample interview teachers

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Case study research in educational settings

• Published 1999

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A case for case study research in education, quality of life case studies for university teaching in sustainable development, a case study of teacher leadership in an education for learners with special educational needs school in kwazulu-natal., "towards improved praxis" : a case study of the certificate in education (participatory development), the case study method: critical reflection, lesson study in kazakhstan: case study of benefits and barriers for teachers, the perceptions and experiences of e-learning within undergraduate healthcare education : a case study.

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Case Study Research in Educational Settings

Journal of Educational Administration

ISSN : 0957-8234

Article publication date: 1 April 2001

Llanes, J.R. (2001), "Case Study Research in Educational Settings", Journal of Educational Administration , Vol. 39 No. 2, pp. 187-191. https://doi.org/10.1108/jea.2001.39.2.187.2

Emerald Group Publishing Limited

It is unfortunate for social scientists that certain insights do not easily emerge until late in their careers. This is particularly true in the area of research method. It seems to require repeated applications of a method before a social scientist can fully grasp its limitations and fallacies. This book gives us the experience of a master at case methodology, Michael Bassey, Emeritus Professor of Education at Nottingham Trent University and Executive Secretary of the British Educational Research Association. Coming late in Bassey’s extensive career, it will help new social scientists gain those insights earlier than it took the author to achieve them. This book delivers what the backcover promises: “new insights into the case study as a tool of educational research.”

One of those valuable contributions, which can only emerge from experience facing the critics of the method, is the author’s suggestion on the validation of the theory‐seeking case study. In this type of case study, where external validity and replicability questions arise most often, Bassey introduces us to his idea for the simplification of the “Audit Certification” process first proposed over 15 years ago by Lincoln and Guba to remedy the same problem. Under the Bassey simplification, the validity of the case study is examined by a knowledgeable colleague, who is also privy to the data. The collegial review proceeds to answer questions about the study in areas such as the “claim to educational knowledge” the author makes, the appropriateness of the collection of data and the analysis and interpretation of data. This approach seems workable and has been part of my own qualitative research method for many years. The external review not only conforms the data to an objective standard but very often the external observer contributes to the interpretations made of the data and expands them. At the end of the review the external auditor/colleague makes the following certification: “In terms of evidence provided in this paper it is my professional judgement that the statement of empirical findings is based firmly on the data collected and that the enquiry has been conducted according to the ethical guidelines of respect for persons and respect for truth.”

Chapter 7 is a thorough primer for the would‐be case study researcher and will be very useful to students preparing to do dissertations using this method. His stages of design and conduct of the case study are very much on target, as are his comments on the writing of the report. Case study research seems simple to plan and conduct. There are fewer subjects to contend with, no need for complex validation procedures for instruments and no large‐scale data collection. Some of my students might choose to propose it as a way to avoid the required Advanced Statistics courses I would prescribe should a quantitative method be suggested. Yet the process of analyzing and writing these findings in a report has caused some researchers to abandon the data and just change careers. Bassey brings us a step‐by‐step approach, which can only facilitate the process of planning for a case study, by anticipating and accounting for the daunting tasks that lie after data collection.

The author’s concept of “fuzzy generalization” as “a method of delivering findings” is enlarged in this book and applied to each element of analysis and reporting discussed. Bassey defines “fuzzy generalization” as "the kind of statement which makes no absolute claim to knowledge, but hedges its claim with uncertainties." He gives us an example:

It arises when the empirical finding of a piece of research, such as

In this case it has been found that

is turned into a qualified general statement like this

In some cases it may be found that.

Bassey relates this concept to fuzzy logic , a system for extracting meaningful findings from imprecise measurements. Here I disagree with Bassey. Fuzzy Logic is part of mathematical set theory, developed by Lofti Zadeh at UC Berkeley in the early 1970s. Fuzzy logic has been used as a feedback loop for controlling machines (for example, the automatic focusing in cameras), as well as in social science research (for example, questionnaires and observational instruments used in jury selection).

Fuzzy logic makes imprecise measurements precise enough to be quantitatively analyzed and numerically reported. Bassey’s concept relates to fuzzy logic, in my opinion, only in the use of the adjective fuzzy, and is more closely related to the by now accepted nomenclature for publishing the latest estimate in time‐series economic data, pioneered by, among others, the magazine The Economist . The Economist will report only that, for example, “Unemployment may have risen 0.01 during last month.” a statement that accurately transmits the idea that these are preliminary statistics, which may have to be adjusted later.

Bassey suggests that these fuzzy generalizations, when used to deliver findings from research, “is not just introducing an element of uncertainty. It is not an admission of frailty in the way that the research was conducted. It is a firm reminder that there are many variables which determine whether learning takes place.” Here I agree completely. Skepticism which does not turn you into a Pyrrho, does propel you to learn more about the phenomena in either an effort to reduce the level of uncertainty, or differently, to increase holistic understanding. This is very useful thinking for educational professionals whose generalizable set of findings which apply all the time to all populations are rare if non‐existent.

Finally I would suggest to readers of this journal that along with R.K. Yin’s Case Study Research: Design and Methods and R.E. Stake’s The Art of Case Study Research this book is an essential part of the understanding a researcher requires when facing the deceptively simple but devilishly complex undertaking of case study research.

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Resources for research Part of series: Research Ethics Case Studies 2024

Research Ethics Case Studies 2024: Frontlines of climate change education

This case study considers some of the ethical issues related to sustainability and environmental responsibility in relation to educational research. It highlights how environmental implications should be considered at all stages of research, and efforts made to reduce any negative impacts and address existing environmental injustices.

Leila’s PhD study aims to understand young people’s imagined futures and identify how education can create pathways to more just and sustainable future societies. She has designed a multi-site case study, working with teachers and young people in England and Pakistan to conduct workshops that give young people the opportunity to imagine their futures in a range of different emissions scenarios. Leila is concerned about the risk of psychological pain and distress associated with climate anxiety during her data collection phase, and a colleague queries the environmental impacts of her study given her plans for overseas travel. How can she find a way forward to do her research ethically?

Drawing on BERA’s  Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research , this case study discusses key ethical issues, including:

• researchers’ duty of care towards participants and responsibilities to identify and minimise any potential harm arising from their participation in research
• researchers’ responsibilities to the global community and the environment more generally
• applying ethical principles in different social, cultural and political contexts
• authorship of data and publications.

About this series

BERA’s  Research Ethics Case Studies , edited by Sin Wang Chong and Alison Fox, complement BERA’s  Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research , fifth edition (2024)  by giving concrete examples of how those guidelines can be applied during the research process. 

Annotations in the margins of each case study document indicate where, among the numbered paragraphs of BERA’s  Ethical Guidelines , readers can find full advice on the issues raised. The annotations include hyperlinks to the relevant passages of the guidelines.

For a full account of ethical best practice as recommended by BERA, researchers should refer to our  Ethical Guidelines , which these case studies are intended to illustrate without themselves offering guidance or recommendations.

Senior Lecturer in Science Education at University of York

Lynda Dunlop is Director of Education for Environmental Sustainability at York, and a senior lecturer in science education. Her research is interdisciplinary, working across the social sciences, sciences and arts and humanities. Current studies...

Head of Education Division at University of Stirling

Professor Elizabeth Rushton is a professor in Education and the head of the Division of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Stirling. Her research interests are in geography and science education, specifically the...

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Modern Economics (Jul 2019)

Education Inequality and Economic Growth: a Case Study in South Sumatra Province

• Lesi Herleni,

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Introduction. This study was conducted to find out how education inequality and its relationship to economic growth in South Sumatra Province. The data used in this study are secondary data sourced from BPS Statistics Indonesia, the Directorate General of Finance and the publication of the results of previous studies that are relevant to this study. The data analysis method used is the analysis of Education Gini index, panel data regression analysis, Granger Causality Analysis. The results of are expected to be a reference material for further research and consideration in development planning in South Sumatra Province. Purpose. The purpose of this study is to find the size of education inequality, the influence factors, and how it relates to economic growth in the Province of South Sumatra. Results. The results of this study indicate that the inequality of education in South Sumatra Province is at a low level of inequality, which is an average of 0.239. The factors that significantly influence the inequality of education are gender gap and the mean years school, while the variable of government expenditure in education has no effect. While Granger causality analysis shows that there is only a one-way relationship between education inequality and economic growth in South Sumatra Province. Economic growth has a significant effect on the inequality of education and but not vice versa. Conclusion. Based on the results, the government of South Sumatra can find out strategies to reduce inequality in education. Increasing awareness in accessing education and equalizing access to education for men and women are expected to reduce eduaction inequality. Furthermore, evenly distributed economic growth can also be influential in reducing education inequality.

• education inequality
• mean years school
• government expenditure on education
• economic growth

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Educational Case Reports: Purpose, Style, and Format

• Published: 03 March 2022
• Volume 46 , pages 147–150, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

• Alan K. Louie   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6762-1835 1 ,
• Richard Balon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6598-2242 2 ,
• Eugene V. Beresin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5627-7146 3 ,
• Anthony P. S. Guerrero   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2496-4934 4 ,
• Mary K. Morreale   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7921-0822 2 ,
• Rashi Aggarwal   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9744-3638 5 ,
• John Coverdale   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9301-4687 6 &
• Adam M. Brenner   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7244-651X 7  

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Case reports continue to play a time-honored role in academic medicine, by communicating clinical findings and advancing medicine [ 1 ]. Though a less rigorous level of evidence, because they describe one case that later may prove to be anomalous or “one-off,” some cases nevertheless have led to significant discoveries. Other fields, including law, business, and education, utilize their versions of case reports, often termed case studies. Law students read legal cases, proceedings, judgements, and verdicts. Business journals publish detailed accounts of the success or failure of corporations. The most germane to medical education is the use of case studies in graduate schools of education. Examples include reports of the implementation of a new teaching method, interventions, or programs at a particular school and, more broadly, the effects of a change in educational policy or regulations.

In this editorial, we discuss case reports about medical education and reflect on lessons we might learn from the tradition of case studies in the field of education at large. To be clear, we are focusing on reports in medicine about educational methodologies, interventions, initiatives, policies, application of adult learning theory, and the like. These reports are not to be confused with clinical case reports that are meant to be educational. Several journals specializing in medical education accept educational case reports, commonly about innovations in teaching medical students or residents. For instance, educational case reports have a specified manuscript type in some journals (e.g., Teaching and Learning in Medicine ) , while several other medical education journals have manuscript categories that will consider manuscripts that are essentially educational case reports (e.g., Innovation Reports ). To the extent that the nature of traditional case reports in clinical medicine differs from that of case studies in the discipline of education, one might suggest that medical education case reports could borrow the most useful guidelines from each field.

Academic Psychiatry includes among its types of manuscripts Educational Case Reports, which previously were subsumed under the educational resources’ column [ 2 ]. From 2014 to 2021, the percentage of this manuscript type has averaged 12% of the total published articles of all types in the journal. The acceptance rate is similar to the rate for all peer-reviewed articles in the journal. The exact nature of the articles in this manuscript type has evolved over time, as have the associated instructions to the authors. In recent years, the editors have encouraged, through the editorial process and suggested revisions, educational case reports to follow the description in this editorial. In what follows, we attempt to clarify further their current purpose, style, and format.

The following text is found in the instructions for authors of Academic Psychiatry [ 3 ]:

Educational case reports are practical in nature and might analyze, descriptively or ethnographically, how a particular teaching practice was applied in a specific setting. Examples include unexpected and subtle discoveries made while developing an innovative teaching method, reforming a curriculum, or launching a new course. A holistic review process considers that case reports in education tend to be naturalistic and relatively lacking in empirical data, but outcome data are still expected, such as qualitative or quantitative participant feedback. Quality of data, novelty of the case, and topic significance will be considered.

Comparison with the Journal’s In Brief Report category will be valuable. Both Educational Case Reports and In Brief Reports might be used to describe a novel teaching intervention implemented at a single site or institution. The In Brief Report would be most appropriate when the authors wish to focus on statistical analysis of the outcome measures. By contrast, an Educational Case Report would be chosen when the authors believe that the primary goal of publication is to share lessons learned from the process of defining the need, creating the intervention, overcoming the challenges in implementation, or interpreting ambiguous outcomes. It is important that the authors identify which of these (or other) kinds of lessons their case report is meant to illustrate.

A number of educational case report manuscripts are rejected by Academic Psychiatry , unfortunately, due to a frequent misunderstanding that the main objective of publishing an educational case report is to disseminate and share a course curriculum, created by the authors, absent outcomes other than student satisfaction. Sharing of curricula is a worthy objective, sparing others the task of creating the same curriculum on their own, but it is not the purpose of this manuscript type. Dissemination of one’s curriculum might be better accomplished by submission to websites that have a review process for curricula and regularly post them (e.g., MedEdPortal [ 4 ] and the website of the American Association of Directors of Psychiatric Residency Training [ 5 ]). The authors may list these peer-reviewed postings on their curriculum vitae.

Academic Psychiatry has been publishing fewer and fewer case reports that present new curricula, for several reasons. First, page and space limitations prevent the inclusion of particulars necessary for the dissemination of a curriculum in detail. Second, the journal’s reviewers evaluate submissions on the basis of their expertise in medical education and not in the content area of the curriculum being described in the manuscript. For example, if an author wants to share a model curriculum for teaching emergency psychiatry, a curriculum reviewer would be needed to assess whether the content about emergency psychiatry was accurate, appropriate, and acceptable for wide dissemination. Academic Psychiatry , however, does not provide reviews in subspecialty content areas, like emergency psychiatry; reviewers instead are asked to assess manuscripts on the basis of what they impart to the reader about medical education. Educational case reports about an emergency psychiatry curriculum should describe lessons learned about education, like difficulties in implementing the curriculum, how students reacted to the teaching methodology, the use of simulation, and educational outcomes. The fact that the curriculum, in this example, is about emergency psychiatry is somewhat incidental to these tasks. Of course, the content of the curriculum is of importance, but it only needs to be described to the extent necessary to explicate the educational lessons and observed outcomes.

By definition, an educational case report is usually about one “subject” (or at most a few in a multiple case report) whose case is described and studied with rich details. Educational case reports often use methods that are more qualitative and descriptive, in contrast to surveys or trials, which collect more superficial quantitative data from large samples that are amenable to statistical analysis and generalizable to populations. Thus, an educational case report may be idiographic, or even ethnographic, in style in order to tell the story of its singular subject. Akin to most qualitative research, educational case reports are more naturalistic in design, highly influenced by the specific context or single setting. They are generally narrative in style, since they tell the story of why the authors made the educational intervention and how the process played out.

Here, we may find some divergence in style between case reports in education from those in clinical medicine, in which clinician authors might frame the report as quasi-experimental and hypothesis-driven. For instance, the clinician may use the subject as his or her own control, involving periods on a medication, then off the medication, and finally back on the medication, and correlating symptom changes with these periods. Symptom severity might be given numerical ratings represented with descriptive statistics. Despite the disadvantage of having only one subject, many clinical case reports have been written in this manner and have been valuable, leading to larger quantitative studies.

Authors of educational case reports may want to continue in this clinical case report style but should also feel free to infuse elements of style from qualitative research traditions. This approach is appropriate for educational case reports due to their greater complexity. In particular, the subject is generally not a person, as in clinical cases, but rather, the unit of study is more often an educational intervention (e.g., course, curriculum, initiative). In telling the “story” of an intervention, the authors need to define clearly its boundaries [ 6 ]. Unlike a person who has easily understood physical boundaries, educational interventions need borders drawn between the subject of the report and the context in which it is embedded. For instance, in studying educational outcomes, is one looking at the effects of a single exercise embedded in a session, of a session embedded in a course, or of a course embedded in a curriculum, and how does one separate the effects of each? Which is the subject—the exercise, the course, or the curriculum? These important questions might use qualitative methods by including the learners in a focus group and understanding how the teaching intervention was understood and potentially assimilated into practice.

Additionally, the context surrounding the educational intervention is usually complex in the academic world, with multiple learners and many uncontrollable and unpredictable influences, perhaps more so than in clinical settings with one patient and pure pharmacological treatments. This context may include details that are not content-specific: whether attendance is required and consequences exist for not attending; whether advance readings for a flipped classroom model are reviewed by learners; if faculty are given protected time or paid for teaching and the course is given protected hours of instruction by the administration; how grades are determined; and other details often omitted in descriptions of model curricula. These factors influence the quality and effectiveness of education, such that the same curriculum delivered in two different contexts may have quite different degrees of success or failure, and may help readers to decide whether to adapt a described educational intervention in their institution (e.g., depending on resources).

The qualitative part of an educational case report should interrogate the “how” and “why” of the case [ 7 ]. Many authors overemphasize the “what,” the content of the curriculum, and focus on whether the “what” was effective, usually with learner satisfaction surveys. While this formula has resulted in some perfectly useful case reports, we do not think it leverages the strengths and potential of an educational case report. More valuable are the “how” (e.g., learning process) and “why” (e.g., mechanisms of learning) questions with regard to learning processes and speculation about mechanisms and causation. Readers may find transferability of some of these processes and mechanisms to their context. Of note, the “how” may include unanticipated and/or unpreventable changes or challenges relating to the educational intervention, occurring during the period of study, which may lead to modification of the intervention midstream. In clinical trials, this occurrence is undesirable, because conditions of the trials will then change, but in an educational case report, describing such changes gives a sense of the forces impinging on the intervention and its ability to adapt to them, which offers lessons learned along the away and the attempts to redirect efforts.

Many educational case reports describe a new course or curriculum designed in response to an educational need or gap in knowledge, skills, or attitudes. The report should start with evidence of this need and gap based on review of the literature (or lack of evidence in the literature), current existing solutions and how they have failed to date, and the authors’ innovative answer. Next, the educational intervention may be outlined; the content of the intervention (e.g., topics, assignments) need not be fully specified but can be shared in an abbreviated form. Particular attention should be drawn to defining the boundaries of the intervention, as alluded to earlier, and its context, along with how it is innovative. Assessment and qualitative measures, and possibly quantitative methods, used should be described that establish the educational outcomes. If quantitative methods are used, their validity needs to be addressed. Study data are then presented along with a narrative of what happened during the study, from start to finish. This text should include how the intervention ran, observation of learning processes, barriers, modifications, and changes that were required and the reaction to them, educational outcomes, and final impact and scalability. Additionally, inclusion of student perspectives, perhaps more than simple comments from evaluations, should be considered. Lessons learned along the way, propositions about how and why the outcomes came to be, and questions raised with novel perspectives should be proposed and critically argued in the conclusion. Mentioning limitations and the potential existence of multiple explanations, unsettled ambiguities, and researcher bias is also important.

The issue of informed consent and ethics review should be addressed. The manuscript should indicate the conclusions of an Institutional Review Board (IRB) review of the case report study and data to be published (e.g., exempt from further review status, approved). The IRB can advise about whether informed consent for being in the study is necessary, and the release of the case report should be considered from both the faculty members and learners.

As mentioned earlier, educational case reports may benefit from a hybrid of the styles from clinical case reports and qualitative reports. Various standardized formats for clinical case reports have been published. An international group developed the CARE ( CA se RE ports) guidelines for clinical case reports [ 8 ], and it is useful for authors to be aware of these. Several tools are provided with the CARE guidelines for authors, including a checklist for writing clinical case reports. Listed are traditional elements like clinical findings, diagnostic tools, treatments, and follow-up and outcomes. Of note, the guidelines include prompts to incorporate instruments measuring treatment adherence and side effects, explaining alteration of the treatment plan, and presenting a rationale for the clinical conclusions. Also requested is the treatment perspective of the patient and obtaining the patient’s informed consent for release of the case report. The CARE guidelines are best suited for clinical case reports, but authors may wish to adapt some elements to educational case reports, such as using tools to measure compliance with and acceptance of the educational intervention, explaining changes in the curriculum during the study, and describing a rationale for educational conclusions and lessons learned.

Authors may want to also consider formats designed for presentation of qualitative research. The Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) enumerates 21 points that should be covered [ 9 ]. Educational case reports may illustrate outcomes with qualitative methods like focus groups, interviews with learners and faculty, observations of the learning process, and textual analysis [ 10 ], which would provide a higher level of evidence and iterative data analysis than afforded by the use of Likert-scale student satisfaction questionnaires. SRQR endorses increasing trustworthiness and credibility with conclusions based on triangulation from more than one data source and providing transparency about any author’s attributes that might have biased the data gathering, analysis, and transferability. The application of advanced design and methods in case study research, used in education at large, may be found elsewhere [ 7 ].

Educational case reports are an important manuscript type and have been wonderful contributions to Academic Psychiatry . Educational case reports have followed the tradition of clinical case reports in medicine, which have a long history and have sometimes become early progenitors of novel perspectives and discoveries about disease and treatment. We suggest that educational case reports may also benefit from borrowing from the tradition of case studies in the field of education at large, which are considered as a form of qualitative research. In other words, educational case reports in medicine can take advantage of a hybrid style, combining elements from both clinical case reports and qualitative research studies, in proportions determined by the author fitting for the case.

Qualitative approaches and methods are useful in dealing with the great complexity of educational interventions and the contexts in which they are implemented. Qualitative writing encourages telling the story of the intervention in rich and deep detail over the course of the study, developing propositions of how and why the intervention’s processes and outcomes unfolded as they did. Therefore, one consideration for education researchers and perhaps for psychiatry in general is greater attention to teaching qualitative methods, as these have a rich foundation and are particularly applicable to psychiatry as a field. As a foundation, the format might adapt the relevant elements of a clinical case report, as described in the CARE guidelines. Then, authors who want to elaborate on the qualitative research features of their report may add in more rigorous qualitative methodologies, paradigms, and reporting standards. We are delighted to continue the fine tradition of Academic Psychiatry publishing educational case reports, and we look forward to your submissions.

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Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

Alan K. Louie

Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA

Richard Balon & Mary K. Morreale

Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

Eugene V. Beresin

University of Hawai’i John A. Burns School of Medicine, Honolulu, HI, USA

Anthony P. S. Guerrero

Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA

Rashi Aggarwal

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Louie, A.K., Balon, R., Beresin, E.V. et al. Educational Case Reports: Purpose, Style, and Format. Acad Psychiatry 46 , 147–150 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40596-022-01610-7

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Published : 03 March 2022

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40596-022-01610-7

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IOE academics to review national curriculum and assessment as part of new government panel

6 September 2024

The Department of Education has appointed Professor Becky Francis, former IOE Director, to lead the 12-member panel responsible for reviewing the curriculum, which includes IOE’s Professor Zongyi Deng and Dr Vanessa Ogden.

The UK government has commissioned the panel to breathe new life into the school curriculum and assessment system and ensure a more inclusive and innovative approach. 

Members of the review panel will draw on their expertise to paint a detailed picture of the curriculum in practice. With representation across the primary, secondary and post-16 settings, the panel represents the diversity of experience across the sector. 

They aim to identify obstacles to attainment for young people and address the barriers that hold children back from opportunities and life chances, particularly those who are socioeconomically disadvantaged or have special educational needs or disabilities (SEND). 

The panel will analyse key challenges, draw on data, and listen to views across the sector to determine what works for young people and education professionals alike. The call for evidence is due to launch in September, which will enable the panel to engage with crucial stakeholders: young people, parents, educators and employers. 

Professor Francis, who is leading the review, is currently the Chief Executive of the Education Endowment Foundation. 

Professor Deng is a Professor of Curriculum and Pedagogy at IOE, and Dr Vanessa Ogden is an Honorary Academic at IOE and CEO of the Mulberry Schools Trust. 

The panel will produce a set of sensible recommendations, keeping the views of children and young people at the heart of education. The evidence will be used to shape the curriculum and the outcomes delivered going forward. 

The review is set to publish its recommendations in 2025.

• Government launches Curriculum and Assessment Review
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