conclusion of public relations research

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24 The Importance of Research in Public Relations

Research is a crucial component of the public relations process. There are several key reasons why research is so important. First, research allows us to develop a PR strategy . For example, in our cookie example, research allows us to develop a strategy for one of our key publics with nostalgia as a main focus. This information will allow us to design specific campaigns with particular targets and goals, to ensure we aren’t wasting time, money, and energy. This helps public relations operate as a strategic function of the organization, contributing to overall organizational goals and objectives .

Another reason why research is so important in public relations is that it can be used to measure the effectiveness of our public relations efforts. For example, we can measure how often our key public is purchasing Scrumpties cookies before our campaign, during our campaign, and after out campaign. This way, we can understand if our campaign has an impact purchasing habits. Was the campaign worthwhile? Was it effective? Research helps us answer these questions and justify the value of public relations within organizations by directing funds to effective strategies.

If we do research before we begin communicating, we can ensure we are capturing the views of our publics . We can identify key publics, develop targeted communications based on what is important to our publics, and build relationships with those publics who may be interested in our messaging. This contributes to two-way communication , instead of outdated methods of disseminating information one way to our publics (Grunig, 1992). Research is what allows us to understand our publics, their needs, and their values, and ensures that we are as effective and strategic as possible in the public relations process.

If we didn’t do research, PR would not be a key strategic function of organizations. Instead, we would be making decisions based on hunches and instinct, and generating publicity without any clear sense of who our publics are and what matters to them. As a central, strategic function of organizations, public relations relies on research to identify issues, problem solve, prevent and manage crises, develop and maintain relationships with publics, and deploy useful strategies and campaigns to support organizational goals and objectives. Being able to understand, conduct, and report on research also allows public relations professionals to demonstrate the value and worth of PR activities and helps ensure PR is part of the organization’s dominant coalition. In short, research matters!

This chapter is a very brief introduction to public relations research. Research is complicated, and you will learn a lot more about research design, methods, and best practices throughout your degree. For now, it is important that you recognize why research is so important in public relations, and that you are aware of its critical function within the public relations process ( RACE ). You should know the difference between formal and informal research, understand what quantitative and qualitative research means, and be aware of two key research techniques: surveys and focus groups.

Grunig, J. E. (Ed.). (1992).  Excellence in public relations and communication management . Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

A plan of action or policy designed to achieve a major or overall aim

A goal is something that a person or group is trying to achieve.

An objective is a goal expressed in specific terms.

Any group(s) of people held together by a common interest. They differ from audiences in that they often self-organize and do not have to attune to messages; publics differ from stakeholders in that they do not necessarily have a financial stake tying them to specific goals or consequences of the organization. Targeted audiences, on the other hand, are publics who receive a specifically targeted message that is tailored to their interests.

A process by which two people or groups are able to communicate with each other in a reciprocal way

A process when a person or group sends a message and receives no feedback of any kind from the receiver

RACE formula includes Research, Action planning & Analysis, Communication, Evaluation

Foundations of Public Relations: Canadian Edition Copyright © by Department of Communication Studies is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Chapter 8 Public Relations Research: The Key to Strategy

If you previously ascribed to the common misconception that public relations is a simple use of communication to persuade publics, Bowen (2003), pp. 199–214. you might be surprised at the important role that research plays in public relations management. Bowen (2009a), pp. 402–410. We can argue that as much as three quarters of the public relations process is based on research—research, action planning, and evaluation—which are three of the four steps in the strategic management process in the RACE acronym (which stands for research, action planning, communication, and evaluation).

8.1 Importance of Research in Public Relations Management

Public relations professionals often find themselves in the position of having to convince management to fund research, or to describe the importance of research as a crucial part of a departmental or project budget. Research is an essential part of public relations management. Here is a closer look at why scholars argued that conducting both formative and evaluative research is vital in modern public relations management:

• Research makes communication two-way by collecting information from publics rather than one-way, which is a simple dissemination of information. Research allows us to engage in dialogue with publics, understanding their beliefs and values, and working to build understanding on their part of the internal workings and policies of the organization. Scholars find that two-way communication is generally more effective than one-way communication, especially in instances in which the organization is heavily regulated by government or confronts a turbulent environment in the form of changing industry trends or of activist groups. See, for example, Grunig (1984), pp. 6–29; Grunig (1992a; 2001); Grunig, Grunig, and Dozier (2002); Grunig and Repper (1992).
• Research makes public relations activities strategic by ensuring that communication is specifically targeted to publics who want, need, or care about the information. Ehling and Dozier (1992). Without conducting research, public relations is based on experience or instinct, neither of which play large roles in strategic management. This type of research prevents us from wasting money on communications that are not reaching intended publics or not doing the job that we had designed them to do.
• Research allows us to show results , to measure impact, and to refocus our efforts based on those numbers. Dozier and Ehling (1992). For example, if an initiative is not working with a certain public we can show that ineffectiveness statistically, and the communication can be redesigned or eliminated. Thus, we can direct funds toward more successful elements of the public relations initiative.

Without research, public relations would not be a true management function . It would not be strategic or a part of executive strategic planning, but would regress to the days of simple press agentry, following hunches and instinct to create publicity. As a true management function, public relations uses research to identify issues and engage in problem solving, to prevent and manage crises, to make organizations responsive and responsible to their publics, to create better organizational policy, and to build and maintain long-term relationships with publics. A thorough knowledge of research methods and extensive analyses of data also allow public relations practitioners a seat in the dominant coalition and a way to illustrate the value and worth of their activities. In this manner, research is the strategic foundation of modern public relations management. Stacks and Michaelson (in press).

8.2 Purpose and Forms of Research

The purpose of research is to allow us to develop strategy in public relations in order to (a) conduct our campaigns with specific purpose and targeted goals, (b) operate as a part of the overall strategic management function in an organization, and (c) measure the effectiveness of public relations efforts. By conducting research before we communicate, we revise our own thinking to include the views of publics. We can segment those publics, tailor communications for unique publics, send different messages to specifically targeted publics, and build relationships by communicating with publics who have an interest in our message. This type of planning research is called formative research Planning research that is conducted so that what the publics know, believe, or value and what they need or desire to know can be understood before communication is begun. because it helps us form our public relations campaign. Stacks (2002). Formative research is conducted so that we can understand what publics know, believe, or value and what they need or desire to know before we began communicating. Thereby, public relations does not waste effort or money communicating with those that have no interest in our message.

Research also allows public relations professionals to show the impact made through their communication efforts after a public relations campaign. This type of research is called evaluation research Research that allows public relations professionals to show the impact made through their communication efforts after a public relations campaign. . Using both forms of research in public relations allows us to communicate strategically and to demonstrate our effectiveness. For example, formative research can be used to determine the percentage of publics who are aware of the organization’s policy on an issue of concern. Through the use of a survey, we might find that 17% of the target public is aware of the policy. Strategically, the organization would like more members of that public to be aware of the organization’s policy, so the public relations department communicates through various channels sending targeted messages.

After a predetermined amount of time, a survey practically identical to the first one is conducted. If public relations efforts were successful, the percentage of members of a public aware of the organization’s policy should increase. That increase is directly attributable to the efforts of the public relations campaign. We could report, “Members of the community public aware of our new toxic waste disposal initiative increased from 17% to 33% in the last 2 months.” Measures such as these are extremely common in public relations management. They may be referred to as benchmarking because they establish a benchmark and then measure the amount of change, similar to a before-and-after comparison. Stacks (2002); Broom and Dozier (1990). The use of statistically generalizable research methods allows such comparisons to be made with a reasonable degree of confidence across various publics, geographic regions, issues, psychographics, and demographic groups.

In this section, we will provide a brief overview of the most common forms of research in public relations management and providing examples of their uses and applications and professional public relations. Building upon that basic understanding of research methods, we then return to the theme of the purpose of research and the importance of research in the public relations function.

Formal Research

Research in public relations can be formal or informal. Formal research Research that typically takes place in order to generate numbers and statistics. Formal research is used to both target communications and measure results. normally takes place in order to generate numbers and statistics that we can use to both target communications and measure results. Formal research also is used to gain a deeper, qualitative understanding of the issue of concern, to ascertain the range of consumer responses, and to elicit in-depth opinion data. Formal research is planned research of a quantitative or qualitative nature, normally asking specific questions about topics of concern for the organization. Formal research is both formative , at the outset of a public relations initiative, and evaluative , to determine the degree of change attributable to public relations activities.

Informal Research

Informal research Research that typically gathers information and opinions through conversations and in an ongoing and open exchange of ideas and concerns. is collected on an ongoing basis by most public relations managers, from sources both inside and outside of their organizations. Informal research usually gathers information and opinions through conversations. It consists of asking questions, talking to members of publics or employees in the organization to find out their concerns, reading e-mails from customers or comment cards, and other informal methods, such as scanning the news and trade press. Informal research comes from the boundary spanning role of the public relations professional, meaning that he or she maintains contacts with publics external to the organization, and with internal publics. The public relations professional spends a great deal of time communicating informally with these contacts, in an open exchange of ideas and concerns. This is one way that public relations can keep abreast of changes in an industry, trends affecting the competitive marketplace, issues of discontent among the publics, the values and activities of activist groups, the innovations of competitors, and so on. Informal research methods are usually nonnumerical and are not generalizable to a larger population, but they yield a great deal of useful information. The data yielded from informal research can be used to examine or revise organizational policy, to craft messages in the phraseology of publics, to respond to trends in an industry, to include the values or priorities of publics in new initiatives, and numerous other derivations.

8.3 Types of Research

Research in public relations management requires the use of specialized terminology. The term primary research The collection of unique data, normally proprietary, that is firsthand and relevant to a specific client or campaign. It is often the most expensive type of data to collect. is used to designate when we collect unique data in normally proprietary information, firsthand and specifically relevant to a certain client or campaign. Stacks (2002). Primary research, because it is unique to your organization and research questions, is often the most expensive type of data to collect. Secondary research The collection of data that is typically part of the public domain but is applicable to a client, organization, or industry. It can be used to round out and support the conclusions drawn from primary research. refers to research that is normally a part of public domain but is applicable to our client, organization, or industry, and can be used to round out and support the conclusions drawn from our primary research. Stacks (2002); Stacks and Michaelson (in press). Secondary research is normally accessed through the Internet or available at libraries or from industry and trade associations. Reference books, encyclopedias, and trade press publications provide a wealth of free or inexpensive secondary research. Managers often use secondary research as an exploratory base from which to decide what type of primary research needs to be conducted.

Quantitative Research

When we speak of research in public relations, we are normally referring to primary research, such as public opinion studies based on surveys and polling. (The following lists quantitative research methods commonly employed in public relations.) Surveys are synonymous with public opinion polls, and are one example of quantitative research. Quantitative research Research that is based on statistical generalization. It allows numerical observations to be made in order for organizations to improve relationships with certain publics and then measure how much those relationships have improved or degraded. is based on statistical generalization . It allows us to make numerical observations such as “85% of Infiniti owners say that they would purchase an Infiniti again.” Statistical observations allow us to know exactly where we need to improve relationships with certain publics, and we can then measure how much those relationships have ultimately improved (or degraded) at the end of a public relations initiative. For example, a strategic report in public relations management for the automobile maker Infiniti might include a statement such as “11% of new car buyers were familiar with the G35 all-wheel-drive option 3 months ago, and after our campaign 28% of new car buyers were familiar with this option, meaning that we created a 17% increase in awareness among the new car buyer public.” Other data gathered might report on purchasing intentions, important features of a new vehicle to that public, brand reputation variables, and so on. Quantitative research allows us to have a before and after snapshot to compare the numbers in each group, therefore allowing us to say how much change was evidenced as a result of public relations’ efforts.

Methods of Quantitative Data Collection

• Internet-based surveys
• Telephone surveys
• Mail surveys
• Content analysis (usually of media coverage)
• Comment cards and feedback forms
• Warranty cards (usually demographic information on buyers)
• Frequent shopper program tracking (purchasing data)

In quantitative research, the entire public you wish to understand or make statements about is called the population In quantitative research, the entire public that is sought to be understood or about which statements are made. . The population might be women over 40, Democrats, Republicans, purchasers of a competitor’s product, or any other group that you would like to study. From that population, you would select a sample In quantitative research, a portion of a population that is sought for study. to actually contact with questions. Probability samples A randomly drawn portion of a population from which the strongest statistical measure of generalizability can be drawn. can be randomly drawn from a list of the population, which gives you the strongest statistical measures of generalizability. A random sample A randomly drawn portion of a population in which the participants have an equal chance of being selected. means that participants are drawn randomly and have an equal chance of being selected. You know some variants in your population exists, but a random sample should account for all opinions in that population. The larger the sample size (number of respondents), the smaller the margin of error and the more confident the researcher can be that the sample is an accurate reflection of the entire population.

There are also other sampling methods, known as nonprobability samples Research sampling that does not allow for generalization but that meets the requirements of the problem or project. , that do not allow for generalization but meet the requirement of the problem or project. A convenience sample A population sample drawn from those who are convenient to study. , for instance, is drawn from those who are convenient to study, such as having visitors to a shopping mall fill out a survey. Another approach is a snowball sample A population sample in which the researcher asks a respondent participating in a survey to recommend another respondent for the survey. in which the researcher asks someone completing a survey to recommend the next potential respondent to complete the survey. A purposive sample Research sampling in which a specific group of people is sought out for research. is when you seek out a certain group of people. These methods allow no generalizability to the larger population, but they are often less expensive than random sample methods and still may generate the type of data that answers your research question.

Quantitative research has the major strength of allowing you to understand who your publics are, where they get their information, how many believe certain viewpoints, and which communications create the strongest resonance with their beliefs. Demographic variables are used to very specifically segment publics. Demographics are generally gender, education, race, profession, geographic location, annual household income, political affiliation, religious affiliation, and size of family or household. Once these data are collected, it is easy to spot trends by cross-tabulating the data with opinion and attitude variables. Such cross-tabulations result in very specific publics who can be targeted with future messages in the channels and the language that they prefer. For example, in conducting public relations research for a health insurance company, cross-tabulating data with survey demographics might yield a public who are White males, are highly educated and professional, live in the southeastern United States, have an annual household income above $125,000, usually vote conservatively and have some religious beliefs, have an average household size of 3.8 people, and strongly agree with the following message: “Health insurance should be an individual choice, not the responsibility of government.” In that example, you would have identified a voting public to whom you could reach out for support of individualized health insurance.

Segmenting publics in this manner is an everyday occurrence in public relations management. Through their segmentation, public relations managers have an idea of who will support their organization, who will oppose the organization, and what communications—messages and values—resonate with each public. After using research to identify these groups, public relations professionals can then build relationships with them in order to conduct informal research, better understand their positions, and help to represent the values and desires of those publics in organizational decision making and policy formation.

Qualitative Research

The second major kind of research method normally used in the public relations industry is qualitative research. Qualitative research Research that allows the researcher to generate in-depth, quality information in order to understand public opinion. This type of research is not generalizable but it often provides quotes that can be used in strategy documents. generates in-depth , “quality ” information that allows us to truly understand public opinion , but it is not statistically generalizable. (The following lists qualitative research methods commonly employed in public relations.) Qualitative research is enormously valuable because it allows us to truly learn the experience, values, and viewpoints of our publics. It also provides ample quotes to use as evidence or illustration in our strategy documents, and sometimes even results in slogans or fodder for use in public relations’ messages.

Qualitative research is particularly adept at answering questions from public relations practitioners that began “How?” or “Why?” Yin (1994). This form of research allows the researcher to ask the participants to explain their rationale for decision making, belief systems, values, thought processes, and so on. It allows researchers to explore complicated topics to understand the meaning behind them and the meanings that participants ascribe to certain concepts. For example, a researcher might ask a participant, “What does the concept of liberty mean to you?” and get a detailed explanation. However, we would expect that explanation to vary among participants, and different concepts might be associated with liberty when asking an American versus a citizen of Iran or China. Such complex understandings are extremely helpful in integrating the values and ideas of publics into organizational strategy, as well as in crafting messages that resonate with those specific publics of different nationalities.

Methods of Qualitative Data Collection

• In-depth interviews
• Focus groups
• Case studies
• Participant observation
• Monitoring toll-free (1-800 #) call transcripts
• Monitoring complaints by e-mail and letter

Public relations managers often use qualitative research to support quantitative findings. Qualitative research can be designed to understand the views of specific publics and to have them elaborate on beliefs or values that stood out in quantitative analyses. For example, if quantitative research showed a strong agreement with the particular statement, that statement could be read to focus group participants and ask them to agree or disagree with this statement and explain their rationale and thought process behind that choice. In this manner, qualitative researchers can understand complex reasoning and dilemmas in much greater detail than only through results yielded by a survey. Miles and Huberman (1994).

Another reason to use qualitative research is that it can provide data that researchers did not know they needed. For instance, a focus group may take an unexpected turn and the discussion may yield statements that the researcher had not thought to include on a survey questionnaire. Sometimes unknown information or unfamiliar perspectives arise through qualitative studies that are ultimately extremely valuable to public relations’ understanding of the issues impacting publics.

Qualitative research also allows for participants to speak for themselves rather than to use the terminology provided by researchers. This benefit can often yield a greater understanding that results in far more effective messages than when public relations practitioners attempt to construct views of publics based on quantitative research alone. Using the representative language of members of a certain public often allows public relations to build a more respectful relationship with that public. For instance, animal rights activists often use the term “companion animal” instead of the term “pet”—that information could be extremely important to organizations such as Purina or to the American Veterinary Medical Association.

Mixed Methods/Triangulation

Clearly, both quantitative and qualitative research have complementary and unique strengths. These two research methodologies should be used in conjunction whenever possible in public relations management so that both publics and issues can be fully understood. Using both of these research methods together is called mixed method research A research method that combines quantitative and qualitative research. This method is considered to yield the most reliable research results. , and scholars generally agree that mixing methods yields the most reliable research results. Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998). It is best to combine as many methods as is feasible to understand important issues. Combining multiple focus groups from various cities with interviews of important leaders and a quantitative survey of publics is an example of mixed method research because it includes both quantitative and qualitative methodology. Using two or more methods of study is sometimes called triangulation In public relations, the use of two or more methods of study in order to ascertain how publics view an issue. , meaning using multiple research methods to triangulate upon the underlying truth of how publics view an issue. See Stacks (2002); Hickson (2003).

8.4 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, we examined the vital role of research in public relations management, both in making the function strategic and in adding to its credibility as a management function. Because research comprises such a large part of the public relations process—three of the four steps in the strategic management process—we discussed the purposes and forms of commonly used research in public relations. The roles of formal and informal research were discussed, as well as the major approaches to research: quantitative (numerically based) and qualitative (in-depth based) as well as the types of types of data collection commonly used in public relations in the mixing of methods.

Conclusion: Effective Public Relations and Brand Communication in Africa’s Public Sector

• First Online: 04 October 2022

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• Ogechi Adeola 7 ,
• Eric Kwame Adae 8 ,
• Kojo Kakra Twum 9 ,
• Isaiah Adisa 10 &
• Paul Katuse 11  

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies of Public Sector Management in Africa ((PSPSMA))

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Public relations (PR) and brand communication are integral aspects of marketing communications that strategically disseminate information about an institution’s nature, values, and offerings. With a more empowered audience, increasingly demanding social environment, and globalisation, public sector institutions in Africa are continuously faced with the need to project a positive brand image. Effective PR can help build a positive brand image for the public sector through communication of government agenda, programmes, and offerings that meet citizens’ needs and deliver value. The contributing authors of this book have recommended PR and brand communication practices that will enhance the public image of public institutions in Africa. Particularly, improved citizen engagement, positioning of public institutions’ brands, creating awareness of governments’ products and services, and technology-driven public relations, amongst others, will help change the narrative of public institutions in Africa. Finally, the incorporation of African philosophies that will enhance communications, improve public relations and promote the interests of multiple stakeholders is recommended as we reimagine the future of public relations in the African continent.

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Adeola, O., Adae, E.K., Twum, K.K., Adisa, I., Katuse, P. (2022). Conclusion: Effective Public Relations and Brand Communication in Africa’s Public Sector. In: Adeola, O., Katuse, P., Kakra Twum, K. (eds) Public Sector Marketing Communications Volume I. Palgrave Studies of Public Sector Management in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07293-2_10

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The Behavioral Insights Research Center’s (BIRC) mission is to conduct research on the factors that influence attitude and behavioral change to enable effective communication. BIRC can help professionals understanding how and why people think and behave the way they do in this ever-changing business environment.

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This research library is a database of all the public relations research conducted by the Institute for Public Relations and its coalitions and commissions as well as research highlighted from other respected public relations publications.

Dr. Tina McCorkindale

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The Mosaic Company

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Oscar Suris

Wells Fargo & Company

Rainer Mathes

PRIME Research International DEL: Mark Weiner

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Southwest Airlines

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University of Florida

Adele Ambrose

Frank Ovaitt

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Public Relations Research and Planning

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Hallel Onoh

Fatima Al Shamsi

Research is essential element in public relation. It's not necessary to have been ambiguous, expensive or complex. There is one way to ensure that Public Relation research arrives on time, on budget and gives the right result to create organizational. This paper will discover the importance of research and research steps in public relations in the UAE organizations. It ended that many PR offices do care about the research but still research needs more awareness and development in the future. More researches need to be collected in the PR field.

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As the evaluation of public relations programs moves from output to outcome measurement with greater emphasis on the integration of planning, research and evaluation, the term Return on Investment (ROI) has been increasingly used by practitioners to express the results of campaigns to decision-makers from managerial and financial backgrounds. Yet the UK’s Institute of Public Relations rejects ROI as “not only confusing” but misleading. This paper reviews the language of public relations evaluation from theoretical and best practice viewpoints in order to propose a platform of common terminology that can be implemented in theory and practice.

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BUS203: Principles of Marketing

Media and Public Relations

Visit this interactive resource. You should briefly review each of the eight primer modules and note any resources or templates you find especially useful. These resources and templates may be helpful as you undertake a public relations campaign at a future date. We will refer back to this primer elsewhere in the course for specific examples supporting subunit topics ahead. For now, it gives a useful overview of the public relations craft and some tools at its disposal. This primer was prepared to help government and business leaders in the former Soviet Union transition from a centralized system to a market system. They were expected to interact with a more free and independent media. The concept of "public and media relations" was new to many of these leaders, so this primer provides a fundamental overview of PR's basic ideas and tools.

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Of course it is possible to use public relations skills to advance less than noble causes. All too often, we know that bad people and bad causes are advanced through the adept use of public relations. Therefore it is vital that good people with good intentions also master effective public relations skills.

Remember, too, that public relations is a two way street: not only must you present your organization to the public, but you must also present the public back to your organization and colleagues. Help them understand how the public perceives their actions.

The public relations professional is often the conscience of a company or campaign. It's not always a popular spot to be in, but it's an important job. If done well, your PR work should serve both your organization and the news media, and also be a valuable contribution to the greater public good.

Astrakhan Region in the System of Russia’s Geopolitical Priorities in the Current International Situation

August 28, 2023 Monitoring & Analysis , Geopolitical Report ISSN 2785-2598 , Russia

Geopolitical Report ISSN 2785-2598 Volume 33 Issue 11 Author: Vlad Kondratiev

The Astrakhan region has historically served as a significant centre of Russian presence in the Caspian region for centuries. Since the late 20 th century, following the geopolitical shifts caused by the collapse of the Soviet Union, Astrakhan’s role in Russia’s Caspian policy has acquired considerable prominence.

Historical Significance of Astrakhan in Caspian Geopolitics

Modern Astrakhan was established in 1558 as a wooden and earthen fortress on the elevated Hare or Long Hill in the upper reaches of the Volga delta. In 1580 , construction began on the Kremlin (a citadel within a Russian town) with towers on the site of the wooden walls. Subsequently, a caravanserai emerged, attracting people from various regions. Russian, Armenian, and Tatar settlements developed around the city.

From the 16 th to the 18 th centuries, Astrakhan served as a gateway to Asia for both Russia and Europe . Much of this was attributed to the efforts of Russian Emperor Peter the Great, who, through the Persian campaign of 1722-1723 , laid the groundwork for Russia’s expansion towards the southern Caspian region.

The region established its own Cossack army, navy, admiralty, shipyard, and port. By the 19 th century, with the growth of the Baku oil fields, Astrakhan transformed into a significant oil market. The port of Astrakhan also evolved into one of Russia’s largest.

During World War II, Astrakhan played a pivotal role as a transit hub for transporting Baku oil products to the military . Post the 1960s, Astrakhan witnessed the creation of a globally impactful industrial foundation for Caspian shelf development within the USSR.

Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov, in recent speeches , highlighted Astrakhan’s consistent importance in the realisation of Russia’s Caspian regional goals . In recent years, the region has maintained its leadership status in international relations, primarily with its Caspian Sea neighbours. Consequently, Astrakhan was selected as the venue for the Fourth Caspian Summit in 2014 . This summit proved productive, establishing the basis for the Convention on the Legal Status of the Caspian Sea.

The Russian Foreign Ministry plans to establish the Caspian Council in Astrakhan as a platform for regular meetings to foster ongoing Caspian cooperation. This initiative extends beyond mere preparation for future Caspian state summits.

Economic Significance of the Astrakhan Region

Beyond its political significance, Astrakhan is emerging as a vital economic centre in southern Russia. This transformation is driven by significant investments, logistical improvements, and oil and gas infrastructure development within the region.

Astrakhan has actively contributed to forming the transport and logistics infrastructure of the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) , positioning itself as a critical transit hub for goods exchange.

The Caspian cluster is under development, encompassing the “Lotos” Special Economic Zone (SEZ) and a port SEZ in the village of “Olya.” These initiatives are poised to fuel the Astrakhan region and Russia’s economic growth. This cluster is being established as a cargo-handling base for the INSTC . Its aim is to enhance the competitiveness of Russian Caspian Sea ports, attracting additional cargo flow from the Middle East and South Asia.

Logistics centres are planned for construction in the Limansky district of the Astrakhan region according to the Russian Government’s November 7, 2020 Decree No. 1792 . SEZ residents will enjoy benefits, enabling port operations, as well as infrastructure facility construction, reconstruction, and operation . An anchor investor, PLC Kaspiy LLC, is committed to building a modern container terminal. This project involves equipping two unused berths of the Olya port with the necessary loading and unloading equipment.

Subsequent phases involve terminal construction in the Ilmen Zaburunny area. The cumulative outcome of these measures is the creation of a modern competitive port next to the Caspian Sea, boasting an 8-million-ton capacity by 2031 . Private investment is projected to exceed 16 billion roubles, and further growth is expected as the project evolves. This initiative will boost cargo turnover through the Astrakhan port SEZ over the next decade, reaching 8 million tons.

Regarding the Lotos Special Economic Zone , which was established years ago, the region currently hosts 19 companies with a combined declared investment of over 40 billion roubles. Notably, these residents include firms from Iran, China, and other countries . These companies are engaged in projects ranging from geosynthetics and fish feed production to ship construction . With several operational plants and others under construction, including Iran’s first detergent plant in Russia, this zone is diversifying the region’s economic landscape.

In the oil and gas sector , the beginning of 2022 saw 11 hydrocarbon deposits listed on the state balance sheet, with another 11 deposits in the Russian sector of the Caspian Sea’s seabed. The region boasts explored reserves exceeding 4.7 trillion cubic meters of gas and over 1 billion tons of condensate and oil . Furthermore, offshore fields hold recoverable reserves exceeding 570 billion cubic meters of gas and 320 million tons of condensate and oil. Astrakhan’s reserves account for roughly 20% of Russia’s total condensate reserves and 5% of its natural gas reserves .

The Russian company Lukoil is significantly involved in Astrakhan’s oil and gas sector. Currently, Lukoil operates two Caspian fields, Korchagin and Filanovsky . Over 47.5 million tons of oil have been produced since the onset of their development. Infrastructure installations, including an ice-resistant fixed platform and a residential module platform, have been completed in the Greifer field’s offshore area.

The region also witnesses expansion in gas production and processing through the efforts of the company Gazprom Dobycha Astrakhan . As part of PJSC Gazprom’s decision to increase annual production in the Astrakhan Arch fields, Gazprom Dobycha Astrakhan is actively involved in designing an additional gas pre-treatment unit. This unit includes technological facilities, communications, and an additional production well fund. The Astrakhan Gas Processing Plant (GPP) under LLC Gazprom Pererabotka is concurrently engaged in design and survey work to enhance the efficiency of the Astrakhan GPP.

The shipbuilding industry remains a cornerstone of the Astrakhan region’s economy and the broader South Russia area . Astrakhan’s shipbuilders help to construct ice-resistant fixed platforms for Filanovsky, Korchagin, and other fields. Furthermore, the construction of the cruise liner “Peter the Great” is nearing completion.

The region’s shipyards also engage in building tankers, bulk carriers, special-purpose vessels, and dredgers . With over 4,000 workers employed, the sector is well-equipped to fulfil various orders. The regional government actively seeks to attract contracts to local shipyards. Notably, an agreement has recently been reached for the construction of a series of container ships for the INSTC.

Astrakhan’s International Relations with Caspian Countries

The Astrakhan region is proactive in fostering cooperation with its counterparts in Caspian countries. Traditionally, the Republic of Azerbaijan stands as a key partner for the Astrakhan region in the Caspian . Over the years, the region has nurtured trade, economic, and cultural ties with Baku . This partnership operates under an agreement between the governments of the Astrakhan region and the Republic of Azerbaijan, encompassing trade, economics, science, technology, and culture.

Since 2010, the Heydar Aliyev Foundation has undertaken several noteworthy cultural projects in Astrakhan . A symbol of friendship between Baku and Astrakhan, a monument gifted by the Astrakhan region, now graces the Azerbaijani capital. In 2018, the Azerbaijan Business Centre commenced operations in Astrakhan, followed by the opening of the Astrakhan Business Centre in Baku in 2021 . This centre currently stands as the sole Russian regional representative office in Azerbaijan of its kind.

Progress has also been made with Turkmenistan in establishing a logistics centre in Astrakhan , with discussions ongoing about launching a regular shipping line between Olya and Turkmenbashi. Notable opportunities exist for collaboration with the Balkan plant in Turkmenbashi’s Turkmen port concerning shipbuilding. In 2022 , a cooperation agreement was signed between the region and the khyakimlik (local executive authority) of Turkmenistan’s Balkan velayat .

Cooperative ties extend to Kazakhstan’s border regions as well . The parties explored the possibility of establishing a border trade centre to boost mutual trade. Astrakhan has developed twinning relationships with the Kazakh cities of Aktau and Atyrau . In 2022 , a memorandum of cooperation was signed between the Duma of the Astrakhan Region and the Mangistau Regional Maslikhat of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Engagement with Iran’s Mostazafan Fund , the second-largest business association in Iran after the National Iranian Oil Company, is another facet of Astrakhan’s international relations. On June 1 st , 2022 , a delegation led by Parviz Fattah, head of the Mostazafan Foundation, visited Astrakhan. The delegation included top fund managers and holding leaders. This visit reciprocated a meeting between Astrakhan Region Governor Igor Babushkin and Parviz Fattah in Tehran in July 2021.

Over three days, the Mostazafan delegation explored the Astrakhan region’s socio-economic potential, visiting industrial and agricultural enterprises. They engaged with Iranian entrepreneurs operating in the region and toured the Astrakhan branch of the Iranian Mir Business Bank.

Parviz Fattah conveyed that the Mostazafan Foundation aims to establish a permanent office in Astrakhan. A program for cooperation between the Astrakhan region’s government and the Mostazafan Foundation for 2022-2026 was signed at the visit’s conclusion . This comprehensive document outlines joint activities across multiple sectors, including cargo transportation development between Iran and Russia using Astrakhan’s transit capabilities, shipbuilding, ship repair cooperation, and more.

Efforts to strengthen ties with Tehran were also clear during the visit of the Iranian delegation, headed by Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Kazem Jalali, to the Astrakhan region in September 2021 . During this visit , discussions encompassed economic, educational, and cultural potential. Notably, the Iranian ambassador explored potential cooperation in transport, logistics, and trade, emphasising Astrakhan’s pivotal role in Caspian Sea communications. Plans included the restoration of the Persian courtyard and the Persian mosque in the regional centre, architectural heritage sites in need of restoration.

Kazem Jalali highlighted the prospects of collaboration in transportation, logistics, and trade. He aptly described Astrakhan as the “heart of communications on the Caspian Sea.” These exchanges fostered cooperation between the region and Iran’s provinces.

An additional momentous event involving the Astrakhan region’s international relations was the “Caspian – Sea of Friendship” motor rally , conducted from April 1 to 11, 2023. Supported by federal authorities, the rally was led by Astrakhan Region Governor Igor Babushkin. This event enabled negotiations between the Astrakhan delegation and Caspian Sea neighbouring countries. Over 11 days, the rally covered 4,915 kilometres, spanning Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, and Azerbaijan. The outcome included preliminary agreements among Caspian states to establish an association of special economic zones for Caspian Sea countries and those traversed by the North-South ITC.

Astrakhan’s International Humanitarian Initiatives

Astrakhan maintains its historical tradition of fostering international relations in education and culture.

In 2022, approximately 5,334 foreign citizens studied within the region’s educational institutions . Notably, the number of students from Azerbaijan, Iran, India, and other countries witnessed an upswing. In the same year, nearly 11,000 foreign citizens sought medical treatment in regional healthcare facilities.

The tradition of hosting international events in Astrakhan persists, featuring the Caspian Media Forum, the Scientific Caspian Forum, the Caspian Medical Forum, and the SELIAS Forum. These platforms continue to shape a positive international agenda in the Caspian region, positioning Astrakhan as a strategically significant entity within Russia’s Caspian pursuits.

Astrakhan’s Relations with India

The Astrakhan region’s international relations extend beyond Caspian countries. On April 27 th , 2023 , Pawan Kapoor, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of India to the Russian Federation embarked on a landmark visit to Astrakhan. This visit holds special significance, given the historical presence of Indian merchants in Astrakhan, who maintained a trading compound in the city.

The Ambassador’s visit, alongside an accompanying business mission from Indian circles, aimed to familiarise them with Astrakhan’s economic potential and explore opportunities for mutually beneficial collaboration.

During the visit, an international conference titled “Astrakhan Region – Republic of India: New Horizons of Business Partnership” convened . This conference delved into potential collaborations between Astrakhan and the Indian business sectors in trade and logistics. Participants included representatives from Russian and Indian authorities, as well as trade, logistics, and transport companies.

Pawan Kapoor highlighted that the India-Russia trade turnover reached a historical peak of $45 billion by the end of 2022 . He underscored India’s readiness to provide Russian consumers with diverse goods, such as food products, medicines, and chemicals. The possibility of Indian companies establishing production facilities in the Lotus Special Economic Zone within Astrakhan intrigued the Indian side.

Roundtable discussions delved into various facets of cooperation between Astrakhan and Indian entities, particularly in logistics and trade. Enhancing cargo turnover along the North-South corridor, with a focus on delivering agricultural products, emerged as a priority for both countries. Creating a logistics hub in Astrakhan with dedicated food storage warehouses and centralised regulatory authorities garnered interest from the Indian side.

A pivotal meeting between Astrakhan Region Governor Igor Babushkin and Pawan Kapoor marked the Ambassador’s visit. The Governor highlighted the development of the INSTC as a key avenue for collaboration with India . He invited Indian firms to invest in the port SEZ infrastructure and to become residents of the Lotus SEZ. Discussions also encompassed the prospects of partnership in shipbuilding.

Pawan Kapoor acknowledged India’s historical ties with the Astrakhan region, recalling Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Astrakhan during his tenure as Chief Minister of the state of Gujarat in 2006. The Ambassador noted ongoing discussions at the governmental level regarding an intergovernmental agreement on shipbuilding and ship repair, emphasising Astrakhan’s potential role in the agreement’s implementation.

The Military and Political Significance of Astrakhan

Astrakhan continues to hold military and political importance, with several military centres and training grounds operating within its boundaries. These facilities test Russia’s latest weaponry and military equipment.

The Kapustin Yar State Flight Test Centre near Astrakhan is engaged in testing advanced military systems, such as the S-500 anti-aircraft missile system, designed to neutralise a wide spectrum of existing and future aerospace threats.

The Akhtubinsky district houses the State Flight Test Centre named after V.P. Chkalov, where various aircraft like the Su-30, Su-34, MiG-35, Yak-130, Il-76MD-90A, Mi-28, Ka-50, and Ka-52, among others, undergo testing. The Su-35S multifunctional fighter’s state tests were conducted here, and testing of the prospective Su-57 aviation complex was also conducted.

The Ashuluk military training ground, situated in the Kharabalinsky district, hosts exercises for Russia’s and CIS countries’ anti-aircraft missile forces .

The region’s significance is also manifested in discussions about regional security. In 2022, representatives from Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan convened in Astrakhan to address offenses committed in the Caspian Sea waters, including environmental crimes. This event was conducted under the declaration signed by the Prosecutors General of Caspian states in St. Petersburg in 2021, outlining cooperative efforts toward environmental protection and Caspian Sea resource utilisation.

A meeting held in Astrakhan on April 27 th , 2022, addressed national security issues in Russia’s southern region. It was chaired by Nikolai Patrushev, Secretary of the Security Council of the Russian Federation, and attended by Vladimir Ustinov, Plenipotentiary Representative of the President of the Russian Federation in the Southern Federal District, regional heads, and federal ministry and department representatives.

Recognition of Astrakhan as a Priority Geostrategic Territory

The federal government recognises and supports the Astrakhan region’s development initiatives. Amendments to the Strategy for Spatial Development of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2025 are under consideration, designating the Astrakhan region as a priority geostrategic territory . This designation aligns with the region’s sustainable socio-economic development, territorial integrity, and national security goals.

The Federation Council’s Committee on Economic Policy, headed by Chairman A. Kutepov, convened on May 18 th , 2021, to discuss the Astrakhan region’s development as a priority geostrategic territory. Representatives from federal and regional authorities took part in the discussions.

In summary, the Astrakhan region’s geopolitical significance remains paramount within Russia’s strategies for the Caspian region and beyond . The region’s historical, economic, military, and cultural ties continue to shape its role as a key player in Russia’s engagement with neighbouring countries and its broader global aspirations.

Report in media partnership with Kaspiskij Vestnik . This report was originally published by Kaspijskij institut strategicheskih issledovanij (KISI) . Disclaimer : The views and opinions expressed in this article are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official stance or endorsement of SpecialEurasia. SpecialEurasia does not assume any responsibility or liability for the accuracy, completeness, or validity of the information presented in this article. Readers are advised to exercise their own discretion and judgment when interpreting and applying the content provided herein.

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Tags: Astrakhan Region   Caspian Sea   Geopolitical Report ISSN 2785-2598   geopolitics   Russia   Vlad Kondratiev

• Open access
• Published: 25 August 2024

Navigating sexual minority identity in sport: a qualitative exploration of sexual minority student-athletes in China

• Meng Xiang 1 , 2 ,
• Kim Geok Soh 2 ,
• Yingying Xu 3 ,
• Seyedali Ahrari 4 &
• Noor Syamilah Zakaria 5  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  2304 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Sexual minority student-athletes (SMSAs) face discrimination and identity conflicts in intercollegiate sport, impacting their participation and mental health. This study explores the perceptions of Chinese SMSAs regarding their sexual minority identities, aiming to fill the current gap in research related to non-Western countries.

A qualitative methodology was adopted, utilising the Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach with self-categorization theory as the theoretical framework. Participants were recruited through purposive and snowball sampling, and data were collected via semi-structured interviews, documents, and field notes. Sixteen former and current Chinese SMSAs participated in this study.

The study reveals four themes: hidden truths, prioritisation of athlete identity, self-stereotyping, and attempt. The results revealed that while SMSAs were common in intercollegiate sport, their identities were often concealed and not openly discussed. The predominant focus on athlete identity in sport overshadowed their sexual minority identities. Additionally, SMSAs developed self-stereotypes that influenced their thoughts and behaviours. The non-heterosexual team atmosphere in women’s teams led to the development of intimate relationships among teammates.

Conclusions

The findings from this study could be incorporated into existing sport policies to ensure the safe participation of SMSAs in Chinese intercollegiate sports. This research offers valuable insights for the development and implementation of inclusive policies. Future research in China could investigate the attitudes of coaches and heterosexual student-athletes toward sexual minority identities to inform targeted interventions.

Peer Review reports

Collegiate sport serves as a conduit for hope, competition, learning, success, and enhanced well-being for students [ 1 , 2 ]. Within this context, situated at the intersection of student-athlete and sexual minority identities [ 3 ], sexual minority student-athletes (SMSAs) experience more challenges than their heterosexual counterparts. Sexual minority constitutes a group of individuals whose sexual and affectual orientation, romantic attraction, or sexual characteristics differ from that of heterosexuals. Sexual minority persons are inclusive of lesbian, gay, bi+, and asexual-identified individuals [ 4 ].

In an effort to enhance the support of SMSAs in sport, Team DC, the association of sexual minorities sport club, awarded seven SMSAs the 2023 Team DC College Scholarship [ 5 ]. Besides the Team DC scholarship, there are the Rambler Scholarship, US Lacrosse SMSAs Inclusion Scholarship, NCAA Women’s Athletics Scholarship and Ryan O’Callaghan Foundation [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. These scholarships were set up to make sport a more welcoming and safer environment for SMSAs. In particular, the Sexual Minority Scholarship echoes the International Olympic Committee’s framework of equity, inclusion, and non-discrimination, which states that everyone has the right to participate in sport without discrimination and in a manner that respects their health, safety and dignity [ 9 , 10 ].

Despite efforts by educational and sport organisations to foster inclusivity, research shows that the sport environment remains hostile to sexual minority individuals [ 11 , 12 ]. In intercollegiate sport, empirical evidence points to persistent negative attitudes [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ], which are expressed through marginalisation, exclusion, use of homophobic language, discrimination, and harassment [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. SMSAs frequently confront the difficult choice of disclosing their identity, often opting for concealment. Denison et al. found that SMSAs who disclose their identity to their teams may face increased discrimination [ 21 ]. Pariera et al. also observed deep-rooted fears among SMSAs of being marginalised by their teams upon revealing their sexual orientation [ 22 ]. Consequently, the hostile environment led to lower participation rates among sexual minority youth compared to their heterosexual counterparts [ 23 ].

In China, there is a lack of clear public policies related to the sexual minority population [ 24 ]. Despite homosexuality being removed from the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders-3 in 2001 [ 25 ]. China’s stance towards sexual minority issues remains ambiguous. Many scholars describe this attitude as “no approval, no disapproval, and no promotion” [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Due to the lack of legal protection, sexual minorities frequently encounter discrimination. A Chinese national survey revealed that only 5.1% of sexual minority individuals felt comfortable being open about their gender and sexual identity in China [ 30 ]. This discrimination is particularly severe among Chinese sexual minority youth, who are at higher risk of bullying in school and college [ 31 , 32 ]. These youths face childhood victimisation [ 33 , 34 , 35 ], which heightens their risk of mental and behavioural health issues [ 36 , 37 , 38 ], including non-medical use of prescription drugs [ 39 ], depression [ 40 , 41 ], and suicide [ 42 ].

While sports participation is crucial for the well-being of sexual minority individuals, research on the sports participation of sexual minority youth in China is limited. The literature highlights a significant gap in understanding the status and circumstances of SMSAs in China. Most existing studies focus on Western populations [ 43 , 44 , 45 ], overlooking the unique sociocultural interactions affecting SMSAs in non-Western contexts, making it challenging for China to apply these findings. Furthermore, the lack of reliable research on the interactions between sexual minorities and institutions in Chinese higher education hampers a comprehensive understanding of SMSAs’ situations. This research gap impedes the development of effective interventions to foster inclusivity. Persistent discrimination and inadequate protective policies underscore the urgent need for academic, policy, and practical advancements to support sexual minorities in China [ 46 ]. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore SMSAs’ perceptions of their sexual minority identity in Chinese sports, providing insights to guide the creation of supportive educational and organisational strategies.

Homonegativity and discrimination in sport

Homonegativity refers to any prejudicial attitude or discriminatory behaviour directed towards an individual because of their homosexual orientation [ 47 ]. Compared to the more common term “homophobia,” [ 48 ] “homonegativity” more accurately describes negative attitudes towards homosexuality [ 49 ] because the fear is not irrational but is learned from parents, peers, teachers, coaches, and the daily interaction environment [ 50 ]. Sport context is an integral part of society, and an extensive body of research has consistently demonstrated the presence of homonegativity in sport [ 12 , 21 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 ].

Homonegativity can manifest in forms such as verbal harassment, physical violence, or discriminatory behaviours. The “Out on the Fields” survey, conducted in 2015, represents the first large-scale international study focusing on homophobia in sports [ 60 ]. Participants were from six countries: Canada, Australia, Ireland, the United States, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. It revealed extensive discrimination in sport, with a high percentage of gay men and lesbians experiencing verbal slander, bullying, threats, and physical assault. The OUTSPORT project, completed in 2019 and funded by the European Union, is the first comprehensive EU-wide study on homophobia and transphobia in sport. The project collected data from over 5500 sexual minority individuals across all 28 EU member countries [ 61 ]. The results revealed that a significant portion of participants faced adverse experiences in sport contexts related to their sexual orientation and gender identity, including verbal abuse, structural discrimination, physical boundary crossing, and violence. An overwhelming majority of respondents (92.9%) view homophobia and transphobia in sport as current issues. Additionally, 20% of respondents reported avoiding participation in sport due to concerns about their sexual orientation or gender identity, while 16% of active participants experienced at least one related negative incident in the past year. Notably, male student-athletes exhibited higher levels of homophobic attitudes compared to their female counterparts and non-physical education students [ 15 , 16 , 62 ]. Conversely, female athletes reported experiencing less fear of exclusion and a more inclusive team environment [ 22 , 63 , 64 ], highlighting significant gender disparities in homonegativity in sport.

Group and individual identity

The distinct team interaction inherent in sport may enhance or support expressions of homonegativity and discrimination, as Social Identity Theory posits that negative beliefs about certain groups may develop group identity [ 65 , 66 , 67 ]. This phenomenon is particularly noticeable in intercollegiate sport, where a strong emphasis on physical attributes and abilities often results in prejudices against those who deviate from established norms [ 16 ]. Such discrimination and mistreatment of SMSAs frequently stem from their teammates and coaches. Many SMSAs choose to conceal their sexual orientation due to fear of ostracism [ 60 ], with team members often identified as the primary perpetrators of discrimination [ 61 ].

Therefore, navigating sexual identity within intercollegiate sport is challenging for SMSAs, as their minority status becomes a focal point, impacting their overall experience [ 68 , 69 ]. They encounter a unique psychological and emotional burden, striving to reconcile societal norms and expectations with their true selves. This constant negotiation and management of their identity across different contexts further complicates their experiences, frequently leading to difficulties in maintaining authenticity [ 19 ]. Therefore, SMSAs in intercollegiate sport face intricate challenges in balancing their authentic identity with societal norms, significantly impacting their experience and sense of self.

Theoretical framework

Self-categorisation theory (SCT), an extension of Social Identity Theory, provides a valuable perspective for examining the perceptions of SMSAs in China, focusing on intragroup processes and individual navigation of personal and social identities [ 70 , 71 ]. Key principles of SCT, including self-categorisation, salience, depersonalisation, and individuality [ 67 ], are instrumental in understanding how SMSAs navigate their sexual identities within the confines of sport norms. Applying SCT, this study could explore the complex interplay of intragroup relations and identity processes among SMSAs in the Chinese sport context, underscoring how contextual factors distinctly shape their identity.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is to explore SMSAs’ perceptions of their sexual minority identity within the Chinese sports context and understand how this identity influences their participation in sports. By illuminating the specific challenges and issues related to sexual minority identity in Chinese intercollegiate sports, this study provides a deeper understanding of the experiences of sexual minorities in this field.

Research design

This study was conducted with the interpretivist paradigm, which emphasises understanding the subjective experiences and meanings that individuals assign to their world. It posits that reality is not objective but is constructed through individual perceptions and social interactions [ 72 ]. Given the aim of exploring the perceptions of sexual minority identity in sport from SMSAs’ perspectives, a qualitative research approach is appropriate. In line with the purpose of the study, the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) was adopted in this study, an approach aimed at understanding people’s lived experiences and how they make sense of these experiences in the context of their personal and social worlds [ 73 ]. IPA research encompasses phenomenology, hermeneutics, and idiography and emphasises the personal significance of self-reflection among individuals with a shared experience in a specific context [ 74 ]. Additionally, IPA is particularly suitable for research focusing on identity and self-awareness [ 75 ]. The features and focus of IPA are consistent with the purpose of this study. Therefore, IPA was considered a suitable approach to explore the SMSAs’ perceptions of their sexual minority identity within the sport context in China.

Researcher characteristics and reflexivity

During the data collection phase of this study, the first researcher was a Ph.D. candidate and had obtained her Ph.D. by the time of this manuscript’s submission. Her doctoral committee continuously supervised the research. The first researcher’s doctoral committee members are proficient in qualitative research. The first researcher and the second coder have received systematic qualitative training, are skilled in qualitative analysis software (NVivo), and have published empirical studies using the IPA approach. Although none of the research team members were SMSAs, the first researcher and the second coder maintained long-term contact with SMSAs through their involvement in sport teams. The first researcher was a former student-athlete and is currently working as a coach. Given her background, she has had extensive time to interact with and understand SMSAs within student teams.

Participants and procedures

Purposive and snowball sampling methods were employed to recruit a homogeneous sample for this study, as recommended by Smith and Nizza [ 73 ]. Following approval from Universiti Putra Malaysia’s Human Research Review Committee, the researcher initially reached out to SMSAs within her network, subsequently expanding outreach through social media to reach a broader pool of potential participants. The participants were selected based on specific inclusion criteria (Table  1 ), ensuring relevance to the study’s focus. Of the 22 individuals contacted, 16 agreed to participate, while six individuals declined participation due to concerns regarding potential exposure. The sample included a diverse representation of sexual minority subgroups: one asexual man, four bisexual women, three gay men, and eight lesbians. Given the relatively low prevalence of asexual individuals [ 76 , 77 ], we only had one participant from this subgroup. Strict confidentiality measures were enforced, with participants assigned pseudonyms and their college affiliations omitted for anonymity. The demographic details of the participants are outlined in Table  2 .

In phenomenological research, the focus is on rich individual experiences rather than data saturation [ 78 ]. Similarly, IPA research aims to explore participants’ personal and social worlds through detailed, in-depth analysis [ 79 ]. Smith and Nizza [ 73 ] also highlighted that in IPA research, sample size is less crucial because of the emphasis on detailed analysis in small, homogeneous samples. Therefore, the richness of data and the depth of insight into each participant’s experience are more important than the number of participants or reaching data saturation. This study utilised IPA’s in-depth analytical approach with sixteen participants to provide detailed data. This methodological approach allows for a comprehensive exploration of individual experiences, aligning with the study’s objectives.

Data collection

Data for this study were collected through semi-structured interviews (Appendix A), allowing participants to choose the mode, time, and location, including face-to-face or online sessions on Chinese social networks. Each interview’s length is detailed in Table  2 , with an average duration of 63 min. Before each interview, participants signed informed consent forms following a detailed briefing on the study’s purpose and procedures. Given the sensitive nature of the research, the interviews were conducted solely between the researcher and the participant to ensure a safe and comfortable environment, fostering open and honest communication.

The methods of data collection exhibited some qualitative differences. In face-to-face interviews, participants were often cautious and hesitant to share personal experiences. Conversely, online interviews proved more effective, as participants felt more relaxed, leading to quicker rapport and greater openness. This difference likely stems from the reduced perceived risk of exposure in an online setting. Due to the clear objectives of the study and the structured interview guide, there were no differences between the data from current SMSAs and former SMSAs.

Notably, one participant provided data through written essays instead of a semi-structured interview due to concerns about exposure and discomfort. After discussing the matter, the participant agreed to respond to interview questions in written form. The first researcher sent the interview questions to the participant, who then provided written responses. Follow-up questions were asked based on these initial responses, resulting in four sets of essay responses. This approach, which aligns with the conventions of phenomenological research [ 80 ], allowed the participant to express their experiences comfortably. The essay data were analysed alongside the semi-structured interview data, with common themes identified across all responses.

Documents and field notes supplemented the data collection. Documents included photographs, videos, and diaries. With participant consent, these documents were analysed for relevance to the research purpose. Field notes captured contextual information during both face-to-face and online interviews, including keywords and participants’ pauses and intonations, with immediate elaboration post-interview to avoid biases [ 81 , 82 ]. These detailed notes contextualised data analysis [ 74 ] and contributed to the research’s credibility.

Data analysis

The data analysis in this study followed a seven-step process aligned with IPA research guidelines and contemporary IPA terminology. The data analysis procedure is depicted in Fig.  1 . The IPA analysis is iterative and inductive [ 83 ], involving the organisation of data into a structured format for easy tracking through various stages – from initial exploratory notes on transcripts to the development of empirical statements, theme clustering, and final group theme structure. The theoretical framework was incorporated at the final stage of empirical theme development.

To enhance the study’s validity, the first author invited another Ph.D. candidate to participate in the data analysis process. After the interview recordings were translated into transcripts using audio software, the first researcher listened to the recordings repeatedly to correct the transcripts. The second coder reviewed the recordings to ensure the transcriptions were accurate and verbatim. The first author employed NVivo software (released in March 2020) for coding, and the second coder utilised manual coding. All data were analysed in Chinese to maintain linguistic integrity and then translated into English for theme presentation.

Data Analysis Procedure. Adapted from Smith et al. ( 74 )

The procedures of this study adhered to the COREQ Checklist [ 84 ] (Appendix B) and the IPA Quality Evaluation Guide [ 85 ] to ensure rigour. The research met the good quality requirements for IPA studies as outlined by Smith [ 85 ] (Table  3 ). Throughout the research, emphasis was placed on internal validity, external validity, and reliability to maintain the study’s rigour and quality. The methods employed to address these aspects are summarised in Table  4 .

This study explored SMSAs’ perceptions of sexual minority identity within intercollegiate sport in China. From the perspective of SCT, the results uncovered four key themes from SMSA’s team-based interactive experiences. The research themes, along with their corresponding sub-themes and occurrences, are presented in Table  5 .

Hidden truths

The hidden truths refer to facts, scenarios, or knowledge that are not commonly known or readily available. In this study, the existence of SMSAs in intercollegiate sport was undeniable, yet it remained concealed due to the prevailing lack of transparency.

SMSAs are common in sport

This research uncovered the extensive existence of SMSAs in Chinese sport. Almost all participants acknowledged the ubiquity of sexual minorities in sport, with 12 out of the 16 participants specifically highlighting the presence of SMSAs in collegiate sport:

I think everyone is generally aware of sexual minorities; all people are aware of them to a greater or lesser extent. It is generally agreed that the existence of sexual minorities is a common phenomenon in modern society, and even more so in Sport, as anyone involved in sport knows that (Adam).

Participants frequently described the presence of SMSAs in intercollegiate sport, using terms like “widespread”, “common”, “normal”, and “quite many”. Several participants also provided specific details about the number of SMSAs in their respective teams. Jackie remarked, “At that time, half of my teammates were lesbians” (Jackie). Similarly, Zoe noted the significant presence of SMSAs in her team, “I think it (the number of SMSAs) was almost half of the team at that time. But I don’t know about the senior players; almost half of our junior players were SMSAs” (Zoe).

Silent identity

Participants noted the prevalence of SMSAs in sport but also emphasised the difficulty of openly discussing sexual minority identity in this context. They described the sport environment as reserved and lacking open conversations about SMSAs and their experiences.

The reticent nature of sport teams regarding sexual minority identity was evident in their attitudes. William observed, “I feel like most of my teammates just don’t take a stand. They don’t want to make a statement about SMSAs. Nor did they say they supported it or didn’t support it” (William). Similarly, Mia considered sexual minority identity as a personal issue, inappropriate for open discussion.

No one wants to ask or discuss this openly…we live in a very conservative environment all the time, and none of this content is something that teammates should be concerned about, and people would feel offended if you don’t handle it well (Mia).

Some SMSAs viewed avoiding discussions on sexual minorities in sport as respectful to teammates, aiming for a comfortable, stress-free environment. Joy said, “We came here to play, right? I don’t think any of the other players want to feel phased by who you are” (Joy). Mia echoed this sentiment:

…in team training, the game is the game, and I rarely bring other emotions into it…. In the company of most of our teammates, we don’t interact with each other in that way. It’s probably a default rule that respect is distance, I guess (Mia).

Charlotte, involved in volleyball and basketball, recounted a teammate’s public derogation due to her sexual minority identity, an incident not openly addressed by the team. She perceived sexual identity as a “taboo” topic. The narratives revealed a cautious approach among SMSAs towards expressing their sexual minority identity in sport. They felt compelled to carefully manage their sexual orientation, minimising its disclosure. This hesitancy likely stemmed from the existing reticence and limited acceptance of SMSAs in sport, fostering a sense of invisibility and concern over potential negative consequences.

Prioritisation of athlete identity

The theme of prioritisation of athlete identity suggests that for SMSAs, their identity as an athlete may play a more prominent or influential role in shaping their self-conception compared to their sexual minority identity.

Be an athlete

Several participants believed their primary role as student-athletes was to engage in sport, and they valued this aspect of their identity significantly. Joy expressed this sentiment, “I love volleyball very much … I don’t care much about relationships; I just love volleyball, and I think we are all here to do this, and nothing else matters. You don’t need to stress about it (sexual minority identity)” (Joy).

Emma echoed a similar perspective, noting, “I think my teammates are very professional; our program requires a high technical standard, and we spend most of our time training; other than that, things don’t seem that important” (Emma). When queried about the importance of sexual minority identity, she responded, “Yes, at least not concerning sport performance, or maybe it will have a bad effect” (Emma). Additionally, some participants felt that in the context of sport, sexual minority identity might be sidelined. Adam commented:

“We don’t share it (sexual minority identity) unless someone asks. We’re a team first, and then we’re individuals, and for me, I’m important personally, but in the team, we all probably need to sacrifice some of ourselves to make the team more united and stronger” (Adam).

Participants’ views as both student-athletes and sexual minorities highlighted contrasts in the intercollegiate sport environment. Their student-athlete identity was key in shaping self-perception and fostering a sense of community, while their sexual minority identity was often marginalised in aspects of interpersonal relations, team support, and self-identity development.

Sport performance first norms

In team sport, leaders are crucial in creating inclusive spaces for SMSAs and setting behavioural and attitudinal standards, including those towards SMSAs. In this study, some participants believed that coaches’ criteria for acceptance of sexual minority individuals or intra-team romantic relationships were based on athletic performance.

Some coaches firmly believe that team relationships negatively impact team performance and, therefore, strictly prohibit romantic relationships between teammates. Joy recalled,

She couldn’t accept that… she thinks being an athlete like that is ridiculous. It would make a mess; her team would be in a mess. She said you two are dating and that playing will affect your emotions, which means she meant to say there is no way I can treat another girl as a normal teammate… (Joy).

In contrast, some coaches adopt a more tolerant attitude. Jackie’s coach believes that if the team’s overall performance is not affected, issues such as sexual orientation or team relationships can be ignored. Jackie stated, “My coach is male and old, but he should know what’s going on, especially since our captain has dated several teammates and the coach pretends not to know. He would only care if we were winning games” (Jackie).

Whether it instructs prohibition or an indifferent attitude, both narratives reflect that the team’s norms for inclusivity are based on sport performance. These norms also influence how SMSAs assess their own sexual minority identity within the team, as Adam said:

As of now, I have someone in the team that I have a crush on and haven’t dated. Maybe if he and I argued over training or a game, it would affect the performance of the team and the relationship between teammates…. I don’t think I could let that happen (Adam).

The participants’ narratives emphasise how the “Sports Performance First” norms influence the attitudes and behaviours of coaches and SMSAs within the team. These norms not only shape the team culture but also profoundly affect how SMSAs navigate their identities and relationships in the team environment.

However, the excessive focus on sport performance highlights the athletic identity of student-athletes while neglecting their other identities, especially those of sexual minorities. This singular focus leads to the neglect of the personal needs and diverse identities of athletes. Although these measures may seem to ensure the overall performance of the team, they overlook the psychological health and holistic development needs of the individuals.

Self-stereotyping

Self-stereotyping denotes the tendency of SMSAs to describe themselves using stereotypical attributes in the sport context. These descriptions frequently align with stereotypical perceptions prevalent in the external environment. SMSAs tend to be perceived as having specific physical traits or behavioural tendencies.

Specific physical traits

Sophia provided an illustrative example of self-stereotyping through her personal experience. She commented:

In the beginning, I would think that if you are an SMSA, you must fit some characteristics. For example, at that time, I saw some lesbians in my team who had short hair or wore baggy t-shirts; I was a bit frustrated by my long hair and feminine appearance…and I felt that I might not quite fit those criteria. So, then I cut my hair and even wore a wrapping bra to the training ground (Sophia). Sophia’s narrative underscores how the pressure to conform to certain physical traits led her to change her appearance to fit the stereotypical image of an SMSA within the sport context.

Behavioural tendencies

In addition to physical traits, SMSAs also feel compelled to conform to certain behavioural tendencies that are stereotypically associated with SMSAs. Zoe explained, “Because of who I am (T), I felt I should have to perform stronger, so I put up with much training…. I felt I should be there to protect the other players; if I were vulnerable, I would look down on myself” (Zoe). This indicates a sense of obligation among some female SMSAs to embody strength, aligning with the stereotypical image of female SMSAs in sport. Conversely, male SMSAs in men’s teams often faced stereotypes of being fragile, weak, or exhibiting feminine traits. Royal noted that behaviours of some male SMSAs, like engaging in non-sport-related banter, led to gossip and negative perceptions within men’s sport. To avoid these stereotypes, Royal aimed to mimic the mannerisms of heterosexual athletes, as he explained:

I try to avoid being close to the team’s prominent male SMSAs and try to stay out of related conversations; I don’t want to be a standard gay; I want to have the same college life as the rest of the team (heterosexuality) (Royal).

Stereotypes in sport often forced SMSAs into roles incongruent with their authentic identities, significantly impacting their self-expression and identity. The pressure to conform to societal norms in sport settings created internal conflicts for SMSAs, challenging their ability to maintain their true sense of self.

This theme addresses situations where student-athletes engage in intra-team intimacy or mimic being SMSAs in sport. This attempt has two key elements: prolonged contact leading to intimacy and influence from sexual minority teammates.

Prolonged contact leading to intimacy

Participants noted that extensive training and competition schedules in sport fostered close bonds among team members. Lucas shared, “When we were preparing for the tournament, we trained together every morning and evening…the game spanned for almost a month, and after that, we felt as close as family to our teammates” (Lucas). Similarly, Ruby pointed out, “Back then, we were training every afternoon until late at night; it was quite hard (the training was very strenuous) … it lasted for six months” (Ruby). These prolonged interactions sometimes led to the development of more profound attractions among student-athletes.

“I think we had many moments of trust and intimacy together on the field that built up some heartfelt feelings. These feelings made me feel emotions beyond that of a teammate…. Then I realised that gender might not be so important because it’s hard to build that kind of relationship in a typical romance” (Savannah).

Influence from sexual minority teammates

Participants also described how interactions with sexual minority teammates led them to explore their own sexual identities, as illustrated by Ava’s recounting of her initial same-gender relationship experience:

That time we went out to a tournament, and I found that four of my teammates, three of them were lesbians…we didn’t have games at night, so they had been talking to their girlfriends every night on the phone, and I just felt as if that was not too bad. Probably influenced by them, I got a girlfriend at that tournament as well…. Even though we broke up when we returned, I could accept girls (Ava).

Mia described a similar experience:

There were some lesbians in my team, and then it just seemed natural that I got close to one of them…. Well, I was thinking about whether that relationship would affect the team. But then I found out that there were other couples on the team. So, I feel like I wasn’t doing anything wrong (Mia).

The phenomenon highlights the significant role of peer influence in team settings. When individuals are around many teammates in same-gender relationships, it fosters an environment that normalises such relationships. Notably, this influence is not coercive but stems from observing and interacting with teammates who are comfortable with their sexual orientations. This environment helps individuals feel accepted and more confident in exploring their identities and relationships.

This study explored the perceptions of SMSAs regarding their sexual identity within intercollegiate sport in China. Its importance lies in its contribution to understanding the complex realities of SMSAs in China, an area that has lacked depth in the literature. By reaffirming the necessity of examining these athletes’ experiences, this study reveals the intricate conflict between adhering to team norms and expressing personal characteristics within the context of the Chinese social and cultural background.

The results show that SMSAs are a recognised reality in Chinese intercollegiate sport, consistent with findings from Western countries. While precise figures of sexual minorities in sport may vary across countries, it is acknowledged that they are present at all competitive levels, from school and college sport to the professional sphere [ 22 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 ]. Although no national census on sexual minorities in China or in sports environments exists, related research indicates that many college and university students self-identify as sexual minorities. For instance, an online survey conducted across 26 colleges and universities in 10 Chinese provinces found that over 8% of students identify as sexual minorities [ 36 ]. Additionally, another national survey revealed that nearly a quarter of college students identify as non-heterosexual [ 92 ]. Recognising and addressing the unique challenges faced by sexual minority youth, who make up a notable percentage of the student population, is essential for sport and educational institutions.

Despite the apparent prevalence of SMSAs, the study confirms that their identities often remain hidden in the context of Chinese intercollegiate sport. This can be attributed to two main reasons: First is the concern about discrimination if exposed. Chinese sexual minorities frequently report experiencing abuse or discrimination in families, schools, and workplaces [ 93 ]. Additionally, conversion therapies and discriminatory counselling practices persist in mental health services [ 94 ], creating an environment where discrimination is a significant concern, thereby reducing the likelihood of SMSAs coming out in the sports environment. The second reason is the constraint of traditional Chinese culture. The dominant Confucian culture in China emphasises harmony, internalised homonegativity, and conformity [ 95 , 96 ], often at the expense of individual expression and identity development. This cultural backdrop influences how sexual minorities perceive their own identities [ 97 ] and creates an ideological constraint that leads to social rejection and resistance towards sexual minorities [ 98 ], thereby reducing the visibility of sexual orientation-related topics in the Chinese sport context.

Moreover, SMSAs in China often prioritise their athlete identity over their sexual minority identity, influenced by the attitudes of team leaders. This tendency is reinforced by coaches who primarily focus on the biological sex of athletes and lack training or understanding related to sexual minority issues [ 99 ]. Consequently, the Chinese coaches’ lack of knowledge about sex and sexual orientation exacerbates the silence surrounding sexual minority identities in the Chinese collegiate sport environment and intensifies the identity conflict for SMSAs. Emphasising athletic performance is central in sport but should not overshadow the holistic development of student-athletes. McCavanagh and Cadaret [ 100 ] noted that student-athletes might face challenges in reconciling various aspects of their identity in a heteronormative sport context. The suppression of sexual minority identity can lead to isolation from potential support systems that nurture positive sexual and gender identities. Prioritising athletic success over broader student development in sport departments limits growth opportunities for all students, including SMSAs. Chavez et al. [ 101 ] emphasised that student development requires recognising and valuing diversity, suggesting that a singular focus on athletic prowess can diminish the benefits of diversity among student-athletes. Embracing diversity is not only a personal journey but also one that can enhance the collective experience within sport settings.

In addition, self-stereotyping within SCT involves aligning one’s self-concept with the characteristics of valued social categories [ 102 ]. Latrofa [ 103 ] suggests that members of low-status groups, like SMSAs in sport, may self-stereotype to align more closely with their group, reflecting recognition of lower status and self-perception through peers. This study revealed SMSAs shape their self-identity based on the attitudes prevalent in their sport environment, with influences from peers and coaches being internalised as personal attitudes [ 104 ]. Such self-stereotyping supports maintaining a favourable social identity and adhering to group norms but can reinforce negative stereotypes and prejudices within sport.

Internalising stereotypes may lead SMSAs to develop prejudices against themselves and others, perpetuating discrimination. It can also hinder individual development, impacting self-esteem and confidence. For example, aligning with negative stereotypes could cause SMSAs to doubt their worth and capabilities, affecting emotional well-being and satisfaction. Liu and Song’s [ 105 ] survey of Chinese college students illustrated the direct impact of gender self-stereotypes on life satisfaction, highlighting the significant effects of self-stereotyping on individual well-being.

Furthermore, in the context of traditional and reserved Chinese culture, intercollegiate sport offers a relatively free and open space for sexual minority women. The results of this study suggest that the visibility of sexual minority women in teams and the long time spent together allow these athletes to explore and establish intimate relationships. These results are similar to findings in Spanish studies [ 103 ], which highlighted the protective and liberating role of sports teams in the sexual exploration of female sexual minority athletes. Research by Organista and Kossakowski on Polish female footballers [ 106 ] and Xiong and Guo [ 96 ] on Chinese women’s basketball teams also revealed a climate of non-heteronormativity in women’s sport. These climates provide a sanctuary from heterosexual pressures, allowing sexual minority athletes to engage in sport free from traditional constraints. Such environments help female sexual minority athletes navigate and subvert heteronormative norms by cultivating supportive subcultural networks within their teams.

This study addresses the lack of in-depth research on the experiences of SMSAs in Chinese intercollegiate sport. It fills the gap by exploring the complex realities of SMSAs, focusing on their identity conflicts and the influence of the Chinese social and cultural background. Specifically, this study provides valuable insights that align with SCT [ 71 ]. This study addresses a notable gap in the existing literature regarding sexual minority sport participation, as rarely have these perceptions been explored. Drawing from the lens of SCT, the results of this study revealed several valuable insights into how their sexual minority identity impacts their participation in sport. These findings not only enhance our understanding of how SCT applies to the sport experiences of sexual minority individuals but also contribute to the advancement of SCT in research on sexual minority sport participation. The themes uncovered in this study closely align with central SCT concepts such as identity salience, self-stereotyping, and depersonalisation, illuminating the ways SMSAs comprehend and express their sexual minority identity within the intercollegiate sport context. SCT, with its focus on both intragroup and intergroup relations within the multifaceted construct of the self, offers valuable insights into the complexities of SMSAs’ self-perceptions and the intricacies involved in developing and manifesting their identities in the realm of sport.

Based on the results, more effort needs to be put into understanding sexual minority identities in intercollegiate sport. By examining the perspectives and experiences of SMSAs, we can gain insights into the interactions and influences of sexual minority individuals in the sport context. The interplay between an individual’s self-perception and situational dynamics results in a self-identity that mirrors the collective. In addition, the prevalent pressures and normative prejudices inherent in the sport system significantly influence their self-identity. Therefore, valuing SMSAs’ understanding of their self-identity shows respect for each person’s differences and rights. We hope the findings will be incorporated into existing sport policies to promote inclusivity and ensure safe participation for sexual minority students. To encourage and support the full development of SMSAs, college athletics and related institutions should prioritise understanding and respecting their perceptions of their sexual minority identity. By doing so, institutions can create a more inclusive and supportive environment that acknowledges and addresses the unique challenges faced by SMSAs.

Nevertheless, caution should be exercised when generalizing the findings, especially for subgroups with low representation, such as asexual individuals. While the study provides valuable insights into SMSAs’ perceptions of their sexual minority identity within the Chinese sport context, the limited number of asexual participants means their unique perspectives may not be fully captured. Therefore, these findings may not fully represent all sexual minority subgroups.

Future research could focus on exploring the perceptions and experiences among various sexual minority subgroups within sport participation in China. Additionally, considering the cultural diversity across China’s vast geographic regions, it would be valuable to examine how SMSAs perceive their minority identity in different cultural contexts. Given the scarcity of related studies in China, it is also important to survey other stakeholders in the sport environment, such as coaches and heterosexual student-athletes, to gain a broader understanding of perceptions of sexual minority identities. These insights can inform the development of targeted interventions aimed at ensuring the safe and inclusive participation of SMSAs in intercollegiate sport.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical considerations but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Xiang, M., Soh, K.G., Xu, Y. et al. Navigating sexual minority identity in sport: a qualitative exploration of sexual minority student-athletes in China. BMC Public Health 24 , 2304 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19824-9

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19824-9

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