discrimination between good and bad essay

Discrimination: The Good and the Bad 

Time is riddled with incidences of discrimination. The definition of discrimination is the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things. One of the biggest platforms of this in the past has been race. Gender is also plays a part in today’s discrimination. Although not as prominent, age can be a factor in discrimination. Despite ongoing and past negativity brought by racial, gender, and age discrimination there are positives to be taken away.

Race is without a doubt one of the chief areas of discrimination.

The reason begins with history. In America this has been that of discrimination against minorities, the most memorable being African Americans. Both Marie Mercat-Bruns and Richard Ford agree that the history plays a huge part, specifically in “sending a message of contempt” (150). As a result, racial innuendos have perpetuated themselves into society throughout multiple generations. At one point Mercat-Bruns gives another viewpoint of a positive, unimposed outsider status. She describes this as a positive side to being forced out of another group.

One example she uses is people identifying with and embracing their black culture in the 60s. Minorities used the fact of people pushing them away to “tear down” the social barriers. This not only shows the negative side to the racial discrimination but also how it can be turned around to display positivity. Thereupon, race has been used as a way to impose inequality such as many instances of segregation in Jim Crow America. Mercat-Bruns says “race has no importance in biology” (147).

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Which means racial hierarchies and other such structures are constructed by people and not naturally put into place.

Gender is another area where there has been heavy discrimination. A common place for this has been in the workplace. All throughout history there have been jobs largely specific to either men or men. In other words, “occupational sex segregation is . . . gender inequity in women’s opportunities” (Roos and Stevens 128). This has only recently begun to change significantly. Roos and Steven also point out that this occupation separation only declined substantially declined beginning in the 1970s (128).

This being said, job segregation is not the only negative point. Wage gap is a prominent issue as well. Pew Research Center states “In 2017, women earned 82% of what men earned” based on one of their analyses. There is also gender discrimination in another facet of the workplace: the government. Although the ratio of women to men is less in the government, there is a positive to this particular situation. For the upcoming election, women have a great chance of gaining more representation. As reported by Susan Milligan on a study by Pew Research Center, 68 percent of women and 54 percent of men think more women elected would be a good development. As shown, gender discrimination is still a problem though it has improvement.

One of the least known sections, but still far-reaching, is age discrimination. Age discrimination mainly protects older people from unemployment at the hands of their younger counterparts. David Neumark and Wendy Stock state the Age Discrimination Employment Act (ADEA) of 1968 “was intended to ban age discrimination” (1081). Even though this was enacted by Congress, there were a multitude of people still discriminated against since then. One article from AARP reports “two out of three workers between ages 45 and 74 say they have seen or experienced age discrimination at work”. Despite this fact, those people whose job treats them fairly have a significant benefit from ADEA. As a result of ADEA, these “workers earn more than their marginal product and . . . reservation wage. . .” (Neumark and Stock 1082).

In all three of these aspects, progress is being made on discrimination little by little. With racial, people gained and embraced a sense of identity. In respect to gender, women are becoming more prominent in not only the average workplace but also in authority roles. Lastly, even though a large swathe of older people are affected, those shielded are on equal playing field. Though still a relevant problem, discrimination has come a long way from what it used to be.

Works Cited

• Mercat-Bruns, Marie, et al. “The Multiple Grounds of Discrimination.” Discrimination at Work: Comparing European, French, and American Law, University of California Press, Oakland, California, 2016, pp. 145–246. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1ffjn61.10.
• Roos, Patricia A., and Lindsay M. Stevens. “Integrating Occupations: Changing Occupational Sex Segregation in the United States from 2000 to 2014.” Demographic Research, vol. 38, 2018, pp. 127–154. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26457039.
• Graf, Nikki, et al. “Gender Pay Gap Has Narrowed, but Changed Little in Past Decade.” Pew Research Center, Pew Research Center, 9 Apr. 2018, www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/04/09/gender-pay-gap-facts/
• Milligan, Susan. “How the Public Sees the Value of Women in Washington.” U.S. News & World Report, U.S. News & World Report, 22 Aug. 2018, www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2018-08-22/how-the-public-sees-the-value-of-women-in-washington.
• Neumark, David, and Wendy A. Stock. “Age Discrimination Laws and Labor Market Efficiency.” Journal of Political Economy, vol. 107, no. 5, 1999, pp. 1081–1125. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/250091.
• Palmer, Kimberly. “10 Facts About Age Discrimination in the Workplace.” AARP, www.aarp.org/work/on-the-job/info-2017/age-discrimination-facts.html.

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Essays About Discrimination: Top 5 Examples and 8 Prompts

You must know how to connect with your readers to write essays about discrimination effectively; read on for our top essay examples , including prompts that will help you write.

Discrimination comes in many forms and still happens to many individuals or groups today. It occurs when there’s a distinction or bias against someone because of their age, race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or disability.

Discrimination can happen to anyone wherever and whenever they are. Unfortunately, it’s a problem that society is yet to solve entirely. Here are five in-depth examples of this theme’s subcategories to guide you in creating your essays about discrimination .

1. Essay On Discrimination For Students In Easy Words by Prateek

2. personal discrimination experience by naomi nakatani, 3. prejudice and discrimination by william anderson, 4. socioeconomic class discrimination in luca by krystal ibarra, 5. the new way of discrimination by writer bill, 1. my discrimination experience, 2. what can i do to stop discrimination, 3. discrimination in my community, 4. the cost of discrimination, 5. examples of discrimination, 6. discrimination in sports: segregating men and women, 7. how to stop my discrimination against others, 8. what should groups do to fight discrimination.

“In the current education system, the condition of education and its promotion of equality is very important. The education system should be a good place for each and every student. It must be on the basis of equal opportunities for each student in every country. It must be free of discrimination.”

Prateek starts his essay by telling the story of a student having difficulty getting admitted to a college because of high fees. He then poses the question of how the student will be able to get an education when he can’t have the opportunity to do so in the first place. He goes on to discuss UNESCO’s objectives against discrimination. 

Further in the essay, the author defines discrimination and cites instances when it happens. Prateek also compares past and present discrimination, ending the piece by saying it should stop and everyone deserves to be treated fairly.

“I thought that there is no discrimination before I actually had discrimination… I think we must treat everyone equally even though people speak different languages or have different colors of skin.”

In her short essay, Nakatani shares the experiences that made her feel discriminated against when she visited the US. She includes a fellow guest saying she and her mother can’t use the shared pool in a hotel they stay in because they are Japanese and getting cheated of her money when she bought from a small shop because she can’t speak English very well.

“Whether intentional or not, prejudice and discrimination ensure the continuance of inequality in the United States. Even subconsciously, we are furthering inequality through our actions and reactions to others… Because these forces are universally present in our daily lives, the way we use them or reject them will determine how they affect us.”

Anderson explains the direct relationship between prejudice and discrimination. He also gives examples of these occurrences in the past (blacks and whites segregation) and modern times (sexism, racism, etc.)

He delves into society’s fault for playing the “blame game” and choosing to ignore each other’s perspectives, leading to stereotypes. He also talks about affirmative action committees that serve to protect minorities.

“Something important to point out is that there is prejudice when it comes to people of lower class or economic standing, there are stereotypes that label them as untrustworthy, lazy, and even dangerous. This thought is fed by the just-world phenomenon, that of low economic status are uneducated, lazy, and are more likely to be substance abusers, and thus get what they deserve.”

Ibarra recounts how she discovered Pixar’s Luca and shares what she thought of the animation, focusing on how the film encapsulates socioeconomic discrimination in its settings. She then discusses the characters and their relationships with the protagonist. Finally, Ibarra notes how the movie alluded to flawed characters, such as having a smaller boat, mismatched or recycled kitchen furniture, and no shoes. 

The other cast even taunts Luca, saying he smells and gets his clothes from a dead person. These are typical things marginalized communities experience in real life. At the end of her essay, Ibarra points out how society is dogmatic against the lower class, thinking they are abusers. In Luca, the wealthy antagonist is shown to be violent and lazy.

“Even though the problem of discrimination has calmed down, it still happens… From these past experiences, we can realize that solutions to tough problems come in tough ways.”

The author introduces people who called out discrimination, such as Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Barbara Henry – the only teacher who decided to teach Ruby Bridges, despite her skin color. 

He then moves on to mention the variations of present-day discrimination. He uses Donald Trump and the border he wants to build to keep the Hispanics out as an example. Finally, Bill ends the essay by telling the readers those who discriminate against others are bullies who want to get a reaction out of their victims. 

Do you get intimidated when you need to write an essay? Don’t be! If writing an essay makes you nervous, do it step by step. To start, write a simple 5 paragraph essay .

Prompts on Essays About Discrimination

Below are writing prompts that can inspire you on what to focus on when writing your discrimination essay:

Have you had to go through an aggressor who disliked you because you’re you? Write an essay about this incident, how it happened, what you felt during the episode, and what you did afterward. You can also include how it affected the way you interact with people. For example, did you try to tone down a part of yourself or change how you speak to avoid conflict?

List ways on how you can participate in lessening incidents of discrimination. Your list can include calling out biases, reporting to proper authorities, or spreading awareness of what discrimination is.

Is there an ongoing prejudice you observe in your school, subdivision, etc.? If other people in your community go through this unjust treatment, you can interview them and incorporate their thoughts on the matter.

Tackle what victims of discrimination have to go through daily. You can also talk about how it affected their life in the long run, such as having low self-esteem that limited their potential and opportunities and being frightened of getting involved with other individuals who may be bigots.

For this prompt, you can choose a subtopic to zero in on, like Workplace Discrimination , Disability Discrimination , and others. Then, add sample situations to demonstrate the unfairness better.

What are your thoughts on the different game rules for men and women? Do you believe these rules are just? Cite news incidents to make your essay more credible. For example, you can mention the incident where the Norwegian women’s beach handball team got fined for wearing tops and shorts instead of bikinis.

Since we learn to discriminate because of the society we grew up in, it’s only normal to be biased unintentionally. When you catch yourself having these partialities, what do you do? How do you train yourself not to discriminate against others?

Focus on an area of discrimination and suggest methods to lessen its instances. To give you an idea, you can concentrate on Workplace Discrimination , starting from its hiring process. You can propose that applicants are chosen based on their skills, so the company can implement a hiring procedure where applicants should go through written tests first before personal interviews.

If you instead want to focus on topics that include people from all walks of life, talk about diversity. Here’s an excellent guide on how to write an essay about diversity .

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Discrimination Essay | Essay on Discrimination for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Discrimination Essay:  According to the Oxford dictionary, discrimination is the practice of treating an individual or a particular group in society unfairly than others based on age, race, sex, religion, finance, etc.

Throughout history, we have seen discrimination tainting every society and nation. This essay examines and analyses the causes and effects of discrimination in various forms on an individual, society, or nation.

You can also find more  Essay Writing  articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

Long and Short Essays on Discrimination for Students and Kids in English

We provide children and students with essay samples on a long essay of 500 words and a short essay of 150 words on the topic “Discrimination” for reference.

Long Essay on Discrimination 500 Words in English

Long Essay on Discrimination is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

Our world has always been parted into two groups: victims of discrimination and those who discriminate against the former. The definition of discrimination denies opportunity or equal rights to a specific group of people that may be differentiated based on their religion, skin colour, or gender.

However, discrimination could be confused with prejudice and stereotype. Stereotypes are mental images we have on a particular group of people because of their religion, culture, or gender. Prejudice stems from stereotypes. It’s the act of judging by popular stereotypes.

Discrimination Is a mix of both with the addition of oppression and unfair treatment towards the deemed ‘inferior’ group or individual. Keep in mind that prejudice is a result of attitude, and discrimination results from an action.

Human history is saturated with acts of discrimination. It takes different forms, and modern society is not an exception. It is at the stake of cultural history and has influenced many social, cultural, and economic occurrences that we see today.

One of the most common forms being discrimination based on the financial background of an individual. The world is divided. The oppressive rich and powerful one’s greed to earn more and frowns upon the one who doesn’t have it all while the poor struggles to survive.

When we come across racial discrimination or racism, globally, we see acts of violence and unfair treatment done against people of colour, usually against people who aren’t Caucasian or commonly termed ‘white’ in appearance.

You can now access more Essay Writing on this topic and many more.

This form of oppression started when European countries started colonizing lands outside Europe in the 1600s and claiming them to be superior. Sadly, racism is still prevalent in the modern world, where a person’s ethnicity derives them from equal rights and opportunities.

In the history of humanity, we have come across several gruesome acts of discrimination. One of them being the mass genocide of Jews living in Europe, led by the Nazis and their leader Hitler, during the 2nd world war. We still see acts of systemic racism in countries all across the group.

Sexism has also been a significant issue over the centuries. Women face discrimination and double standards in their homes and their workplaces. Here we see women being oppressed, abused, and mistreated by men. Sexism resides in every society worldwide, blocking women from attaining every other right that a man gets to enjoy.

We also see people getting discriminated against for their sexual orientation. Homophobia and transphobia are what every queer has to go through living in today’s society. They get judged, oppressed, threatened, and even illegalized just for being who they are.

Another form of discrimination that’s primarily affecting the world today is discrimination based on religion. Today’s world is so divided that one wrong act from a community will form a lousy rep around the group.

A country like India, which is constitutionally secular, is now fragmented because of fights struck against religious minorities. In America, after the 9/11 massacre struck, people developed this strange stereotype and hatred towards people who follow Islam, also known as Islamophobia.

To sum it up, discrimination forms a menace to society and the person who has to face such an adverse treatment as it is a straight denial of the equal worth of the victim. It is a violation of an individual’s identity.

Short Essay on Discrimination 150 Words in English

Short Essay on Discrimination is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

Discrimination is as common and abundant as corruption in politics and pollution in the air. Every type of discrimination implicates the superiority of a specific group of people over another group of people.

In today’s world, we see several forms of discrimination: gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, age, education, finance, workplace hierarchy, disabilities, etc. All of these arises from prolonged superiority complex, ignorance, and indifference to people’s identity.

The world we live in now faces significant issues like racism, sexism, homophobia, and Islamophobia. All these issues pile up to build a society filled with injustice, inequality, and in general toxic.

We study all the gruesome and bloody acts and events that have stained humankind all because of discrimination in history. Nowadays, these acts of discrimination are getting recognized and being called out, but it’s far from getting eradicated.

The government should form laws to avoid it; parents and schools should educate children on equality. The fight against discrimination is a long and hard one, but we have to continue fighting this social evil.

10 Lines on Discrimination Essay in English

1. Discrimination is an act when a person is treated unequally and differently. 2. Stereotype and prejudice are not discrimination. They are a part of the discrimination spectrum. 3. Particular forms of discrimination are also punishable by law. 4. Discrimination is of many types—racism, sexism, homophobia, etc. 5. Two anti-discrimination movements around the world are- ‘Me Too’ movement (a feminist movement / a protest against sexism) and the ‘Black Lives Matter’ Movement (protest against racism and systemic racism. 6. On 1st March every year, the Zero Discrimination Day is celebrated. 7. On 1st March 2014, The United Nations, along with UNAIDS, celebrated this day for the first time. 8. This day generally focuses on no discrimination despite having different gender, sex, ethnicity, and physical disability. 9. Any form of discrimination violates human rights. 10. Acts of discrimination are deeply rooted in our society, and we have to get rid of it.

FAQ’s on Discrimination Essay

Question 1. What is Discrimination?

Answer: Discrimination is an act of making unjustified distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong.

Question 2.  What are the four main types of discrimination?

Answer: There are four main types of discrimination– direct discrimination and indirect discrimination, harassment, and victimization.

Question 3.  What is the cause of discrimination?

Answer: All forms of discrimination are prejudice based on identity concepts and the need to identify with a certain group. This can lead to division, hatred, and even the dehumanization of other people because they have different identities.

Question 4.  What kind of discrimination is illegal?

Answer: Employers can’t discriminate based on race, colour, religion, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, age (40 and older), disability, or national origin.

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618 Thought-provoking Discrimination Essay Ideas & Examples

📜 history of discrimination & essay writing tips, 🏆 best discrimination topic ideas & essay examples, 🥇 most interesting discrimination topics to write about, ⚡ shocking discrimination essay examples, 🎓 good discrimination research topic ideas, 📌 discrimination speech topics and prompts, 📝 simple & easy discrimination topics for essay, ❓discrimination research paper question.

Discrimination essays are an essential part of historical and social sciences because of the influence of the practice on past and current humanity. In this article we will reveal the brief lookback to the history of discrimination and its causes, and provide a list of discrimination topics for essay, as well as paper examples on gender, disability, and racial inequality.

Past practices such as slavery were a result of discriminatory racist beliefs, and it took a long time for African Americans to be acknowledged as equal under law to other races.

Even then, the school of thought was not eradicated, and ethnic minorities as well as women would be oppressed by segregation and unequal opportunities until the emergence of the civil rights movement in the second half of the 20th century.

Even today, discriminatory practices arguably continue, and the debate around their existence draws considerable attention. You can use any of these topics to write an outstanding essay by following the guidelines below.

Discussions of slavery as a form of discrimination will usually be historic in nature, as they will discuss the practice as applied in the United States and other countries in the same region, but the notion offers discrimination essay topics for periods including modernity.

Before the Civil War, many people believed that black people were inferior to whites in some way, possibly due to the disparity between the advancement of African and European civilizations.

As such, even free black people would undergo harassment and risk being enslaved again if they did not leave for a territory that did not have the practice. The topic has been well researched, and so you can and should the wealth of information available to paint an accurate picture.

Even after the abolition of slavery, discriminatory views and practices persisted in many places. Examples included segregation practices where black people would be confined to ghettos and not allowed to visit various institutions.

The civil rights movement arose in the 1960s aimed to right that injustice, but eventually expanded to encompass more marginalized groups, such as women. Gender bias was prevalent at the time, with women being seen as housewives who could not work as well as men.

The success of the feminist message changed that perception and enabled women to choose their life freely. The various efforts and successes of the movement can provide you with ideas for an interesting work.

Ultimately, discrimination is being called out to this day, though many people hold the opinion that it has been mostly or completely eliminated in most advanced countries.

Nevertheless, many modern industries are affected by claims of faults such as gender discrimination, expressed as phenomena such as disproportionate hiring of males or a disparity in earnings between the sexes.

Other instances of modern discrimination are more concrete, such as the severe punishments for homosexuality practiced in some Muslim countries to this day. Humanity is still not entirely equal, and to progress towards that goal, we must identify and address issues.

Here are some additional tips that will improve the general quality of your essay:

• Surround your discrimination essay body with an introduction and a conclusion. The former describes the topic and provides the reader with a thesis that names the central idea of the essay. The latter sums up the essay and provides some closing words.
• Separate different sections of your paper with titles that identify their topics. This practice improves the essay’s structure and appearance, making it easier for the reader to navigate it, especially if you use well-designed discrimination essay titles.

Find excellent discrimination essay examples and other useful samples for your work on IvyPanda!

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• Accent Discrimination and the Harmful Effects The learners of English as a second language have been greatly affected because of the discrimination faced from other individuals because of the difference in pronunciation.
• Why Is Discrimination a Barrier in the Working Environment? Moreover, discrimination in the workplace is a barrier because it has led to loss of focus in companies, thus lowering the production rate.
• Ableism: Bias Against People With Disabilities People concerned with rights advocacy ought to ensure a facilitated awareness of the distressing impacts of ableism through the inclusion of the subject in private and public discussions.
• The Problem of Racism in Brazilian Football Skidmore describes it as the relationships that could result into conflict and consciousness and determination of the people’s status in a community or a particular group. In football, racism damages pride of the players and […]
• Coca-Cola Discrimination Issues Therefore, the essay discusses the discrimination issues raised by four African-Americans that led to a lawsuit, examines actions that would have prevented or minimized the lawsuit, and considers the company’s structural and human resource perspectives […]
• Discrimination at Workplaces The current increase in the temporary, part-time wage work and other forms of employment that is not covered by labor laws and policies in Canada has contributed a lot to cases of discrimination and other […]
• Immigration and Discrimination in the Workplace The ability to see a big picture and the need to appreciate the contribution of immigrants to U.S.economy will reduce the incidences of discrimination in the workplace.
• Misogyny and Sexism in Policing A solution to solving sexism and misogyny in policing is increasing the number of female police officers and educating on gender bias.
• Cause and Effect of Racial Discrimination Irrespective of massive efforts to emphasize the role of diversity and equality in society, it is still impossible to state that the United States is free from racial discrimination.
• The Issue of Discrimination Within American Ethnicity by Aguirre and Turner The white ethnics managed to blend with the overall population and advance the educational and occupational aspects by adhering to culture, speech, value, and other features of the Anglo-Saxon core.
• The Discrimination Disparity Continuum. Bill Macumber Though these guidelines are available and are supposed to be the guide for the justice system, there have been cases when there have been a miscarriage of justice, which has led to the conviction of […]
• Discrimination against Immigrants Immigrants face different types of discrimination in the course of their stay in the U. The most common types of discrimination that the immigrants in the U.
• Discrimination in Sarah Baartman’s Life Besides her treatment as an object of racial inferiority and medical research, Bartman’s experience manifested the intersection of various forms of discrimination, such as, gender, race, nationality, and class discrimination. Bartman’s experience was a manifestation […]
• Racism: De Brahm’s Map and the Casta Paintings However, De Brahm’s map is one of the most striking pieces of evidence of the conquest of space and the entrenchment of the idea of land and people as titular property.
• Racism and Inequality in Society The idea of race as a social construct is examined in the first episode of the documentary series “The Power of an Illusion”.
• Anti-Racism: Marginalization and Exclusion in Healthcare This essay examines the course’s impact and the concepts of marginalization and exclusion in healthcare. Marginalization is a concept that has profoundly influenced the understanding of race and racism in healthcare.
• Workplace Discrimination: Types and Regulations In the 1970s and the 1990s, disability rights evolved with the introduction of the Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act.
• The Issue of Racism in the United States The entire history of the United States is permeated with the evolution of the ideas of racism. Turning to history, we can see that the U.S.moved from slavery to using the Black population to solve […]
• History of Racial Discrimination in Haiti and America The choice of topic, racial discrimination in Haiti and America, was influenced by beliefs, values, and assumptions emphasizing the importance of equality and justice for all races.
• Racism and History of Discrimination As a result, advocacy should be aimed at creating new models in criminal justice that will ensure the protection of all minority groups and due process.
• Racial Discrimination and Color Blindness Of the three ideologies, racial harmony is considered the most appropriate for coping with problems of racism and racial injustice due to various reasons.
• Race, Racism, and Dangers of Race Thinking While it is true that some forms of race thinking can be used to justify and perpetuate racism, it is not necessarily the case that all forms of race thinking are inherently racist. Race thinking […]
• LGBTQ+ (Queer) Military Discrimination in Healthcare Furthermore, the subject is relevant to the field of psychology as the current phenomenon examines discrimination in healthcare both from the psychological outcomes experienced by veterans as well as the perception of LGBTQ+ patients through […]
• Racial Discrimination in American Literature In this way, the author denies the difference between people of color and whites and, therefore, the concept of racism in general.
• Discrimination at Work and Persistent Poverty While discrimination remains contributing to persistent poverty, organizations may benefit from blind hiring, an inclusive and accepting culture, and visible leadership to ensure efficient diversity management on a long-term basis. In conclusion, discrimination remains a […]
• Racism in the US: Settler Imperialism They prove that colonial imperialism is a structure, not a contextual phenomenon and that, as such, it propagates the marginalization of native people.
• Why Empathy in Racism Should Be Avoided Empathy is the capacity to comprehend and experience the emotions and ideas of others. Moreover, empathic emotions are essential to social and interpersonal life since they allow individuals to adapt their cognitive processes to their […]
• Discrimination Against African-American Patients The study results are inconsistent due to the selected approach and limited sample size. The study focused on the personal experiences of a small local group of African-American patients, primarily elderly females, not allowing for […]
• Racial Discrimination in High Education This peer-reviewed scholar article was found in the JSTOR database through entering key words “race affirmative action” and marking the publication period between 2017 and 2022.
• Discrimination Against Survivors of Canada’s Indian Residential Schools According to Schwetizer, such institutions were characterized by poor conditions, heavy workloads, and the oppression of cultural attributes, through the use of which the government expected to adapt the aboriginal people to society’s standards.
• Social Sciences: Racism Through Different Lenses A thorough analysis of diversity adds value to social interactions by informing human behavior through a deeper understanding of racism and its impacts on society. Using the humanities lens leads to a better understanding of […]
• Successful Bias Lawsuits: Texas Company in Employment Discrimination Case The allegation was filed by the Department of Labor’s office in 2020, after the evidence indicated a shortfall of black and Asian employees at the company.
• Racial Discrimination in Dormitory Discrimination is considered to be behavior that restricts the rights and freedoms of the individual. Therefore, it is essential to investigate discrimination in dormitories and propose solutions to this problem, such as disseminating knowledge about […]
• Racism and Its Impact on Populations and Society The ignorance of many individuals about other people’s cultures and ethnicities is one of the causes of racism. One can examine the various components of society and how they relate to the issue of racism […]
• Eliminating Discrimination: Poems From “Counting Descent” by Clint Smith The poems illustrated how the world is passed, what the ocean said to the black boy, and what the cicada said to the black boy.
• Institutionalized Racism and Individualistic Racism Excellent examples of individualistic racism include the belief in white supremacy, racial jokes, employment discrimination, and personal prejudices against black people. Overall, institutionalized and individualistic racism is a perversive issue that affects racial relations in […]
• Community Engagement with Racism To enhance the population’s degree of involvement in racism, the study calls for collaboration; this can be seen as a community effort to foster a sense of teamwork.
• LGBT Discrimination Research Prospects: An Analysis The aim of this assignment is to summarize the research that has been done on LGBT discrimination, particularly in the workplace and during the recruiting process.
• Discrimination Against the Elderly Population in the Medical Field The first week I was preoccupied, being my first time interacting with the older patients and also the fact that it was my first week and I was just getting used to the environment.
• The Pricing Policy of Price Discrimination The equilibrium price of a commodity from the point of view of a free market is formed at the intersection of supply and demand, which fluctuates depending on many factors.
• Racism Detection with Implicit Association Test Racial bias is deeply rooted in human society and propelled by norms and stereotypic ideologies that lead to implicit bias and the unfair treatment of minority groups.
• The Age Discrimination in Employment Act The law ADEA, which stands for The Age Discrimination in Employment Act, exhausts assumptions or beliefs that age affects a person’s ability to work.
• Identity and Belonging: Racism and Ethnicity In the documentary Afro Germany – Being Black and German, several individuals share their stories of feeling mistreated and excluded because of their skin color.
• Policies to Eliminate Racial Disparities and Discrimination The solution to exclusion is to build social inclusion in the classroom and within the school by encouraging peer acceptance, cross-group friendships, and built-in prevention.
• Living With HIV: Stigma and Discrimination The mental health and emotional well-being of the population living with this virus are affected due to the humiliation and judgment they face from their fellows around them.
• Causes, Facilitators, and Solutions to Racism These theories suggest that racism serves a particular function in society, occurs due to the interactions of individuals from dominant groups, and results from a human culture of prejudice and discrimination.
• Racial Discrimination and Justice in Education An example is the complaint of the parents of one of the black students that, during the passage of civilizations, the Greeks, Romans, and Incas were discussed in the lessons, but nothing was said about […]
• Empathy and Racism in Stockett’s The Help and Li’s To Kill a Mockingbird To start with, the first approach to racism and promoting empathy is to confront prevalent discrimination and racism, which was often shown in The Help. Another solution to racism and the possibility of promoting empathy […]
• Discrimination in the US Healthcare Sector More than 70% of those who buy insurance plans via the exchanges are also estimated to be entitled to tax credits, which will further lower their rates in addition to the lower premiums.
• Racism in the Healthcare Sector In 2020, the cases and instances of racism in healthcare rose by 16% from 2018; there were notable instances of racism in various spheres of health. 9% of blacks have been protected from discrimination and […]
• The Airline Industry: Sex Discrimination Although some females and males are fighting these stereotypes, there has been a culture in the airline industry to give females the flight attendant jobs and males the piloting jobs. Similarly, the roles of male […]
• Individual and Structural Discrimination Toward LGBT (Queer) Military Personnel Consequently, LGBT military personnel are potentially even more vulnerable to mental health issues due to the combined stress of being LGBT and being in the military.
• Racism in Healthcare and Education The mission should emphasize that it promotes diversity and equality of all students and seeks to eliminate racial bias. It is necessary to modify the mission to include the concept of inclusiveness and equality.
• Equal Opportunity and Discrimination Thus, if a female individual feels denied a job opportunity due to the employer’s attitude to her possible pregnancy, she can apply to the Equal employment opportunity commission and ask for an investigation. EO serves […]
• Institutional Racism in the Workplace Despite countless efforts to offer African-Americans the same rights and opportunities as Whites, the situation cannot be resolved due to the emergence of new factors and challenges.
• Racism in Education in the United States Such racial disparities in the educational workforce confirm the problem of structural racism and barrier to implementing diversity in higher medical education. Structural racism has a long history and continues to affect the growth of […]
• Individuals With Disabilities: Prejudice and Discrimination I researched that people with persistent medical or physical disorders, such as cerebral palsy or multiple sclerosis, who have speech, articulation, or communication impairments, for example, are sometimes seen as having an intellectual deficiency. Corey […]
• Rhetoric in Obama’s 2008 Speech on Racism When the audience became excited, it was Obama’s responsibility to convey his message in a more accessible form. To conclude, Obama’s speech in 2008 facilitated his election as the first African American President in history.
• How to Talk to Children About Racism The text begins by referring to recent events that were related to race-based discrimination and hatred, such as the murder of George Floyd and the protests dedicated to the matter.
• Care for Real: Racism and Food Insecurity Care for Real relies on the generosity of residents, donation campaigns, and business owners to collect and deliver these supplies. The research article discusses some of the factors that contribute to the creation of racism […]
• Racism Towards Just and Holistic Health Therefore, the critical content of the event was to determine the steps covered so far in the fight for racial equality in the provision of care and what can be done to improve the status […]
• Workplace Discrimination: Impact of Family-Friendly Policies There is a reduction in the number of compulsory working hours, allowing employees more time to spend with their families and children.
• Discrimination Culture in Saudi Oil and Gas Sector The purpose of this paper is to inspect the interrelationship between the organizational culture and discrimination in the O&G sector in Saudi Arabia.
• LGBTQ+ Families: Discrimination and Challenges The family model directly affects the social status of family members and the well-being of children. LGBTQ+ families’ wealth level is lower than that of families in the neighborhood due to labor discrimination.
• Public Discrimination Based on the Status of Vaccination from COVID-19 It should be noted that COVID-19 is not a rare or exotic disease, but the rapid spread of this infection from the Chinese city of Wuhan led to the dramatic assignment of pandemic status to […]
• LGBTQ Members: Discrimination and Stigmatization What remains unclear from the reading is the notion that before the 1990s, people from the middle class expressed abiding and strong desires to be acknowledged as “the other sex”.
• Systemic Racism and Discrimination Thus, exploring the concept of race from a sociological perspective emphasizes the initial aspect of inequality in the foundation of the concept and provides valuable insight into the reasons of racial discrimination in modern society.
• The Racism Problem and Its Relevance The images demonstrate how deeply racism is rooted in our society and the role the media plays in spreading and combating racism.
• How to Overcome Poverty and Discrimination As such, to give a chance to the “defeated” children and save their lives, as Alexie puts it, society itself must change the rules so that everyone can have access to this ticket to success. […]
• Aspects of Socio-Economic Sides of Racism And the answer is given in Dorothy Brown’s article for CNN “Whites who escape the attention of the police benefit because of slavery’s long reach”.. This shows that the problem of racism is actual in […]
• Sexism and Internal Discrimination at Google The recommendation in the case is that the organization should provide justice to all the employees who are victims of discrimination and sexual harassment, irrespective of the perpetrator.
• Tackling Racism in the Workplace It means that reporting racism to HR does not have the expected positive effect on workplace relations, and employees may not feel secure to notify HR about the incidences of racism.
• Issue of Racism Around the World One of the instances of racism around the world is the manifestations of violence against indigenous women, which threatens the safety of this vulnerable group and should be mitigated.
• Discrimination in the United States The paper’s authors see systemic racism as a consequence of segregation in World War I migration, which resulted in distinct communities that were not understandable to white Americans.
• Causes of Discrimination Towards Immigrants Discrimination and intolerance against immigrants, and the implications of these inflammatory convictions and conduct, determine the sociocultural and economic destiny of welcoming nations and those who aspire to make these communities their new residence.
• Environmental Racism: The Water Crisis in Flint, Michigan The situation is a manifestation of environmental racism and classism since most of the city’s population is people of color and poor. Thus, the water crisis in Flint, Michigan, is a manifestation of environmental racism […]
• The “Racism and Discrimination” Documentary The documentary “Racism and Discrimination” is about an anti-racist teacher Jane Elliot who attempts to show the white people the feeling of discrimination. The central argument of the documentary is diversity training to seize the […]
• Abortion-Related Racial Discrimination in the US In spite of being a numerical minority, Black women in the U.S.resort to abortion services rather often compared to the White population.
• Canadian Society: Sexism and the Persistent Woman Question Equality of work, payments, and respect for women is on the agenda of this party, but they lack a modern look that refers to the problems of harassment and bullying in social networks.
• Social Problems Surrounding Racism, Prejudice and Discrimination This kind of discrimination makes the students lose their self-esteem and the traumas experienced affects the mental health of these students in the long term.
• Discussion of Gender Discrimination in Modern Society In the professional field, women are constantly in discriminatory positions of jeopardy due to their gender. However, women still need to compete in the work environment.
• Gender Roles, Expectations, and Discrimination Despite Isaac being the calmest boy in the school, he had a crush on Grace, a beautiful girl in the school who was from a wealthy family.
• The Unethical Practice of Racism in a Doctor’s Case The involvement of Barrett in the protest is both unethical for the university’s image and immoral for the community. However, the school would likely face tougher court fines and a direct order to reinstate Barrett’s […]
• The Problem of Racism in America One explanation of racism by feminist thinkers is that racism is a manifestation of the agency and power of people of a particular racial identity over others.
• Racism: “The Sum of Us” Article by McGhee The economic analysis and sociological findings in America have drawn a detailed picture of the cost of racism in America and how to overcome it together.
• Contemporary Sociological Theories and American Racism The central intention of this theory paper is to apply modern theoretical concepts from the humanities discipline of sociology to the topic of racism in the United States.
• Sex Workers: Discrimination and Criminalization The essay looks at the problem of discrimination against sex workers and the criminalization of sex work and highlights efforts that have been made towards decriminalization of the activity.
• A Cause-and-Effect Analysis of Racism and Discrimination As a result, it is vital to conduct a cause-and-effect analysis to determine the key immediate and hidden causes of racism to be able to address them in a proper manner.
• The Issue of Obesity in the Workplace: Discrimination and Its Prevention The critical detail is that the spread of the negative attitude to obesity in the workplace leads to the segregation of overweight people, stereotypical perceptions of their abilities, and prejudged attitudes toward them.
• Employment Discrimination Based on Religion In other words, although both elementary teachers had no formal title of a minister and limited religious training, the religious education and formation of students were the basic reason for the existence of the majority […]
• Discrimination Cases and Their Outcomes In the US, noticeable and influential cases tend to occur, and they remind the nation of the existing problem and reduce the effect of discrimination.
• Institutional Racism Through the Lenses of Housing Policy While not being allowed to buy property because of the racial covenants, the discriminated people had to house in other areas.
• Social Inequality and Discrimination Gender discrimination is when a person or a group of people is treated unfairly or unfairly because of their gender. Moreover, there is a classification of the thinking model in which a person exalts his […]
• Job Discrimination and Harassment Secondly, the strengths of the discrimination suit include the fact that he is the only white employee in his unit and one of the few men, suggesting a certain bias within the hiring department.
• Role of Racism in Contemporary US Public Opinion This source is useful because it defines racism, describes its forms, and presents the survey results about the prevalence of five types of racial bias.
• The Amazon Warehouse Employee Sexual Orientation Discrimination With the mismatch between the aspects of the work at the Amazon warehouse, the demand for the job, the ability to work successfully, and the wants and desires of the employees, it is worth noting […]
• The Mutation of Racism into New Subtle Forms The trend reflects the ability of racism to respond to the rising sensitivity of the people and the widespread rejection of prejudice.
• Racism: Healthcare Crisis and the Nurses Role The diminished admittance to mind is because of the impacts of fundamental bigotry, going from doubt of the medical care framework to coordinate racial segregation by medical care suppliers.
• Origins of Racial Discrimination Despite such limitations as statistical data being left out, I will use this article to support the historical evaluation of racism in the United States and add ineffective policing to the origins of racism.
• Language Discrimination in Modern Society It is necessary to let go of the fear of talking and writing on social networks in a language that is not native to you.
• Anti-discrimination Legislation and Supporting Case Law The response to this was the abolition of the quota system and the adoption in 1995 of the Act on Non-Discrimination of the Disabled and a package of additional regulations, in particular, on the education […]
• Beverly Greene Life and View of Racism The plot of the biography, identified and formed by the Ackerman Institute for the Family in the life of the heroine, consists of dynamics, personality development and its patterns.
• Historical Racism in South Africa and the US One of the major differences between the US and South Africa is the fact that in the case of the former, an African American minority was brought to the continent to serve the White majority.
• Gender Stereotypes and Sexual Discrimination In this Ted Talk, Sandberg also raises a question regarding the changes that are needed to alter the current disbalance in the number of men and women that achieve professional excellence.
• Capitalism and Racism in Past and Present Racism includes social and economic inequalities due to racial identity and is represented through dispossession, colonialism, and slavery in the past and lynching, criminalization, and incarceration in the present.
• Minstrels’ Influence on the Spread of Racism The negative caricatures and disturbing artifacts developed to portray Black people within the museum were crucial in raising awareness on the existence of racism.
• How Parents of Color Transcend Nightmare of Racism Even after President Abraham Lincoln outlawed enslavement and won the American Civil War in 1965, prejudice toward black people remained engrained in both the northern and southern cultural structures of the United States.
• Bias and Discrimination: Prejudice, Discrimination, and Stereotyping The bias may be automatic, ambiguous, and ambivalent depending on its characteristics and how it manifests in terms of people’s opinions on certain groups of individuals.
• A Problem of Racial Discrimination in the Modern World This minor case suggests the greater problem that is unjustly treating people in the context of the criminal justice system. In the book, Stevenson writes about groups of people who are vulnerable to being victimized […]
• Beverly Tatum’s Monolog About Injustice of Racism Furthermore, the author’s point is to define the state of discrimination in the country and the world nowadays and explore what steps need to be taken to develop identity.
• Discrimination: Trans World Airlines, Inc. vs. Hardison However, the court concluded that TWA made a reasonable effort at accommodating Hardison and granting him the request to work four days a week would detriment the function of his department due to them being […]
• Discrimination in the Bostock v. Clayton County Case The examination of the issue by relying on the example of Gerald Bostock was advantageous for establishing proper employment practices in this respect.
• Issue of Institutional Racism Systemic and structural racisms are a form of prejudice that is prevalent and deeply ingrained in structures, legislation, documented or unpublished guidelines, and entrenched customs and rituals.
• Discrimination: Chalmers v. Tulon Company of Richmond Chalmers, a devoted Christian, saw it her duty to share her Lord’s gospel, and thought it her duty to inform her coworkers of their “improper conduct” in the face of God.
• Discrimination: Peterson v. Wilmur Communications The case concerns Christopher Lee Peterson, at the time of events an employee of Wilmur Communications and a follower of the World Church of the Creator.
• Racism in America Today: Problems of Today Even though racism and practices of racial discrimination had been banned in the 1960s after the mass protests and the changes to the laws that banned racial discrimination institutionally.
• Evidence of Existence of Modern Racism It would be wrong to claim that currently, the prevalence and extent of manifestations of racism are at the same level as in the middle of the last century.
• Culture Play in Prejudices, Stereotyping, and Racism However, cognitive and social aspects are significant dimensions that determine in-group members and the constituents of a threat in a global religious view hence the relationship between religion and prejudices.
• Contrast Between Tituba and John Indian and Countering Racism The declaration suggests that Conde believed the story of Tituba’s maltreatment needed to be told to expose the truth she had been denied due to her skin color and gender.
• Latin-African Philosophical Wars on Racism in US Hooker juxtaposition Vasconcelos’ ‘Cosmic Race’ theory to Douglass’s account of ethnicity-based segregation in the U.S.as a way of showing the similarities between the racial versions of the two Americas.
• Confronting Stereotypes, Racism and Microaggression Stereotypes are established thought forms rooted in the minds of particular groups of people, in the social environment, and in the perception of other nations.
• Racial Discrimination in Dallas-Fort Worth Region
• Healthcare Call to Action: Racism in Medicine
• White Counselors Broaching Race and Racism Study
• US Federal Anti-Discrimination Laws Response
• British Colonial Racism for Aboriginal Australians
• Discrimination Against African American Nurses
• “Ocean Acidification Impairs Olfactory Discrimination…” by Munday
• The Black People: Sexuality and Racial Discrimination
• Racial Discrimination Through the Cosmetics Industry
• Racism Evolution: Experience of African Diaspora
• Discrimination Against Hispanics in America
• Discrimination and Prejudice Comparison
• Racial Discrimination and Residential Segregation
• Significance of Perceived Racism:Ethnic Group Disparities in Health
• Religious Practices and Business Discrimination
• Discrimination in Canadian Society
• The Sexism Behind HB16 Bill
• Social Justice, Diversity and Workplace Discrimination
• Racism as Origin of Enslavement
• Colorblind Racism and Its Minimization
• The Bill H.R.666 Anti-Racism in Public Health Act of 2021
• When Men Experience Sexism Article by Berlatsky
• Summary of the Issue About Racism
• Non-White Experience: Stereotyping and Discrimination
• How the Prison Industrial Complex Perpetuate Racism
• Social Change Project: Religious Discrimination in the Workplace
• Battling Racism in the Modern World
• Indian Youth Against Racism: Photo Analysis
• Racism: Do We Need More Stringent Laws?
• Free Speech vs. Anti-Discrimination Practices Conflict
• Problem of Racism in Schools Overview
• US Immigration Policy and Its Correlation to Structural Racism
• The Fashion Industry: Discrimination Case
• America: Racism, Terrorism, and Ethno-Culturalism
• The Pink Tax Issue: Economic Discrimination Against Women
• Discrimination and Substance Use Disorders among Latinos’ Article Review
• Issue of Racism in Healthcare
• Workplace Discrimination Based on Attractiveness
• Solving Racial Discrimination in the US: The Best Strategies
• Popular Music at the Times of Racism and Segregation
• Religious Discrimination Against a Muslim Employee
• Temporary Aid Program: Racism in Child Welfare
• Wearing Headscarves and Workplace Discrimination
• The Discrimination of African Americans
• Western Scientific Approach as a Cause of Racism
• How Does Racism Affect Health?
• Investigating the Discrimination in the Workplace
• Citizen: An American Lyric and Systemic Racism
• The Reflection of Twain’s Views on Racism in Huck Finn
• Black as a Label: Racial Discrimination
• Urban Regime Theory in Anti-Black Discrimination
• Nike: Workplace Writing and Discrimination
• Environmental Discrimination in Canada
• The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and Racial Discrimination
• Flint Water Crisis: Environmental Racism and Racial Capitalism
• Cancer Alley and Environmental Racism
• Cancer Alley and Environmental Racism in the US
• American Healthcare in the Context of Racism
• Discrimination and Politics of Gender and Sexuality
• Discussion of COVID-19 and Discrimination
• Origins of Modern Racism and Ancient Slavery
• Discrimination of Employees With Physical and Cognitive Impairments in the Workplace
• Contribution of Racism to Economic Recession Due to COVID-19
• What Stories Can Teach Us About Racism
• Racism in Canadian Medical System
• Profit and Racism in the Prisons of the United States
• Everyday Sexism in Relation to Everyday Disablism
• Discrimination and Health of Immigrants in Canada
• Life History Interview: Discrimination as an African American
• Discrimination. Unequal or Unfair Treatment of Individuals
• Rio Tinto: Case Study About Racism and Discrimination
• Discrimination of Black Women During Pregnancy
• Racism: US v. The Amistad and Dred Scott v. Sandford
• Discrimination in the Workplace: How to Solve It
• Race and Color Discrimination Against US Employees
• Discrimination Against People of Color and Queer Community
• Critical Social Problems Research: Racism and Racial Domination
• Discrimination as an External Manifestation of Societal Ills
• Business and Corporate Law: Discrimination Case Analysis
• Harassment Law – Tennie Pierce Discrimination
• Discrimination Against Women and Protecting Laws
• Criminal Justice: Racial Prejudice and Racial Discrimination
• The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA)
• Manifestations of Gender Discrimination in Insurance
• Work Place Discrimination
• The History of Racial Discrimination and Its Effects on the American Races
• Protections Against Employment Discrimination
• Discrimination Complaint on a Civil Litigation Processes
• Racial Discrimination in the US Criminal Justice System
• Policing in America: The Issue of Violence and Racism
• LGBTQ Rights: Sexual Minority Members Discrimination
• Institutional and Interpersonal Racism, White Privilege
• Racism and Sexism as a Threat
• The Aspects of Discrimination
• The Development of a Measure to Assess Symbolic Racism
• Syrian Conflict and Women Rights: Way to Equality or Another Discrimination
• Racism and Tokenism in Bon Appetit: Leadership and Ethical Perspective
• Ethnic Stratification, Prejudice & Discrimination
• From “Scientific” Racism to Local Histories of Lynching
• Equal Pay Act: Pay Discrimination
• Sexism Against Women in the Military
• Subjective Assumptions and Medicine: Racism
• Racism and Gender in Beyoncé’s Lemonade
• Anti-Discrimination Laws in the U.S.
• Discrimination Against Muslim in the USA
• Racism Experiences in the Workplace in the UK
• Race and Ethnicity, Other Minorities and Discrimination
• The History of Immigration to the United States and the Nature of Racism
• Gender and the Problem of Discrimination
• Discrimination and the Hiring Process
• Legal Process About Discrimination
• Race and Racism in the USA: The Origins and the Future
• The Life of Muslims in the USA and Discrimination
• Genetics of Sexual Orientation: Privacy, Discrimination, and Social Engineering
• Environmental Racism in the United States: Concept, Solution to the Problem
• Discrimination in Puerto Rico
• Protecting George Wallace’s Organized Racism
• How Can the World Unite to Fight Racism?
• Fighting Anti-Muslim Sentiments
• Female Workers Discrimination and Affirmative Action
• Ideological Support Arab Muslim Discrimination
• The Most Prominent Forms of Discrimination
• Discrimination of Women in IT Sphere
• Gender Discrimination in the Workplace and Better Management Skills
• Racism in America and Its Literature
• Race, Class and Gender. Racism on Practice
• Racism: Term Definition and History of Display of Racism Remarks
• Institutional Discrimination, Prejudice and Racism
• The Glass Ceiling Term: Discrimination in the Healthcare Sector
• Racism in Contemporary North America
• Racial Discrimination of Women in Modern Community
• Racial and Gender Discrimination in the Workplace and Housing
• History of Sexism: Features in the Legal System
• Racism Without Racists in Patriarchal Society
• Racism in Employment Practices
• Asians Discrimination in USA
• Discrimination in the United States of America
• Racism: Definition and Consequences
• The Problem of Racism in Canada
• Exploring and Comparing Racism and Ethnocentrism
• Discrimination Against Black People
• Intraracial Discrimination: Grace Hsiang’s Article’s Analysis
• Ethics of Gender Identity Discrimination at Work
• Racism Cannot Be Unlearned Through Education
• Racism Among Students of Swinburne University
• Racism in Movies: Stereotypes and Prejudices
• Racism Concepts: Influence of Politics
• Racism: Resolving by Means of Education
• Sexual Discrimination in Astra Company
• Intersectionality Oppression and Discrimination in Latin America
• Sexism in Media: The Effect of Media on Adolescent Females
• Prejudice and Discrimination in Canada
• The Issues of Racial Discrimination in US
• Price Discrimination in Healthcare and Family Health Care Insurance
• Facing Racism: A Short Story
• Prejudice as the Root Cause of the Discrimination
• Sexual Discrimination Scandal: Astra-USA
• Astra Way: Sexual Discrimination Scandal
• Business Ethics: Discrimination Against Employees
• White Supremacy as an Extreme Racism Group
• The Impact of Catholic Views on Discrimination Against Women and Minorities in the Workplace
• Gender and Cultural Discrimination in Modern Society
• Holocaust: From Discrimination to Concentration Camps
• Muslim Discrimination in the UK After the July 7 Attacks
• American Racism: So Why Isn’t Obama White?
• Modern Racism in American Society
• Obama, the First US Black President: Is Racism Over?
• Analyzing Discrimination Against Jews
• Philosophy of Human Conduct: Institutional Racism
• Explaining Persistence of Discrimination and Privilege
• Literature on Latina Women and Sexism
• Racism and Civil Rights: Then and Now
• Employee Issues: Gender Discrimination, Sexual Harassment, Discrimination
• Primary School Teaching: Challenging Racism
• Racism and White Supremacism in the American Government
• Discrimination in Recruiting & Promotional Aspects: Tanglewood Company
• Disability Discrimination Laws: Workers’ Compensation
• Human Resource Management: US Age Discrimination Act
• “Red Lining” – A Type of Discrimination
• Social Construction of Race and Racism
• The Problem of Gender-Based Employment Discrimination
• Discrimination Against Gays in the Military
• Canada: Discrimination in British North America
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• The Problem of Gender Discrimination
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• Rights, Equity and the State: Sexual Orientation and Discrimination
• Gender Discrimination on Birth Stage
• Scientific Racism: the Eugenics of Social Darwinism
• Racism in African American Studies and History
• Islam and Racism: Malcolm X’s Letter From Mecca
• Racism vs. “Love Thy Neighbor as Thyself”
• Racism in Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, Transgenders
• Immigrant Employment Issues and Discrimination
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• Robert Senske vs Sybase Inc: Labor Discrimination Case
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• Employment Discrimination and Law Amendment
• Bias and Discrimination in Early Childhood Care Centers
• Sexism and Presidential Elections in the USA
• Legal and Ethical Issues: Discrimination Remedy
• The Effects of Labor Market Discrimination
• Racism in Australian Football League Sporting Clubs
• Prejudice and Discrimination in Diverse Organizations
• Thomas Jefferson on Civil Rights, Slavery, Racism
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• Heterosexism and Its Explanation
• Discrimination and Employee Performance Studies
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• The Equal Opportunities Approach and Discrimination
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• Fair Treatment and Discrimination in the Workplace
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• Racism, Privilege and Stereotyping Concepts
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• Australian Anti-Discrimination Acts and Their Provision
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• Discrimination in Lending Practices
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• Racism in Media and Objective Coverage
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• Workplace Discrimination Complaints
• Racism Elimination and Sociological Strategies
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• Gender Discrimination in History and Nowadays
• Social and Cultural Diversity and Racism
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• Muslims in the US: Prejudice and Discrimination
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• Racism and Discrimination in Religion Context
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• Theories of Cultural Diversity: Anthropological Theory and Discrimination
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• Price Discrimination and Monopolistic Competition
• Relationship Between Institutionalized Racism and Marxism
• Statelessness and Discrimination
• Discrimination Against Black Women
• Democratic Racism in Canada
• Social Construction of “Race” and “Racism” and Its Relationship to Democratic Racism in Canada
• Ethnicity: Oppression and Racism
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• Age discrimination in Employment
• Discrimination in the Labor Market
• Racism in Family Therapy by Laszloffy and Hardy
• The Roma Problems and the Causes of Racism
• Racial Discrimination in the US
• The ‘Peopling’ Process of Australia Since 1788 With Influence of Racism
• Is Racism and Anti-Semitism Still a Problem in the United States?
• Discrimination at Places of Work
• Poverty, Homelessness and Discrimination in Australia: The Case of the Aboriginal
• Globalization and Racism
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• Current Day Racism vs. Traditional Day Racism
• Discrimination and Fight for Equality
• Discrimination, Social Exclusion and Violence among the LGBT Community
• Steven Greenhouse: Muslims Report Rising Discrimination at Work
• Society Moral Standards: Racism and Its Harmful Effects
• Discrimination at Publix Incorporation
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• Discrimination of Certain Categories of the Population
• The Issue of Racial Segregation in the United States
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• Diversity and Discrimination: PepsiCo, HCA, and IndyMac Bank
• Racism and Male Dominance in Education
• Comparison of Racism in the United States and South Africa
• Managing in an Inclusive Environment: Discrimination
• Discrimination targeting pregnant women
• English Racism During World Cup
• The Historical Roots of Racism in Australia
• Death Penalty and Discrimination
• Racism Is Not All About Individual Attitude
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• Discrimination, Prejudice and Racism in the United States
• Does Competition Eliminate Discrimination?
• Are HIV/AIDS Carriers Suffering From Discrimination?
• Does Ethnic Discrimination Vary Across Minority Groups?
• Can Competition Among Employers Reduce Governmental Discrimination?
• Does Gender Discrimination Contribute to India’s Population Imbalance?
• Are Racial Profiling and Police Discrimination an Issue?
• Does Health Predict the Reporting of Racial Discrimination or Do Reports of Discrimination Predict Health?
• Can Gender-Fair Language Reduce Gender Stereotyping and Discrimination?
• Does Market Liberalisation Reduce Gender Discrimination?
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• Does Political Competition Lessen Ethnic Discrimination?
• Can Social Contact Reduce Prejudice and Discrimination?
• Does Protecting Older Workers From Discrimination Make It Harder to Get Hired?
• Are the Processes Underlying Discrimination the Same for Women and Men?
• Does Racial Discrimination Exist Within the NBA?
• Can Social Media Lead to Labor Market Discrimination?
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• Does the Stimulus Type Influence Horses Performance in a Quantity Discrimination Task?
• Can the Government Deter Discrimination?
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• How Does Discrimination Affect People With Mental Illness?
• What Exactly Does Racial Discrimination Mean?
• Should the Racial Discrimination Act Be Reformed?
• What Are the Causes of Discrimination?
• Gender Inequality Research Topics
• Racial Profiling Essay Topics
• Gender Stereotypes Essay Titles
• Indigenous People Research Topics
• Oppression Research Topics
• Aliens Research Topics
• Prejudice Essay Topics
• Global Issues Essay Topics
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Thinking About Discrimination: 8 Basic Issues

In these times, let's consider our own position in systems of inequality..

Posted July 6, 2020

Sometimes history seems to be at a tipping point. Masses take to streets; statues come down. People combine hopefulness and fear . Possibility is in the air.

Several essays in this series have focused on recent calls for social justice and the events that have precipitated those calls. In particular, I have written about prejudice, the tendency of individuals to think about other people as representatives of specific social categories and to demean them for those reasons.

Perhaps an even more important topic is discrimination , actions that carry out those understandings, and in consequence, diminish the life-prospects of the persons so identified.

It is common to think of prejudice and discrimination as tightly related matters and, often times, they are. However, discrimination is an occurrence of its own sort, an established set of lifeways or pattern for human relations. That “system,” reinforced in complicated ways, effectively controls current populations as much they control it. All too often, they live and die on its terms.

For such reasons, consider below eight basic issues about discrimination.

1. Fundamentally, discrimination is about access to socially valued resources . What do human beings need to prosper? They need material supports to shelter and nourish themselves. They need opportunities for public expression and collaboration in joint ventures. They need worthy identities and feelings of well-being, both personal and collective. They need skills and understandings, to make real their visions. In other words, people need wealth, power, prestige, and knowledge.

Those four socially valued resources are the very things that are restricted in forms of discrimination. Discriminators seek to enhance their own control of these capacities by declaring them off-limits to others. The controllers believe that sharing, in any widespread or substantial way, somehow diminishes what they possess (or hope to possess). All the slights, slurs, curtailments, and aggressions we associate with discrimination are just attempts to reinforce this basic view of life.

2. Much like prejudice, there are varying degrees — and targets — of discrimination . Although discrimination shares the common impulse described above, it is important to emphasize that it settles on different groups of people in somewhat different ways. That is to say, sexism, racism, heterosexism, classism, ableism, ageism, and ethnocentrism unveil themselves as differing restrictions for the persons co coded. Add to these differences in region, education , religion, and a dozen other matters. In other words, there are many ways of being exclusionary or provincial and many ideas to justify those treatments. Who of us can claim to be free of them all?

Beyond that, recognize that there are degrees of discrimination. Assaulting someone on the street and slighting them at a party may share the theme of harmful intent, but they differ in their scope and implications. Pointedly, discrimination may be large or small, vicious or timid. Many of us welcome certain groups and forbid others. Rare is the person who is honest enough to say: “I do well resisting some forms of prejudice/discrimination and less well with others.”

3. Discrimination operates at different levels, which vary in their stability and outreach. Some discrimination is largely “personal” in its inspiration and expression. For example, consider someone who posts racist tweets or other derogatory material on the Internet. Differently, discrimination occurs in “relationships” between people, as in the case of one person (perhaps the husband in a marriage ) dominating and restricting another. “Groups” can display discrimination through their policies and practices. So can “organizations,” which are more formal and abstract entities that transcend the lives of their members. At even broader levels, “communities” and even “societies” may feature discriminatory processes. This increasing scope equates to increasing difficulties for those who wish to escape or change that maltreatment.

4. Different institutions express discrimination (somewhat) differently . Although discrimination always features restricted access to socially valued resources for designated categories of people, different social institutions regulate different resources and justify those arrangements on different terms. For instance, economic discrimination centers on access to jobs, property, and wealth more generally. Political discrimination concerns access to governmental resources and vehicles of public representation, especially voting and office holding. Social discrimination involves patterns of membership and leadership , as in families, organizations, and communities. Religious bodies pose another challenge, as people may find themselves blocked from opportunities for spiritual expression and belonging, and from positions of moral authority in those bodies. Educational discrimination centers on access to schools and colleges, and on the more general possession of resources for creating and using knowledge. There is also discrimination that concerns opportunities for play, leisure, and artistic expression. Profoundly, there are challenges with regard to justice and law, focusing most clearly on relationships with police, the courts, and the criminal justice system. Commonly, minorities find themselves blocked within several of these institutions at the same time. Inevitably, that blockage affects the person’s assessment of self and feelings of social capacity.

5. Some discrimination is overt, while other forms are covert or hidden . In past decades, restrictive policies were quite explicit. Commonly, people from designated categories found themselves prevented from voting, living in specified neighborhoods, owning property, attending schools with the majority or working beside them, joining certain clubs, serving as leaders of faith communities, and so forth. That public system of exclusions (sometimes, expressed in law, or “de jure”) largely has given way to what are in-fact, or “de facto,” blockages.

For example, in a post-industrial society, minority status often means having reduced access to jobs, property, and wealth. Because of that, it is very difficult to afford good housing, high quality education, medical care, protection for one’s family, and supports for personal appearance. Society’s official representatives may proclaim that high-level positions in business, government, and other institutions are indeed “open” to minorities. However, chronic disadvantages, often the result of generations of restriction, make it difficult to compete with the majority. Of course, some minority people do make it through the filtering system and succeed conspicuously. Nevertheless, millions of others spend their lives in resource-poor environments.

6. Discrimination commonly takes the form of behavior, but it also entails “symbolic” degradation . We tend to think of discrimination as actions that restrict people’s opportunities to succeed. Sometimes, those policies and practices segregate the minority from other citizens. They also can mean more explicitly “dominative” behaviors, attempts to control and coerce through various kinds of intimidation. Minorities are told they can lose their jobs, homes, or even their lives if they don’t accommodate themselves to the current power structure.

However, there are other kinds of violence. People may live under a tyranny of ideas — jokes, cartoons, caricatures, slurs, mascots, and other forms of insult. Conversely, the majority may publicize its own political and social superiority with statues, flags, building and street names, and other forms of “remembrance.” History books may extoll the virtues of the dominant groups and minimize the contributions of the less advantaged. All this reinforces a public culture that justifies ongoing forms of inequality. Indeed, such patterns may seem “normal."

7. There is passive as well as active discrimination . It is customary to think of discrimination in its active forms, as when one group tries to subordinate another by regulating its means of self-expression. When we deny people the opportunities offered to other citizens, or simply circulate jokes and slurs about them, we actively discriminate.

Be clear that discrimination can mean acts of omission as well as those of commission. We who stand silently while a restrictive policy remains in force or demeaning information circulates bear some responsibility for those occurrences. In effect, we choose sides in a public culture that, ideally, should have no sides. To the extent that we nod and smirk, we affirm our allegiance with the insult-makers. The same is true when we see injustice and do not intervene. We make choices to solidify our own advantages at the expense of those who have less.

8. Discrimination can be both intentional and unintentional. Do we know when we are being aggressive or hurtful toward others? Do we care? Most of us would say we do know and care, though often we justify our questionable behavior by stressing that it is a response to insults or threats posed by others. However, it is also the case that we situate our attitudes and behaviors in systems of social expectation, which guide our understandings of interactions and thus our treatment of others. That is, we develop some sense of what people “like us” are like and, in contrast, what other categories of people are like. Emboldened by such ideas (and the belief that others share our views), we may commit acts that are offensive.

We may be overly familiar with a minority person or, oppositely, fearful and skittish. We may try to compliment them — perhaps stressing their intellectual ability or some particular aspect of their appearance — without considering why we are emphasizing this theme when we would probably not do so to someone from another category. We may invite them to social settings because we want them to be represented (tokenism). We may fail to invite them, because we do not want them to feel conspicuous or “uncomfortable.” We may ask them to “speak for” their social category, even though that request may mean a summary of the life experiences of millions of people.

As most of us have learned, it is difficult to avoid making missteps and insults in any social situation. Still, what the above examples make plain is that our errors are often the result of our seeing others as somehow different, that the social categories we impose are “real.” I do not dispute that the application of those categories, artifices in themselves, have dramatically influenced the life-experiences, traditions, and social identities of people. However, those social and cultural differences are largely the result of that group’s exposure to distinctive treatment, to their being sequestered and regarded as “other.” Isolation also affects dominant groups, who cling to one another and reinforce their understandings.

No one pretends that these are simple issues. Still, the challenge for all of us is to communicate respectfully about what unites and divides us and to construct a society that honors everyone’s self-worth and possibilities for public contribution.

Thomas Henricks, Ph.D., is Danieley Professor of Sociology and Distinguished University Professor at Elon University.

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COMPASS Manual for Human Rights Education with Young people

Discrimination and intolerance.

• Discrimination and intolerance

What are discrimination and intolerance?

Discrimination – in all its possible forms and expressions – is one of the most common forms of human rights violations and abuse. It affects millions of people everyday and it is one of the most difficult to recognise. Discrimination and intolerance are closely related concepts. Intolerance is a lack of respect for practices or beliefs other than one's own. It also involves the rejection of people whom we perceive as different, for example members of a social or ethnic group other than ours, or people who are different in political or sexual orientation. Intolerance can manifest itself in a wide range of actions from avoidance through hate speech to physical injury or even murder.

Discrimination occurs when people are treated less favourably than other people are in a comparable situation only because they belong, or are perceived to belong to a certain group or category of people. People may be discriminated against because of their age, disability, ethnicity, origin, political belief, race, religion, sex or gender, sexual orientation, language, culture and on many other grounds , including on several grounds at the same time. Discrimination, which is often the result of prejudices people hold, makes people powerless, impedes them from becoming active citizens, restricts them from developing their skills and, in many situations, from accessing work, health services, education or accommodation.

Discrimination has direct consequences on those people and groups being discriminated against, but it has also indirect and deep consequences on society as a whole. A society where discrimination is allowed or tolerated is a society where people are deprived from freely exercising their full potential for themselves and for society.

This section describes different faces of discrimination, the way it affects human rights, as well as the measures and initiatives that are underway or should be introduced to counter intolerance and discrimination and to contribute to a culture of peace and human rights. Some of the most pervasive forms of discrimination, such as discrimination based on disability, gender or religion, are also presented in more detail in other sections of this chapter.

The principles of equality and non-discrimination are laid down in the UDHR: "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights" (Article 1). This concept of equality in dignity and rights is embedded in contemporary democracy, so states are obliged to protect various minorities and vulnerable groups from unequal treatment. Article 2 enshrines freedom from discrimination: "Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind".

The Council of Europe member states are also committed to non-discrimination in Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights. This article only gives protection from discrimination in relation to the enjoyment of the other rights set forth in the convention. Protocol 12 to the ECHR was drawn up to provide a stronger, free-standing right to equality and a general prohibition of discrimination: "The enjoyment of any right set forth by law shall be secured without discrimination on any ground…" 1 Thus, this protocol broadens the scope of the ECHR as it covers discrimination in any legal right, even when that right is not specifically covered by the convention.

Question: Has your country ratified Protocol 12 to the ECHR?

Direct and indirect discrimination

Discrimination may be practised in a direct or indirect way. Direct discrimination is characterised by the intent to discriminate against a person or a group, for example when an employment office rejects Roma job applicants or a housing company does not lend flats to immigrants. Indirect discrimination occurs when an apparently neutral provision, criterion or practice de facto puts representatives of a particular group at a disadvantage compared with others. Examples may range from a minimum height criterion for fire-fighters (which may exclude many more female than male applicants) to the department store which does not hire people who cover their heads. These rules, apparently neutral in their language, may in fact disproportionately disadvantage members of certain social groups. Both direct and indirect discrimination are forbidden under the human rights instruments; Indirect discrimination is often more pervasive and difficult to prove than direct discrimination.

Question: Have you ever felt discriminated against?

Structural discrimination

The key element in structural discrimination is not the intent but the effect of keeping minority groups in a subordinate position. Fred Pincus

Structural discrimination is based on the very way in which our society is organised. The system itself disadvantages certain groups of people. Structural discrimination works through norms, routines, patterns of attitudes and behaviour that create obstacles in achieving real equality or equal opportunities. Structural discrimination often manifests itself as institutional bias, mechanisms that consistently err in favour of one group and discriminate against another or others. These are cases when the resulting discrimination is clearly not rooted in an individual's conviction regarding a person or a group of people, but in institutional structures, be they legal, organisational, and so on. The challenge of structural discrimination is to make it visible, as we often grow up with it being self-evident and unquestioned.

The existence of structural discrimination leaves states with the challenge of adopting policies that look not only at the legal framework but at other incentives as well, taking into account patterns of behaviour and how different institutions operate. Human rights education may be one of the responses to this problem.

Affirmative action

Structural inequality is a state which arises when certain groups enjoy unequal status in relation to other groups, as a result of unequal relations in their roles, functions, rights and opportunities. The fight against dis-crimination should step out of the courts and into the sphere of education and politics. Mirjana Najcevska, Chair of the UN Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent.

In some cases a preferential or positive treatment of people belonging to certain groups may be applied as an attempt to alleviate or redress the harms caused by structural discriminations. Affirmative action, sometimes called "positive discrimination", may not only be allowed but even welcomed in order to counter inequality. For example, economic differences between rural and urban areas may lead to a different level of access to services. This may result in inequality unless special efforts are taken to counterbalance the effects of the original economic imbalance. In such cases the preferential treatment is necessary to secure effective equality rather than causing inequality.

The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination stipulates that affirmative action programmes may be required of countries that have ratified the convention, in order to rectify systematic discrimination. Such measures, however, "shall in no case entail as a consequence the maintenance of unequal or separate rights for different racial groups after the objectives for which they were taken have been achieved".

Multiple discrimination

Each one of us belongs to or identifies with several social groups. When dealing with any particular disadvantaged social group, it is important to be aware of the internal heterogeneity of the group and the potential for multiple grounds of discrimination. These multiple identifications not only mean more possibilities of discrimination, but can also come from several directions: for example, a lesbian Roma woman might be subject to multiple discrimination by heterosexual non-Roma; at the same time she can be subject to homophobia within the Roma community and subject to racism within the LGBT community. In most cases multiple discrimination occurs to so-called visible minorities, women and people with disabilities.

Majorities and minorities

Civilisation should be judged by its treatment of minorities. Mahatma Gandhi

Discrimination is usually exerted by majorities upon minorities, even though discrimination from minorities also exists. Being in the majority is a static or a dynamic situation, depending on many factors. When we are on the winning side in a democratic election, we are in the majority as a result of our convictions, a decision, or, for example, the outcome of a vote. If our convictions change, or the party we support loses the next election, our majority status is no longer valid. There are more static positions of majority and minority, when one or several aspects of our identity (nationality, religion, sexual orientation, gender, lifestyle, disability) are representative of a group that constitutes less (usually much less) than 50% of the whole of the population of a given geographical unit.

Democracies are vulnerable to the "tyranny of majority": a situation in which the majority rule is so oppressive that it completely disregards the needs and wants of members of minorities. The human rights framework not only protects citizens from the oppression of an individual or a small group of individuals, but is also a means of protection for minorities against the majority.

Majority is not necessarily dependent on the number of people in the group (though it often coincides), but rather with who has the power to make decisions. This aspect – decision-making power – is very important in the dynamic of minority-majority relations.

Question: Can you think of someone who may never experience discrimination?

The role of stereotypes and prejudices

Give me a prejudice and I'll move the world. Gabriel García Márquez

A stereotype is a generalised belief or opinion about a particular group of people, for example, that entrepreneurs are ambitious, public servants are humourless, or that women have long hair and wear skirts. The main function of stereotypes is to simplify reality. Stereotypes are usually based either on some kind of personal experience or on impressions that we have acquired during early childhood socialisation from adults surrounding us at home, in school or through mass media, which then become generalised to take in all the people who could possibly be linked. 3

All representation is misrepresentation in one form or the other. Edward Said

A prejudice is a judgment, usually negative, we make about another person or other people without really knowing them. Just like stereotypes, prejudices are learned as part of our socialisation process. One difference between a stereotype and a prejudice is that when enough information is available about an individual or a particular situation, we do away with our stereotypes. Prejudice rather works like a screen through which we perceive any given piece of reality: thus, information alone usually is not enough to get rid of a prejudice, as prejudices alter our perceptions of reality; we will process information that confirms our prejudice and fail to notice or "forget" anything that is in opposition. Prejudices are, therefore, very difficult to overcome; if contradicted by facts, we'd rather deny the facts than question the prejudice ("but he's not a real Christian"; "she is an exception").

Discrimination and intolerance are often based on or justified by prejudice and stereotyping of people and social groups, consciously or unconsciously; they are an expression of prejudice in practice. Structural discrimination is the result of perpetuated forms of prejudice, which led to specific categories of people having access to power and decision making, to the detriment of other groups.

• Forms of intolerance and discrimination

The Oxford English Dictionary defines xenophobia as "a morbid fear of foreigners or foreign countries". In other words, it means an irrational aversion to strangers or foreigners; it is irrational because it is not necessarily based on any direct concrete experiences of threat posed by foreigners. Xenophobia is a prejudice related to the false notion that people from other countries, groups, cultures, or speaking other languages are a threat. Xenophobia is closely related to racism: the more "different" the other is perceived, the stronger the fears and negative feelings tend to be. Xenophobia is one of the most common forms of and grounds for discrimination and it is for this that it is a challenge to human rights.

Question: Who are the targets of xenophobia in your society?

Prejudice squints when it looks, and lies when it talks. Laure Junot, Duchess de Abrantès

Some prejudices may transform into ideologies and feed hatred. One such ideology is racism. Racism involves discriminatory or abusive behaviour towards people because of their imagined "inferiority". There has been wide-spread belief that there are human races within the human species, distinguishable on the basis of physical differences. Scientific research shows, however, that "human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups" 4 , and that race is an imagined entity or social construct. All humans belong to the same species and, therefore, it makes no sense to talk of "races".

The impact of racist ideologies has been devastating to humanity; it has justified slavery, colonialism, apartheid, forced sterilisations and annihilations of peoples. It has been the basis of the Nazi and fascist ideologies and of the programmes to exterminate Jews and other people deemed inferior by the Nazis and their collaborators.

Unfortunately, racism continues to be present in contemporary European societies and politics. Although race is no longer accepted as a biological category and only few people believe now in "superior races" with an inherent right to exercise power over those considered "inferior", the impact of racism lingers on and takes on different forms, such as cultural racism or ethnocentrism, the belief that some cultures, usually their own, are superior or that other cultures, traditions, customs and histories are incompatible with theirs.

International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 21 March commemorates the Sharpeville massacre in 1960, when the police opened fire and killed 69 people at a peaceful demonstration against the apartheid laws in Sharpeville, South Africa. UNITED for Intercultural Action, a European network against nationalism, racism, fascism and in support of migrants and refugees, co-ordinates a European-wide action week around this date to promote tolerance and equal rights, and to celebrate diversity in Europe. 7

Discrimination, xenophobia and racism are widespread in many parts of the world: there are around 160 million Dalits (Untouchables) in India suffering from the caste system. In the USA, race is a key factor in de-termining who is sentenced to death.  Hospitals in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary have practised involuntary sterilisation of Roma women into the 21st century. 6

The widespread practices of deportation and unequal treatment of migrants, as well as the structural discrimination against certain ethnic minorities such as Roma by many governments, nourishes xenophobia and latent racist feelings. Hate-motivated crimes that are supported by racist ideology are regularly in the news in many of the Council of Europe member states.

Question: Can you point out any recent cases of racist violence in your country?

Antisemitism

Antisemitism can be defined as "hostility towards Jews as a religious or minority group often accompanied by social, economic, and political discrimination" 9 . Antisemitism has been widespread in European history up to the present. It is often called “the longest hatred”. In 70 CE, the Romans destroyed the Jewish temple in Jerusalem and many Jews were killed or forced to leave. In Spain, in 1492 the entire Jewish population was expelled from the country. This followed the 1391 massacre when tens of thousands of Jewish people were killed. By the end of the 19th century, Jewish communities in Russia had regularly became victims of pogroms, which were systematic discriminatory acts of violence against Jewish communities organized by the local population, often with the passive consent or active participation of law enforcement, encouraged by the antisemitic policies. These are just a few examples, but attacks on Jewish communities were common in other European countries including among others France and Austria, along with severe discrimination, marginalisation and exclusion and perpetuation of stereotypes and prejudices.

The rise of Fascism in the first part of the 20th century brought further hardship for Jews in Europe, as antisemitism became part of the racist ideologies in power. This is true for Fascist regimes that collaborated directly or indirectly with the Nazis, but other societies and systems were also influenced by racist ideologies. During the Holocaust, perpetrated by Nazi Germany and its allies between 1933 and 1945, known also as the Shoah, an estimated 6 million Jews were systematically exterminated for no other reason than the fact that they were Jews.

With the success of the Bolshevik Revolution, pogroms ceased in the Soviet Union but antisemitism continued in different forms, including forced displacements, confiscation of property and show trials. Under communist regimes, antisemitism was often also disguised under official "anti-Zionist" policies.

Racism has gained a new respect as a commonsense solution to pressing political problems. Of course we don't call it racism. We call it anti-terrorism or immigration policy. Alana Lentin 8

Today, antisemitism remains widespread in Europe, even if in some cases it is harder for the public to identify or to admit. In recent years, Jewish cemeteries have been desecrated, Jews are regular targets of hate speech and they are sometimes physically attacked. Research regularly indicates ongoing high levels of antisemitism among mainstream European societies, accompanied by sporadic rises. As the European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) pointed out, it is an alarming trend in Europe, that despite all efforts antisemitism "continues to be promoted, openly or in a coded manner, by certain political parties and leaders, including not only extremist parties, but also certain mainstream parties" 10 , and in many cases there is tolerance or even acceptance of these agendas by certain segments of the population.

Question: What are the main forms in which antisemitism is manifested in your country?

Young people working against antisemitism Movement against Intolerance (Spain) High School students repainted parts of Picasso's "Guernica" and reassembled them on a big wall in a public action to show that the fatal realities of the past are present here and now. During this process the symbols used in the painting and its relation to the Holocaust and the "Kristallnacht Pogrom" were explained to the audience. Holocaust Centre and Foundation (Russia): International contests "Holocaust lessons – a way to Tolerance" Since 2002 this centre has run memorial programmes and international educational activities about tolerance and the Holocaust, including an annual contest for students and teachers from Russia, other European and CIS countries, Israel and the USA.

The Resolution 1563 (2007) of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe urges the member states to criminalise and/or implement such legislation which condemns antisemitism, including, but not limited to Holocaust denial, whether it is committed by individuals, groups or even political parties. 11

The Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) of the European Union publishes overviews of the situation of antisemitism in its member states. In their 2010 update on antisemitism in the EU, the Agency noted that "most Member States do not have official or even unofficial data and statistics on antisemitic incidents". The Agency has recognised the importance of Holocaust education as a means of addressing antisemitism, and over the years has initiated and participated in several joint projects in this area. 12

Discrimination against Roma people: Antigypsyism / anti-Roma racism

Antigypsyism can be defined as a specific form of racism, an ideology of racial superiority, a form of dehumanisation and of institutionalised rac-ism applied against Roma people. "It is based, on the one hand, on imag-ined fears, negative stereotypes and myths and, on the other, on denial or erasure from the public conscience of a long history of discrimination against Roma." 13

Discrimination against Roma is deep rooted and a common reality all over Europe. As the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights pointed out, there are alarming trends throughout Europe, strongly resembling Nazi ideology and reasoning in relation to Roma, such as fears for safety and public health. Rhetoric criminalising the whole Roma population is also very common throughout the member states. 14 As Roma are more likely to be discriminated against, the Roma population is disproportionately vulnerable to armed conflicts, natural catastrophes or economic crises. In many countries, Roma have been victims of violent racist groups (in Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy, Romania, and so on), resulting in murders. Roma were caught in the crossfire of the armed conflicts in former Yugoslavia; Roma neighbourhoods and villages are often segregated and isolated. 15 Many young Roma grow up in hostile social environments where the only support and recognition they have is in their own community or family. They are denied many basic rights such as education or health, or have limited access to them.

Question: What is the estimated proportion of Roma in the population of your country?

Deportations of Romanian and Bulgarian Roma in 2010 In 2010, the French government announced a crackdown on illegal camps of Roma who had recently migrated to France, and sent several thousand of their inhabitants back to Romania and Bulgaria, claiming that Roma settlements are major sources of crime and a public nuisance. The UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination sharply criticised France's crackdown and said that racism and xenophobia were undergoing a "significant resurgence". At the same time, opinion polls suggested that as many as 65% of French people backed the government's tough line. 16 The European Committee of Social Rights concluded unanimously that the forced evictions of Roma constituted a violation of rights provided for in the revised European Social Charter, including the freedom from discrimination and the right to housing. 17

Porrajmos refers to the genocide of European Roma perpetrated by the Nazis and their allies between 1933 and 1945. The estimated number of victims varies, according to different sources, from between half a million to 2 million, leading to the loss of up to 70% of the pre-war Roma population.

Question: What are the typical ways of presenting Roma in the news in your country?

A greater awareness and concern about the Roma is slowly emerging. The Decade of Roma Inclusion 2005–2015 stands as an unprecedented political commitment by European governments to improve the socio-economic status and social inclusion of Roma. 19 Actions and programmes by young people have also contributed to counteracting intolerance and prejudices towards Roma by deconstructing the stereotypes many of us have grown up with. The international campaign Typical Roma?, for instance, addressed stigmatisation and stereotypes as root causes of the social exclusion of Roma. 20

Effects on young people [of Romaphobia] include passivity, frustration, marginalisation, as well as mutual stereotyping and fear to interact with others due to the segregation and the wrong perceptions of the "others" and the lack of possibilities to interact. 18

The Council of Europe began working against the discrimination of Roma in 1969 by adopting the first official text on the "situation of Gypsies and other Travellers in Europe". In 2006, the Council of Europe launched the Roma campaign Dosta!, an awareness-raising effort that aims at bringing non-Roma closer to Roma people. In 2010 the Strasbourg Declaration on Roma was adopted at a High Level Meeting; in the declaration the member states agreed on prioritising action for non-discrimination and social inclusion of Roma, including the active participation of Roma.

In 2012 the youth sector of the Council of Europe, together with European Roma networks and organisations, initiated a Roma Youth Action Plan in order to improve the participation of Roma youth in European policies on Roma and youth, and to counter effects of discrimination on young Roma.

ECRI also pays attention to the situation of Roma in Europe; its General Recommendation 13 (2011) on Combating Antigypsyism and Discrimination against Roma stresses that antigypsyism is an "especially persistent, violent, recurrent and commonplace form of racism" and urges governments to combat antigypsyism in the fields of education, employment, housing and health and combat racist violence and crimes against Roma.

Roma are the true Europeans. Günter Grass

The European Union is also increasingly acknowledging the need to counteract the effects of discrimination against Roma in its member states. In April 2011, the European Commission issued "An EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020" 21 , which stated that "In spite of some progress achieved both in the Member States and at EU level over the past years, little has changed in the day-to-day situation of most of the Roma".

Young people learn about the Roma Genocide  DIKH HE NA BISTER (“Look and don’t forget” in Romani) – the Roma Genocide Remembrance Initiative, mobilises each year thousands of young Roma and non-Roma all over Europe on the occasion of the 2 August – the European Holocaust Memorial Day for Sinti and Roma – to advance remembrance, recognition and education about the Genocide of Roma people. The event is a space of learning about the past, as well as of reflection about the role of young people in Holocaust remembrance. The initiative creates a dialogue and personal encounter of young people with Holocaust survivors. Their testimonies inspire the participants to address and resist against current challenges of antigypsyism, and other forms of racism in Europe today. https://2august.eu/about-us/

Intolerance based on religion

Freedom of religion and religious tolerance are basic values present in every European country, yet acts of discrimination based on religion have not yet disappeared. Religious intolerance is often linked with racism and xenophobia – particularly with Antisemitism and Islamophobia. Whereas in the past Europe was characterised by conflicts between, and discrimination of Protestant or Catholic Christians, Roman and Eastern Orthodox or "official" churches and dissenting groups, today the political differences among Christian denominations have become far less important. At the same time many religious communities in minority positions continue to thrive across Europe, including Baha'is, Buddhists, Christians, Hindus, Jews, Muslims and Rastafarians. This growing religious diversity is often ignored, as well as those millions of Europeans who are not religious.

More detailed information about discrimination based on religion can be found in the section on Religion and Belief

Religious intolerance is often linked with racism and xenophobia – particularly with antisemitism and Islamophobia, leading thus to multiple and intersectional discrimination.

Belieforama  Trainings for schools, youth and public authorities are offered by CEJI to promote respect for religious diversity, to counteract prejudicial thinking and underline the importance of social action. Specific training programs have been developed in order to address:  - Religious diversity and anti-discrimination - Overcoming antisemitism - Overcoming Islamophobia - Reconciling religion, gender and sexual orientation. http://belieforama.org

Question: What minority religions exist in your country?

Discrimination based on gender identity, gender or sexual orientation

Gender-related discrimination includes the discrimination of women as opposed to men (this form is also called sexism or sex discrimination) and that of transgender or transsexual people, whose gender identity is inconsistent or not culturally associated with their assigned sex. Discrimination based on sexual orientation affects homosexual and bisexual people. As equality between women and men is discussed in detail in the section on Gender, here we only address the other forms of gender- or sex-related discrimination.

Homophobia is often defined as "an irrational fear of and aversion to homosexuality and of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT 22 ) people, based on prejudice, similar to racism, xenophobia, antisemitism and sexism" 23 , as well as people who are perceived as being LGBT. If directed against transgender people, it is called "transphobia". Various totalitarian regimes of the 20th century made homophobia a part of their political ideology, such as Nazism in Germany, Stalinism in the Soviet Union or Fascism in Spain. Democratic regimes in Europe have, nonetheless, justified homophobic legislation, including pathologisation and criminalisation of homosexuality, and, with it, structural discrimination of LGBT people for a long time.  Today, discrimination against LGBT people still occurs in all societies in Europe in spite of the fact that many states have adopted anti-discrimination legislation.  Many LGBT people cannot fully enjoy their universal human rights, run the risk of becoming victims of hate crime and may not receive protection when attacked in the street by fellow citizens.

When I was in the military, they gave me a medal for killing two men and a discharge for loving one. Epitaph on the grave of Leonard Matlovich, gay and war veteran

In many parts of the world, LGBT people are subjected to different forms of violence that range from verbal attacks to being murdered. In many countries in the world, the practice of homosexuality is still a crime and in some of them it is punishable by a prison sentence or the death penalty 24 .

61% of young gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender persons from 37 European countries claimed that they experienced prejudice and/or dis-crimination in school, and 51% in their family. 38% of respondents said they had experienced prejudice and/or discrimination in a community they belonged to and 30% did so in their circle of friends. 25

LGBT people are often denied their human rights, for example the right to work, as they get fired or are discriminated against by employers because of their sexual orientation or gender identity. The right to safety and security of a person is another which is very often violated when (young) people are bullied at school or harassed in the work place. Lesbian and gay couples in many countries of Europe feel discriminated in such areas as the right to marry, to constitute a family or to adopt children.

Question: In what areas of life are LGBT persons discriminated against in your country?

Council of Europe's work

The European Court of Human Rights has often had a pioneering role in sanctioning homophobia. In a series of cases the court found that discrimination in the criminal law regarding consenting relations between adults in private was contrary to the right to respect for private life in Article 8 of the ECHR (Dudgeon v. UK, 1981, Norris v. Ireland, 1988, Modinos v. Cyprus, 1993). The Court was in fact the first international body to find that sexual orientation criminal laws violate human rights and has had the longest and largest jurisprudence in addressing sexual orientation issues. There have also been several cases related to single-parent adoption.

In 2011, the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights published his report on discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation and gender identity. The report welcomed the advances made in the field of LGBT rights in most member states, stating that "the pathologisation and criminalisation of homosexuality in Europe clearly belong to the past". At the same time the report noted that serious concerns remain in many areas of human rights of LGBT persons, and this is especially true of the rights of transgender persons. 26 The Council of Europe set up a unit on LGBT Issues in order to to streamline work on LGBT matters. This was announced as the first-ever structure of its kind in an international intergovernmental institution and signals the importance of LGBT issues within the framework of human rights in Europe.

Education, both formal and non-formal, play a central role in reducing and eradicating prejudice against LGBT people. It is only through education that prejudices can be addressed and challenged. The programmes of the European Youth Centres and of the European Youth Foundation regularly feature human rights education and training activities for multipliers and activists against homophobia. These include study sessions organised in co-operation with youth organisations such as the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer Youth and Student Organization (IGLYO) and the Association of Nordic and Pol-Balt LGBTQ Student Organizations (ANSO).

• Counteracting Discrimination

Gender Matters In 2007 the Council of Europe's youth sector published Gender Matters, a manual to assist educators and youth leaders work on issues of gender and gender-based violence with young people.

There are several approaches to anti-discrimination and anti-racist activities including:

• legal action to enforce the right to non-discrimination
• educational programmes that raise awareness about the mechanisms of prejudice and intolerance and how they contribute to discriminate and oppress people, and on the appreciation of diversity and promoting tolerance
• activism by civil society to denounce discrimination and prejudice, to counteract hate crimes and hate speech, to support victims of discrimination or to promote changes in legislation.

Educators recognise the need to develop in every person a tolerant, non-discriminatory attitude and create a learning environment that acknowledges and benefits from diversity instead of ignoring or excluding it. As part of this development, those who work with children or youth, as well as children and young people themselves, should become aware of their own and others' discriminatory behaviours. For instance, human rights educational activities can help participants to develop awareness and empathy on the one hand, and resilience and assertiveness on the other hand so that people can avoid, prevent or stand up against discrimination.

The Education Pack ‘All Different – All Equal' was developed by the Council of Europe to promote awareness and action against racism, anti-semitism, xenophobia and intolerance. www.coe.int/compass

Intercultural learning is the process of learning about diversity and has been a central approach in European youth work. In the youth field of the Council of Europe, intercultural learning is presented as "a process of social education aimed at promoting a positive relationship between people and groups from different cultural backgrounds" 27 and promotes mutual respect and solidarity.

International human rights framework

United nations.

One of the primary tools of fighting discrimination within the UN system is the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which commits the signatory states to the elimination of racial discrimination. The Convention includes an individual complaints' mechanism and is monitored by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), a body of independent experts. All states parties are obliged to submit regular reports to the Committee, which in turn addresses its concerns and recommendations to the state party in the form of "concluding observations". The Committee has three other mechanisms for its monitoring functions: the early-warning procedure, the examination of inter-state complaints and the examination of individual complaints. Other conventions of the UN address discrimination against specific groups, such as the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women or the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

The Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

OSCE is a regional security organisation with 56 member states from three continents (including all the Council of Europe member states). The OSCE also participates in combating all forms of racism, xenophobia and discrimination, including antisemitism, and discrimination against Christians and Muslims. One of its institutions is the Warsaw-based Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) which:

• Collects and distributes information and statistics on hate crimes
• Promotes best practices in the fight against intolerance and discrimination
• Provides assistance to participating states in drafting and reviewing legislation on crimes fuelled by intolerance and discrimination.

The OSCE has a High Commissioner on National Minorities whose mandate includes identifying and seeking the early resolution of tensions involving national minority issues.

The European Union anti-discrimination policies

We … acknowledge that slavery and the slave trade are a crime against humanity … and are among the major sources and manifestations of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance. From the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action 28

According to Article 21.1 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, "any discrimination based on any ground such as sex, race, colour, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, birth, disability, age or sexual orientation, shall be prohibited". The EU has several anti-discrimination Directives. The Racial Equality Directive ensures equal treatment between people, irrespective of racial or ethnic origin. The Employment Equality Framework Directive prohibits discrimination in the workplace on grounds of disability, sexual orientation, religion or belief, and age. The equality of men and women are provided for in two Directives, one in matters of employment and occupation the other in the access to and supply of goods and services 29 . The EU legislation also requires that each member state has a designated national equality body which can be contacted for advice and support.

Questions around the denial of asylum to refugees, deaths of many migrants on the EU borders, Islamophobia, and the deportation of Roma continue to divide the European Union members and tarnish its record of anti-discrimination efforts. A threat to human rights also comes from political parties which in power pass de facto discriminative legislation. These problems can be remedied only by a comprehensive policy, including youth policy in the sphere of non-discrimination, combating racism and intolerance.

The Council of Europe

Combating racism and intolerance was at the heart of the creation of the Council of Europe in 1949, and remains one of its priorities today. In addition to the European Convention of Human Rights and other conventions, the Council has set up specific instruments addressing racism, discrimination and intolerance. In 1993, the ECRI was created as an independent human rights body to monitor the situation with regard to racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia, antisemitism and intolerance in each member state, and to make specific recommendations to their governments and general recommendations addressed to all member states.

While the ECRI is the Council of Europe's principal body in combating racism and intolerance, other bodies and departments of the Organisation such as the Committee of Ministers, the Parliamentary Assembly, the Commissioner for Human Rights, the Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the European Court on Human Rights also contribute to this objective.

The Framework Convention on the Protection of National Minorities recognises that "[the]protection of national minorities and of the rights and freedoms of persons belonging to those minorities forms an integral part of the international protection of human rights" (Article 1). State parties to the convention are committed to guarantee to national minorities the right of equality before the law as well as in all areas of economic, social, political and cultural life; ensuring their right to freedom of peaceful assembly, association, expression, thought, conscience and religion; and enabling national minority members to maintain, develop and preserve their culture. It also prohibits forced assimilation. 30

Segregation of Roma children the Czech Republic condemned by the ECHR 31 "The applicants were schoolchildren of Roma origin who were placed in "special schools" intended for pupils with learning disabilities. They submitted that they had been treated differently in the education sphere to children who were not of Roma origin in that, by being placed in special schools without justification, they received a substantially inferior education to that provided in ordinary primary schools, with the result that they were denied access to secondary education other than in vocational training centres." The Court found a violation of Article 14 (prohibition of discrimination) read in conjunction with Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 (right to education). 32

Question: Which public authorities have the responsibility to combat discrimination in your country?

European youth policies have traditionally included a strong dimension of intercultural learning and combating racism and prejudice. Agenda 2020, the main youth policy document of the Council of Europe, puts a special emphasis on "preventing and counteracting all forms of racism and discrimination on any ground" and recognises intercultural learning as a non-formal educational method "particularly relevant for promoting intercultural dialogue and combating racism and intolerance" 33 . One of major actions of youth work and youth policy against discrimination have been the European youth campaigns All Different – All Equal, which mobilised young people against racism, antisemitism, xenophobia and intolerance and for diversity, human rights and participation. Thousands of young people took part in the various activities of the campaign throughout Europe. The White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue "Living Together as Equals in Dignity" was adopted by the Council of Europe in 2008 and provides guidelines and analytical and methodological tools for the promotion of intercultural dialogue by policymakers and practitioners. It promotes intercultural approaches for managing cultural diversity, based on human dignity and embracing "our common humanity and common destiny".

Despite the wide spectrum of existing instruments and approaches to combat racism, xenophobia and discrimination, hostility against foreigners, violation of the rights of minorities, high levels of aggressive nationalism and banal forms of discrimination are still a daily reality in most societies across Europe. That is why it is so important today to be active and creative in promoting diversity, equality, non-discrimination and human rights.

1 Protocol No. 12 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 2  Mario Peucker, "Racism, xenophobia and structural  discrimination in sports", Country report, Germany, Bamberg, 2009, p26: www.efms.uni-bamberg.de/pdf/RACISM_in_SPORT_2010.pdf 3 Education Pack "All Different – All Equal"   – "Ideas, resources, methods and activities for informal intercultural education with young people and adults" (revised edition) Council of Europe, 2005 4 For example, see American Anthropological Association Statement on "Race": www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm 5 Racism and the administration of justice, Amnesty International, 2001, AI Index: 40/020/2001: www.amnestymena.org/Documents/ACT%2040/ACT400202001en.pdf 6 Lydia Gall, Coercive Sterilisation – an Example of Multiple Discrimination, 2010: www.errc.org/cikk.php?page=10&cikk=3564 7 www.unitedagainstracism.org 8 Alana Lentin, "Committed to Making a Difference. Racism, antisemitism, xenophobia, and intolerance and their impact on young people in Europe" (symposium report), 2006 9 Webster's Third New International Dictionary 10 ECRI General Policy Recommendation No.9: The fight against antisemitism, June 2004, CRI(2004)37 11 http://assembly.coe.int/main.asp?Link=/documents/adoptedtext/ta07/eres1563.htm 12 http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/attachments/Antisemitism_Update_2010.pdf 13 Valeriu Nicolae, ergonetwork: www.ergonetwork.org/antigypsyism.htm 14 "Positions on the human rights of Roma", Position Paper from the Commissioner for Human Rights https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1631909 15 Dosta! Campaign background information. www.dosta.org/en/node/55   16 Q&A: France Roma expulsions, BBC article www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11027288 17 Resolution CM/ResChS(2011)9 Collective Complaint No. 63/2010 https://wcd.coe.int    18 Ingrid Ramberg, "Committed to Making a Difference. Racism, antisemitism, xenophobia, and intolerance and their impact on young people in Europe" (symposium report), 2006 19 Learn more at www.romadecade.org 20 Learn more at www.typicalroma.eu 21 http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/discrimination/docs/com_2011_173_en.pdf 22 Intersex people (variety of conditions in which a person is born with a reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn't seem to fit the typical definitions of female or male) and the ones who identify themselves as "queer" may associate themselves with the LGBT community, which is then collectively referred as LGBTIQ. 23 European Parliament resolution on homophobia in Europe (P6_TA(2006)0018), January 18, 2006, www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&reference=P6-TA-2006-0018&language=EN 24 ILGA "State Sponsored Homophobia", May 2009: www.ilga.org/statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2009.pdf 25 "Social Exclusion of Young Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) People in Europe", ILGA-Europe and IGLYO, April 2006, www.iglyo.com/content/files/2006-Report-SocialExclusion.pdf 26 www.coe.int/t/Commissioner/Source/LGBT/LGBTStudy2011_en.pdf 27 Equipe Claves, quoted in "Intercultural Learning in European Youth Work: Which Ways Forward?", by Ingrig Ramberg (ed.), Council of Europe, 2009. 28 United Nations World Conference Against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance:  www.un.org./WCAR/durban.pdf 29 Directives (2000/43/EC), (2000/78/EC), (2006/54/EC) and (2004/113/EC) respectively. 30 Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/157.htm 31 Case of D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic (Application No. 57325/00), Judgment, Strasbourg, 13 November 2007: www.asil.org/pdfs/ilib071214.pdf 32 60 years of the European Convention on Human Rights: Roma Rights, 2010, Council of Europe 33 Final Declaration: The Future of the Council of Europe youth policy: AGENDA 2020, 8th Council of Europe Conference of Ministers responsible for youth, Kyiv, 2008: www.coe.int/t/dg4/youth/ig_coop/8_cemry_declaration_EN.asp

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• 27 January International Day of Commemoration in memory of the victims of the Holocaust
• 21 March International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
• 8 April World Roma Day
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Journal of Practical Ethics

A journal of philosophy, applied to the real world.

What Makes Discrimination Wrong?

Paul de Font-Reaulx

University of Oxford

2017 Oxford Uehiro Prize in Practical Ethics

Winner: UNDERGraduate Category

Most of us intuitively take discrimination based on gender or ethnicity to be impermissible because we have a right to be treated on the basis of merit and capacity rather than e.g. ethnicity or gender. I call this suggestion the Impermissibility Account. I argue that, despite how the Impermissibility Account seems intuitive to most of us with a humanist outlook, it is indefensible. I show that well-informed discrimination can sometimes be permissible, and even morally required, meaning we cannot have a strict right not to be discriminated against. I then propose an alternative and more plausible account which I call the Fairness and Externalities Account, arguing that acts of discrimination are wrong partly because they are unfair and partly because they create harmful externalities which—analogously to pollution—there is a collective responsibility to minimize. Both of these factors are however defeasible, meaning that if the Fairness and Externalities Account is correct, then discrimination is sometimes permissible. These results are counterintuitive, and suggest that the ethics of discrimination requires further attention.

1. What is Discrimination?

I take discrimination to be to treat someone very differently in an unfavourable way based on an irrelevant trait. A trait is relevant if and only if the possession of it by itself provides reasons for different treatment in some instance, such as constituting a difference in merit or capacity. Otherwise it is irrelevant. For example, choosing members of a sports team based on athletic ability is not an instance of discrimination, because athletic ability is a relevant trait for being a member of a sports team. Doing the same on the basis of ethnicity is however, because ethnicity is not a relevant trait 1 .

Discrimination caused by bigotry such as racism is often indefensible simply because it rests on ungrounded beliefs about the relevance of traits such as ethnicity, such as the belief that a given ethnicity is relevantly superior in some normal situation. Discrimination can be wrong even if it does not suffer from epistemic problems however. This is when different treatment is based on an irrelevant trait, but there are good epistemic reasons—such as statistical evidence—to believe that holding this trait makes it more likely that the same person holds another relevant trait. For example, ethnicity is not a relevant trait for performing a normal job. Criminality is however, and for various reasons (e.g. social segregation along ethnic lines) ethnicity can statistically correlate with criminality. In such cases, discriminating on the basis of ethnicity constitutes an instance of what I will call ‘epistemically grounded discrimination’, which is what I will focus on in this text.

2. Is Discrimination Impermissible?

Many of us believe that even epistemically grounded discrimination is sometimes wrong, such as in some cases of ethnic targeting by police. I will now progress to consider an account of under what conditions an instance of epistemically grounded discrimination is wrong, and what it is that makes it so.

Those of us with a humanist outlook often have a prima facie intuition that discrimination is always wrong in any realistic scenario. Here is an account of the wrongness of discrimination which corresponds to this intuition: We have the right to be judged based on individual merit and capacity rather than generalizations over traits for which we are not responsible. Specifically, all individuals have a right not to be judged or treated differently based on traits which do not constitute a relevant difference in merit (e.g. having committed a crime) or capacity (e.g. athletic ability). Furthermore, it is impermissible to violate someone’s rights. Discriminating based on e.g. ethnicity or gender is to violate someone’s rights in this way. For this reason it is impermissible. Let us call this the Impermissibility Account.

As mentioned, I believe the Impermissibility Account is at least prima facie intuitive to many of us. This makes it worth studying in more detail. Let us test the suggestion by considering the following two examples:

Hiring: Harold is considering applicants for a position at his company. He knows that being a member of an ethnic minority strongly correlates with frequency of crime. Because of this he chooses not to consider applicants belonging to an ethnic minority.

Au Pair: Cassandra is considering hiring an au pair to take care of her children. She knows that being white and male strongly correlates with being inept at taking care of children. Because of this she chooses not to consider white male candidates.

These are both instances of epistemically grounded discrimination, and impermissible according to the Impermissibility Account. In their respective examples Harold and Cassandra both treat some group of individuals very differently based on an irrelevant trait (being of an ethnic minority and being a white male respectively). They do however have good reason to believe that these traits correlate with a relevant trait (criminality and child-caring respectively), and that therefore—ceteris paribus—someone with the irrelevant trait (e.g. being a white male) is more likely to possess the relevant trait (e.g. being inept with children) than someone lacking the irrelevant trait.

Most of us believe that Harold is acting impermissibly, and plausibly for the reasons above. He is treating individuals in a way which they have a right not to be treated by discriminating based on ethnicity. Many of us do not however find Cassandra’s action impermissible, and feel inclined to be more lenient in her case. In fact many ads for au pairs specify that they only consider females, and the owners of the ad are rarely considered to be doing something impermissible. This would suggest that our suggestion is too inclusive, making too many acts of discrimination impermissible. In order to still be able to consider Harold’s actions impermissible however, we need to find some further necessary condition which only rules out Hiring.

We might suggest that the relevant difference between Hiring and Au Pair are the objects of discrimination. Here is a further condition attempting to accommodate this suggestion: Discrimination is only impermissible when the irrelevant trait (e.g. being a white male) constitutes the membership of an exposed group. By ‘exposed’ I mean a group which is generally considered to be at the receiving end of structural oppression, such as ethnic minorities or women 2 . Cassandra’s discrimination is directed at white males, which are not an exposed group, while as Harold’s actions are directed at an ethnic minority, which is an exposed group. Therefore Harold’s discrimination is impermissible, but not Cassandra’s.

Adding this condition to the Impermissibility Account captures a further intuition, but the condition is both problematically vague and insufficient. It is problematically vague because there are cases in which it is not clear whether a trait should warrant membership in an exposed group or not (e.g. having one grandparent of an ethnic minority). I will not elaborate on this issue. More relevantly it is insufficient because sometimes it seems permissible, and even morally required, to discriminate even when the object of discrimination is a member of an exposed group. Consider the following example:

Alley: In order to get to the other side of town one needs to pass through either alley A or alley B. A tourist, who is internationally famous for spreading money around everywhere he goes, needs to get to the other side of town, and asks Pasha how to get there. Pasha knows only the following: (a) Passing through A is slightly quicker than B, (b) A is mainly populated with members of an ethnic minority and B by non-minorities and (c) being a member of the ethnic minority statistically correlates strongly with high frequency of violent crime, while there is no such correlation for non-minorities. The tourist will only understand a simple direction to A or B, and will then trust Pasha’s recommendation blindly.

In this case it seems to me that Pasha is not only permitted to direct the tourist to B despite A being the quicker path, but is also morally required to do so. The tourist is left at Pasha’s mercy, and directing him to A would likely put him at great risk. Doing so would however imply discriminating against the individuals in A which are members of an exposed group, because Pasha would treat them very differently by recommending the tourist to avoid them only on the basis of their ethnicity, thereby robbing them of the chance to receive some of his significant spending 3 . If this is correct, it cannot be impermissible or even always morally wrong to discriminate on the basis of irrelevant traits which constitute membership of an exposed group. This implies that the Impermissibility Account cannot be correct, and that we should reject it as an account of the conditions under which epistemically grounded discrimination is wrong. It follows that discrimination based on e.g. ethnicity is sometimes permissible.

3. Fairness and Externalities

We might find it surprising that we cannot defend the Impermissibility Account. This does not mean however that epistemically grounded discrimination is always, or even often, permissible; most often it is not. To determine when this is the case we need an alternative—defensible—account of under what conditions an instance of epistemically grounded discrimination is wrong, and preferably of what it is that makes it so. Furthermore we would like such an account to capture variations in the wrongness of discrimination depending on the objects of discrimination.

I suggest that the best account of the wrongness of discrimination, and the one that we should prefer over the Impermissibility Account, is what I will call the Fairness and Externalities Account. This account states that the wrongness of discrimination is constituted by two independent and defeasible factors:

Fairness: Discriminating against an individual is unfair to that individual, and all else equal it is wrong to treat an individual unfairly.

Harmful Externalities: Discriminating against an individual produces harmful externalities for individuals sharing the trait which has been the grounds for discrimination.

Fairness is something like being treated in proportion to one’s desert, need and capacity 4 . When someone is not selected for a job because of their ethnicity, this is unfair to them, because they have ceteris paribus equal desert, need and capacity to perform the job to other applicants. For this reason both Harold and Cassandra are treating their respective applicants unfairly. To be treated fairly is however not an unalienable right, and sometimes we are permitted to treat people unfairly when it is required for overriding reasons. An example of this is might be collective punishment of a platoon for the mistake of an individual, when it is required for discipline. When there are no such overriding considerations it is wrong to treat individuals unfairly.

I believe the fairness condition captures something intuitive about the wrongness of discrimination, in that we all feel—no matter our background—like we are treated unfairly when someone behaves differently to us in an unfavourable way due to some irrelevant trait of ours. I also believe that it is plausible to say that it is ceteris paribus wrong—when nothing sufficiently important is at stake—to treat someone unfairly in such a way. This condition seems sufficient to explain why all instances of discrimination seem at least somewhat wrong, including e.g. Cassandra’s. It does not however explain why we intuitively believe that it is much worse to discriminate against some individuals and groups than others, e.g. why Harold’s act of discrimination seems much worse than Cassandra’s. To do this we need to consider the second condition.

Acts of discrimination can be harmful, e.g. if one of Harold’s applicants is very poor and in need of a job. One might suggest that the harm caused to the objects of discrimination is larger in Hiring than in Au Pair, and that this is what makes Harold’s actions worse than Cassandra’s. However, variation in the harm caused to the individual being discriminated against is insufficient to account for the variation of wrongness that we find depending on the object of discrimination. For example, it might be that some of Harold’s applicants are very well-off and not significantly harmed by being discriminated against. Rather there seems to be something relevantly wrong about the discrimination being based on ethnicity, independently of the harm caused to the discriminated individual.

I argue that this can be explained in terms of harmful externalities. An externality is ‘a cost or benefit that affects a party who did not choose to incur that cost or benefit’ 5 , which includes but is not limited to the harm caused to the object of discrimination. When someone is discriminated against on the basis of a specific trait, this can produce harmful externalities not only for them but also for others sharing that trait, e.g. by reducing opportunities, perpetuating stereotypes or solidifying segregation along ethnic lines. For example, when Harold systematically disregards an exposed group he is signalling to other employers that this group is not to be trusted, making them less likely to hire members of the ethnic minority. This causes a higher level of unemployment among the ethnic minority and perpetuates alienation, which constitutes a harm to members of that group. In other words, the harm act of discrimination can extend beyond the target of discrimination to others who share her traits.

I believe this can account for cases like Hiring and Au Pair. For example, I would argue that the harm caused to white males by Cassandra by e.g. limiting the group’s chances to improve its child-caring skills is non-negligible, but comparatively limited. Harold on the other hand might more plausibly be contributing to a deep societal problem of segregation along ethnic lines, which is much more problematic. This condition can account for why Harold’s actions are wrong while Cassandra’s are plausibly permissible, because discriminating against an ethnic minority produces more harmful externalities than discriminating against white males.

I believe the Fairness and Externalities Account captures the wrongness of discrimination in an intuitive way by both capturing why we think that there is always something wrong about discrimination, but also why the wrongness can vary with the object of discrimination. Accepting the account would however have some counterintuitive consequences:

Firstly, the nature of externalities is often such that they affect large groups and are produced collectively by many individuals, as is the case when it comes to pollution. The responsibility not to produce such externalities is collective, and any individual responsibility is a part of that collective responsibility. This means that according to the Fairness and Externalities Account the wrongness of discrimination is largely made up of a failure to live up to one’s part in the collective responsibility not to e.g. perpetuate alienating stereotypes. Specifically, any further wrongness to discriminating against an exposed group relative to e.g. white males is fully constituted by one’s marginal contribution to negative externalities for that group. This is counterintuitive, because discrimination is intuitively thought of wronging someone, not as—like driving a car with unnecessarily high emissions—contributing to the production of negative effects for a group.

Secondly, like with pollution there can sometimes be overriding reasons to disregard this collective responsibility when the marginal harm produced is significantly outweighed by the harm of alternative actions. This is what happens in Alley, where the risk to the tourist outweighs the unfairness and harm caused to the individuals in alley A. Because both Fairness and Harmful Externalities are defeasible, discrimination is permissible when the unfairness and negative externalities are counterweighed by independent considerations. In Cassandra’s case this seems quite intuitive a well: if the probability of a white male applicant being good with children is significantly lower than other candidates, this might plausibly outweigh the unfairness and harm caused to the white male applicants. On the other hand however, it seems then that Harold might also be allowed to discriminate based on ethnicity if, for example, his business was extremely sensitive to criminality and the correlation between ethnicity and criminality sufficiently strong, which appears counterintuitive.

4. Conclusion

I have argued that unalienable rights are not sufficient to explain the wrongness of discrimination by showing why the Impermissibility Account is implausible, and that it should instead be explained by unfairness and negative externalities in accordance with the Fairness and Externalities Account. If this is correct then this means that we should shift our view of the wrongness of discrimination to it as largely being a failure of a collective responsibility, and that we have to consider for each case whether there are sufficient independent considerations to make discrimination permissible. For example, how sensitive does Harold’s business need to be to allow him to discriminate? I believe this is counterintuitive, and indicates that the ethics of discrimination is more complicated than it might first appear and deserves further attention 6 .

Acknowledgements

Several people have given very helpful comments on the content of this text. For this I’d like to thank Alex Brian, Thomas Douglas, David Edmonds, Jeppe Egsgaard, Jacob Lagerros and Viking Waldén. Furthermore I’d like to thank Jeff McMahan, without whom this text would not have been written in the first place.

Alexander, Larry (1992) What Makes Wrongful Discrimination Wrong? Biases, Preferences, Stereotypes, and Proxies. University of Pennsylvania Law Review 141:1, pp. 149-219.

Buchanan, James & Stubblebine, Craig (1962) Externality. Economica 29:116, pp. 371-381.

Edmonds, David (2006) Caste Wars: A Philosophy of Discrimination. New York: Routledge.

Fricker, Miranda (2007) Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing. New York: Oxford University Press.

Hellman, Deborah (2008) When is Discrimination Wrong?. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Lippert-Rasmussen, Kasper (2014) Born Free and Equal? A Philosophical Inquiry Into the Nature of Discrimination. New York: Oxford University Press.

1. We might use the word ’discrimination’ as simply referring to different treatment based on some trait. I will reserve the term for this ‘problematic’ sense, requiring selection based on an irrelevant trait. I also believe this definition corresponds closely to how most people use the word.

2. What it means to be at the receiving end of structural oppression is a complicated question. Since this is not an account I intend to defend here I will simply assume whatever interpretation of it that is the most charitable.

3. Notice that this example is structurally similar to Hiring, in that both Harold and Pasha avoid treating some individuals based on an irrelevant trait. For this reason we should not object only to Alley as an example on the basis that Pasha does not ‘treat’ the inhabitants of alley A, because on that notion Harold does not ‘treat’ his applicants either.

4. Because fairness is a complicated and contested concept I believe it is wiser not to attempt to give a precise definition in this essay, at the risk of diverging from the main discussion. Instead I rely on the assumption that the reader sufficiently shares my intuitive conception of fairness.

5. Buchanan & Stubblebine (1962)

6. Due to the format of this essay it was not written with the intention to respond to previous literature on the topic. My arguments, I have later discovered, parallel some by Lippert—Rasmussen (2014) who also focuses on the harm of discrimination. Other important entries in the ethics of discrimination include Alexander (1992), Edmonds (2006), Fricker (2007) and Hellman (2008).