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Debora f.b. leite.
I Departamento de Ginecologia e Obstetricia, Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP, BR
II Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, PE, BR
III Hospital das Clinicas, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, PE, BR
Jose g. cecatti.
A sophisticated literature review (LR) can result in a robust dissertation/thesis by scrutinizing the main problem examined by the academic study; anticipating research hypotheses, methods and results; and maintaining the interest of the audience in how the dissertation/thesis will provide solutions for the current gaps in a particular field. Unfortunately, little guidance is available on elaborating LRs, and writing an LR chapter is not a linear process. An LR translates students’ abilities in information literacy, the language domain, and critical writing. Students in postgraduate programs should be systematically trained in these skills. Therefore, this paper discusses the purposes of LRs in dissertations and theses. Second, the paper considers five steps for developing a review: defining the main topic, searching the literature, analyzing the results, writing the review and reflecting on the writing. Ultimately, this study proposes a twelve-item LR checklist. By clearly stating the desired achievements, this checklist allows Masters and Ph.D. students to continuously assess their own progress in elaborating an LR. Institutions aiming to strengthen students’ necessary skills in critical academic writing should also use this tool.
Writing the literature review (LR) is often viewed as a difficult task that can be a point of writer’s block and procrastination ( 1 ) in postgraduate life. Disagreements on the definitions or classifications of LRs ( 2 ) may confuse students about their purpose and scope, as well as how to perform an LR. Interestingly, at many universities, the LR is still an important element in any academic work, despite the more recent trend of producing scientific articles rather than classical theses.
The LR is not an isolated section of the thesis/dissertation or a copy of the background section of a research proposal. It identifies the state-of-the-art knowledge in a particular field, clarifies information that is already known, elucidates implications of the problem being analyzed, links theory and practice ( 3 - 5 ), highlights gaps in the current literature, and places the dissertation/thesis within the research agenda of that field. Additionally, by writing the LR, postgraduate students will comprehend the structure of the subject and elaborate on their cognitive connections ( 3 ) while analyzing and synthesizing data with increasing maturity.
At the same time, the LR transforms the student and hints at the contents of other chapters for the reader. First, the LR explains the research question; second, it supports the hypothesis, objectives, and methods of the research project; and finally, it facilitates a description of the student’s interpretation of the results and his/her conclusions. For scholars, the LR is an introductory chapter ( 6 ). If it is well written, it demonstrates the student’s understanding of and maturity in a particular topic. A sound and sophisticated LR can indicate a robust dissertation/thesis.
A consensus on the best method to elaborate a dissertation/thesis has not been achieved. The LR can be a distinct chapter or included in different sections; it can be part of the introduction chapter, part of each research topic, or part of each published paper ( 7 ). However, scholars view the LR as an integral part of the main body of an academic work because it is intrinsically connected to other sections ( Figure 1 ) and is frequently present. The structure of the LR depends on the conventions of a particular discipline, the rules of the department, and the student’s and supervisor’s areas of expertise, needs and interests.
Interestingly, many postgraduate students choose to submit their LR to peer-reviewed journals. As LRs are critical evaluations of current knowledge, they are indeed publishable material, even in the form of narrative or systematic reviews. However, systematic reviews have specific patterns 1 ( 8 ) that may not entirely fit with the questions posed in the dissertation/thesis. Additionally, the scope of a systematic review may be too narrow, and the strict criteria for study inclusion may omit important information from the dissertation/thesis. Therefore, this essay discusses the definition of an LR is and methods to develop an LR in the context of an academic dissertation/thesis. Finally, we suggest a checklist to evaluate an LR.
Conducting research and writing a dissertation/thesis translates rational thinking and enthusiasm ( 9 ). While a strong body of literature that instructs students on research methodology, data analysis and writing scientific papers exists, little guidance on performing LRs is available. The LR is a unique opportunity to assess and contrast various arguments and theories, not just summarize them. The research results should not be discussed within the LR, but the postgraduate student tends to write a comprehensive LR while reflecting on his or her own findings ( 10 ).
Many people believe that writing an LR is a lonely and linear process. Supervisors or the institutions assume that the Ph.D. student has mastered the relevant techniques and vocabulary associated with his/her subject and conducts a self-reflection about previously published findings. Indeed, while elaborating the LR, the student should aggregate diverse skills, which mainly rely on his/her own commitment to mastering them. Thus, less supervision should be required ( 11 ). However, the parameters described above might not currently be the case for many students ( 11 , 12 ), and the lack of formal and systematic training on writing LRs is an important concern ( 11 ).
An institutional environment devoted to active learning will provide students the opportunity to continuously reflect on LRs, which will form a dialogue between the postgraduate student and the current literature in a particular field ( 13 ). Postgraduate students will be interpreting studies by other researchers, and, according to Hart (1998) ( 3 ), the outcomes of the LR in a dissertation/thesis include the following:
A sound LR translates the postgraduate student’s expertise in academic and scientific writing: it expresses his/her level of comfort with synthesizing ideas ( 11 ). The LR reveals how well the postgraduate student has proceeded in three domains: an effective literature search, the language domain, and critical writing.
All students should be trained in gathering appropriate data for specific purposes, and information literacy skills are a cornerstone. These skills are defined as “an individual’s ability to know when they need information, to identify information that can help them address the issue or problem at hand, and to locate, evaluate, and use that information effectively” ( 14 ). Librarian support is of vital importance in coaching the appropriate use of Boolean logic (AND, OR, NOT) and other tools for highly efficient literature searches (e.g., quotation marks and truncation), as is the appropriate management of electronic databases.
Academic writing must be concise and precise: unnecessary words distract the reader from the essential content ( 15 ). In this context, reading about issues distant from the research topic ( 16 ) may increase students’ general vocabulary and familiarity with grammar. Ultimately, reading diverse materials facilitates and encourages the writing process itself.
Critical judgment includes critical reading, thinking and writing. It supposes a student’s analytical reflection about what he/she has read. The student should delineate the basic elements of the topic, characterize the most relevant claims, identify relationships, and finally contrast those relationships ( 17 ). Each scientific document highlights the perspective of the author, and students will become more confident in judging the supporting evidence and underlying premises of a study and constructing their own counterargument as they read more articles. A paucity of integration or contradictory perspectives indicates lower levels of cognitive complexity ( 12 ).
Thus, while elaborating an LR, the postgraduate student should achieve the highest category of Bloom’s cognitive skills: evaluation ( 12 ). The writer should not only summarize data and understand each topic but also be able to make judgments based on objective criteria, compare resources and findings, identify discrepancies due to methodology, and construct his/her own argument ( 12 ). As a result, the student will be sufficiently confident to show his/her own voice .
Writing a consistent LR is an intense and complex activity that reveals the training and long-lasting academic skills of a writer. It is not a lonely or linear process. However, students are unlikely to be prepared to write an LR if they have not mastered the aforementioned domains ( 10 ). An institutional environment that supports student learning is crucial.
Different institutions employ distinct methods to promote students’ learning processes. First, many universities propose modules to develop behind the scenes activities that enhance self-reflection about general skills (e.g., the skills we have mastered and the skills we need to develop further), behaviors that should be incorporated (e.g., self-criticism about one’s own thoughts), and each student’s role in the advancement of his/her field. Lectures or workshops about LRs themselves are useful because they describe the purposes of the LR and how it fits into the whole picture of a student’s work. These activities may explain what type of discussion an LR must involve, the importance of defining the correct scope, the reasons to include a particular resource, and the main role of critical reading.
Some pedagogic services that promote a continuous improvement in study and academic skills are equally important. Examples include workshops about time management, the accomplishment of personal objectives, active learning, and foreign languages for nonnative speakers. Additionally, opportunities to converse with other students promotes an awareness of others’ experiences and difficulties. Ultimately, the supervisor’s role in providing feedback and setting deadlines is crucial in developing students’ abilities and in strengthening students’ writing quality ( 12 ).
A consensus on the appropriate method for elaborating an LR is not available, but four main steps are generally accepted: defining the main topic, searching the literature, analyzing the results, and writing ( 6 ). We suggest a fifth step: reflecting on the information that has been written in previous publications ( Figure 2 ).
Planning an LR is directly linked to the research main question of the thesis and occurs in parallel to students’ training in the three domains discussed above. The planning stage helps organize ideas, delimit the scope of the LR ( 11 ), and avoid the wasting of time in the process. Planning includes the following steps:
The ability to gather adequate information from the literature must be addressed in postgraduate programs. Librarian support is important, particularly for accessing difficult texts. This step comprises the following components:
In addition, two other approaches are suggested. First, a review of the reference list of each document might be useful for identifying relevant publications to be included and important opinions to be assessed. This step is also relevant for referencing the original studies and leading authors in that field. Moreover, students can directly contact the experts on a particular topic to consult with them regarding their experience or use them as a source of additional unpublished documents.
Before submitting a dissertation/thesis, the electronic search strategy should be repeated. This process will ensure that the most recently published papers will be considered in the LR.
This task is an important exercise in time management. First, students should read the title and abstract to understand whether that document suits their purposes, addresses the research question, and helps develop the topic of interest. Then, they should scan the full text, determine how it is structured, group it with similar documents, and verify whether other arguments might be considered ( 5 ).
Critical reading and thinking skills are important in this step. This step consists of the following components:
The recognition of when a student is able and ready to write after a sufficient period of reading and thinking is likely a difficult task. Some students can produce a review in a single long work session. However, as discussed above, writing is not a linear process, and students do not need to write LRs according to a specific sequence of sections. Writing an LR is a time-consuming task, and some scholars believe that a period of at least six months is sufficient ( 6 ). An LR, and academic writing in general, expresses the writer’s proper thoughts, conclusions about others’ work ( 6 , 10 , 13 , 16 ), and decisions about methods to progress in the chosen field of knowledge. Thus, each student is expected to present a different learning and writing trajectory.
In this step, writing methods should be considered; then, editing, citing and correct referencing should complete this stage, at least temporarily. Freewriting techniques may be a good starting point for brainstorming ideas and improving the understanding of the information that has been read ( 1 ). Students should consider the following parameters when creating an agenda for writing the LR: two-hour writing blocks (at minimum), with prespecified tasks that are possible to complete in one section; short (minutes) and long breaks (days or weeks) to allow sufficient time for mental rest and reflection; and short- and long-term goals to motivate the writing itself ( 20 ). With increasing experience, this scheme can vary widely, and it is not a straightforward rule. Importantly, each discipline has a different way of writing ( 1 ), and each department has its own preferred styles for citations and references.
In this step, the postgraduate student should ask him/herself the same questions as in the analyzing the results step, which can take more time than anticipated. Ambiguities, repeated ideas, and a lack of coherence may not be noted when the student is immersed in the writing task for long periods. The whole effort will likely be a work in progress, and continuous refinements in the written material will occur once the writing process has begun.
In contrast to review papers, the LR of a dissertation/thesis should not be a standalone piece or work. Instead, it should present the student as a scholar and should maintain the interest of the audience in how that dissertation/thesis will provide solutions for the current gaps in a particular field.
A checklist for evaluating an LR is convenient for students’ continuous academic development and research transparency: it clearly states the desired achievements for the LR of a dissertation/thesis. Here, we present an LR checklist developed from an LR scoring rubric ( 11 ). For a critical analysis of an LR, we maintain the five categories but offer twelve criteria that are not scaled ( Figure 3 ). The criteria all have the same importance and are not mutually exclusive.
1. justified criteria exist for the inclusion and exclusion of literature in the review.
This criterion builds on the main topic and areas covered by the LR ( 18 ). While experts may be confident in retrieving and selecting literature, postgraduate students must convince their audience about the adequacy of their search strategy and their reasons for intentionally selecting what material to cover ( 11 ). References from different fields of knowledge provide distinct perspective, but narrowing the scope of coverage may be important in areas with a large body of existing knowledge.
2. a critical examination of the state of the field exists.
A critical examination is an assessment of distinct aspects in the field ( 1 ) along with a constructive argument. It is not a negative critique but an expression of the student’s understanding of how other scholars have added to the topic ( 1 ), and the student should analyze and contextualize contradictory statements. A writer’s personal bias (beliefs or political involvement) have been shown to influence the structure and writing of a document; therefore, the cultural and paradigmatic background guide how the theories are revised and presented ( 13 ). However, an honest judgment is important when considering different perspectives.
The broader scholarly literature should be related to the chosen main topic for the LR ( how to develop the literature review section). The LR can cover the literature from one or more disciplines, depending on its scope, but it should always offer a new perspective. In addition, students should be careful in citing and referencing previous publications. As a rule, original studies and primary references should generally be included. Systematic and narrative reviews present summarized data, and it may be important to cite them, particularly for issues that should be understood but do not require a detailed description. Similarly, quotations highlight the exact statement from another publication. However, excessive referencing may disclose lower levels of analysis and synthesis by the student.
Situating the LR in its historical context shows the level of comfort of the student in addressing a particular topic. Instead of only presenting statements and theories in a temporal approach, which occasionally follows a linear timeline, the LR should authentically characterize the student’s academic work in the state-of-art techniques in their particular field of knowledge. Thus, the LR should reinforce why the dissertation/thesis represents original work in the chosen research field.
Distinct theories on the same topic may exist in different disciplines, and one discipline may consider multiple concepts to explain one topic. These misunderstandings should be addressed and contemplated. The LR should not synthesize all theories or concepts at the same time. Although this approach might demonstrate in-depth reading on a particular topic, it can reveal a student’s inability to comprehend and synthesize his/her research problem.
The LR is a unique opportunity to articulate ideas and arguments and to purpose new relationships between them ( 10 , 11 ). More importantly, a sound LR will outline to the audience how these important variables and phenomena will be addressed in the current academic work. Indeed, the LR should build a bidirectional link with the remaining sections and ground the connections between all of the sections ( Figure 1 ).
The LR is a ‘creative inquiry’ ( 13 ) in which the student elaborates his/her own discourse, builds on previous knowledge in the field, and describes his/her own perspective while interpreting others’ work ( 13 , 17 ). Thus, students should articulate the current knowledge, not accept the results at face value ( 11 , 13 , 17 ), and improve their own cognitive abilities ( 12 ).
8. the main methodologies and research techniques that have been used in the field are identified and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed.
The LR is expected to distinguish the research that has been completed from investigations that remain to be performed, address the benefits and limitations of the main methods applied to date, and consider the strategies for addressing the expected limitations described above. While placing his/her research within the methodological context of a particular topic, the LR will justify the methodology of the study and substantiate the student’s interpretations.
The audience expects the writer to analyze and synthesize methodological approaches in the field. The findings should be explained according to the strengths and limitations of previous research methods, and students must avoid interpretations that are not supported by the analyzed literature. This criterion translates to the student’s comprehension of the applicability and types of answers provided by different research methodologies, even those using a quantitative or qualitative research approach.
10. the scholarly significance of the research problem is rationalized.
The LR is an introductory section of a dissertation/thesis and will present the postgraduate student as a scholar in a particular field ( 11 ). Therefore, the LR should discuss how the research problem is currently addressed in the discipline being investigated or in different disciplines, depending on the scope of the LR. The LR explains the academic paradigms in the topic of interest ( 13 ) and methods to advance the field from these starting points. However, an excess number of personal citations—whether referencing the student’s research or studies by his/her research team—may reflect a narrow literature search and a lack of comprehensive synthesis of ideas and arguments.
The practical significance indicates a student’s comprehensive understanding of research terminology (e.g., risk versus associated factor), methodology (e.g., efficacy versus effectiveness) and plausible interpretations in the context of the field. Notably, the academic argument about a topic may not always reflect the debate in real life terms. For example, using a quantitative approach in epidemiology, statistically significant differences between groups do not explain all of the factors involved in a particular problem ( 21 ). Therefore, excessive faith in p -values may reflect lower levels of critical evaluation of the context and implications of a research problem by the student.
12. the lr was written with a coherent, clear structure that supported the review.
This category strictly relates to the language domain: the text should be coherent and presented in a logical sequence, regardless of which organizational ( 18 ) approach is chosen. The beginning of each section/subsection should state what themes will be addressed, paragraphs should be carefully linked to each other ( 10 ), and the first sentence of each paragraph should generally summarize the content. Additionally, the student’s statements are clear, sound, and linked to other scholars’ works, and precise and concise language that follows standardized writing conventions (e.g., in terms of active/passive voice and verb tenses) is used. Attention to grammar, such as orthography and punctuation, indicates prudence and supports a robust dissertation/thesis. Ultimately, all of these strategies provide fluency and consistency for the text.
Although the scoring rubric was initially proposed for postgraduate programs in education research, we are convinced that this checklist is a valuable tool for all academic areas. It enables the monitoring of students’ learning curves and a concentrated effort on any criteria that are not yet achieved. For institutions, the checklist is a guide to support supervisors’ feedback, improve students’ writing skills, and highlight the learning goals of each program. These criteria do not form a linear sequence, but ideally, all twelve achievements should be perceived in the LR.
A single correct method to classify, evaluate and guide the elaboration of an LR has not been established. In this essay, we have suggested directions for planning, structuring and critically evaluating an LR. The planning of the scope of an LR and approaches to complete it is a valuable effort, and the five steps represent a rational starting point. An institutional environment devoted to active learning will support students in continuously reflecting on LRs, which will form a dialogue between the writer and the current literature in a particular field ( 13 ).
The completion of an LR is a challenging and necessary process for understanding one’s own field of expertise. Knowledge is always transitory, but our responsibility as scholars is to provide a critical contribution to our field, allowing others to think through our work. Good researchers are grounded in sophisticated LRs, which reveal a writer’s training and long-lasting academic skills. We recommend using the LR checklist as a tool for strengthening the skills necessary for critical academic writing.
Leite DFB has initially conceived the idea and has written the first draft of this review. Padilha MAS and Cecatti JG have supervised data interpretation and critically reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read the draft and agreed with this submission. Authors are responsible for all aspects of this academic piece.
We are grateful to all of the professors of the ‘Getting Started with Graduate Research and Generic Skills’ module at University College Cork, Cork, Ireland, for suggesting and supporting this article. Funding: DFBL has granted scholarship from Brazilian Federal Agency for Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education (CAPES) to take part of her Ph.D. studies in Ireland (process number 88881.134512/2016-01). There is no participation from sponsors on authors’ decision to write or to submit this manuscript.
No potential conflict of interest was reported.
1 The questions posed in systematic reviews usually follow the ‘PICOS’ acronym: Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, Study design.
2 In 1988, Cooper proposed a taxonomy that aims to facilitate students’ and institutions’ understanding of literature reviews. Six characteristics with specific categories are briefly described: Focus: research outcomes, research methodologies, theories, or practices and applications; Goals: integration (generalization, conflict resolution, and linguistic bridge-building), criticism, or identification of central issues; Perspective: neutral representation or espousal of a position; Coverage: exhaustive, exhaustive with selective citations, representative, central or pivotal; Organization: historical, conceptual, or methodological; and Audience: specialized scholars, general scholars, practitioners or policymakers, or the general public.
What are literature reviews.
A literature review provides an overview of a topic, and is something most of you have encountered at one time or another. It is usually an article, or a section of an article,* that compiles and summarizes published materials (books, articles, etc.) which provide an examination of recent or current literature on a chosen topic.
Review articles can cover a wide range of subject matter at various levels of completeness and comprehensiveness based on analyses of literature that may include research findings. The review may reflect the state of the art. It also includes reviews as a literary form.
As a publication type, it is an article or book published after examination of previously published material on a subject. It may be comprehensive to various degrees, and the time range of material scrutinized may be broad or narrow, although the reviews most often desired are reviews of the current literature. The textual material examined may be equally broad and can encompass, in medicine specifically, clinical material as well as experimental research or case reports.
State-of-the-art reviews tend to address more current matters. A review of the literature must be differentiated from a HISTORICAL ARTICLE on the same subject, but a review of historical literature is also within the scope of this publication type.
* Lit reviews aren't always obviously labeled "literature review"; they may be embedded within sections such as the introduction or background.
A systematic review attempts to collate all empirical evidence that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria in order to answer a specific research question. It uses explicit, systematic methods that are selected with a view to minimizing bias, thus providing more reliable findings from which conclusions can be drawn and decisions made (Antman 1992, Oxman 1993).
The key characteristics of a systematic review are:
From Cochrane Handbook, 1.2.2
Many, but not all, systematic reviews contain meta-analyses. Meta-analysis is the use of statistical methods to summarise the results of independent studies. By combining information from all relevant studies, meta-analyses can provide more precise estimates of the effects of health care than those derived from the individual studies included within a review. Meta-analyses also facilitate investigations of the consistency of evidence across studies, and the exploration of differences across studies ( Cochrane Handbook, 1.2.2 ). More information on meta-analyses can be found in Cochrane Handbook, Chapter 9 .
A meta-analysis goes beyond critique and integration and conducts secondary statistical analyses on the outcomes of similar studies. It is a systematic review that uses quantitative methods to synthesize and summarize the results.
An advantage of a meta-analysis is the ability to be completely objective in evaluating research findings. Not all topics, however, have sufficient research evidence to allow a meta-analysis to be conducted. In that case, an integrative review is an appropriate strategy.
An integrative review summarizes past research and draws overall conclusions from the body of literature on a particular topic. The body of literature comprises all studies that address related or identical hypotheses. In a properly executed integrative review, the effects of subjectivity are minimized through carefully applied criteria for evaluation. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor and replication.
"In general, scoping reviews are commonly used for ‘reconnaissance’ – to clarify working definitions and conceptual boundaries of a topic or field. Scoping reviews are therefore particularly useful when a body of literature has not yet been comprehensively reviewed, or exhibits a complex or heterogeneous nature not amenable to a more precise systematic review of the evidence. While scoping reviews may be conducted to determine the value and probable scope of a full systematic review, they may also be undertaken as exercises in and of themselves to summarize and disseminate research findings, to identify research gaps, and to make recommendations for the future research."
From Peters, MD, Godfrey, CM, Khalil, H, McInerney, P, Parker, D & Soares, CB 2015, 'Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews', International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 141-146 :
A rapid review is an assessment of what is already known about a policy or practice issue, by using systematic review methods to search and critically appraise existing research. "Rapid reviews have emerged as a streamlined approach to synthesizing evidence in a timely manner -typically for the purpose of informing emergent decisions faced by decision makers in health care settings."
Khangura, S, Konnyu, K, Cushman, R, Grimshaw, J & Moher, D 2012, 'Evidence summaries: The evolution of a rapid review approach', Systematic Reviews, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 10.
An umbrella review is a synthesis of existing reviews, only including the highest level of evidence such as systematic reviews and meta-analyes. It specifically refers to review compiling evidence from multiple reviews into one accessible and usable document. Umbrella reviews focuses on broad condition or problem for which there are competing interventions and highlights reviews that address these interventions and their result.
Methodology paper: Aromataris, E, Fernandez, R, Godfrey, CM, Holly, C, Khalil, H & Tungpunkom, P 2015, 'Summarizing systematic reviews: Methodological development, conduct and reporting of an umbrella review approach', Int J Evid Based Healthc , vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 132-140
A systematized review attempts to include elements of the systematic review process while stopping short of the systematic review. Systematized reviews are typically conducted as a postgraduate student assignment, in recognition that they are not able to draw upon the resources required for a full systematic review (such as two reviewers).
Special Thanks to Dr. Julie Sarpy, PhD, MSLS, MA, AHIP, for permission to reuse content from her Medical Sciences guide . Dr. Sarpy is a Reference and Instruction Librarian at the Martin and Gail Press Health Professions Division Library, and a Liaison to the Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Allopathic Medicine, as well as an Adjunct Assistant Professor with the Department of Medical Education at the Dr. Kiran C. Patel College of Osteopathic Medicine at Nova Southeastern University in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida.
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Speaker 1: Performing a literature review is an important step in conducting research, as it allows you to gain a comprehensive understanding of the existing literature on a topic. So hi, I'm Charlotte Vreese, a third-year PhD student in computational neuroscience, and today I want to talk about my literature review workflow. So I have had to read a lot of papers over the last few years, and to keep a comprehensive book or a comprehensive system that allows you to synthesize all these papers is actually quite difficult, and I think I've finally kind of got there. So I want to introduce you to my system such that you may also benefit from it and hopefully read a lot more papers for your PhD or if you're a student for your research work. So let's get straight into it. So there are six steps that I want to introduce you to, and the first one is to define your research question clearly. I think if you dive into research without having a clear research question, it's actually really overwhelming the amount of research that you will find and the amount of papers that you will find. So usually it's quite good to already know beforehand what kind of research question you would like to dive into. So for example, today we're going to take the example of the Bayesian brain. So if you want to learn more about the Bayesian brain, your research question could be, for example, what is the Bayesian brain, what does it mean, how does it work, etc. So the second step is to find a good review and find the accompanying relevant research on Scopus. So I personally like Scopus the most, as I think it's the most comprehensive knowledge bank right now on the internet. But there are a few other knowledge banks that I will list down below, and on these type of websites you can find relevant books, articles, and reviews. But the thing I like most about Scopus is that you can also list the articles based on highest citation, for example. The authors that wrote it, when it was written, and I find it pretty intuitive how the paper system is structured. Whereas for example on Google Scholar, even though I sometimes do use it, it is sometimes a little bit a black box how they organized the papers. So in Scopus usually the first thing I do if I'm new to a topic, I find a review. So you can just google like what I'm doing right now, so Bayesian brain review, and then you search. And usually I list it by the highest citations, if I don't know that much about the field yet. But this does mean that newer articles go more to the bottom. And then for example this one, a Bayesian brain, the role of uncertainty in neural coding and computing. So I would probably select this one, and then try to find the paper. And another thing that I do like to do is that I do like to see in the field which authors have published the most. So this you can do on Scopus, you can see which authors have published the most. So for example for the Bayesian brain, Carl Fristen has published a lot, which I also already knew. But if you're new to computational neuroscience, look up Carl Fristen, he has done some amazing work. And I think by also looking at the authors, then you also know which people you should follow, which are the most contributing authors in this field. So then the next thing that I do after I have found the articles that I like, and that I want to read a little bit more, then I usually import them in Zotero and start highlighting and reading in Zotero. So the thing you want to do with highlighting and reading is that you want to look for patterns, you want to think of questions, you want to see what kind of open gaps or gaps in the literature there are. And I have made a video about how I usually go through certain scientific articles that you can find right here. So for example if I have this paper that I want to read, so for example in this case predictive coding, an account of the mirror neuron system, then I click on the add-on from Zotero and you can select here the map that you want to save it to. So usually I have for every paper that I'm writing, for every topic that I'm researching, and usually also nowadays for YouTube videos, I have a separate map on my Zotero that I link all the articles to. So I save it automatically in this way to this map. And what you can then see in Zotero is that all your papers are listed here. It usually also automatically downloads PDF, which I really like, if it's available. If it's not available you sometimes have to add it. And then the thing that I do is I go over the paper and highlight all the parts that I find interesting and that I want to reference. So this for me is really where I do my rough reading, where I do my first reading, and also where I collect all my papers. So I highly encourage you to make different folders for different projects that you have, because I think at the end of your PhD you will have probably read over 200 papers. And if you just all have them at the same place, like what I did at the beginning, it becomes really unstructured super fast. So then the fourth step that I do is I open Research Rabbit and I import my Zotero into Research Rabbit. So the thing that I like about Research Rabbit, you can see it here. So for example, these are papers that I read in 2022. This is a map I make. And for example, here's the history and future of the Bayesian brain. And then you can look for similar works. So you have here all the similar works. And the thing I like about it is that you have this kind of graph-like structure. So you can really see what important notes are. So for example, Karl Friston wrote a really important paper, Lily Crabbe, and also these others. And I think by looking at it this way, I usually uncover the key papers in certain research areas or certain topics, which sometimes is a bit hard to see if you are just listing the papers in Zotero. So for me, this is really a good way to get a visual overview of all the material that has been written in the field. So the next thing I do is I organize it in Notion. So all the highlights that I've made, all the things that I've thought about, it usually can be synthesized down into one question. For example, one statement, one main fact that I want to remember. And usually I put this in the project that I'm thinking about. So I've made a video already about how I use Notion as my second brain. And I really think having all the main or key points of every article in one place, for me at least, is really beneficial. And I do know sometimes this is a little bit of a hassle to transfer this. So I have thought about like an automatic transfer, but I'm not still super satisfied about it. So if you have a way that you automatically link your Zotero to your Notion, let me know in the comments down below. And the last step, step six, is to really synthesize the literature into your own review. And this is not something that I always do, but sometimes your professor asks you, for example, to write a review paper, or you have to write a certain part of a review for an article or a course you're following. And I think actually this part is the most interesting, because acquiring all the knowledge, although it takes some skill, it's not really an inherent ability. But actually thinking about the knowledge, really interpreting it, seeing where the gaps lie, thinking of your own questions, is where it becomes really interesting. So if you want to know how I do it, let me know down in the comments. But I do think in general, just thinking about it for a moment and sitting down and writing your thoughts down after you've read all the literature already will take you quite far. So of course doing a full literature review is a really time-consuming process, and I also realize that. But I do think it's a key part of your PhD that I also sometimes forget about, because when you're doing research and when you're thinking about thoughts and everything, you sometimes forget that there's already so much knowledge that has been written about a certain topic. So I hope that my tips helped you a little bit, and that my workflow will speed up your process of doing this quite tedious work sometimes. And let me know if you have any tips for me, I would love to hear. So put it down in the comments below, and otherwise see you next week. Bye.
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Feasible solutions for low-carbon thermal electricity generation and utilization in oil-rich developing countries: a literature review.
2. study selection methodology, 2.1. identification phase: databases, search terms definition, 2.2. screening phase: inclusion and exclusion criteria definition, article’s abstract review, 2.3. eligibility and inclusion phase: comprehensive full-text review for assessing studies, 2.4. synthesis phase: bibliometric analysis of included literature, 3. results and discussions, 3.1. oil-rich developing countries, 3.2. low-carbon technologies for thermal generation, 3.2.1. biomass co-firing and its integration with existing infrastructure, 3.2.2. hydrogen as a fuel for high-efficiency gas turbines, 3.2.3. geothermal hybrid systems for base load power generation, 3.2.4. advanced thermal energy storage solutions, 3.3. successful case studies implementation perspectives for oil-rich regions, 3.3.1. lessons from the middle east: pioneering low-carbon initiatives in oil-dependent economies, 3.3.2. transitioning national grids: the role of clean thermal power in africa’s oil-producing nations, 3.3.3. public-private partnerships in latin america: leveraging oil revenues for sustainable energy, 3.3.4. overcoming socioeconomic barriers: community engagement and low-carbon technology adoption, 3.3.5. economic barriers and solutions for community engagement in low-carbon technology adoption, 3.4. current regulatory framework, 3.4.1. comparative analysis of carbon pricing mechanisms and their impact on thermal generation, 3.4.2. regulatory innovation: creating incentives for hybrid thermal systems, 3.4.3. evaluating the effectiveness of renewable portfolio standards in promoting low-carbon thermal technologies, 3.4.4. future-proofing regulations: adapting policies for emerging low-carbon technologies, 3.4.5. economic considerations for future-proofing regulations in emerging low-carbon technologies, 3.5. technological innovations and trends, 3.5.1. digital twins and predictive analytics in thermal power plants, 3.5.2. the rise of ai-driven energy management systems for thermal generation, 3.5.3. advanced materials for enhanced thermal efficiency, 3.5.4. trends in modular thermal generation units for decentralized energy systems, 3.5.5. financial viability of modular thermal generation units in decentralized energy systems, 3.5.6. barriers to investment in low-carbon thermal technologies in ordcs, 4. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest, appendix a. prisma 2020 flowchart of the literature review process.
Click here to enlarge figure
Database | Query String | N° of Returned Documents | Removal of Duplicates | Final Sample for Screening Phase |
---|---|---|---|---|
Scopus | TITLE-ABS-KEY (“low carbon” AND “electricity” AND (“biogas” OR “biofuels” OR “biomass” OR “hydrogen” OR “geothermal”)) AND PUBYEAR > 2013 AND PUBYEAR < 2025 AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ar”)) | 935 | 19 | 916 |
Web of Science | ALL = (“low carbon” AND “electricity” AND “thermal ”AND “renewable”) Publication Years: 2024 or 2023 or 2022 or 2021 or 2020 or 2019 or 2018 or 2017 or 2016 or 2015 or 2014; Document Types: Article | 309 | 63 | 246 |
1244 | 82 | 1162 |
Criterion | Inclusion | Exclusion |
---|---|---|
Articles from peer-reviewed journals | Conference proceedings, editorial notes, review papers, book chapters, theses, white papers, and other non-peer-reviewed materials | |
Publications in English | Publications in languages other than English | |
Research articles published within the timeframe of 2014 to 2024 | Research articles published before 2014 | |
Articles accessible in full text through institutional subscriptions or as open access | Articles that lack full-text accessibility | |
Studies concentrating on low-carbon thermal electricity generation and utilization that are technologically advanced and economically feasible for oil-rich developing countries, particularly those discussing the integration of clean thermal technologies like biogas, biofuels, biomass, hydrogen, and geothermal energy. | Studies that do not focus on low-carbon thermal electricity generation or fail to address technological and economic aspects relevant to oil-rich developing countries. Additionally, articles that solely explore non-thermal renewable energy technologies without discussing their integration into thermal systems are excluded. |
N° | Criterion | Description and Evaluation Metrics |
---|---|---|
1 | Relevance to Study Goals | How well the study addresses the integration of clean thermal technologies for low-carbon electricity generation in oil-rich developing countries. (1: Peripheral, 2: Related, 3: Highly Relevant) |
2 | Methodological Soundness | The appropriateness and robustness of the research methodology used. (1: Needs Improvement, 2: Acceptable, 3: Strong) |
3 | Originality and Contribution | The originality and significance of the study’s contributions to the field. (1: Minor, 2: Substantial, 3: Major) |
4 | Data Quality and Reliability | The quality and reliability of the data presented in the study. (1: Satisfactory, 2: Good, 3: Excellent) |
5 | Practical Applicability | The potential for practical application of the study’s findings in real-world scenarios. (1: Limited, 2: Useful, 3: Highly Applicable) |
6 | Technological Maturity and Economic Attractiveness for Oil-rich developing countries | The extent to which the study offers solutions that are technologically mature and economically viable for oil-rich developing countries. (1: Developing, 2: Promising, 3: Established) |
Low-Carbon Technology | Challenges | Opportunities | Policy Recommendations | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Biomass Co-firing | High upfront costs, emissions control, infrastructure retrofitting | Utilizes agricultural waste, reduces fossil fuel dependence | Subsidies for retrofitting existing infrastructure; incentives for agricultural waste management | [ , , , , , ] |
Hydrogen for Gas Turbines | Requires infrastructure expansion, expensive hydrogen storage | Zero direct CO emissions, decarbonizes high energy industries | Investments in hydrogen infrastructure and storage technologies, support for R&D | [ , , , , , , , , ] |
Geothermal Hybrid Systems | High capital cost, site-specific resource dependency | Stable base load power, suitable for resource-rich regions | Geothermal exploration grants, financial incentives for infrastructure development | [ , , , , , , , , , ] |
Thermal Energy Storage (TES) | High implementation costs, integration challenges with renewables | Enhances flexibility, supports renewable energy integration | Policies promoting energy storage systems, tax breaks for TES projects | [ , , , , , , , , , ] |
Modular Thermal Generation Units | High initial capital investment, rural deployment challenges | Suitable for decentralized and off-grid areas, flexible | Support for decentralized systems, public-private partnerships, rural energy development programs | [ , , , , , , , ] |
Digital Twins and Predictive Analytics | High cost of digital infrastructure, requires technical expertise | Improves operational efficiency, reduces emissions | Grants for digital infrastructure in power plants, incentives for AI, and predictive analytics | [ , , , , ] |
AI-Driven Energy Management | Expensive implementation, need for technical expertise | Optimizes energy generation and integration with renewables | Research grants for AI-driven energy management systems, subsidies for implementation | [ , , , , , ] |
Advanced Materials for Thermal Efficiency | High production costs, complex integration with existing systems | Enhances efficiency, reduces emissions, and extends equipment lifespan | Financial support for adopting advanced materials, R&D tax credits | [ , , , , ] |
Technology | Market Size (2023) | Projected Market Size | CAGR | Year Range |
---|---|---|---|---|
Biogas | USD 89 billion | N/A | 4.2% | 2024–2032 |
Biofuels | USD 110 billion (2021) | N/A | 9.6% (Middle East and Africa), 4% (Europe and Latin America) | 2021–2030 |
Biomass Co-firing | USD 133.97 billion | N/A | 6.3% | 2024–2030 |
Hydrogen | USD 242.7 billion | USD 410.6 billion | 7.8% | 2023–2030 |
Geothermal Energy | USD 6.6 billion | USD 9.4 billion | 5.9% | 2022–2027 |
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Ochoa-Correa, D.; Arévalo, P.; Villa-Ávila, E.; Espinoza, J.L.; Jurado, F. Feasible Solutions for Low-Carbon Thermal Electricity Generation and Utilization in Oil-Rich Developing Countries: A Literature Review. Fire 2024 , 7 , 344. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7100344
Ochoa-Correa D, Arévalo P, Villa-Ávila E, Espinoza JL, Jurado F. Feasible Solutions for Low-Carbon Thermal Electricity Generation and Utilization in Oil-Rich Developing Countries: A Literature Review. Fire . 2024; 7(10):344. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7100344
Ochoa-Correa, Danny, Paul Arévalo, Edisson Villa-Ávila, Juan L. Espinoza, and Francisco Jurado. 2024. "Feasible Solutions for Low-Carbon Thermal Electricity Generation and Utilization in Oil-Rich Developing Countries: A Literature Review" Fire 7, no. 10: 344. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7100344
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The integration of ICT in education in developing countries has become a significant focus in various ODA projects and educational research. With the increasing demand for teachers to incorporate ICT in their classrooms, the precise methods for effectively integrating ICT resources have not been thoroughly explored. Therefore, this research aimed to develop the most optimal instructional design principles that may systematically guide teachers in planning their lessons using ICT, specifically in the context of Bangladesh. By employing the design and development research method , this research developed an initial set of instructional design principles based on literature review and field research, then elaborated on the principles through three sets of internal validation tests and a usability test by conducting in-depth interviews to confirm the applicability of the principles in real classroom settings in Bangladesh. The final version of instructional design principles is composed of five components, ten principles, and 22 specific guidelines. Two distinct features of the principles are discussed for further research. In discussion, this research underscores the necessity of providing practical instructional design principles to guide teachers in effectively utilizing ICT, particularly within a resource-limited learning environment like Bangladesh.
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Since the Education For All (EFA) movements in 2000, there has been a growing consensus that Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Footnote 1 will enrich teaching and learning environments. It is believed that ICT holds the transformative power to enhance the quality of education by providing opportunities for contextualized learning and thereby improving students’ achievement and teachers’ motivation (Hussain et al., 2017 ; Kalolo, 2019 ; Qaddumi et al., 2020 ; Tashtoush et al., 2023 ; Zhao & Chen, 2023 ). Consequently, many developing countries have increasingly integrated ICT into their education systems.
The impact of ICT in education, however, is not uniform and depends on various factors, notably the pedagogical use of ICT by teachers (Dong & Newman, 2018 ; Sarfo & Elen, 2014 ; Sawyerr & Agyei, 2023 ). This highlights that the effective ICT integration is fundamentally linked to a pedagogy-centric approach, emphasizing the necessity for a clear rationale in employing technology to support teaching and learning objectives. However, current teacher education programs in many developing countries often offer basic technology courses or a one-size-fits-all approach that are irrelevant to teachers’ specific subjects and pedagogical needs (Kalogiannakis, 2010 ; Koehler et al., 2013 ).
In Bangladesh, a Least Developed Countries (LDC) in South Asia, efforts to promote ICT use in education have been made since 2010 by supporting teachers to learn digital skills and forcing them to utilize ICT materials in their classrooms. The Government of Bangladesh has provided one laptop, and one multimedia projector to every secondary school, and developing of teacher-led multimedia contents, so that teachers and students are using the ICT to discuss difficult-to-teach and difficult-to-learn contents (Khanam et al., 2013 ). As of the latest data, currently 73.39% of institutions are equipped with multimedia classroom with higher prevalence in secondary schools (84.69%) compared to junior schools (24.53%) (BANBEIS, 2022 ). Despite these efforts, ICT teacher training programs in Bangladesh largely overlook pedagogical principles, essential for effective ICT application in classroom (Khan, 2014 ). As a result, majority of the classroom practices with ICT remain traditional and teacher-centered even after training (Babu & Nath, 2017 ; Lim et al., 2020 ).
The mismatch between the current ICT training contents and its applicability in teachers’ pedagogy has led to the superficial adoption of ICT tools without substantive changes in pedagogical methods (Suárez-Rodríguez et al., 2018 ). Nevertheless, previous research regarding teachers’ use of ICT in education in developing countries mainly focused on barriers to use ICT (Alkhawaldeh & Menchaca, 2014 ; Khan et al., 2012 ; Rahiem, 2020 ), teachers’ attitude toward use of ICT (Alvarado et al., 2020 ; Mirzajani et al., 2016 ; Semerci & Aydin, 2018 ) or expected impact of using ICT (Kalolo, 2019 ; Tashtoush et al., 2023 ).
In response to these gaps, this research aims to broaden the discourse on ICT in education by focusing on instructional design for its use. Research on the “instructional design principles” for integrating ICT in education is a timely and highly necessary topic, especially within the developing countries. “Instructional design” offers a systematic approach to lesson planning with ICT and the creation of an optimal class activity blueprint, alongside the formulation of instructional strategies aimed at enhancing teaching and learning efficacy (Lim, 1996 ). Thus this research aims to develop instructional design principles that bridge the gap between ICT tools and effective pedagogical practices, specifically within the context of developing countries. Using a case study from secondary schools in Bangladesh, this research seeks to answer two key questions:
What are the optimal instructional design principles for ICT application in secondary education in Bangladesh?
What factors should be considered when developing the instructional design principles in the context of developing countries?
Contextual background: ict in education in bangladesh.
The Government of Bangladesh (GOB) put much effort in modernizing and revolutionizing the education system through ICT, promoting technology-based teaching and learning as a strategic lever to achieve Bangladesh’s Vision 2021 (Ministry of Education, 2019 ). Since “Digital Bangladesh” was announced in 2009, the GOB came up with the National ICT Policy ( 2009 ) to maximize the use of ICT for national development. In order to implement a more detailed plan to accelerate ICT implementation in education, the Master Plan for ICT in Education in Bangladesh was drawn in 2013. For the secondary level of education, this plan aimed to raise education quality by creating an ICT-enabled teaching–learning environment, thereby raising learners as skilled human resource for the twenty-first century knowledge-oriented society.
Based on those policies and the master plan for leveraging ICT in education, the Ministry of Education (MOE) of Bangladesh is providing ICT training for at least one teacher in each school that has a multimedia classroom (ADB, 2017 ). Teachers are required to receive 12 days of training, in which they learn to develop and present digital contents Footnote 2 and use internet materials to explain difficult concepts with the help of text, images and animations on PowerPoint Presentation (Ropum et al., 2022 ). For example, in the “digital content development” session, teachers learn to develop their own digital content mainly using PowerPoint presentation and demonstrate their PPT slides at the end of the class (Table 1 ).
However, Bangladeshi schools still lack teachers with professional training in integrating ICT in education (GED, 2018 ), and many teachers in Bangladesh, do not integrate ICT into their pedagogy in a meaningful way (Mou, 2016 ). Some argue that the teacher education program teaches ICT knowledge & skills in an isolated manner, by leaving the integration with the subject studies courses, and the ICT-related course are packed with theoretical knowledge rather than practical-oriented teaching and learning activities (Islam et al., 2023 ). ICT is sometimes used excessively during the teacher training course due to lack of TPACK skills within both trainers and teachers (Ropum et al., 2021 ), or incompetency to handle digital tools and to identify proper tools for appropriate pedagogical purposes (Hossain, 2023 ). Moreover, teachers use the laptop and projector to show the presentation made by either picture or video, but students have almost no chances to operate technologies in classroom activities (Hosen, 2022 ). These have led a result that many Bangladeshi teachers are using ICT in the classroom, but the prime task of the learners is only watching and listening to the teachers’ PPT presentation but not actively participating in the collaborative learning task (Babu & Nath, 2017 ).
This disconnect underscores a broader issue identified by Mishra and Koehler ( 2008 ), which argues that effective ICT integration requires teachers to have a blend of three types of knowledge: Technological Knowledge (TK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), and Content Knowledge (CK). This framework highlights that successful ICT usage in education transcends merely operating computers or internet connectivity; it involves the strategic application of technology within pedagogy (Mou, 2016 ). Considering the fact that teachers still struggle to effectively utilize digital tools in classroom setting, despite Bangladesh’s efforts in digital school transformation and ICT competency training (Islam et al., 2023 ), providing the instructional design principle for using ICT in teachers’ classroom setting becomes imperative to harness the full educational potential of technology, transcending mere hardware provision or basic technological training.
While the “instructional design principle” is a popular research area in educational technology, several previous research provide insight into factors to consider when developing instructional design principles for developing countries. First, Cha et al. ( 2020 ) explored ICT-integrated classroom models and suggested six categories of factors for designing ICT-integrated K-12 classrooms in developing countries: (1) status and policies in ICT education, (2) ODA goals and priority setting, (3) selection of schools, (4) infrastructure and technical challenges, (5) pedagogical methods, and (6) educational resources. Among these six categories, understanding ODA goals and priority setting was identified as particularly important because most of the policies and practices regarding ICT integration in schools in developing countries are conducted as a form of ODA. In addition, Cha et al. ( 2020 ) emphasized that understanding the present situation and the requirements of the teaching and learning aspects of the country may determine the success or failure of ICT-integration in learning, given different amount of ICT infrastructure and degree of teacher readiness in each developing country.
Similarly, Arias and Clark ( 2004 ) stressed the importance of understanding the highly volatile socio-economic, cultural, and political context in developing countries when applying instructional system design. In order to accurately analyze the current state of developing countries prior to developing the instructional design, Arias & Clark developed the context-based analysis model to apply to developing countries. In this model, motivation, compensation, participation, and availability of electricity were identified as the main conditional factors to be considered.
Other research suggested the significance of teachers’ personal assessment in the process of transforming the existing instructional design model in the developing countries to incorporate ICT. According to Olayinka et al. ( 2018 ), the stage where teachers themselves assess their own teaching skills and technical know-how of available ICT resources is critical in ICT implementation in classrooms. In this process, building relationships with other more experienced teachers is key to identify the right media and technology for adoption (Olayinka et al., 2018 ). This indicates the significance of teacher preparation prior to applying technology in the classroom, as well as knowledge-sharing among teachers in the context of developing countries.
Other studies that investigated instructional design in the context of developing countries also emphasized the teacher factor. Jhurree ( 2005 ) who developed policy-making guidelines on technology integration in education in developing countries also mentioned the necessity of involving teachers as well as school administrators and parents in decision-making. Many teachers are apprehensive about using computers for instructional purposes due to lack of experience or support from school communities. Therefore, teacher attitude is another factor that needs to be changed to secure their commitment to successful technology integration (Jhurree, 2005 ). Especially in developing countries, teachers’ self-efficacy is a precursor to deep learning with ICT and the strongest predictor of teachers’ instructional strategies with ICT. Otherwise, teachers just use ICTs for simple tasks such as word processing and information retrieval for delivery of passive learning materials (Sangkawetai et al., 2020 ).
Another possible instructional design principle that could be adopted in developing countries is Universal Design for Learning (UDL), which emphasizes the need for a complex and diverse approach to meet the needs of various groups of learners (Jang, 2010 ). UDL is solidly based on neuroscientific research and often use digital tools to ensure curriculum and learning environments are designed with options for all (Chambers & Coffey, 2019 ). Although the current usage of ICT tools in education in developing countries is focused on simple technology such as PowerPoint presentation with auditory and visual materials, teachers should consider a wide variety of student needs in their teaching by adopting the UDL guidelines for more effective utilization of digital tools.
While the previous studies provide valuable policy insights for the effective use of ICT in education within developing countries, they lack practical instructional design principles and detailed guidelines that teachers can refer to when incorporating ICT into their lessons. This research addresses this gap by providing concrete strategies on ‘how’ teachers can effectively integrate ICT into their instruction, especially in contexts where teaching and learning resources are limited, but the importance of ICT in education is heavily emphasized by the government. Therefore, this study aims not only to supplement the policy implications suggested by prior research but also to provide actionable instructional design principles and detailed guidelines for teachers. These contributions are intended to guide teachers in effectively utilizing ICT in the classroom, thereby adding practical perspectives to the discussions on ICT in education in developing countries.
To develop instructional design principles for ICT in secondary education in Bangladesh, this research employed the design and development research method (Lim, 2015 ; Richey & Klein, 2007 ). The design and development research is “the systematic study of design, development and evaluation processes to establish an empirical basis for the creation of instructional and non-instructional products and tools and new or enhanced models that govern their development.” (Richey & Klein, 2007 , p.17). It aims to develop and validate instructional design principles to provide generalized conclusion for enhancing teachers’ pedagogical strategies for using ICT in developing countries. The research process spans three phases: (1) construction of initial instructional design principles based on field research and literature review, (2) internal validation through expert review (conducted three times), and (3) usability test with secondary school teachers (Table 2 ).
To develop the first version of the instructional design principles, the researchers first gathered opinions of secondary school teachers and teacher trainers in Bangladesh and conducted classroom observations where ICT is currently used. Since teachers are the primary implementers of ICT integration in education at the school level, and teacher trainers frequently communicate with teachers on how to use ICT in education, these two groups were crucial interviewees for constructing the initial version of the instructional design principles. During the eight weeks of field research from September 30th to November 20th in 2019, therefore, in-depth interviews were conducted with secondary school teachers who are currently utilizing ICT resource in their classes, and teacher educators in charge of the course on ICT in teacher training institutes. Tables 3 , 4 show the list of interviewees. The researchers also reviewed previous research to examine issues regarding ICT integration in education in Bangladesh and other developing countries in order to address existing challenges.
After determining the initial instructional design principles based on literature review and field research, internal validation was conducted three times to refine the initial principles. The internal validation test aimed to test the validity of the components, principles, and specific guidelines in the initial instructional design principles and revise them based on feedback from experts.
The internal validation was conducted using both in-depth interviews and the four-point scale validity questionnaire. Thirteen experts participated in the internal validation process as shown in Table 5 . For the in-depth interview, the researchers asked interviewees on the following aspects of the design principles: appropriate reflection of the context of Bangladesh, logical organization of the principles, appropriate terminology, and appropriate method for developing the principles. As for the questionnaire, quantitative data of expert ratings was analyzed with Content Validity Index (CVI) and Inter-Rater Agreement (IRA). CVI is calculated by the number of experts who gave positive ratings on an item (three or four), dividing that number by the total number of experts, resulting in the proportion of experts who deemed the item valid (Rubio et al., 2003 ). It is recommended that CVI be higher than 0.80 (Davis, 1992 ). IRA is assessed to determine the extent to which the experts are reliable in their ratings (Rubio et al., 2003 ). In other words, if IRA is higher than 0.80, the expert opinions are in general agreement, and therefore the ratings are reliable (Lynn, 1986 ). IRA is calculated by the number of items with CVI higher than 0.80, divided by the total number of items (Rubio et al., 2003 ).
The purpose of the usability test is to confirm the practical applicability of the instructional design principles at school level with teachers who will be the actual users of these principles. In this study, the usability test was conducted with a qualitative method, using the in-depth interview with secondary school teachers via ZOOM Footnote 3 because reflecting the critical voice from the teachers in Bangladesh is the most important part to finalize the principles. Four secondary school teachers who have been using ICT in their classes for more than five years participated in the usability test.
The interview questions were divided into part I for “principles related to teachers’ preparation for using ICT” and part II for “principles related to teaching and learning activities using ICT.” Through the interview for the usability test, strength, weakness, and improvement of the refined principles were identified by asking about the usability of the principles in the actual classroom in Bangladesh. Also, distinctive factors were figured out which should be significantly considered when developing the instructional design principles in the context of developing countries.
Although the usability test was conducted only with English subject teachers to enable direct communication with the researchers, the usability test did not focus on the specific subject context since the principles and specific guidelines in this research were developed for all subject teachers in Bangladesh Footnote 4 (Table 6 ).
The research findings address two research questions. To address the first question-“what are the optimal instructional design principles for using ICT in secondary education in the context of Bangladesh?”- the study presented the development process, describing the elaboration of these principles from the initial version of principles to the final version. Additionally, in response to the second question-"what factors should be considered when developing instructional design principles for ICT integration in the context of developing countries?"- this research underscored two distinct factors crucial for developing instructional design principles in developing countries.
Initial instructional design principles.
Considering the context of secondary schools in Bangladesh where ICT resources are minimal, developing precise and contextually valid instructional design principles was the main concern at the initial stage of research. The initial instructional design principles were constructed by analyzing the results of interviews and class observations during the field study in Bangladesh and literature review according to the following steps: (1) the variables that needed to be considered for ICT integration in the context of Bangladesh were derived under each component, and then similar variables were integrated and re-stated to complete one specific guideline; (2) 2–3 specific guidelines were combined into the one principle based on its commonality, and developed the instructional principles covering the common contents of the specific guideline. Lastly (3) the wordings of principles and specific guidelines were elaborated on to make them more clearly understandable.
Throughout the process described above, the first version of the instructional design principle for using ICT in the context of Bangladesh was developed, including 25 specific guidelines, 12 principles, and six components in total (see Table 7 ).
Through three sets of internal validation tests, the initial principles were revised and elaborated for improvement. As shown in Table 8 , the results from the first internal validation test yielded relatively high scores (CVI = 0.97, IRA = 0.92), indicating the initial instructional design principles were valid and experts’ ratings were reliable. However, the experts also provided feedback for further improvement, primarily suggesting the need to “consider the real context of Bangladesh,” since most participants in the first validity test were education experts from Bangladesh such as teacher trainers and school teachers. Consequently, the principles were renamed, reorganized, and modified to better align with the current context of the Bangladeshi education system.
In the second internal validation test, the score decreased, especially on IRA. This can be attributed to the participation of experts in educational technology from South Korea, introducing differing viewpoint compared to the first validation. Based on the results of the second validation test, principles and specific guidelines were once again renamed, reorganized, and modified. Subsequently, during the third internal validation test, the scores met the recommended standard (Average of CVI = 0.91, IRA = 0.92).
The refined instructional design principles from the three internal validation tests was evaluated on its operational validity with the usability test conducted through in-depth interviews. During the usability test interviews with four teachers, they specifically described how the instructional design principles may or may not work in their classrooms. In general, the teachers commented that the principles would assist teachers in their lesson planning to consider how and when they may apply the ICT resources. The strengths of the refined principles were identified as: “confirming the available resources”, “building a learning community with expert teachers”, “linking the ICT materials to learning outcomes", “use of various resources and activities relevant to the curriculum”, “sharing digital materials with students” .
First of all, “confirming the available resources” was recognized by teachers as the most important and applicable principle in their classes because of the lack of ICT infrastructure in many Bangladeshi schools. Therefore, teachers should always check the availability of electricity and internet connection before starting the class even if they have thoroughly prepared the ICT content. Also, the classroom setting such as the large number of students needs to be considered when confirming resource availability. Teacher A mentioned that teachers should find the most appropriate ICT content “to handle the large number of students."
I arrange a clear sound system, and I always be careful about picture quality so that all the students can understand about the topic and can realize that what I want to teach them. […] Picture quality and sound system are very much important here. (Teacher A during the usability test interview on Feb 26 th , 2021)
Second, “building a learning community with expert teachers” could be the principle that reflects the context of Bangladesh. Having a teacher community is an essential component of teacher development. In Bangladesh, there are many teachers who become teacher trainers to encourage their colleagues to use ICT and train them on effective integration of technology in their classroom activities. These teachers try to share their knowledge of ICT by voluntarily organizing ICT forums for their colleagues in their community. While the teacher training programs focus only on basic computer training and technical knowledge within a limited time, learning communities led by expert teachers can provide more flexible teacher training even in the form of individual meetings. Teacher D in a usability test interview mentioned how she plays a role as an ICT ambassador:
I taught (my colleagues) so many times. Sometimes I stand all the time with him or her to cooperate to run the (online) class, how to change the slide, how to start video, how to browse on that moment… (When I don’t have my class) […] in my area, where my school is situated, it is really going on. Because in my neighboring schools, there are also 2 -3 teachers who are capable to run the technology, and they help other teachers. (Teacher D during the usability test interview on Feb 24 th , 2021)
Third, the principle of “linking the ICT materials to learning outcomes” can prevent teachers from excessively using ICT materials. In Bangladesh, ICT-related education policy is relatively new, so it has focused on increasing the number of ICT-supported classrooms in the schools. Nevertheless, teachers during the usability test interviews insisted that “linking the ICT materials to learning outcomes” must be applied when teachers prepare to ICT resources at school level.
That is the thing you need to think about using ICT. What is your educational goal to use that ICT materials, what is the (reason) for using that technology for your education. […] if I find that using ICT materials will not bring the learning outcome, I will try to use other tools also. […] It needs to be linked to my learning outcome from my students. It should be prepared first. So yes, I will use ICT as far as I need to bring out my learning outcomes. (Teacher B during the usability test interview on Feb 27 th , 2021)
Fourth, the principle, “use of various resources and activities relevant to the curriculum” should also be considered when integrating ICT. During the usability test, teachers agreed that they should use various resources such as open educational resources (OER), which are accessible to all on the internet. OER is very important for teachers in Bangladesh where there is lack of digital learning resources while more classrooms are gaining access to ICT.
I suggest to my colleague to use, of course teachers’ portal, or YouTube or 10 Minutes School, Footnote 5 Khan Academy, any types of educational sites to make his class effective and fruitful for their students. Because our main motto is to improve our students’ positions. So, to achieve our educational objective here, I always suggest my (colleague) teachers to use different website for the betterment of their presentation. (Teacher D during the usability test interview on Feb 24 th , 2021)
Lastly, the principle of “sharing digital materials with students” can facilitate student participation in their learning as they use the ICT device. By providing the opportunity for students to use ICT resources for their learning before and after class, students can prepare for the class as well as become an active user of digital tools. Currently, Bangladeshi teachers are using various ways to connect to the students outside the classroom via Facebook, the school website, and WhatsApp. In this way, teachers can connect with the students even after class, and students can also more actively participate in the ICT-supported class.
In my case, most of the time I use the Google Classroom, I just put the extra materials on there, so that when they come to the class, they have their own materials. […] but not all the students have internet connection or facility, so for those students, I provide them (the materials) in the class. […] I use all the device so that I can reach to everyone. (Teacher C during the usability test interview on Mar 7 th , 2021)
Based on the results of the usability test, the final version of instructional design principles for using ICT were composed with five components, ten principles, and 22 specific guidelines. In accordance with the purpose of this research, the final principles reflect the current challenges of Bangladesh and are expected to assist teachers to prepare and conduct their class using ICT resources in this resource-limited environment. In particular, as Bangladesh currently lacks ICT-trained teachers, the final set of principles precisely describe the teacher preparation steps to help them recognize what they should prepare. The final version of principles also emphasizes student participation. Although students’ active participation using ICT content in Bangladesh is limited due to the lack of digital device, the principles suggest that ICT resources should increase student participation, rather than prolonging teacher-centered instructions (Table 9 ).
During the process of developing the instructional design principles for using ICT in education, the researchers identified the following crucial factors for formulating these principles, particularly within resource-limited learning environments such as Bangladesh.
First, it is important to note that the development and application of instructional design principles in developing countries are closely intertwined to teachers’ readiness, which eventually lead to a necessary transformation in teachers’ professional development system. Within this context, the instructional design principles necessitate the ability to "[confirm] the available resource," “[link] ICT materials to learning outcome,” “[use] various resources and activities relevant to the curriculum,” “[build] a learning community with expert teachers.” These principles, which are significant factors in enhancing teachers’ readiness, collectively termed as the ‘C.L.U.B’, named after the first letter of each principle. Among the ‘C.L.U.B’ principles “building a learning community” was emerged as the most applicable and crucial principle within the current education system in Bangladesh. The role of the teacher possessing ICT expertise is vital in sharing pedagogical knowledge on the effective use of technology and motivating other teachers. This holds particular significance in the Bangladeshi context, where opportunities for teachers’ professional development are limited.
Second, the principle 10 “Provision of opportunity for students to use ICT materials” suggests that integrating ICT in education should encompass student usage of ICT for their learning. The current ICT in Education Policy by the GOB predominantly adopts a teacher-centered approach, providing teacher training solely for utilization of word processors, PowerPoint presentations or an internet browser. However, the expected educational impact will be difficult to achieve if the policy continues to confine the use of technology solely to teachers. Despite existing constraints on students’ use of digital devices during the class, the principles such as "responsive pedagogy with ICT" and "provision of opportunity for students to use ICT materials" were identified as essential factors for teachers to consider when conducting class with limited ICT resources.
While ICT has been introduced to enhance education quality in many developing countries, numerous ICT-supported classes still rely on one-way lectures using PowerPoint slides, and do not apply student-centered pedagogical approaches. Hence, instructional design principles for developing countries should emphasize that ICT materials should be used by students as well as teachers and should explore various ways to facilitate student usage of ICT inside and outside the classroom.
In the context of developing countries, the integration of ICT in education no longer simply involves the use of computers, the internet, or PowerPoint presentation in traditional classroom. Instead, "digital inclusion" in education should be redefined as a method for enhancing each teacher’s capacity to systematically prepare the class using digital content. However, a critical obstacle to ICT integration in education in developing countries has been the provision of expensive equipment to schools without sufficient support for teachers’ professional development, national ICT-in-education policies, or community involvement (Hawkins, 2002 ). Furthermore, in resource-limited countries such as Bangladesh, the opportunity of receiving ICT teacher training is not equally given to all teachers.
Given these circumstances, this research emphasizes the necessity for more practical and applicable guidelines to assist teachers in integrating ICT into their classrooms. The ten instructional design principles and 22 specific guidelines developed in this study are intended to help teachers selectively use ICT as educational tools. These guidelines can offer insights into the necessary preparation and lesson activities when utilizing ICT. While the discussion of the instructional design principle may be less familiar in the field of international education development, it is considered a crucial aspect that teacher’s professional development programs should take into account for the successful integration of ICT in education. In this regard, this research is expected to add practical discourse on ICT in education within developing countries by providing instructional strategies which did not exist before in the discussion on ICT in education in developing countries.
For the government of Bangladesh to realize "student-centered learning" by integrating ICT at the secondary level of education, addressing "how to effectively use ICT resources and improve teaching effects” should be a topic worth discussing for educational development in Bangladesh. Therefore, a systematic instructional design principle, developed through the analysis of requirements and needs for ICT-integrated classrooms in developing countries, can assist teachers in integrating relevant technology into teaching to enhance teaching effects.
While the educational environment in developing countries is too diverse to establish a single standard instructional design principle, specific guidelines and methods for integrating ICT in education should be discussed more based on the analysis of challenges and obstacles in a specific educational setting. This process will eventually provide more opportunities for teachers to learn the role of digital tools for developing education quality, not a mandatory use of simple technology with teacher-led learning.
The primary purpose of this research was to develop optimal instructional design principles for using ICT and assess their validity in secondary schools in Bangladesh. Employing the “design and development research” method, this research developed the instructional design principles and specific guidelines by investigating factors affecting teachers’ use of ICT such as the learning environment, instructional culture, teachers’ professional development system.
As a result, the research delineates the development process from the initial version to the final instructional design principles through literature review, internal validation, and the usability test. The final principles comprise five components, 10 principles, and 22 specific guidelines. Principles 1 to 5 address the “teachers’ preparation for planning the class with ICT," while principles 6 to 10 are related to the “teaching and learning activities with ICT.” Furthermore, the research identified two crucial factors for developing instructional design principles in developing countries: the role of ICT expert teachers and students’ participation in utilizing ICT for learning.
Throughout the research, it has underscored the importance of teachers’ understanding of the instructional design principles and the applicability of each specific guideline within their classroom context. Although research employing the design and development research method in developing country contexts remains limited, there is a growing recognition of the need for pedagogical enhancements in integrating ICT in education. Therefore, the instructional design principles in this research are expected to offer valuable insights for those seeking pedagogical improvements through ICT in integration in developing countries. For future research, it is essential to continue exploring instructional design principles tailored to various educational levels and subjects. Also, the instructional design strategy should encompass not only basic ICT tools but also advanced EdTech tools such as Artificial Intelligence (AI). This will help in developing prescriptive instructional strategies suitable for the educational contexts of developing country.
The definition of ‘ICT in education’ in this research generally refers to the integration of ICT materials such as computers, online learning resources, Internet, multimedia projects into the classroom with the aim of enhancing the quality of instruction.
In this context, ‘Digital contents’ refer to PowerPoint Presentations comprising text, images, and animations intended for a clearer explanation of the textbook contents.
Due to COVID-19, schools in Bangladesh closed from March 2020 to March 2021. The usability test was conducted during this span of time.
Although the data in this research was collected in 2021, the researchers believe that the results of the usability test can still provide practical insight on how to utilize ICT in the context of developing countries.
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Hwang, Y., Lim, C. Development of instructional design principles for using ICT in resource-limited learning environments: a case of Bangladesh. Asia Pacific Educ. Rev. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-024-09996-9
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A literature review is an integrated analysis-- not just a summary-- of scholarly writings and other relevant evidence related directly to your research question.That is, it represents a synthesis of the evidence that provides background information on your topic and shows a association between the evidence and your research question.
Literature review is approached as a process of engaging with the discourse of scholarly communities that will help graduate researchers refine, define, and express their own scholarly vision and voice. This orientation on research as an exploratory practice, rather than merely a series of predetermined steps in a systematic method, allows the ...
A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship ...
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A literature review is a review and synthesis of existing research on a topic or research question. A literature review is meant to analyze the scholarly literature, make connections across writings and identify strengths, weaknesses, trends, and missing conversations. A literature review should address different aspects of a topic as it ...
Literature review is approached as a process of engaging with the discourse of scholarly communities that will help graduate researchers refine, define, and express their own scholarly vision and voice. This orientation on research as an exploratory practice, rather than merely a series of predetermined steps in a systematic method, allows the ...
A literature or narrative review is a comprehensive review and analysis of the published literature on a specific topic or research question. The literature that is reviewed contains: books, articles, academic articles, conference proceedings, association papers, and dissertations. It contains the most pertinent studies and points to important ...
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The process of undertaking a literature review is an integral part of doing research. While this may be considered to be its primary function, the literature review is also an important tool that serves to inform and develop practice and invite dis-cussion in academic work. Whatever its purpose, the task of doing a literature
A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. The literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a particular area of research. ... New and improved graphics ideal for visualizing the process More explanations and tips, especially for writing in the early stages An expanded ...
A literature review is a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of the principal research about the topic being studied. Your literature review should contain the following information: The most pertinent studies and important past and current research and practices in the field;
Step 3: Critically analyze the literature. Key to your literature review is a critical analysis of the literature collected around your topic. The analysis will explore relationships, major themes, and any critical gaps in the research expressed in the work. Read and summarize each source with an eye toward analyzing authority, currency ...
The process of writing a literature review. Writing a literature review is a non-linear and iterative process. This means you'll be revisiting the different stages of developing your review. There are four stages in conducting a literature review. Click on each stage below for tips on the different strategies used to conduct the literature ...
A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing research, studies, articles, books, and other relevant sources on a specific topic or subject. It serves as a foundational step in the research process, helping researchers understand the current state of knowledge, identify gaps in the literature, and establish a context ...
A literature review examines the body of work surrounding previous research. The thesis should focus on a specific aspect of that research and highlight what you are searching for. Make sure your research question is specific, but does not exclude outside sources with important information
A sophisticated literature review (LR) can result in a robust dissertation/thesis by scrutinizing the main problem examined by the academic study; anticipating research hypotheses, methods and results; and maintaining the interest of the audience in how the dissertation/thesis will provide solutions for the current gaps in a particular field.
What are Literature Reviews? A literature review provides an overview of a topic, and is something most of you have encountered at one time or another.It is usually an article, or a section of an article,* that compiles and summarizes published materials (books, articles, etc.) which provide an examination of recent or current literature on a chosen topic.
Using a semi-automated NLP procedure for literature screening reduced the workload by 84% compared to manual methods (2774 abstracts vs 16,941 abstracts). 9 As a result, recent studies have employed NLP and machine learning technologies, particularly CNNs, to automate the literature review process. The application of these technologies aims to ...
Speaker 1: Performing a literature review is an important step in conducting research, as it allows you to gain a comprehensive understanding of the existing literature on a topic. So hi, I'm Charlotte Vreese, a third-year PhD student in computational neuroscience, and today I want to talk about my literature review workflow.
This systematic literature review addresses how crisis readiness is being currently conceptualized and how the existing literature guides companies in achieving crisis readiness. In employing a systematic literature review with a grounded theory-based analysis, we have articulated the concept and developed a process framework of 10 steps a ...
Transitioning to low-carbon energy systems is crucial for sustainable development, particularly in oil-rich developing countries (ORDCs) that face intertwined economic and environmental challenges. This review uses the PRISMA methodology to systematically assess the current state and prospects of low-carbon thermal electricity generation and utilization technologies in ORDCs. The study ...
The research process spans three phases: (1) construction of initial instructional design principles based on field research and literature review, (2) internal validation through expert review (conducted three times), and (3) usability test with secondary school teachers (Table 2).