underground water essay

What is Groundwater?

Groundwater  is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers.

Groundwater is used for drinking water by more than 50 percent of the people in the United States, including almost everyone who lives in rural areas. The largest use for groundwater is to irrigate crops.

The area where water fills the aquifer is called the saturated zone (or saturation zone). The top of this zone is called the water table. The water table may be located only a foot below the ground’s surface or it can sit hundreds of feet down.

Aquifers  are typically made up of gravel, sand, sandstone, or fractured rock, like limestone. Water can move through these materials because they have large connected spaces that make them permeable. The speed at which groundwater flows depends on the size of the spaces in the soil or rock and how well the spaces are connected.

Groundwater can be found almost everywhere. The water table may be deep or shallow; and may rise or fall depending on many factors. Heavy rains or melting snow may cause the water table to rise, or heavy pumping of groundwater supplies may cause the water table to fall.

Groundwater supplies are replenished, or  recharged , by rain and snow melt that seeps down into the cracks and crevices beneath the land’s surface. In some areas of the world, people face serious water shortages because groundwater is used faster than it is naturally replenished. In other areas groundwater is polluted by human activities.

Water in aquifers is brought to the surface naturally through a spring or can be discharged into lakes and streams. Groundwater can also be extracted through a well drilled into the aquifer. A well is a pipe in the ground that fills with groundwater. This water can be brought to the surface by a pump. Shallow wells may go dry if the water table falls below the bottom of the well. Some wells, called artesian wells, do not need a pump because of natural pressures that force the water up and out of the well.

In areas where material above the aquifer is permeable, pollutants can readily sink into groundwater supplies. Groundwater can be polluted by landfills, septic tanks, leaky underground gas tanks, and from overuse of fertilizers and pesticides. If groundwater becomes polluted, it will no longer be safe to drink.

How much do we depend on groundwater?

• Groundwater supplies drinking water for 51% of the total U.S. population and 99% of the rural population.
• Groundwater helps grow our food. 64% of groundwater is used for irrigation to grow crops.
• Groundwater is an important component in many industrial processes.
• Groundwater is a source of recharge for lakes, rivers, and wetlands.

Image and figures courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey

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Aquifers and Groundwater

Groundwater photo gallery, learn about groundwater through pictures, groundwater data for the nation, the usgs national water information system (nwis) contains extensive groundwater data for thousands of sites nationwide., groundwater information by topic, water science school home.

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A huge amount of water exists in the ground below your feet, and people all over the world make great use of it. But it is only found in usable quantities in certain places underground — aquifers. Read on to understand the concepts of aquifers and how water exists in the ground.

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Groundwater and aquifers

Groundwater is one of our most valuable resources—even though you probably never see it or even realize it is there.

Have you ever dug a hole at the beach and watched as it partially filled with water from the underlying sand? This is a great way to illustrate the concept of how the ground, if it is permeable enough, can hold water but still stay solid. The upper surface of this water-filled area, or "zone of saturation", is called the water table. The saturated area beneath the water table is called an aquifer, and aquifers are huge storehouses of water. In our sand hole example, you have essentially dug a "well" that exposes the water table, with an aquifer beneath it. At the beach, the level of the water table is always at the same level as the ocean , which is just below the surface of the beach.

As you may have read, most of the void spaces in the rocks below the water table are filled with water. These rocks have different porosity and permeability characteristics, which means that water does not move around the same way in all rocks below ground.

When a water-bearing rock readily transmits water to wells and springs , it is called an aquifer. Wells can be drilled into the aquifers and water can be pumped out. Precipitation eventually adds water ( recharge ) into the porous rock of the aquifer. The rate of recharge is not the same for all aquifers, though, and that must be considered when pumping water from a well. Pumping too much water too fast draws down the water in the aquifer and eventually causes a well to yield less and less water and even run dry . In fact, pumping your well too much can even cause your neighbor's well to run dry if you both are pumping from the same aquifer.

Visualizing groundwater

In the diagram below, you can see how the ground below the water table (the blue area) is saturated with water. The "unsaturated zone" above the water table (the gray area) still contains water (after all, plants' roots live in this area), but it is not totally saturated with water. You can see this in the two drawings at the bottom of the diagram, which show a close-up of how water is stored in between underground rock particles.

Sometimes the porous rock layers become tilted in the earth. There might be a confining layer of less porous rock both above and below the porous layer. This is an example of a confined aquifer. In this case, the rocks surrounding the aquifer confines the pressure in the porous rock and its water. If a well is drilled into this "pressurized" aquifer, the internal pressure might (depending on the ability of the rock to transport water) be enough to push the water up the well and up to the surface without the aid of a pump, sometimes completely out of the well. This type of well is called artesian. The pressure of water from an artesian well can be quite dramatic.

A relationship does not necessarily exist between the water-bearing capacity of rocks and the depth at which they are found. A very dense granite that will yield little or no water to a well may be exposed at the land surface. Conversely, a porous sandstone may lie hundreds or thousands of feet below the land surface and may yield hundreds of gallons per minute of water. Rocks that yield freshwater have been found at depths of more than 6,000 feet, and salty water has come from oil wells at depths of more than 30,000 feet. On the average, however, the porosity and permeability of rocks decrease as their depth below land surface increases; the pores and cracks in rocks at great depths are closed or greatly reduced in size because of the weight of overlying rocks.

Pumping can affect the level of the water table

Groundwater occurs in the saturated soil and rock below the water table. If the aquifer is shallow enough and permeable enough to allow water to move through it at a rapid-enough rate, then people can drill wells into it and withdraw water. The level of the water table can naturally change over time due to changes in weather cycles and precipitation patterns, streamflow and geologic changes, and even human-induced changes, such as the increase in impervious surfaces on the landscape.

The pumping of wells can have a great deal of influence on water levels below ground , especially in the vicinity of the well, as this diagram shows. If water is withdrawn from the ground at a faster rate that it is replenished, either by infiltration from the surface or from streams , then the water table can become lower, resulting in a "cone of depression" around the well. Depending on geologic and hydrologic conditions of the aquifer, the impact on the level of the water table can be short-lived or last for decades, and it can fall a small amount or many hundreds of feet. Excessive pumping can lower the water table so much that the wells no longer supply water—they can "go dry."

Water movement in aquifers

Water movement in aquifers is highly dependent of the permeability of the aquifer material. Permeable material contains interconnected cracks or spaces that are both numerous enough and large enough to allow water to move freely. In some permeable materials groundwater may move several meters in a day; in other places, it moves only a few centimeters in a century. Groundwater moves very slowly through relatively impermeable materials such as clay and shale. (Source: Environment Canada )

After entering an aquifer, water moves slowly toward lower lying places and eventually is discharged from the aquifer from springs, seeps into streams, or is withdrawn from the ground by wells. Groundwater in aquifers between layers of poorly permeable rock, such as clay or shale, may be confined under pressure. If such a confined aquifer is tapped by a well, water will rise above the top of the aquifer and may even flow from the well onto the land surface. Water confined in this way is said to be under artesian pressure, and the aquifer is called an artesian aquifer .

Visualizing artesian pressure

Here's a little experiment to show you how artesian pressure works. Fill a plastic sandwich baggie with water, put a straw in through the opening, tape the opening around the straw closed, point the straw upward (but don't point the straw towards your teacher or parents! ) and then squeeze the baggie. Artesian water is pushed out through the straw.

Do you think you know about groundwater? Take our  Groundwater true/false quiz , part of our  Activity Center .

Quiz icon made by mynamepong from  www.flaticon.com

Want to learn more about aquifers and groundwater? Follow me to the U SGS Principle Aquifers of the United States website!

Below are other science topics related to aquifers and groundwater.

Groundwater True/False Quiz

Groundwater Storage and the Water Cycle

How Do Hydrologists Locate Groundwater?

Groundwater flows underground.

Groundwater Wells

Groundwater Decline and Depletion

Drought and Groundwater Levels

Below are multimedia items associated with aquifers and groundwater.

Below are publications associated with aquifers and groundwater. In addition to those below, Water sources: groundwater by Environment and Climate Change Canada may be of interest.

A primer on ground water

Ground water and surface water: a single resource, ground water and the rural homeowner, a primer on water.

• Groundwater Facts
• Information on Earth’s Water
• Facts About Global Groundwater Usage
• Groundwater Use in the U.S.A.
• The Hydrologic Cycle
• Occurrence of Groundwater
• Forces Controlling Water in Rocks
• Unconfined or Water Table Aquifers
• Confined or Artesian Groundwater
• Principles of Induced Infiltration and Artificial Recharge
• Evaluating the Hydrologic Properties of Water-Bearing Materials
• Unconformities and Groundwater Systems
• Relation of Salt Water to Fresh Water in Aquifers
• Dissolved Mineral Sources and Significance
• Groundwater is the water that fills cracks and other openings in beds of rocks and sand.
• Each drop of rain that soaks into the soils moves downward to the water table, which is the water level in the groundwater reservoir. Groundwater does not normally occur in underground streams, lakes, or veins. Groundwater is found in soils and sands able to retain the water — much like a sponge holds water.
• Some 2.78 million trillion gallons of groundwater, 30.1 percent of the world's freshwater, are estimated for the entire planet of Earth. 1 Of the total 349 billion gallons of freshwater the United States withdraws each day, groundwater is estimated to be 79.6 billion gallons, or 26 percent. 2
• From 2010 to 2015, groundwater use in the United States increased by 8.3% while surface water use declined by 13.9%. 3
• About a quarter of all U.S. rainfall becomes groundwater. Groundwater provides much of the flow of many streams; many lakes and streams are "windows" to the water table. In large part, the flow in a stream represents water that has flowed from the ground into the stream channel. It is estimated by the USGS that about 30 percent of U.S. stream-flow is from groundwater, although it is higher in some locations and less in others. 4
• About 90 percent of our freshwater supplies lie underground, but less than 27 percent of the water Americans use comes from underground sources, which illustrates the under-utilization of groundwater. 5
• Groundwater is a significant water supply source — the amount of groundwater storage dwarfs our present surface water supply.
• Hydrologists estimate, according to the National Geographic Society, U.S. groundwater reserves to be at least 33,000 trillion gallons — equal to the amount discharged into the Gulf of Mexico by the Mississippi River in the past 200 years. 6
• At any given moment, groundwater is 20 to 30 times greater than the amount in all the lakes, streams, and rivers of the United States. 7
• The United States uses 82.3 billion gallons per day of fresh groundwater for public supply, private supply, irrigation, livestock, manufacturing, mining, thermoelectric power, and other purposes. 8
• California pumps 17.4 billion gallons per day of groundwater for all purposes, 2.4 times as much as the second-ranked state — Texas (7.2 bgd). 9
• Groundwater is tapped through wells placed in water-bearing soils and rocks beneath the surface of the earth.
• More than 15.9 million water wells for all purposes serve the United States. 10
• Approximately 500,000 new residential wells are constructed annually, according to NGWA estimates. The construction of these vitally needed water supply systems involves the use of more than 18,460 drilling machines by an estimated 8,085 groundwater contracting firms. 11
• Groundwater is a renewable resource.
• In most parts of the country, water removed from the ground is constantly replaced, although in some parts of the country such as arid and semiarid regions, a low rate of replenishment is far exceeded by the rate of groundwater pumping, resulting in serious problems of groundwater mining.
• Adequate time is needed to allow replenishment of underlying groundwater reservoirs (aquifers); also such areas must be properly managed in order to prevent water-soluble waste products stored in these areas from infiltrating and polluting the underground supply.
• NGWA has determined that 38 percent of the U.S. population depends on groundwater for its drinking water supply — be it from either a public source or private well. 12
• Private household wells constitute the largest share of all water wells in the United States — more than 13,135 million year-round occupied households have their own well. 13
• Other kinds of wells are used for municipal systems, industry, agriculture, and quality monitoring. Groundwater accounts for 39 percent of all the water used by U.S. municipalities. 14
• Michigan, with an estimated 1,121,075 households served by private water wells, is the largest state market, followed by Pennsylvania, North Carolina, New York, and Florida. 15
• Irrigation accounts for the largest use of groundwater in the United States. Some 57.2 billion gallons of groundwater are used daily for agricultural irrigation from 475,796 wells. 16  In 1900, the U.S. used only 2.2 billion gallons of groundwater daily for irrigation from 17,000 wells.
• More than 90 percent of the groundwater pumped from the Ogallala, the nation's largest aquifer underlying some 250,000 square miles stretching from Texas to South Dakota, is used for agricultural irrigation. Representing about one-third of all U.S. irrigated agriculture, it creates about $20 billion annually in food and fiber.
• If spread across the surface of the entire United States, the Ogallala's groundwater would cover all 50 states with 1.5 feet of water. Scientists estimate it could take 6,000 years to refill naturally if it were ever to be fully withdrawn. 17
• Texas leads the nation in the number of irrigation wells with 81,511. 18
• Groundwater moves rapidly.
• Groundwater migrates thousands of miles.
• There is no relationship between groundwater and surface water.
• Groundwater removed from the earth is never returned.
• Groundwater is mysterious and occult.
• Groundwater is not a significant source of water supply.

References:

• National Geographic, April 2010, p. 47
• Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2005, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1344, October 2009
• US Geological Survey. 2018, Estimated Use of Water in the United States 2010, Circular 1405, and 2015, Circular 1441.
• Sustainability of Ground-water Resources, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1186, 1999
• "Water" map, National Geographic Society, November 1993
• Calculations derived from multiple sources
• Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2015, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1441, October 2018
• Estimate prepared by the National Ground Water Association from various federal data sources at U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the U.S. Census
•  Estimate prepared by the National Ground Water Association from various Association-sponsored industry surveys
• Resident population of the U.S. 2015 was 321,039,839, U.S. Census
• American Housing Survey, U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2015
• Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2015, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1441, 2018
• U.S. Census, 1990 (best available data by state)
• U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey 2013, and U.S. Geological Survey, 2018 report on 2015 water use
• Scientific American Water 3.0, March 2008; Understanding Water Risks, World Wildlife Fund, March 2009; State of the Water Industry, TechKnowledgey Strategic Group, March 2009
• U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey 2013

The Groundwater Project

Mission: Making Groundwater Understandable

The importance of groundwater.

Groundwater pumped for irrigation. Photo by David E. Burt, U.S. Geological Survey, public domain.

Groundwater and Humanity

Groundwater is a vital water supply for humanity. Groundwater provides drinking water entirely or in part for as much as 50% of the global population and accounts for 43% of all of water used for irrigation. Worldwide, 2.5 billion people depend solely on groundwater resources to satisfy their basic daily water needs.

The Earth’s population of nearly 8 billion in 2020 is expected to reach 11 billion by 2100. Humans will have to learn to produce sufficient food without destroying the soil, water and climate. This has been called the greatest challenge humanity has faced. Sustainable management of groundwater is at the heart of the solution. Scientific understanding and proper management of groundwater is essential, because groundwater can alleviate the problem if we seek its responsible use and replenishment.

Groundwater and the Earth

Although hidden below the Earth’s surface, groundwater makes up 99% of Earth’s liquid fresh water and plays an important role in the water cycle. Rivers, lakes and wetlands are surface manifestations of groundwater, exchanging flow with the groundwater reservoir that feeds them when they need water and takes some of their flow when surface water is present in excess.

Groundwater also controls many features on the Earth’s surface. The depth of the water table is partly responsible for different plant species occupying different positions along the slopes from hill to valley, as only the drought tolerant plants can live on dry hill sides and water tolerant plants live near streams. Dissolution of carbonate rocks by flowing groundwater creates caves and sinkholes. In desert environments, groundwater discharge forms oases, which provide provide habitats for animals and plants.

Oasis in the Libyan part of the Sahara. Photo by Sfivat, public domain.

Pool and dry river bed resulting from groundwater withdrawal. Photo by David Armstrong, U.S. Geological Survey, public domain.

Groundwater at Risk

Modern scientific measurements show that many of major aquifers (groundwater reservoirs) of the world are being depleted. Such depletion can lead to decrease in stream flow, drying of springs or wetlands, loss of vegetation, water-level declines in wells, and land subsidence. Yet another threat to groundwater is pollution resulting from human activity, generating chemicals and wastes that have leaked into the subsurface. Pollution degrades the quality of groundwater and poses a threat to human and ecological health.

As the human population grows, more demand will be placed on groundwater, a vast, but finite, resource. The need for understanding our groundwater systems and for managing them in a thoughtful manner within the constraints of the hydrologic cycle, is greater than ever.

To learn more about groundwater, please visit our Books web page, where you will find a growing number of books for readers of diverse interests.

Geography Notes

Groundwater: origin, sources and other details (with diagram).

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Water existing in the voids of the geological stratum below the surface of the earth is called groundwater. Groundwater is found in pores and fissures of rocks. It is regulated by the quantum and speed of rains, extent of vaporization at the time of rain, temperature, slope of land, dryness of air, porosity and permeability of rocks, vegetative cover and water absorbing capacity of the soil.

Groundwater is 0.58 per cent of the total water resources available in nature and it is 22.21 per cent of fresh water part (2.6%) of total water reservoirs. It is located up to a depth of 4 kms of the earth’s surface (Table 4.1). It is also called sub-surface water since it is found below the surface of earth.

Description of development of groundwater is available since ancient times. The Old Testament contains many details about ground­water in the form of springs and wells. Rollman has given description of underground water channels of Egypt and Syria in 80 B.C., while Greek and Roman philosophers have also described the principles of formation of waterfalls. Homer, Thales and Plato have explained creation of waterfalls from the water of seas.

They said that sea water flows underground through water routes under the mountains. Seneca and Pilny also followed the Greek thinking. Shilpy Vitrviyas, while explaining infiltration, clearly told that in hilly areas it rains heavily due to which the water, after percolating into lower layers, appears in the form of waterfalls at lower levels of hills. French philosopher Bernard Pelisy (1510-1589) repeated the principle of infil­tration in 1580.

Clear knowledge about the hydrological cycle became available in the 17th century when for the first time analysis was made on the basis of observations and quantitative figures. From this point of view, the contribution of Pire Perat (1608-1680), Edmen Meriote (1620-1689) and Edmund Hailey (1652-1742) remain praiseworthy.

Perat measured rain for three years and found out the flow of the upper part of the basin of river Siene. Meriotte, after measurements of river Siene near Paris, clarified the work of Perat. Meenjar has called Marriott as ‘Father of Hydrogeology’. English geographer and scientist Edmund Hailey, after measurement of the process of vapori­zation concluded that flow of all rivers and waterfalls depends on vaporization activity of seas.

During the first decade of the nineteenth century, the first artesian wells were constructed in France. Thus, at present hydrogeology has become an independent branch in which various geographical aspects of groundwater are studied.

Origin of Groundwater :

Total water existing on earth is 13, 84,12,0000 cubic kms, out of which 8,00,0042 cubic kms is groundwater. Apart from this, 61,234 cubic kms is in form of soil moisture. Groundwater and soil moisture together constitute the sub-surface quantity of water. Groundwater is stored in different layers of earth by infiltration through pores and fissures of permeable rocks.

Groundwater mainly comes from three sources. They are, First: ‘Meteoric Water’, which is the main source of groundwater and is received in the form of rain and snow. This water infiltrates from the surface through fissures, pores and joints of rocks till it is stored on non-permeable rocks in the form of groundwater; Second: ‘Connate Water’, which exists in pores and cavities of sedimentary rocks of seas and lakes. It is also called sedimentary water. Thirdly: ‘Magmatic Water’ which converts into water after condensation of vapour as a result of volcanic action at the time of entering hot rocks.

The main source of groundwater is rainfall. It infiltrates through seepage slowly into the earth and collects there. It is also called ‘plutonic water’. Groundwater is an important part of the water cycle, which also includes that part of surface and atmospheric water which goes underground through rainfall, rivers and lakes.

Sources of Groundwater:

Water received on the surface of the earth from different sources becomes groundwater when it goes underground after information through pores of permeable rocks.

It is found from following sources:

(i) Meteoric Water:

This is the main source of groundwater. This water is received in the form of rain and snow. Water from tanks, lakes, rivers and seas is again received by earth after vaporization. Water is received by melting of snow or rain, hence it is called ‘mete­oric’ or ‘shooting star water’. From the surface of the earth, this water infiltrates down below through rock joints, pores and fissures of rocks and is stored at the level of impermeable rocks in the form of groundwater.

It originates in the atmosphere, falls as precipitation and percolates through the soil to become groundwater. You may have noticed the fluctuation of the water level in wells. During the rainy season the level goes up, while in the summers the level goes down. This is indicative of the fact that groundwater significantly depends upon water from the atmosphere.

Another way in which the groundwater may be derived directly from atmospheric moisture is condensation of water vapour from air circulating through the pores and interstices. This is also known as ‘condensational water’ and is the basic source of replenishment in the arid and semi-arid areas.

During summers, the land is warmer than the air in the soil. This results in a difference of pressure between the water vapour in the atmosphere and the soil. The water vapour from the atmosphere penetrates into the rocks as the temperature of the water vapour drops in the cooler soil. A certain amount of water may accumulate this way.

A third source is effluent seepage from lakes, rivers, oceans and also man-made channels, but the importance of this varies with the climate of the area concerned. In fact, in humid regions, the groundwater contributes to stream flow by means of effluent seepage, and the gradient of this saturated groundwater more often than not slopes towards the surface water bodies and the oceans.

(ii) Connate Water:

Water contained in pores and cavities of sedimentary rocks under seas and lakes is called connate water. It is also called ‘sediment water’. It is the second important source of groundwater. This is the water that is entrapped in the interstices of sedimentary and volanic rocks at the time of deposition. Connate water is highly mineralized and salty and does not mix readily with meteoric groundwater. Connate water is usually found deep down in the lower layers of the zone of saturation.

(iii) Magmatic Water:

Hot magma enters rocks due to volcanic action after which its vapour drops are condensed and converted into water. This is called magmatic water. Apart from it, other sources are those in which groundwater becomes again available on the surface of the earth.

They are mainly springs, wells, and geysers.Such water is considered to have been generated in the interior of the earth. It has consequently travelled to the upper layers of the earth’s surface for the first time; this is also known as magmatic water.

Rock Structure and Groundwater:

Below the surface of earth, availability of groundwater depends on composition of rocks. Water holding capacity and water yield depends on the composition of rocks and, on such basis is decided vertical or horizontal distribution of water. It is clear that geology occupies an important place in hydrogeology. Springs and streams are included in special groundwater in lands permanently covered by snow.

Below the surface of the earth, groundwater remains in permeable group of rocks. Such groups of rocks are called aquifers. From aquifers water can move towards springs or wells in sufficient quantity. Due to the composition of aquifers, sufficient water remains mobile in ordinary local conditions.

Groundwater reservoirs and water-filled group of rocks (rock bed, strata or deposit) are synonyms. As against it, aquifers are such a non-permeable group of rocks which neither holds water nor it is permeable. Its composition is like solid granite. Rocks without solid minerals or other such parts of soil can retain groundwater. Such spaces are known as voids, pores or fissures. Because such voids work as water pipes for groundwater, they are very important. Hence their shape, type, irregularity and distribution are specially studied in groundwater.

Basic spaces are formed by those very geological reactions which form rock groups and they are found in igneous and sedimentary rocks. Interstices are formed after rock formation. Rock joints, fracture, solution holes and voids created by vegetation come in this category.

According to shape or form, these spaces are classified as capillary, over-capillary, and sub-capillary. Capillary spaces are so small that water is held there by surface tension. Over-capillary spaces are those which are bigger than capil­laries. Sub-capillary spaces are so small that water is held there by adhesive forces. Because of their linkage with other voids, they are called isolated ones.

Figure 4.1 shows different types of spaces and their relation with porosity. From the viewpoint of recycling of groundwater, granular sedimentary deposits are of special importance. Porosity of such deposits depends on different types of granules and their arrangement, distribution as per size, degree of cementation and compaction.

Solution of mineral substances emanating from consolidated groups of rocks and the condition of broken rocks is also important. Due to above mentioned reasons, range of porosity varies from 0 to 50. Table 4.1 mentions main details of sedimentary materials.

Vertical Distribution of Groundwater:

Underground availability of groundwater can be divided into ‘Saturated Zone’ and ‘Zone of Aeration’. In spaces of saturated zone, compressed liquid water exists. In spaces of aerated zone, partly water and partly air exists. In most of the parts of the earth, above every single saturated zone there exists a single aerated zone which extends up to the surface of the earth. This has been shown in Figure 4.2.

The upper part of the saturated zone remains either up to the point of saturation or is bounded by impervious levels. The lower part of saturated zone extends to the underlying impermeable rocks like bed rock or clay. In the absence of overlying impermeable rocks, upper level of saturated zone is called water table or groundwater level.

It has been termed as level of atmospheric pressure and after intrusion of level of the aquifer, it is found on the basis of height of water level in the well. In reality, saturation remains a little above the underground level due to capillary gravitation, even then water is available at lesser pressure than atmospheric pressure.

Normally, water existing in the saturation zone is considered as the form of underground water. In the aerated zone, suspended water or vadox water exists. This normal part can also be further sub-divided into soil water portion, middle portion and capillary portion (Figure 4.2). Expansion and distribution of water in each zone has been described in the coming paragraphs.

Inter-granular spaces vary widely in terms of size. Minute voids between the component particles of clay, shale and slate may feature on one end, while large spaces between the pebbles of well-sorted and unconsolidated valley gravel may feature on the other end of the spectrum. Massive spaces are those that occur between large blocks of rocks such as fractures, joints and bedding planes sometimes enlarged by the process of solution.

Capillary interstices or spaces are those that are small enough to hold surface tension forces (Fig. 4.3). They can be further classified into two types namely super capillary and sub-capillary. The former is large and may sometimes be as large as a limestone cave. The latter is very small and water is held in them mainly by molecular forces.

Here, let us briefly mention an important dimension of ground­water flow . The movement of groundwater is influenced by gravity just like surface water. Just as everything else has a low, a low was also formulated to express the relationship between capillary of laminar flow and the hydraulic gradient. This was first stated by Poiseuille and is referred to as Poiseuille’s law in physics. But it was Darcy who confirmed the application of this law to the movement of ground­water through natural materials.

Since then geologists know it as Darcy’s law, which is expressed in the form of an equation:

q is the velocity of groundwater flow H is the difference in head between the two points separated by the distance L

K is the hydraulic conductivity.

The amount of groundwater flow can be determined with the help of the equation

Q is the volume of water flowing from a porous medium with a cross sectional area A under a hydraulic gradient I and K is the hydraulic conductivity of the porous medium

It should be mentioned , that the original interstices were created at the time of origin of the rock, while secondary interstices are a result of the actions of subsequent geological, climatic or biotic factors of the original rock.

Soil Water Zone:

Water existing in soil water zone is lesser in comparison to saturated zone. Sometimes, due to rains or additional quantity of irrigation water this portion can also be temporarily saturated. This zone extends from the surface of the earth to the root zone. Its thickness depends on type of soil and type of vegetation. Since, soil water sends moisture to the roots hence, due to its importance for agriculture soil and agriculture scientists have made a deep study of movement, and distribution of water of this zone.

Briggs has divided soil water in three parts on the basis of water concentration. The first is Hygroscopic Water: This is the water drawn from air which forms thin films of moisture on level of granules. Due to excessive adhesive strength, this water does not become available to plants.

The second is Capillary Water, which exists on all sides of soil granules in continuous layers. It remains held up due to back pressure strength and starts moving by capillary action. This water becomes available for plants. Gravitational Water is the additional soil water which flows away from soil due to gravitational force.

Hygroscopic co-efficient is the quantity of maximum moisture which pre-dried soil draws from 50 per cent moisture containing atmosphere at 250 cms. Wilting point is the quantity of water drops in which plants fade away permanently. It has been proved by experi­mentation that it has no definite standard, but it depends on plants, environment, root system and place of tested soil.

Field capacity is the quantity of water in soil which exists even after the flowing away of excess water by gravitational force and infiltration of water underground. Moisture equivalent is the quantity of water which, after using 1,000 times centrifugal force of gravitation, remains in saturated soil after being decentralized.

Field capacity of sand is more than moisture balancing figure but it is equal for loamy sand. Because field capacity and wilting point indicate the maximum and minimum limits of water respectively for development of plants, hence water required for development of vegetation is equal to the difference of these two. Water necessary to saturate all voids of soil is the maximum water content in it. This is called maximum water capacity.

Study of soil moisture has developed many methods of measuring soil moisture according to change of place and time. The most correct method is ‘weight measurement method of soil samples, in which samples are weighted and again weighted after drying.

In this method, gravitational suction block is used, which is penetrated into and taken out of soil. These porous parts develop moisture equal­ization with soil, due to which correlation of weight can be established with moisture.

Richards and other persons told that for finding out tension measurement or capillary magnanimity, tension measurement zero (on saturation) to 0.85 remains limited to atmospheric pressure.

According to soil texture, more than half of the available range of water comes within this limit. Many instruments have been developed on the principle of electric resistance measurement from materials kept in soil, in which the relation between resistance and soil water content has been established.

To amalgamate electrodes, various sucking materials are used, out of which some are Plaster of Paris, nylon and fiber glass. Because soil moisture is received from heat management of soil, hence based on this principle, different units have been developed when heating elements are buried under soil.

To determine soil moisture, ‘Neutron Scattering’ is a useful method. It is known that fast neutrons become dormant as compared to other organs while colliding with hydrogen. Hydrogen exists in most of the soils almost completely in the form of water.

Using these facts, a fast neutron source is combined with a dormant neutron source and inserted into special type of joint hole in the soil. Counting of dormant neutrons due to hydrogen of the soil is measurement of soil moisture. After calibration, changes in soil moisture can be known easily according to time and depth in the well.

Intermediate Zone:

The middle part extends from lower portion of soil water up to border of the upper portion of the capillary part (Figure 4.4). Thickness of this portion can vary from zero to hundreds of feet. It is zero feet when the border part mixes up with a high water table on the surface of the ground. Its thickness is hundreds of feet in deep groundwater level.

The main function of this part is to connect parts near the surface of earth with groundwater levels and through which water should go down in vertical form. Non-moving water of middle part or pellicle water remains stationary on account of capillary tension and humidity and is equivalent in field capacity of soil water. The additional water is gravitational water which moves in downward direction due to gravitational force. The capillary part extends from groundwater level to capillary support.

Thickness of capillary part does not vary only according to composition of soil and rocks, but in a layer having innumerable voids, where size of voids is large, its border looks like inverted sides even with a microscope. Physically, with rising height, quantity of moisture reduces or capillary water remains existent in almost all voids above groundwater level. As height increases, water remains only in small voids and at still higher levels, only the smallest inter­connected voids contain water, in which water above the groundwater level is present.

Saturated Zone:

Since all spaces of the saturated zone are filled with groundwater, hence per unit porosity is directly measured with sphere of available water content. The total quantity of such water cannot be pumped out of the well or discharged from the land, because atomic and backpressure retains some part of water at the same place.

Hence, retained water is that water which remains retained in spite of gravita­tional force. Special retention capacity of any soil or rock is the percentage ratio between water retained against gravitational force after saturation, and total water retaining capacity.

Thus, special product is a part of porosity of the aquifer. Its measure depends on size and shape of granules, distribution of voids and layer tolerance. For uniform sand, special product can be up to 30 per cent, but in alluvial aquifers its measure is between 10 to 20 per cent.

To find out special product, Meinzer has suggested seven methods:

1. To saturate samples in laboratory and allow discharge of water from them.

2. Saturated water level and sufficient mass of material remain over the capillary portion and discharge natural water downwards.

3. Collect samples just above the capillary part after lowering down of groundwater level.

4. After pumping out water from the well in known quantity, determine the width of sediments throwing out water.

5. To determine width of sediments saturated by measured seepage of one or two streams of water.

6. To know special product indirectly after finding out moisture measure by centrifuging.

7. Determine special product or special hold after finding out porosity through mechanical analysis.

All these methods have limitations. Samples of laboratory can be disturbed or may have defective representation. In field experiments, control and measurement of variables is a difficult task and thus decided counting may lack truthfulness.

A large part of earth is permanently covered under snow. It includes most of the part of Tundra area and the whole of Antarctica, which remain permanently frozen. About 60 per cent part of Alaska also has land portion full of frost. Studies have been made in Russia and Alaska regarding water supply in permanently snow-covered lands and the resulting mechanical problems.

Based on availability of groundwater, lands permanently covered under frost have been categorized into supra-permafrost, intra-permafrost and sub-permafrost areas. Supra-permafrost groundwater being in the upper side of frost land creates a temporary supply of shallow water. Water located in supra-permafrost land is called artesian water or inter-frost groundwater. This water remains in open areas like near rivers, voids or fractures etc., of frost land.

Thus, water resources located under permanent snow can become optimistic sources, but there are difficulties like excessive expenditure, probable high salinity, and possible extension of frost land up to non-permeable rocks in its exploitation.

Related Articles:

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• Classification of Subsurface Water | Hydrogeology
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Essay on Water

Here we have shared the Essay on Water in detail so you can use it in your exam or assignment of 150, 250, 400, 500, or 1000 words.

You can use this Essay on Water in any assignment or project whether you are in school (class 10th or 12th), college, or preparing for answer writing in competitive exams. 

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Essay on Water in 150-250 words

Essay on water in 300-400 words, essay on water in 500-1000 words.

Water is a vital resource that sustains all forms of life on Earth. It covers about 70% of the planet’s surface, and its availability is essential for various human activities, ecosystems, and agriculture.

Water plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of nature. It supports biodiversity, provides habitat for aquatic species, and ensures the survival of ecosystems. Additionally, water is essential for agriculture, enabling the growth of crops and the sustenance of livestock.

However, water scarcity and pollution have become significant challenges. Rapid population growth, industrialization, and climate change have put immense pressure on water resources. Many regions face water shortages, leading to social, economic, and environmental consequences.

Water pollution is another critical issue. Industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and improper waste disposal contaminate water bodies, affecting both human health and aquatic life. It is crucial to implement sustainable water management practices, promote conservation efforts, and invest in water treatment infrastructure.

Education and awareness are key in fostering responsible water use. Individuals can contribute by conserving water, practicing efficient irrigation methods, and avoiding the contamination of water sources.

In conclusion, water is a precious resource that sustains life and ecosystems. The challenges of water scarcity and pollution require collective action to ensure its availability and quality. By implementing sustainable practices, promoting conservation, and raising awareness, we can protect and preserve this invaluable resource for future generations.

Water is a fundamental resource that is essential for all forms of life on Earth. It covers approximately 70% of the planet’s surface, playing a crucial role in supporting ecosystems, agriculture, and human activities.

Water is vital for the survival of living organisms and the maintenance of ecological balance. It provides habitat for a wide range of plants and animals, supporting biodiversity and contributing to the overall health of ecosystems. Water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, and oceans, serve as crucial habitats and breeding grounds for numerous species.

In agriculture, water is essential for crop irrigation and livestock sustenance. Farmers rely on water to nourish their crops and ensure food production. Additionally, water plays a critical role in the transport of nutrients within plants, enabling their growth and development.

Water is also crucial for human activities and economic development. It is used in households for drinking, cooking, and sanitation purposes. Industries depend on water for manufacturing processes, cooling systems, and energy production. Furthermore, water serves as a transportation medium for goods and people, facilitating trade and commerce.

However, the availability and quality of water face significant challenges. Rapid population growth, urbanization, and climate change exert pressure on water resources. Many regions around the world experience water scarcity, leading to social, economic, and environmental implications. The unequal distribution of water resources exacerbates these challenges, with some areas facing severe water shortages.

Water pollution is another pressing issue. Industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and improper waste disposal contaminate water bodies, negatively impacting aquatic ecosystems and human health. Waterborne diseases and the degradation of aquatic habitats are direct consequences of water pollution.

Addressing these challenges requires sustainable water management practices. Conservation efforts, such as rainwater harvesting and efficient irrigation techniques, can help preserve water resources. Investment in water treatment infrastructure is crucial to ensure the provision of clean and safe drinking water to communities. Moreover, raising awareness about water conservation and pollution prevention is vital in fostering responsible water use among individuals and industries.

In conclusion, water is a precious resource that sustains life, ecosystems, and human activities. The challenges of water scarcity and pollution necessitate collective action and sustainable water management practices. By valuing water, implementing conservation measures, and raising awareness about responsible water use, we can ensure the availability and quality of water for future generations.

Title: Water – The Essence of Life

Introduction :

Water is the elixir of life, a precious resource that is vital for the existence of all living organisms on Earth. Covering about 70% of the planet’s surface, water is found in oceans, rivers, lakes, and underground reservoirs. It plays a fundamental role in sustaining ecosystems, supporting agriculture, meeting human needs, and shaping the landscape. This essay explores the significance of water, its diverse uses, the challenges it faces, and the importance of responsible water management for the well-being of our planet and future generations.

Importance of Water

Water is essential for the survival and well-being of all living organisms. It serves as a universal solvent, enabling chemical reactions that are crucial for life processes. Water is involved in cellular functions, temperature regulation, nutrient transportation, and waste removal in living systems. In addition to its biological importance, water also plays a critical role in maintaining ecological balance. It provides habitats for countless species, supports biodiversity, and influences the functioning of ecosystems.

Water for Agriculture

Agriculture is heavily dependent on water for crop cultivation and livestock sustenance. Irrigation systems deliver water to fields, ensuring the growth and productivity of crops. Water is essential for germination, photosynthesis, and the transport of nutrients within plants. Livestock farming relies on water for drinking, cleaning, and maintaining proper hygiene conditions. Adequate water supplies are essential for the health and well-being of both plants and animals in agriculture.

Water for Human Needs

Water plays a vital role in meeting various human needs. Access to clean and safe drinking water is crucial for maintaining human health and preventing waterborne diseases. Water is used for cooking, food preparation, and sanitation, ensuring proper nutrition and hygiene. Adequate sanitation facilities, including toilets and wastewater treatment systems, rely on water to prevent the spread of diseases and maintain public health. Moreover, water is used in industries for manufacturing processes, cooling systems, and energy production.

Challenges of Water Scarcity

Water scarcity is a pressing global challenge, particularly in regions facing population growth, urbanization, and climate change. Unequal distribution, overexploitation of water resources, and inefficient water management contribute to the scarcity of water. This scarcity can lead to social, economic, and environmental consequences. Reduced water availability hampers agricultural productivity, jeopardizes livelihoods, and triggers conflicts over water rights. Addressing water scarcity requires sustainable water management practices, water conservation efforts, and investments in water infrastructure.

Water Pollution and Conservation

Water pollution poses a significant threat to water resources and ecosystems. Industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, improper waste disposal, and the use of chemicals contaminate water bodies, compromising water quality. This pollution has detrimental effects on aquatic life, threatens biodiversity, and poses health risks to humans. Waterborne diseases, such as cholera and dysentery, are direct consequences of water pollution. To combat water pollution, stringent regulations must be implemented to control industrial and agricultural activities that contribute to pollution. Proper wastewater treatment systems and waste management practices are essential to preserve water quality.

Water conservation plays a pivotal role in ensuring sustainable water use. Rainwater harvesting, efficient irrigation techniques, and public awareness campaigns promote responsible water consumption. Governments, communities, and individuals must work together to reduce water wastage, encourage water reuse, and protect water sources from pollution.

Conclusion :

Water is a precious and finite resource that is vital for all forms of life on Earth. Its significance extends beyond meeting basic needs and supporting ecosystems; water plays a critical role in shaping our planet. The challenges of water scarcity and pollution necessitate collective action and responsible water management practices. By valuing water, promoting conservation efforts, and raising awareness about responsible water use, we can ensure the availability and quality of water for future generations. It is our collective responsibility to protect and preserve this invaluable resource, safeguarding the well-being of our planet and all its inhabitants.

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Water Conservation Essay

500+ words essay on water conservation.

Water makes up 70% of the earth as well as the human body. There are millions of marine species present in today’s world that reside in water. Similarly, humankind also depends on water. All the major industries require water in some form or the other. However, this precious resource is depleting day by day. The majority of the reasons behind it are man-made only. Thus, the need for water conservation is more than ever now. Through this water conservation essay, you will realize how important it is to conserve water and how scarce it has become.

Water Scarcity- A Dangerous Issue

Out of all the water available, only three per cent is freshwater. Therefore, it is essential to use this water wisely and carefully. However, we have been doing the opposite of this till now.

Every day, we keep exploiting water for a variety of purposes. In addition to that, we also keep polluting it day in and day out. The effluents from industries and sewage discharges are dispersed into our water bodies directly.

Moreover, there are little or no facilities left for storing rainwater. Thus, floods have become a common phenomenon. Similarly, there is careless use of fertile soil from riverbeds. It results in flooding as well.

Therefore, you see how humans play a big role in water scarcity. Living in concrete jungles have anyway diminished the green cover. On top of that, we keep on cutting down forests that are a great source of conserving water.

Nowadays, a lot of countries even lack access to clean water. Therefore, water scarcity is a real thing. We must deal with it right away to change the world for our future generations. Water conservation essay will teach you how.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Water Conservation Essay – Conserving Water

Life without water is not possible. We need it for many things including cleaning, cooking, using the washroom, and more. Moreover, we need clean water to lead a healthy life.

We can take many steps to conserve water on a national level as well as an individual level. Firstly, our governments must implement efficient strategies to conserve water. The scientific community must work on advanced agricultural reforms to save water.

Similarly, proper planning of cities and promotion of water conservation through advertisements must be done. On an individual level, we can start by opting for buckets instead of showers or tubs.

Also, we must not use too much electricity. We must start planting more trees and plants. Rainwater harvesting must be made compulsory so we can benefit from the rain as well.

Further, we can also save water by turning off the tap when we brush our teeth or wash our utensils. Use a washing machine when it is fully loaded. Do not waste the water when you wash vegetables or fruit, instead, use it to water plants.

All in all, we must identify water scarcity as a real issue as it is very dangerous. Further, after identifying it, we must make sure to take steps to conserve it. There are many things that we can do on a national level as well as an individual level. So, we must come together now and conserve water.

FAQ of Water Conservation Essay

Question 1: Why has water become scarce?

Answer 1: Water has become scarce due to a lot of reasons most of which are human-made. We exploit water on a daily basis. Industries keep discharging their waste directly into water bodies. Further, sewage keeps polluting the water as well.

Question 2: How can we conserve water?

Answer 2: The government must plan cities properly so our water bodies stay clean. Similarly, water conservation must be promoted through advertisements. On an individual level, we can start by fixing all our leaky taps. Further, we must avoid showers and use buckets instead to save more water.

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• Earth Science

Groundwater

Groundwater is the water present below the earth’s surface and is a vast resource of water. Almost 22 percent of water is below the surface land in the form of groundwater. Groundwater is important as it is used for water supply in rural and urban areas. It is also often used for municipal, industrial and agricultural use by building and operating extraction wells.

• The groundwater is more convenient and less exposed to pollution. So, it is commonly used as water supplies for the public.
• Groundwater makes up about twenty percent of the freshwater supply of the entire world’s water, including oceans and permanent ice.

Groundwater Pollution

Generally, groundwater is good for drinking. Groundwater that is polluted is less visible and difficult to clean up than lakes and rivers. Most often groundwater pollution results from the disposal of wastes improperly including household and industrial chemicals, wastewater from mines, leaking underground oil storage, oil field brine pits, garbage landfills, and sewage systems.

Prevention of groundwater pollution can be done by:

• storing rainwater
• watertight materials
• collecting leachate with drains

What are Porosity and Permeability?

Porosity: It is a measure of the void spaces (pores) that exist between particles of clay, grains of sand, or pieces of gravel, in the layer. It is usually expressed as a fraction of the volume of void space divided by the total volume, and written as a percentage between 0–100%.

Permeability: It refers to the ability of water to move between these pore spaces.

Porosity and Permeability Ranges for Sediment:

Groundwater Recharge

Groundwater recharge is also known as deep percolation or deep drainage. It undergoes the hydrologic process, which moves surface water to groundwater. It is a primary method where water enters an aquifer. The recharge occurs at plant roots and is often known as a flux to the water table surface.

Types of groundwater recharge:

Water Cycle: Naturally, through the water cycle .

Anthropogenic Processes: Anthropogenic process is also called artificial groundwater recharge, where rainwater and reclaimed water is routed to the subsurface.

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What is meant by groundwater, what is the importance of groundwater, what is groundwater pollution, what are the solutions to preserve groundwater, what is meant by permeability.

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Essay on Sources of Water

Students are often asked to write an essay on Sources of Water in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Sources of Water

Introduction.

Water is a vital resource for all life forms. It is obtained from various sources like rivers, lakes, groundwater, and rain.

Rivers and Lakes

Rivers and lakes are significant sources of fresh water. They are replenished by rain and melting snow.

Groundwater

Groundwater is water found underground in soil or rocks. Wells and boreholes are used to extract it.

Rainwater is another essential source. It replenishes rivers and lakes and can be collected directly in rainwater tanks.

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250 Words Essay on Sources of Water

Water is the lifeblood of our planet, vital for all forms of life. It is a universal solvent, making it a critical resource for various industries. However, the sources from which we obtain this indispensable substance are diverse and complex.

Natural Water Sources

Natural sources of water, also known as surface water, primarily include rivers, lakes, and ponds. These bodies of water are replenished through precipitation and run-off from surrounding land. Groundwater, another natural source, is stored in aquifers beneath the Earth’s surface, replenished through the process of infiltration.

Artificial Water Sources

Artificial sources of water, on the other hand, are man-made and include reservoirs, wells, and canals. Reservoirs are typically created by damming rivers, storing large volumes of water for various uses. Wells tap into underground water sources, while canals are designed to transport water from one location to another.

Ice Caps and Glaciers

Ice caps and glaciers, although not readily accessible, represent a significant source of fresh water. They store about 69% of the world’s fresh water, which can be unlocked through melting, although this is heavily influenced by climate change.

500 Words Essay on Sources of Water

Water, the lifeblood of our planet, is a fundamental requirement for the survival of all known forms of life. It is a finite resource, and its availability is under increasing pressure due to growing populations and environmental changes. Understanding the sources of water is crucial for effective management and conservation of this vital resource.

Surface Water

Surface water is the most visible and directly accessible source of water. It includes bodies of water like rivers, lakes, and ponds, which are replenished by precipitation and run-off from surrounding land. Rivers, for instance, are a major source of fresh water for many communities. They are replenished by rainfall and snowmelt and are also fed by underground sources. Lakes, both natural and man-made, store vast quantities of water and serve as essential sources for drinking, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.

Desalination

With over 70% of the Earth’s surface covered by saltwater, desalination, the process of removing salt and other minerals from seawater, provides a potential source of fresh water. While historically expensive and energy-intensive, technological advances are making desalination a more viable option, particularly in water-scarce coastal regions.

Ice and Snow

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Groundwater Depletion in India – Causes, Implications and Way Forward

From Current Affairs Notes for UPSC » Editorials & In-depths » This topic

According to new research recently carried out, millions of drinking wells around the world may soon be at risk of running dry. It further pointed out that as much as 20% of the world’s groundwater wells may be facing imminent failure, potentially depriving billions of people of freshwater. The research points out a dismal situation across the globe in the coming years. Groundwater depletion has been a concern for the past few decades. India is also not left behind. Many parts of India face acute water shortage at particular periods every year. Depleting groundwater levels have severe implications spanning from water scarcity to a gradual decline in agricultural production. Thus, the issue needs to be addressed with prompt actions to prevent India and the entire world from groundwater depletion which has grave consequences for human civilization.

• Estimates say that 85% of the rural and 50% of the urban population in India is dependent on groundwater for fulfilling their needs.
• By annually drawing 251 bcm (billion cubic meters) of groundwater, India tops the list of the top 10 groundwater-extracting countries and is the largest user of the precious liquid from the bowels of the earth.
• India is one of 17 countries facing extremely high water stress , according to a report by the World Resources Institute. 
• According to the Fifth Minor Irrigation Census , the groundwater level in India has declined by 61 per cent between 2007 and 2017.
• It further observed that more than 1,000 blocks in India have become water-stressed .
• As per CWMI (Composite Water Management Index), 2018 by NITI Aayog , the water demand will exceed the supply by 2050.
• According to the Index, groundwater in India depleted at 10-25 mm per year between 2002 and 2016.
• 54 per cent of India’s groundwater wells are declining – said the report.
• It added that about 40% of India’s population possibly would have no access to drinking water by 2030.
• Recent studies suggest that groundwater levels are declining in several parts of northern India, especially in regions of high population densities.
• Studies also suggest that with the falling of groundwater levels, there has been a fall in the quality of groundwater levels in India as well.

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• Historical reasons – The advent of the Green revolution during the 1960s and the use of HYV (High Yielding Variety) seeds and fertilizers led to the overuse of groundwater resources. Cheap electricity was also one of the main reasons.
• Excessive pumping of water from the ground – Pumping groundwater more frequently is a cause of groundwater shortage. Pumping groundwater at a rapid rate and not allowing it to replenish its levels is a serious cause of concern.
• Increasing population – With a rapid rise in population and its increasing demand for food, there is an expansion in the area of land under irrigation. This is leading to uncontrolled exploitation of groundwater in India.
• Natural causes – These include uneven rainfall and climate change that are hindering the process of groundwater recharge. India is mainly dependent on the Indian summer monsoon rainfall and weaker summer monsoons can cause droughts. During such dry periods, water is extracted from the ground to meet various needs leading to a reduction in groundwater levels.
• Deforestation – Plants and trees play an important role in maintaining the water table. Reckless cutting of plants and trees is adding to the problem of groundwater depletion.

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Implications

• Lowering of the water table – Groundwater depletion may lower the water table leading to difficulty in extracting groundwater for usage.
• Reduction of water in streams and lakes – Groundwater and water in streams and lakes have interconnections. A substantial amount of the water flowing in rivers comes from seepage of groundwater into the streambed. Depletion of groundwater levels may reduce water flow in such streams.
• Subsidence of land – Groundwater often provides support to the soil. When this balance is altered by taking out the water, the soil collapses, compacts, and drops leading to subsidence of land.
• Increased cost for water extraction – As the depleting groundwater levels lower the water table, the user has to delve deep to extract water. This will increase his cost for water extraction.
• Contamination of groundwater – Groundwater that is deep within the ground often intermingles with saltwater that we shouldn’t drink.
• Constraints in food supply – A huge part of Indian agriculture depends on irrigation from groundwater. If groundwater availability faces difficulties then there will be hindrances in agricultural production leading to a shortage of food.
• Limitations to biodiversity and creation of sinkholes – Water table plays a major role in sustaining biodiversity. Often, sinkholes are created when the water table lowers. These sinkholes are dangerous for buildings and towers.

Policy challenges

• Estimation of groundwater resources – There is a lack of data available for estimation of groundwater sources and even if they are available, they are indicative and not representative.
• Crop pricing and water-intensive crops – The primary cause of over-exploitation has been the rising demand for groundwater from agriculture. Further, decisions such as cropping pattern and cropping intensity are taken independent of the groundwater availability in most areas. Minimum Support Price (MSP) is also available for water-intensive crops leading to widespread cultivation of such crops.
• Energy subsidies – The practice of providing power subsidies for agriculture has played a major role in the decline of water levels in India. The challenge is to find a balance between the needs of farmers and the need to ensure the sustainable use of groundwater.
• Inadequate regulation – Lack of proper regulations and their further implementation has been one of the major challenges in managing groundwater levels in India.
• Lack of local management – There is a lack of local management of groundwater resources. Local communities have an important role to play in groundwater management and there is a need for devolution of power for local management of such resources.

Recommendations

• Routine survey at regular intervals – There should be regular assessment of groundwater levels to ensure that adequate data is available for formulating policies and devising new techniques to find out a solution to the problem.
• Assessment of land use pattern – Studies should be carried out to assess land use and the proportion of agricultural land falling under overt-exploited units. This will help in determining suitable crop pattern in water-stressed areas.
• Changes in farming methods – To improve the water table in those areas where it is being overused, on-farm water management techniques and improved irrigation methods should be adopted. Methods for artificial recharge of groundwater are also welcome.
• Reforms in power supply subsidies for agriculture – The agricultural power-pricing structure needs to be revamped as the flat rate of electricity adversely affects the use of groundwater.
• Monitoring groundwater extraction – There should be a policy in place to monitor the excessive exploitation of groundwater resources to ensure long-term sustainability. Water meters could be installed to monitor overuse.
• Preventing groundwater pollution – Steps to minimize and control the dumping of industrial waste into surface water and underground aquifers should also be taken to prevent groundwater from getting polluted.
• The synergy between Central, State and Local governments – Steps need to be taken to achieve optimum benefits of groundwater conservation schemes. This can be done by ensuring coordination between all the ministries and departments of governments at the Central, State and Local levels.
• Water to be brought under Concurrent List – If water is brought under the Concurrent List of the Indian Constitution, this can help in the development of a comprehensive action plan. Consensus between the centre and states will result in better conservation, development and management of water, including groundwater.
• Conservation of waterbodies – Waterbodies maintain the groundwater level. There is a need to devise special programs for the upkeep, maintenance and restoration of water bodies with sufficient budgetary allocation.

Government initiatives

• Rainwater harvesting and conservation of water.
• Highlights the need for augmenting the availability of water through direct use of rainfall.
• Conservation of river, river bodies and infrastructure in a scientifically planned manner through community participation.
• Creation of a new Ministry of Jal Shakti for dealing with all matters relating to water at one place in an integrated manner.
• The Government of India has approved Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal) , a Rs. 6000 Crore Central Sector Scheme, for sustainable management of groundwater resources with community participation in water-stressed blocks of Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
• Mass awareness programmes (Training, Seminars, Workshops, Exhibitions, Trade Fares and Painting Competitions etc.) are conducted from time to time each year under the Information, Education & Communication (IEC) Scheme of DoWR, RD & GR in various parts of the Country to promote rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge to groundwater.
• The Department of Water Resource, RD&GR has instituted National Water Awards to incentivise good practices in water conservation and groundwater recharge .

Groundwater depletion is becoming an alarming issue day by day. It is high time that the causes are paid attention to and appropriate measures are taken to prevent a possible water crisis in future. With government initiatives and local community participation, groundwater depletion can be hindered. The issue needs a multisectoral approach to be dealt with.

Practise Question

• Comment on the present status of groundwater levels in India and suggest suitable measures to combat the issue of depleting groundwater levels.
• http://mowr.gov.in/sites/default/files/Steps_to_control_water_depletion_Jun2019.pdf
• https://www.prsindia.org/administrator/uploads/general/1455682937~~Overview%20of%20Ground%20Water%20in%20India.pdf
• https://india.mongabay.com/2018/06/indias-groundwater-crisis-fueled-by-intense-pumping-needs-urgent-management/
• https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/causes-effects-solutions-of-groundwater-depletion.php

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Excellent.. One suggestion you should add map of india related ground water.. Thankyu

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Underwater tunnel to Manhattan leaks after contractor accidentally drills through it

FILE - People walk along the East River at Main Street Park, April 9, 2020, in the Brooklyn borough of New York. (AP Photo/Frank Franklin II, File)

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NEW YORK (AP) — An underwater tunnel that passes beneath New York City’s East River sprung a leak Wednesday after a city contractor mistakenly drilled a hole through it, sending streams of water into the heavily used passage as officials scrambled to plug the opening and block off traffic.

The accidental puncture came at around 12:30 p.m. on the Manhattan side of the Queens-Midtown Tunnel, which carries nearly 100,000 drivers into and out of the heart of the city each day.

Cathy Sheridan, the president of MTA Bridges and Tunnels, said the commercial drilling company inadvertently bore a 2.5-inch (6.3-cm) hole through the tunnel’s cast iron lining, allowing water to seep through the exhaust duct and into the tube.

“There are many redundancies in the tunnel but, you know, when someone drills through all those layers, it’s going to cause a leak,” Sheridan said at a press conference.

Videos shared to social media showed water cascading out of the tunnel’s overhead vents and splashing onto vehicles below. “Tell me why the tunnel is leaking?” one driver can be heard asking. “What’s going on here?”

No one was harmed from the leak and an investigation is ongoing, officials said.

“As I understand it, they drilled 100 feet (30.5 m) from the surface of the water — about 50 feet (15.25 m) through water, then another 50 feet through soil — then to the tunnel,” Sheridan said.

The drilling contractor, Warren George, was conducting underwater investigative work for the city for a new esplanade that will pass by the United Nations building, according to Josh Krauss, the chief infrastructure officer at the city’s Economic Development Corporation.

Reached by phone, an employee for the drilling company declined to comment.

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• CRW Flags - Flag of Omsk Region, Russia

Omsk , oblast (region), west central Russia , in the basin of the middle Irtysh River . Its entire surface is an extremely flat plain, with extensive marshes and peat bogs in the north and innumerable lakes, of which Lake Tenis is the largest. Many southern lakes are saline. In the north is a dense, swampy forest, or taiga , of pine , fir , spruce , and birch ; this yields southward to forest - steppe , with groves of birch, and finally to true steppe. The forest-steppe and steppe have rich soils and are intensively cultivated . Much land was plowed up in the Virgin and Idle Lands Campaign of the 1950s. Agriculture dominates the economy, and the towns, apart from Omsk city, the oblast headquarters, are small food -processing centres. Grains, especially spring wheat , are the main crop; flax , sunflowers , and mustard are also important. Around Omsk city, market gardening is significant. Livestock husbandry and dairying are highly developed, with large numbers of cattle and sheep . Some timber is cut in the north. Area 53,900 square miles (139,700 square km). Pop. (2006 est.) 2,034,590.