environment and climate change essay in assamese

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• Published: 30 June 2016

Changing climate and its impacts on Assam, Northeast India

• Debojyoti Das 1  

Bandung: Journal of the Global South volume  2 , Article number:  26 ( 2015 ) Cite this article

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The paper explores climate change induced hydro hazards and its impact on tribal communities in Majuli (largest river island of Brahmaputra River Basin). The island has been experiencing recurrent floods, erosion, and siltation, which has distressed the socio-economic foundation and livelihood of the Mishing—a indigenous community on Northeast India, leading to out migration from the island. The indicators selected to capture the vulnerability of the island to climate change are dependency ratio; occurrence of natural hazards (floods) and coping methods; income of the household; and livelihood diversification. To gather the quantitative and qualitative data on these parameters the methods was designed to conduct both sample survey of households and focus group discussions. The findings reveal that in the selected villages, the dependency ratio is 4 (dependents): 1 (earning member); average income of the household is low i.e. $ 40/month and is declining as compared to last few years because of frequent floods, erosion and siltation that has decreased farm productivity which is the main source of income. The impact of changing climate and heightened flood and erosion risk to farmlands has been forced migration to cities and neighboring urban centers like Jorhar for stable livelihood. Therefore, we propose that a possible way to enhance social resilience to changing climate and vagaries of monsoon (tropical disturbances) is to promote alternative occupation like eco-tourism as (Majuli is the center of Vaisnavism and Satras in Northeast India) and invest in adaptive strategies to mitigate flood by incorporating lay and place-based knowledge of the Mishing community in flood management. Also facilitate community’s participation and awareness towards hydro hazards based on flood proof housing focusing on indigenous knowledge.

Climate change is gaining importance as scientific and socio-economic studies have brought forth substantial evidences (American Meteorological Society 2012 ; Norris et al. 2008 ; Agrawal and Perrin 2008 ; Paavola 2008 ; IPCC 2014 ; UNFCCC 2007 ; Adger and Kelly 1999 ). The impact of climate change is more likely to have an adverse effect in the developing countries due to high dependency on climate sensitive livelihood like rain-fed agriculture, water, and forestry (Moorhead 2009 ). The human development report of 2014 also declared that climate change has limited the choice of an individual and would further erode ‘human freedoms’ (UNDP 2007 ). According to IPCC ( 2007 ) climate change is real and already taking place. The report states that the impacts of climate change and their associated costs will fall disproportionately on developing countries threatening to undermine achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, reduce poverty, and safeguard food security. Climate Change will reduce access to drinking water, affects the health of the poor, will pose a threat to food security. Various researchers have established that larger burden of climate change disproportionately falls in the developing countries of the global south (Agrawal and Perrin 2008 ; Norris et al. 2008 ; Paavola 2008 ; UNFCCC 2007 ; Adger and Kelly 1999 ). Additionally, poor people in developing countries tend to be more vulnerable due to limited opportunities and choices, small land holdings and lack of access to market. Within countries the marginalized groups have limited resources and capacity to adapt and are the most vulnerable (IPCC 2001 ). Climate change policies are crucial for enhancing adaptive capacity of the community.

Institution plays an important role in community’s adaptation to climate change (Berman et al. 2011 ). Various adaptation measures have been under taken across societies to fight the impacts of climate change. One of the most common methods of adaptation is migration. In areas where livelihood choices are limited, decreasing crops yield may lead to out migration. Climate change has been cited as one of the growing drivers of migration across the world (ADB 2012 ). IPCC in its first assessment report has mentioned that by 2050, estimated 150 million people could be displaced due to climate-induced factors like floods, drought on storms (IPCC 1990 ). However, migrations may not be the best methods to adapt to climate change. Various factors like education, health, sanitation, are likely to be affected by migration. Therefore, there is a need for proper adaptation strategies to fight the long-term impacts of climate change.

Both India and Bangladesh face many common challenges. Even as their overlapping geographies allow them to share a climate, with its associated vulnerabilities, their use of common resources like water means that actions in one country can profoundly impact the other. As the impacts of climate change begin to set in, the commonalities in the former will lend greater urgency to the relationship in the latter. As both countries begin to face ever-increasing temperatures and ever more erratic rainfall patterns, they will be forced to find greater common cause in their shared water resources. Majuli River Island in Upper Assam located in the Ganga–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM) river basin is the geographic focus of the paper. We will look at a micro region Majuli island as a case study to understand the impact of climate change and glacial ice melt in the Himalayas and Tibet that triggers floods and bank erosion induced displacement of people in the local environment and how communities cope with it in Assam, India.

In Majuli like other parts of South Asia climate change is having disproportionate impact of marginal people particularly the Mishing communities who live and depend on the river island for their livelihood. Majority of the research on Majuli have focused on bank erosion, rainfall pattern, drainage discharge of the Brahmaputra river, geomorphic changes in the river basin and the impact of the 1950 earthquake on settlements and fluvial pattern of the river (Sarma 2014 ). There is hardly any discussion of local knowledge system and resilience of the community to manage natural disasters triggered by global weather change. This paper will make a small beginning in this direction by bringing to the forefront communities adaptation to flood and bank erosion in Majuli River Island focusing on the Mishing community. This is important to understand the human dimension and plight of the local communities and how they evolve resilient strategies to live with floods. The findings of the paper will be of interest to policy makers and experts to design new strategies on how community knowledge can be integrated to policymaking on climate change and disaster risk reduction.

Taking this in perspective, a study was conducted in Majuli Island, located in the river Brahmaputra in India. The following objectives were considered for the study.

What are the strategies adopted by the communities to match the impacts of climate change like flood, erosion and siltation?

Is migration undertaken as an alternative to enhance adaptation to climate change?

What are the plausible options available to the people to enhance the adaptive capacity?

Climate change and migration

Climate change in the developing world is a hindrance in the path of development. Although the basic science of climate change is simple, the causes and likely impacts of climate change on human beings are highly complex (Hepburn and Nicholas, 2009 ). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment report 2007 (AR4) has declared that “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level” (IPCC 2007 , p. 30). IPCC ( 2007 ) makes it clear that climate change is real and is already taking place. Climate change will have wide-ranging effects on the physical environment as well as on sectors like water resource, agriculture, food security and human health (UNFCCC 2007 ). The fear is that the impacts of climate change in the form of droughts, famines, floods, variability in rainfall, storms, coastal inundation, ecosystem degradation, heat waves, fires and epidemics will undermine the international efforts to combat poverty (HDR 2008 ). Although many areas could experience temperature increases in the region whereas some areas may actually cool under global warming conditions (Houghton et al. 1996 ). Patterns and amounts of precipitation are also likely to change, and it is projected that rainfall will increase in some areas and decrease in others (Houghton et al. 1996 ).

The social and physical impacts of climate change are not uniform or homogenous as the magnitude and direction of climate change across the globe vary and even within the same regions experiencing climate change are likely to vary because some ecosystem, sectors, or social groups are more vulnerable to climate change than others (O’Brien and Leichenko 2000 ). As evident from various literatures (Adger and Kelly 1999 ; UNFCCC 2007 ; Norris et al. 2008 ; Agrawal and Perrin 2008 ; Paavola 2008 ) the impact of climate change will fall disproportionately among the different sections of the population, which is more likely to strike economically developing countries or poor countries even harder. As a consequence natural resource-dependent rural households in developing countries are likely to share a disproportionate burden of the adverse impacts of climate change (Agarwal and Perrin 2008 ).

Recent studies shows that climate change has lead to migration of rural communities in search of better livelihood opportunities. Climate change will increase migration due to factors like warming and drying of some region which will lead to decrease in agriculture productions and high precipitation leading to floods in low lying areas (Shamsuddoha and Chowdhury 2009 ). Climate change will especially lead to forced migration of rural communities in developing countries whose livelihood mainly depends on agriculture (Brown 2008 ). Large numbers of people are displaced every year due to floods and drought in most of the developing countries in Asia and it is likely to increase in the coming years (ADB 2012 ). High rate of poverty, population growth, limited landholding size, limited livelihood opportunities and government policies combined with environmental factors have increased forced migration in the global south. According to a report published by International Organization for Migration (IOM), forced migration increases pressure on urban infrastructure and services, undermine economic growth, increases the risk of conflict thereby leading to low human development among the migrants (Brown 2008 ). Migration due to climate change is likely to evolve into a global crisis (Panda 2015 ). In countries like India and Bangladesh, there are many instances of migration leadings to ethnic tension and conflicts. For example, in Assam the presence of Hindustani people coming from central India and Bihar has caused ethnic tensions and violence in the past. Similarly the perceived threat that people from Bangladesh will immigrate to northeastern part of India due to its low population density once climate change intensifies cyclones, floods and sea level rise in the coastal belt of Bangladesh has raised threats of ethnic clashes and violence in the region. Nonetheless there are both positive as well negative impacts of migration. Positive impacts are in the form of remittances that are likely to boast the economy of the household whereas negative impacts are likely to increase the rate of unemployment, illiteracy and slums in the urban areas. Various human development indicators like education, health, sanitation, access to water, and assets might be missing from the migrant.

The link between migration and poverty is complex and dependent on the specific circumstances in which migration takes place. Migration can both cause and be caused by poverty. Poverty can be alleviated as well as exacerbated by migration. In Kerala, India, for example, migration to the Gulf States has caused wages to rise, reduced unemployment, and improved the economic situation of those left behind (Zacharia et al. 2002 ). In other situations, migration does not lead to economic or social improvement. Research on the impact of labour migration in tribal Western India found that for poorer migrants ‘many years of migration have not led to any long-term increase in assets or any reduction in poverty’. However the study also noted that migration offered poor migrants ‘a short-term means to service debt and avoid the more extreme forms of dependency and bondage’ (Mosse et al. 2002 ).

Therefore, it is important to enhance employment opportunities among rural communities who are likely to face the heat of climate change. Our study will explore whether migration has been undertaken as an alternative ways of adapting to climate change.

Majuli River Island

The study mainly focuses on how climate change may have an impact on the livelihood of the people inhabiting Majuli. It is a river Island located in the midst of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, India and is recognised as one of the largest river Island in the world. The population of the Island is 1.68 lakh (Go 2011 ) with majority of the population belonging to tribal communities namely Mising, Deori, Sonowal Kacharis. The poverty rate of the Island is high with around 21.47 % (District Admistration, Jorhat, India) of people living below poverty line i.e. less than $2 per day. Due to the intrinsic link between poverty and vulnerability (Adger and Kelly 1999 ), poverty has been kept at the centre while assessing community’s vulnerability to any type of changes. The Island has been constantly affected by flood and erosion. Due to continuous erosion the Island is gradually shrinking in the last century (Table  1 ).

The island is vulnerable to flood and bank erosion which has resulted in the shrinking of the land area. More than 90 % of the population is dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. Erosion has been a major problem in the region and every year hectares of agriculture land are eroded along with standing crops. Another problem faced by the people of Majuli is flash flood during the rainy season. Climate change is particularly thought to be adversely affecting the livelihoods in rural locations because of dependence on subsistence agriculture and the vagaries of monsoon rain and unpredictable floods. The impacts of climate change have been felt in the area with continuous shifts in rainfall pattern as well as changes in the temperature. These study mainly focuses on the community’s vulnerability to any type of environmental change mainly climate change and building resilience among the rural communities by enlarging the capability of the people. Pomua, Kumarbari, and Jengrai Chapori are the three villages located in Majuli Island, Jorhat district which were selected as study sites based on the following criteria:

(A) Poor economic conditions: Majority of the population of Majuli are dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. As mentioned earlier, due to constant flooding of the region crops are destroyed leading to high-rise in poverty. (B) Vuloods and erosion: Erosion and flood has been a common problem in the Island. Every year during the time of monsoon due to heavy rainfall fall in the region the area is flooded as well as agriculture land are being eroded making the people vulnerable. (C) Small land holdings of households: Most of the farmers have a small land holding of agricultural land that acts as the prime source of household income.

The research was initiated with identification of research problems followed by a literature review and secondary data collection, based on which villages were selected and schedules were prepared to gather the quantitative and qualitative data. Sample populations were identified to conduct the survey and discussions and data were analyzed and interpreted after aggregation.

The following figure depicts the framework followed (Table  2 ).

Selection of villages for the research study

Kumarbari and Jengrai Chapori are the two villages located in Majuli Islands, Jorhat district which were selected as study sites based on the following criteria:

Poor economic conditions (income).

Vulnerability of the villages to flood and erosion.

Land holdings of households.

Agriculture as the prime source of income.

Preparation of schedules

Schedules were prepared to collect quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data was collected from households through a questionnaire, whereas qualitative data was collected through Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). The questionnaire and the focus group discussion checklist were designed after discussion with a few stakeholders in the village (a NGO called Impact NE, students and community elders who are well informed about the villages.) and secondary data was gathered through literature review.

Questionnaire

The questions in the questionnaire were divided into four categories as follows.

The first section of the questionnaire was intended to gather basic information about the household. It consists of questions on respondent’s name, the social group to which the household belongs their occupation, literacy level, and dependency ratio in the family and agricultural land holdings.

The second section of questionnaire was based on qualitative semi structured questions to gather information on climate change and its impact felt by the respondents. The questions asked were on types of crops cultivated season-wise, changes in rainfall and temperature agricultural pattern and output, incidents and destruction caused by floods, erosion, siltation, adaptation process and migration. The third section of the questionnaire deals with information relating to policies, which includes questions relating to government policies, scheme implementation in the villages etc. This section was prepared based on information gathered from Assam.

Agriculture policy: The last section of the questionnaire was to see the economic status, access to market to sell the agricultural output, the amount of agricultural output sold in the market, and storage for agricultural output of the household.

Sample population: The sample consisted of randomly selected households. Random sample selection is a method, which allows each possible sample to have an equal probability of being picked, and each item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the sample. The household survey was conducted among 30 households in each village.

FGD to collect qualitative data

A FGD checklist was prepared and a facilitator was contacted who informed the people in the village about the discussion to be held. Interaction with the concerned group was held at a convenient time and place, in order to not interfere with the time of their livelihood and daily activities. The discussion was recorded to facilitate recall of important issues and informed consent was taken before organizing the interviews. A survey of the village was done which helped immensely to observe the area with the help of villagers and supervisors to know the surroundings of the villages like fields, farming practices, irrigation facilities, and existing education and health infrastructure. It was very helpful to locate and pinpoint various physical aspects of the villages. The concerns and issues discussed in the FGDs revolved around ownership of cultivable land, agriculture pattern and practices, perception on variation in rainfall and temperature, adaptation mechanism to cope with natural calamities like floods and droughts, migration of youth, participation of women in agriculture and decision-making. In each of the three villages, two FGDs were held, one with the males, and females group, except in Pomua village where one FGD was held with males, and mixed group (males and females). The FGDs were held after a gap of 5–10 days of the survey. The FGD were held with both male and female participants to record their gendered experiences of the vagaries of flood and loss of agricultural land.

Sample population: The affected Mishing community was selected for the FGD, the group comprised of both men and women engaged in agriculture and belonging to lower income group.

Data analysis and drawing interpretation:

Data analysis: The data were analyzed according the land holding of the respondent.

The qualitative information collected through focus group discussion (FGD) are collated and documented as case studies.

Results and interpretations

Tribal communities primarily inhabit the three villages and the random sample selected revealed that all the respondents belonged to Mishing tribe. The results of the household survey are analyzed below. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people represented by 90 % in Kumarbari and 93 % in both Pomua and Jengrai Chapori. A few of them work as government employees. Paddy is the main crop cultivated—Kharif ( Boro Dhaan ) in Monsoon, Rabi ( Sali Dhaan ) in winter, and cash crops like mustard oil, black daal, during autumn etc. During the last few years there has been slight change in agricultural pattern and practices; recently, tractors, and chemical fertilizers (urea) have been introduced in the agriculture fields. But traditional methods of cultivation are still predominant among the villagers. Due to constant occurrences of flood, erosion and siltation in Majuli agriculture production has gone down excessively and agriculture production has no longer been profitable thereby impacting the income of the household from agriculture. Along with destruction of crops, property like houses, cattle, etc. are also washed away due to flood. Most of the farmers in Pomua (43.3 %) Jengrai Chapori (30 %) own 1.0–2.0 ha, and in Kumarbari (40 %) own relatively smaller landholding, i.e. 0.5–1.0 ha. Crops are cultivated in three seasons, summer, winter and autumn by the entire sample population. Paddy is the main crop cultivated during summer ( boro dhaan ) and winter ( Sali dhaan ) season; and cash crops like mustard and pulses (black daal) are grown in autumn season.

Rainwater is the major source of irrigation in all the three villages and a very small number of households depend on water pump (summer season: Pomua and Jengrai Chapori—3 ha each, and Kumarbari—7 ha out of which 3 ha own above 2 ha of land). Rainwater is the only source of irrigation for crops grown in winter ( Sali dhaan ) and season (cash crops). Water demand is relatively higher in summers; therefore, there are a few households, which depend on water pump. The overall perception on the impact of the change in rainfall on the agriculture output is that the produce has decreased with the variation in the rainfall, hence leading to a decrease in their income from agriculture.

All the respondents witnessed the loss of property and crops as a result of floods in the villages; they confirmed the occurrence of major floods in 1998, 2007, 2008 and 2013. In addition, they have experienced erosion and siltation of their agriculture land to a large extent; least impact was in Jengrai Chapori (41 %) and most was in Kumarbari (63 %), in Pomua, on an average 54 % of the respondents are affected by erosion and siltation. Flooding, erosion and siltation hampers the growth in agriculture output in turn impacting the income of the household from agriculture.

Therefore, employment opportunity diversification is central to raise their economic status and enhance their adaptive capacity. Although the literacy rate of Majuli is 73.92 % but the number of people attaining higher education is very low. As a result of these the chances of getting employment is very low thereby forcing people to go for unskilled jobs. As education plays an important role in building the capability of the people, therefore education of the people in the Island is crucial. Highest number of literate respondents was in Pomua (93.3 %) village followed by Kumarbari (83.3 %) and Jengrai Chapori (80 %), respectively.

The damages caused by floods and bank erosion is some times irreversible for example the loss of cropland to the river and salt deposition over farmland when the flood water enters the farmers field through embankment breaches and leaves a heavy silt deposit. Over the past 10 years nearly 30 % of the household income is lost due to erratic rainfall and floods. Most of the respondents particularly male observed that silt deposition is a major threat to their farmland besides loss of cultivable land to the river. These hazards compel households to migrate for alterative livelihood opportunities in the cities. Female members are less mobile unlike man and have to stay in the village to look after their children’s and elderly people in the family. They depend on the money send by their husbands and male family members working outside the village.

Result of focus group discussion

Communities living in Majuli cultivate a variety of crops. The annual crop cycle follows the monsoon— Kharif ( Boro Dhaan ) in summer, Rabi ( Sali Dhaan ) in winter, and cash crops like mustard oil, black gram is grown during autumn. During the last few years there has been a slight change in agricultural practices—tractors and chemical fertilizers like urea have been introduced to the farmers field to improve yield per hectare and to make agriculture more productive and linked to market. But traditional methods of cultivation are still predominant among the villagers. Tractors are rented from larger landowners at the rate of Rs. 150 per bigha .

Rainfall has decreased as compared to a few years back. It is also observed that the rainfall generally does not occur timely as it used to be earlier. As a result of this agricultural production has decreased compared to last few years. The focus group discussions also revealed that lots of dust occurs due to less rainfall during winter seasons. Another problem faced by the people of this village is the frequent floods during monsoon months. Major flood occurred in this village during 1998, 2006, 2007, and 2008. There has been huge amount of loss and destruction caused by these floods (Please see Table  3 ). During floods people face problems of sanitation, health etc. The Mishing tribes live in chang ghars (stilt house), which are made of locally available bamboo to live with rising flood water as there households are located close to the swamps and ponds locally known as ( beel ). This method of adaptation has been integrated in the design of the houses built in Mishing villages.

The interviewed groups expressed that the summers are getting warmer and winters are becoming cooler, compared to the previous years. Vector borne diseases like diarrhea, dysentery and jaundice are widespread in the village during summer. Migration has been another major concern faced by the people. People migrate to different states like Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and other parts of Assam to seek employment opportunities as semiskilled laborers in factories and as security guards. The main reasons for migration are lack of adequate employment opportunities in the village as agriculture is the main source of income. Decline in agriculture output and the vulnerability of livelihood to frequent flood and bank erosion is pushing inhabitants to seek seasonal employment outside the island. The government schemes implemented in this village include tractors, agricultural inputs like seed, fertilizers and pesticides, power tiller, 5 hp diesel pump set, 10 hp diesel power thresher for paddy, hand held sprayers are distributed to households having Kisan Credit Card (KCC). The interviewed group expressed that majority of the people don’t receive government schemes. Households with high income and political patronage benefit from these schemes and not the intended relatively poorer families.

Women shares equal rights as that of men. Women are active counterparts of men in agriculture related activities. They help the male counterparts in the field and in processing of agriculture output like trashing paddy, besides doing the household chores. They also share equal responsibility as men in decision-making process. Overall, the impact of climate change (change in rainfall and temperature) has been significant on the lives of the people. Number of people living below poverty line has risen, migration has taken place and more incidences of water related diseases have been reported by two interviews representing Impact NE (a local NGO) present in the group discussion and there has been a overall decrease in agricultural output in the village.

Adaptation strategies

The adaptation processes includes people moving to high areas during flood and generally live in stilt houses ( chang ghars ), which is a process of adaptation they have learned to live with floods. They also grow water resistant paddy in areas that are perennially inundated. The choice of crop cultivation and identification of worst areas affected by flood is based on their place based tacit knowledge. However, these responses are at risk due to the increase in the vagaries of monsoon and flash flood triggered by ice melt in the Himalayas during the pre monsoon season due to rising temperature over the past few years in northern India. All the respondents also mentioned that there is provision of government aid when natural calamities like drought and floods occur in the villages. Migrations have been considered as an alternative way of adaptation to increased floods. To adapt to flood and erosion people mostly youths are migrating to other places within and outside the state in search of employment. They mostly work as security guards, rickshaw pullers etc. in the urban areas. Migration has been a major problem for the people of Majuli as the workforce has been gradually decreasing in the Island. Most of the youth migrate to states like Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra to find employment opportunities as semi-skilled laborers in factories and as security guards.

All the respondents revealed that migration is prevalent in the village because of the lack of job opportunities, better employment elsewhere, poverty and vulnerability of agriculture to frequent flood and bank erosion.

Our research in Majuli has come out with the following revelation. Firstly, the average number of dependents in the family is four and the number of earning member is one, which is relatively high and requires more resources for subsistence. Secondly, the employment diversification in the village is low as majority of the population is dependent on agriculture (90–93 % of population whose primary occupation is agriculture). Thirdly, Lack of employment opportunities in the region has resulted in a very high rate of migration (100 %) to other states. Most of the sample population (83 % in Jengrai Chapori and 80 % in Kumarbari) earn below Rs 2500/-per month as the income, which is primarily from agriculture and there is an overall response that the income is declining as a result of the changes in rainfall (80 % in Pomua, 60 % in Jengrai Chapori, and 100 % in Kumarbari).

Furthermore, the government schemes implemented in these villages are benefiting a very small section, and the beneficiaries are not the poorest households, the perception revealed in the FGD is that benefits are accrued by the households, which have association with the concerned authority. A combined impact of these changes is increasing poverty in the villages, which would weaken the adaptation capacity, and further result in more vulnerability to climate change. Therefore, the concern raised was that employment opportunity diversification is central to raise their economic status and enhance their adaptive capacity.

Majuli river island  is vulnerable to climate change as it experiences frequent floods, which induce erosion and siltation. In addition, climate change is taking a toll on the health and well being of the inhabitants as there is a serious problem of water related vector borne diseases. The vulnerability of the population to climate change is high as the adaptation capacity of the village is declining in light of uncertain flooding that disturbs their crop cycle and annual crop calendar. This is reflected in the flood damage data produced by the Brahamapura Board, a nodal agency established by the government of India in the 1980's to manage flood and erosion in the Brahmaputra river basin (see Table  2 ).

To live with floods the Mishing families lives in chang ghars (stilt house) that are made of locally available bamboo; when the damage induced by the floods is greater they move to higher lands. This has been passed down from generation and does not prevent them from flood damages to their cropland and livestock. Therefore their vulnerability to floods will persist.

While seasonal migration acts a safety valve to the imminent hydro hazards induced livelihood crisis, the real solution lies in finding solution through the use of community’s indigenous ecological knowledge that would enhance their per capita income through participation in other activities that are not dependent on land alone. The promotion of cultural tourism can be one of them. Majuli has been nominated twice as a Cultural Landscape for the UNESCO’S World Heritage Site (2012). Its unique Vaisnavait satra culture ( namghars ) attracts tourist from all over the world. The rich cultural tradition of drama, folk music and monasteries own Assamese literary and philosophical texts (locally known as burunjis ) are of unique interest to promote cultural tourism. The need of the hour is to promote tourism sensibly—by highlighting the tangible and intangible heritage of the island—so that the local communities can economically support themselves by engaged in eco-tourism work such as working as tour guides, restaurant owners, boat owners, lodgers and story tellers. They can earn additional income and compensate the loss caused by flood and bank erosion. Similarly institutions like the Brahmaputra Board and policy makers working on natural disaster management as well as the epistemic community should encourage the incorporation of place based knowledge of the community to be intergrade to mainstream flood management planning. The place-based knowledge of the community has historically developed to cope with growing uncertainty with floods. However, due to the erratic nature of floods and cloud burst induced flash floods during the pre-monsoon season farmers crop calendar has been readjusted. The state agriculture department can help the community by incorporating their local understanding of farming in their agriculture improvement programmes.

Therefore the approach to climate change mitigation and disaster risk reduction should be visualised around local knowledge through the engagement of the communities and civil society groups that could work as facilitators in promoting sustainable livelihood. Climate Change can be combatted by developing alternative livelihood opportunities for the community through community driven development programmes and by incorporating local knowledge in disaster management. 

Change history

08 february 2018.

The Editor-in-Chief is issuing an editorial expression of concern to alert readers that an allegation of plagiarism has been brought with respect to this article (Das 2016). We have submitted the allegation to the institution where the author was affiliated when the article was written and requested an investigation. The author does not agree with this notice.

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Das, D. Changing climate and its impacts on Assam, Northeast India. Bandung J of Global South 2 , 26 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40728-015-0028-4

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• Agriculture
• Majuli Island
• Mising tribes

Assam and the economic costs of climate change

Assam, due to its geographic location and poor socio-economic conditions, offers a good example of the need to take into account the economic burden of climate change

Climate change has emerged as the most pressing global challenge of the 21st century. There is today an increasing understanding that climate change transcends political boundaries and affects the whole global population, making them stakeholders to the solutions too. However, despite the ubiquity of climate change, its more immediate impacts are felt differently by different groups of people. Developing countries, with their low adaptive capacities and high dependence on climatic variables, are highly susceptible to climate-induced tragedies.

With growing discussion around the issue, there is also an increasing awareness about the importance of taking into account the economic costs and risks of climate change. This awareness was most recently highlighted by the 2018 Nobel Economic Prize which was awarded to two economists, Paul Romer and William Nordhaus, who have separately made significant contributions to the integration of technology, macroeconomic analysis, and climate change.

This understanding on the need to provide more than just peripheral attention to the economic implications of unusual changes in climate is slow to percolate in developing countries. This is despite the poor economic conditions and high dependence on geophysical elements in such regions.

The case of Assam

Assam, for instance, is extremely vulnerable to climate change due to both, its geographic proximity to the delta region and poor socio-economic conditions [1] .This vulnerability is reflected in the exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity of the local population to climate induced extreme events such as floods [2] .

The state is characterised by high rainfall and a subtropical climate. It gets annual floods and frequent droughts, both of whose severity has risen due to adverse climatic conditions. However, like most developing regions, climate change issues have received short shrift in the state, and efforts are more focused on recovery than creation of adaptive capacity. According to the State Action Plan for Climate Change [3] , the annual mean temperature in the state has increased by 0.59 degrees Celsius over the last 60 years (1951 to 2010), and is likely to increase by 1.7-2.2 degree Celsius by 2050. Climate projections in the state action plan also predict that extreme rainfall events will increase by 38%.

The poor are more vulnerable to extreme climate events and the drastic climate change projections are particularly worrisome for Assam as almost 32% of its population lives below the poverty line. Further, a majority of this population is dependent for its income on agriculture, which in turn is highly dependent on climatic factors such as precipitation and weather, and is frequently disrupted due to damage from floods and droughts. The state's low adaptive capacity further exacerbates the situation and makes the populace dependent on agriculture highly. Frequent droughts have affected the produce of the bountiful state and have often led to economic consequences. Drought conditions lower the production of agricultural commodities, which in turn push their prices up. One can easily imagine the result of low incomes and high prices in the face of events such as droughts and floods.

A fitting example of the disproportionate impact of climate change on the economically marginalised communities is that of Majuli, the largest riverine island in the Brahmaputra River. Majuli has a very high poverty rate at around 21.47% (according to Jorhat district administration). Climate change has resulted in continuous shifts in rainfall pattern as well as an increase in temperatures of the island. It has also lost visibly large tracts of land due to erosion over the last century. The already low income of island's population is further declining due to lower farm productivity caused by frequent floods, erosion, and siltation. The loss of livelihood due to climate induced events has resulted in forced migration to neighbouring urban centres such as Jorhat. [4]

This deeply troubling economic implication of climate extremes resulting in the loss of livelihood options is reflected in other parts of the state. A 2012 study by the Centre for Environment, Social and Policy Research (CESPR), in collaboration with the Indian Network on Ethics and Climate Change, noted the widespread loss of livelihood options for thousands of people across Assam due to climate disasters, particularly floods and erosion. Climate change is even endangering the abundant tea plantations that are synonymous with Assam, as several modeling results have pointed towards decreasing tea yields in the region [5] .

Apart from the economic loss, the effect of climate distortion on the population's health and wellbeing is also overlooked, further weakening the region's human resource base. While previously unheard of, heat strokes are becoming commonplace in Assam as summer temperatures are touching 40 degrees Celsius. There is a dearth of data on climate change induced rise in diseases in the region, but it shouldn't be surprising if such a study does indeed establish a correlation between spread of diseases, particularly communicable diseases.

The way forward

The state government has recognised that climate change is a deterrent for the state's development aspirations, and recently [6] proposed to set up a climate change management society headed by the chief minister.

The State Action Plan on Climate Change addresses the issues of sustainability of agricultural systems, energy sufficiency and efficiency, and enhanced impacts on health, among other issues. However, a more robust, holistic and transformative plan requires inclusion of wider issues such as climate induced migration and conflict, which is particularly pertinent to the state and has wide socio-economic implications. The huge increase in temperatures is also resulting in impacts at an unprecedented rate. Economic forecasting along with mapping of climate change trends will aid in the planning and implementation of adaptation and mitigation measures throughout the state, helping it cope with the projected effects of climate change.

[1]"Assam is home to 31 million people, a third of whom are poor. While poverty levels in Assam declined rapidly between 1994 and 2005, the state has since lagged behind most other states in reducing poverty. The incidence of poverty in Assam remains higher than the national average, with poverty levels being very high in some parts of the state. Growth, which is driven mainly by services, is among the lowest in the country. Consumption inequality, while low relative to other Indian states, has been increasing, especially in urban areas."Assam Poverty, Growth & Inequality. Brief. World Bank Group, June 20, 2017. [2]Chaliha, Swati, AsmitaSengupta, Nitasha Sharma, and N.h. Ravindranath. "Climate Variability and Farmers Vulnerability in a Flood-prone District of Assam." International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management4, no. 2 (2012): 179-200. doi:10.1108/17568691211223150. [3]Assam State Action Plan on Climate Change (2015 - 2020). Report. Assam: Department of Environment and Forest, Government of Assam, India, September 2015. 1-127. [4]Das, Debojyoti. "Changing Climate and Its Impacts on Assam, Northeast India." Bandung: Journal of the Global South2, no. 1 (2015). doi:10.1186/s40728-015-0028-4. [5]Duncan, J.M.A., S.D. Saikia, N. Gupta, and E.M. Biggs."Observing Climate Impacts on Tea Yield in Assam, India." Applied Geography 77 (2016): 64-71. doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2016.10.004. [6]August, 2018: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/assam-plans-panel-on-climate-change-to-be-headed-by-cm/articleshow/65548569.cms

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Climate change: Assam has 15 of India’s 25 most vulnerable districts

GUWAHATI: Policymakers stare agape at fresh climate change data for Assam which has 15 of India’s 25 most vulnerable districts.

Southern Assam’s Karimganj district, which shares a border with Bangladesh, tops the all-India chart, the state’s Minister of Science, Technology and Climate Change Keshab Mahanta told the Assembly on Friday.

The 14 other Assam districts in order of vulnerability are Goalpara, Dhubri, Darrang, Sonitpur, Golaghat, Cachar, Barpeta, Kokrajhar, Tinsukia, Baksa, Morigaon, Dibrugarh, Sivasagar and Hailakandi.

The minister, who did not cite the reasons behind vulnerability, said the state government was taking some steps to mitigate the problem.

He said the government launched the Chief Minister’s Institutional Plantation Programme to enhance carbon stock through the plantation of native species and create awareness among government officials on climate change mitigation.

“The uniqueness of the programme is that the saplings planted have been geo-tagged for the monitoring of their growth for three years. So far, 50,780 institutions under the state government have participated in the programme and 2,43,451 saplings have been planted,” Mahanta said.

He said all departments had been involved in the plantation drive and the performance of the Public Health Engineering was the best.

“Under the Chief Minister’s Climate-Resilient Village Fellowship Programme, 100 fellows will undertake a study in 100 villages to develop climate resilient models specific to these villages which could be taken up for developing as climate-resilient villages,” Mahanta said.

Assam is highly vulnerable to climate change due to its geographic proximity to the delta region and poor socio-economic conditions.

According to climate projections in the State Action Plan for Climate Change, extreme rainfall events will increase by 38% in the state. The annual mean temperature in the state has increased by 0.59 degrees Celsius in 60 years (1951-2010).

A study by the Centre for Environment, Social and Policy Research, 2012, in collaboration with the Indian Network on Ethics and Climate Change, noted the widespread loss of livelihood options across Assam due to climate disasters, particularly floods and erosion.

“Assam has the highest overall vulnerability index in the country (Council on Energy, Environment and Water, 2021). The rainfall intensity is changing. Golaghat district has not witnessed a normal monsoon in the last 30 years. Severe drought also hit Assam’s wet regions in 2021,” the minister said in his written reply.

He said there has been an exponential increase in the frequency of flood events in Assam since 2010. He admitted the ban on plastic could not be enforced effectively.

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Climate Change and Disappearing Habitats: The Case of Majuli Island in Northeast India

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Majuli, the world’s largest riverine island with a history of occupation dating back to 1228 CE, is now faced with the threat of imminent extinction. Informed opinion states that the island may well be submerged within the next two decades. Located in the Brahmaputra river basin in the state of Assam, India, Majuli has always been prone to seasonal flooding and erosion, but climate change-induced impacts have speeded up the process. While adaptation to annual monsoon flooding and flood-created losses is an inextricable part of the lives of the Mishing tribe, the original inhabitants of the island, they are helpless in the face of the massive soil erosion, which now destroys the island, sweeping away crops, livestock, and entire villages into the waters. From the 1960s onwards, over half the 210 cadastral villages on the island have partly or fully been lost to the floods. The rapidly changing and volatile climate, unwittingly augmented by well-meant but misguided developmental interventions, has led to increasing tension and even conflict between the inhabitants and officials. Additionally, the island, home to a rich biodiversity, faces the onslaught of wild animals in search of food and shelter as their own habitats shrink. Man–animal conflict is thus also on the rise. With the loss of their homes and lands, the only option for this subsistence agricultural community is to move to refugee camps, squatter settlements, or to mainland towns to earn a livelihood for which they are ill prepared. Majuli is a prime example of the need for localizing climate mitigation and adaptation processes and provides a formidable challenge if this is to be accomplished in time to save this unique natural and cultural habitat.

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A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures

Kashif abbass.

1 School of Economics and Management, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim

2 Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Xiaolingwei 200, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Huaming Song

Muntasir murshed.

3 School of Business and Economics, North South University, Dhaka, 1229 Bangladesh

4 Department of Journalism, Media and Communications, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Haider Mahmood

5 Department of Finance, College of Business Administration, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, 173, Alkharj, 11942 Saudi Arabia

Ijaz Younis

Associated data.

Data sources and relevant links are provided in the paper to access data.

Climate change is a long-lasting change in the weather arrays across tropics to polls. It is a global threat that has embarked on to put stress on various sectors. This study is aimed to conceptually engineer how climate variability is deteriorating the sustainability of diverse sectors worldwide. Specifically, the agricultural sector’s vulnerability is a globally concerning scenario, as sufficient production and food supplies are threatened due to irreversible weather fluctuations. In turn, it is challenging the global feeding patterns, particularly in countries with agriculture as an integral part of their economy and total productivity. Climate change has also put the integrity and survival of many species at stake due to shifts in optimum temperature ranges, thereby accelerating biodiversity loss by progressively changing the ecosystem structures. Climate variations increase the likelihood of particular food and waterborne and vector-borne diseases, and a recent example is a coronavirus pandemic. Climate change also accelerates the enigma of antimicrobial resistance, another threat to human health due to the increasing incidence of resistant pathogenic infections. Besides, the global tourism industry is devastated as climate change impacts unfavorable tourism spots. The methodology investigates hypothetical scenarios of climate variability and attempts to describe the quality of evidence to facilitate readers’ careful, critical engagement. Secondary data is used to identify sustainability issues such as environmental, social, and economic viability. To better understand the problem, gathered the information in this report from various media outlets, research agencies, policy papers, newspapers, and other sources. This review is a sectorial assessment of climate change mitigation and adaptation approaches worldwide in the aforementioned sectors and the associated economic costs. According to the findings, government involvement is necessary for the country’s long-term development through strict accountability of resources and regulations implemented in the past to generate cutting-edge climate policy. Therefore, mitigating the impacts of climate change must be of the utmost importance, and hence, this global threat requires global commitment to address its dreadful implications to ensure global sustenance.

Introduction

Worldwide observed and anticipated climatic changes for the twenty-first century and global warming are significant global changes that have been encountered during the past 65 years. Climate change (CC) is an inter-governmental complex challenge globally with its influence over various components of the ecological, environmental, socio-political, and socio-economic disciplines (Adger et al.  2005 ; Leal Filho et al.  2021 ; Feliciano et al.  2022 ). Climate change involves heightened temperatures across numerous worlds (Battisti and Naylor  2009 ; Schuurmans  2021 ; Weisheimer and Palmer  2005 ; Yadav et al.  2015 ). With the onset of the industrial revolution, the problem of earth climate was amplified manifold (Leppänen et al.  2014 ). It is reported that the immediate attention and due steps might increase the probability of overcoming its devastating impacts. It is not plausible to interpret the exact consequences of climate change (CC) on a sectoral basis (Izaguirre et al.  2021 ; Jurgilevich et al.  2017 ), which is evident by the emerging level of recognition plus the inclusion of climatic uncertainties at both local and national level of policymaking (Ayers et al.  2014 ).

Climate change is characterized based on the comprehensive long-haul temperature and precipitation trends and other components such as pressure and humidity level in the surrounding environment. Besides, the irregular weather patterns, retreating of global ice sheets, and the corresponding elevated sea level rise are among the most renowned international and domestic effects of climate change (Lipczynska-Kochany  2018 ; Michel et al.  2021 ; Murshed and Dao 2020 ). Before the industrial revolution, natural sources, including volcanoes, forest fires, and seismic activities, were regarded as the distinct sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO 2 , CH 4 , N 2 O, and H 2 O into the atmosphere (Murshed et al. 2020 ; Hussain et al.  2020 ; Sovacool et al.  2021 ; Usman and Balsalobre-Lorente 2022 ; Murshed 2022 ). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) struck a major agreement to tackle climate change and accelerate and intensify the actions and investments required for a sustainable low-carbon future at Conference of the Parties (COP-21) in Paris on December 12, 2015. The Paris Agreement expands on the Convention by bringing all nations together for the first time in a single cause to undertake ambitious measures to prevent climate change and adapt to its impacts, with increased funding to assist developing countries in doing so. As so, it marks a turning point in the global climate fight. The core goal of the Paris Agreement is to improve the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 °C over pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5° C (Sharma et al. 2020 ; Sharif et al. 2020 ; Chien et al. 2021 .

Furthermore, the agreement aspires to strengthen nations’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and align financing flows with low GHG emissions and climate-resilient paths (Shahbaz et al. 2019 ; Anwar et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2022a ). To achieve these lofty goals, adequate financial resources must be mobilized and provided, as well as a new technology framework and expanded capacity building, allowing developing countries and the most vulnerable countries to act under their respective national objectives. The agreement also establishes a more transparent action and support mechanism. All Parties are required by the Paris Agreement to do their best through “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the coming years (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2020 ). It includes obligations that all Parties regularly report on their emissions and implementation activities. A global stock-take will be conducted every five years to review collective progress toward the agreement’s goal and inform the Parties’ future individual actions. The Paris Agreement became available for signature on April 22, 2016, Earth Day, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. On November 4, 2016, it went into effect 30 days after the so-called double threshold was met (ratification by 55 nations accounting for at least 55% of world emissions). More countries have ratified and continue to ratify the agreement since then, bringing 125 Parties in early 2017. To fully operationalize the Paris Agreement, a work program was initiated in Paris to define mechanisms, processes, and recommendations on a wide range of concerns (Murshed et al. 2021 ). Since 2016, Parties have collaborated in subsidiary bodies (APA, SBSTA, and SBI) and numerous formed entities. The Conference of the Parties functioning as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) convened for the first time in November 2016 in Marrakesh in conjunction with COP22 and made its first two resolutions. The work plan is scheduled to be finished by 2018. Some mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce the emission in the prospective of Paris agreement are following firstly, a long-term goal of keeping the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, secondly, to aim to limit the rise to 1.5 °C, since this would significantly reduce risks and the impacts of climate change, thirdly, on the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible, recognizing that this will take longer for developing countries, lastly, to undertake rapid reductions after that under the best available science, to achieve a balance between emissions and removals in the second half of the century. On the other side, some adaptation strategies are; strengthening societies’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and to continue & expand international assistance for developing nations’ adaptation.

However, anthropogenic activities are currently regarded as most accountable for CC (Murshed et al. 2022 ). Apart from the industrial revolution, other anthropogenic activities include excessive agricultural operations, which further involve the high use of fuel-based mechanization, burning of agricultural residues, burning fossil fuels, deforestation, national and domestic transportation sectors, etc. (Huang et al.  2016 ). Consequently, these anthropogenic activities lead to climatic catastrophes, damaging local and global infrastructure, human health, and total productivity. Energy consumption has mounted GHGs levels concerning warming temperatures as most of the energy production in developing countries comes from fossil fuels (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2022 ; Usman et al. 2022b ; Abbass et al. 2021a ; Ishikawa-Ishiwata and Furuya  2022 ).

This review aims to highlight the effects of climate change in a socio-scientific aspect by analyzing the existing literature on various sectorial pieces of evidence globally that influence the environment. Although this review provides a thorough examination of climate change and its severe affected sectors that pose a grave danger for global agriculture, biodiversity, health, economy, forestry, and tourism, and to purpose some practical prophylactic measures and mitigation strategies to be adapted as sound substitutes to survive from climate change (CC) impacts. The societal implications of irregular weather patterns and other effects of climate changes are discussed in detail. Some numerous sustainable mitigation measures and adaptation practices and techniques at the global level are discussed in this review with an in-depth focus on its economic, social, and environmental aspects. Methods of data collection section are included in the supplementary information.

Review methodology

Related study and its objectives.

Today, we live an ordinary life in the beautiful digital, globalized world where climate change has a decisive role. What happens in one country has a massive influence on geographically far apart countries, which points to the current crisis known as COVID-19 (Sarkar et al.  2021 ). The most dangerous disease like COVID-19 has affected the world’s climate changes and economic conditions (Abbass et al. 2022 ; Pirasteh-Anosheh et al.  2021 ). The purpose of the present study is to review the status of research on the subject, which is based on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures” by systematically reviewing past published and unpublished research work. Furthermore, the current study seeks to comment on research on the same topic and suggest future research on the same topic. Specifically, the present study aims: The first one is, organize publications to make them easy and quick to find. Secondly, to explore issues in this area, propose an outline of research for future work. The third aim of the study is to synthesize the previous literature on climate change, various sectors, and their mitigation measurement. Lastly , classify the articles according to the different methods and procedures that have been adopted.

Review methodology for reviewers

This review-based article followed systematic literature review techniques that have proved the literature review as a rigorous framework (Benita  2021 ; Tranfield et al.  2003 ). Moreover, we illustrate in Fig.  1 the search method that we have started for this research. First, finalized the research theme to search literature (Cooper et al.  2018 ). Second, used numerous research databases to search related articles and download from the database (Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus Index Journals, Emerald, Elsevier Science Direct, Springer, and Sciverse). We focused on various articles, with research articles, feedback pieces, short notes, debates, and review articles published in scholarly journals. Reports used to search for multiple keywords such as “Climate Change,” “Mitigation and Adaptation,” “Department of Agriculture and Human Health,” “Department of Biodiversity and Forestry,” etc.; in summary, keyword list and full text have been made. Initially, the search for keywords yielded a large amount of literature.

Methodology search for finalized articles for investigations.

Source : constructed by authors

Since 2020, it has been impossible to review all the articles found; some restrictions have been set for the literature exhibition. The study searched 95 articles on a different database mentioned above based on the nature of the study. It excluded 40 irrelevant papers due to copied from a previous search after readings tiles, abstract and full pieces. The criteria for inclusion were: (i) articles focused on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures,” and (ii) the search key terms related to study requirements. The complete procedure yielded 55 articles for our study. We repeat our search on the “Web of Science and Google Scholars” database to enhance the search results and check the referenced articles.

In this study, 55 articles are reviewed systematically and analyzed for research topics and other aspects, such as the methods, contexts, and theories used in these studies. Furthermore, this study analyzes closely related areas to provide unique research opportunities in the future. The study also discussed future direction opportunities and research questions by understanding the research findings climate changes and other affected sectors. The reviewed paper framework analysis process is outlined in Fig.  2 .

Framework of the analysis Process.

Natural disasters and climate change’s socio-economic consequences

Natural and environmental disasters can be highly variable from year to year; some years pass with very few deaths before a significant disaster event claims many lives (Symanski et al.  2021 ). Approximately 60,000 people globally died from natural disasters each year on average over the past decade (Ritchie and Roser  2014 ; Wiranata and Simbolon  2021 ). So, according to the report, around 0.1% of global deaths. Annual variability in the number and share of deaths from natural disasters in recent decades are shown in Fig.  3 . The number of fatalities can be meager—sometimes less than 10,000, and as few as 0.01% of all deaths. But shock events have a devastating impact: the 1983–1985 famine and drought in Ethiopia; the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami; Cyclone Nargis, which struck Myanmar in 2008; and the 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake in Haiti and now recent example is COVID-19 pandemic (Erman et al.  2021 ). These events pushed global disaster deaths to over 200,000—more than 0.4% of deaths in these years. Low-frequency, high-impact events such as earthquakes and tsunamis are not preventable, but such high losses of human life are. Historical evidence shows that earlier disaster detection, more robust infrastructure, emergency preparedness, and response programmers have substantially reduced disaster deaths worldwide. Low-income is also the most vulnerable to disasters; improving living conditions, facilities, and response services in these areas would be critical in reducing natural disaster deaths in the coming decades.

Global deaths from natural disasters, 1978 to 2020.

Source EMDAT ( 2020 )

The interior regions of the continent are likely to be impacted by rising temperatures (Dimri et al.  2018 ; Goes et al.  2020 ; Mannig et al.  2018 ; Schuurmans  2021 ). Weather patterns change due to the shortage of natural resources (water), increase in glacier melting, and rising mercury are likely to cause extinction to many planted species (Gampe et al.  2016 ; Mihiretu et al.  2021 ; Shaffril et al.  2018 ).On the other hand, the coastal ecosystem is on the verge of devastation (Perera et al.  2018 ; Phillips  2018 ). The temperature rises, insect disease outbreaks, health-related problems, and seasonal and lifestyle changes are persistent, with a strong probability of these patterns continuing in the future (Abbass et al. 2021c ; Hussain et al.  2018 ). At the global level, a shortage of good infrastructure and insufficient adaptive capacity are hammering the most (IPCC  2013 ). In addition to the above concerns, a lack of environmental education and knowledge, outdated consumer behavior, a scarcity of incentives, a lack of legislation, and the government’s lack of commitment to climate change contribute to the general public’s concerns. By 2050, a 2 to 3% rise in mercury and a drastic shift in rainfall patterns may have serious consequences (Huang et al. 2022 ; Gorst et al.  2018 ). Natural and environmental calamities caused huge losses globally, such as decreased agriculture outputs, rehabilitation of the system, and rebuilding necessary technologies (Ali and Erenstein  2017 ; Ramankutty et al.  2018 ; Yu et al.  2021 ) (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). Furthermore, in the last 3 or 4 years, the world has been plagued by smog-related eye and skin diseases, as well as a rise in road accidents due to poor visibility.

Main natural danger statistics for 1985–2020 at the global level

Source: EM-DAT ( 2020 )

Climate change and agriculture

Global agriculture is the ultimate sector responsible for 30–40% of all greenhouse emissions, which makes it a leading industry predominantly contributing to climate warming and significantly impacted by it (Grieg; Mishra et al.  2021 ; Ortiz et al.  2021 ; Thornton and Lipper  2014 ). Numerous agro-environmental and climatic factors that have a dominant influence on agriculture productivity (Pautasso et al.  2012 ) are significantly impacted in response to precipitation extremes including floods, forest fires, and droughts (Huang  2004 ). Besides, the immense dependency on exhaustible resources also fuels the fire and leads global agriculture to become prone to devastation. Godfray et al. ( 2010 ) mentioned that decline in agriculture challenges the farmer’s quality of life and thus a significant factor to poverty as the food and water supplies are critically impacted by CC (Ortiz et al.  2021 ; Rosenzweig et al.  2014 ). As an essential part of the economic systems, especially in developing countries, agricultural systems affect the overall economy and potentially the well-being of households (Schlenker and Roberts  2009 ). According to the report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, i.e., CH 4, CO 2 , and N 2 O, are increased in the air to extraordinary levels over the last few centuries (Usman and Makhdum 2021 ; Stocker et al.  2013 ). Climate change is the composite outcome of two different factors. The first is the natural causes, and the second is the anthropogenic actions (Karami 2012 ). It is also forecasted that the world may experience a typical rise in temperature stretching from 1 to 3.7 °C at the end of this century (Pachauri et al. 2014 ). The world’s crop production is also highly vulnerable to these global temperature-changing trends as raised temperatures will pose severe negative impacts on crop growth (Reidsma et al. 2009 ). Some of the recent modeling about the fate of global agriculture is briefly described below.

Decline in cereal productivity

Crop productivity will also be affected dramatically in the next few decades due to variations in integral abiotic factors such as temperature, solar radiation, precipitation, and CO 2 . These all factors are included in various regulatory instruments like progress and growth, weather-tempted changes, pest invasions (Cammell and Knight 1992 ), accompanying disease snags (Fand et al. 2012 ), water supplies (Panda et al. 2003 ), high prices of agro-products in world’s agriculture industry, and preeminent quantity of fertilizer consumption. Lobell and field ( 2007 ) claimed that from 1962 to 2002, wheat crop output had condensed significantly due to rising temperatures. Therefore, during 1980–2011, the common wheat productivity trends endorsed extreme temperature events confirmed by Gourdji et al. ( 2013 ) around South Asia, South America, and Central Asia. Various other studies (Asseng, Cao, Zhang, and Ludwig 2009 ; Asseng et al. 2013 ; García et al. 2015 ; Ortiz et al. 2021 ) also proved that wheat output is negatively affected by the rising temperatures and also caused adverse effects on biomass productivity (Calderini et al. 1999 ; Sadras and Slafer 2012 ). Hereafter, the rice crop is also influenced by the high temperatures at night. These difficulties will worsen because the temperature will be rising further in the future owing to CC (Tebaldi et al. 2006 ). Another research conducted in China revealed that a 4.6% of rice production per 1 °C has happened connected with the advancement in night temperatures (Tao et al. 2006 ). Moreover, the average night temperature growth also affected rice indicia cultivar’s output pragmatically during 25 years in the Philippines (Peng et al. 2004 ). It is anticipated that the increase in world average temperature will also cause a substantial reduction in yield (Hatfield et al. 2011 ; Lobell and Gourdji 2012 ). In the southern hemisphere, Parry et al. ( 2007 ) noted a rise of 1–4 °C in average daily temperatures at the end of spring season unti the middle of summers, and this raised temperature reduced crop output by cutting down the time length for phenophases eventually reduce the yield (Hatfield and Prueger 2015 ; R. Ortiz 2008 ). Also, world climate models have recommended that humid and subtropical regions expect to be plentiful prey to the upcoming heat strokes (Battisti and Naylor 2009 ). Grain production is the amalgamation of two constituents: the average weight and the grain output/m 2 , however, in crop production. Crop output is mainly accredited to the grain quantity (Araus et al. 2008 ; Gambín and Borrás 2010 ). In the times of grain set, yield resources are mainly strewn between hitherto defined components, i.e., grain usual weight and grain output, which presents a trade-off between them (Gambín and Borrás 2010 ) beside disparities in per grain integration (B. L. Gambín et al. 2006 ). In addition to this, the maize crop is also susceptible to raised temperatures, principally in the flowering stage (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). In reality, the lower grain number is associated with insufficient acclimatization due to intense photosynthesis and higher respiration and the high-temperature effect on the reproduction phenomena (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). During the flowering phase, maize visible to heat (30–36 °C) seemed less anthesis-silking intermissions (Edreira et al. 2011 ). Another research by Dupuis and Dumas ( 1990 ) proved that a drop in spikelet when directly visible to high temperatures above 35 °C in vitro pollination. Abnormalities in kernel number claimed by Vega et al. ( 2001 ) is related to conceded plant development during a flowering phase that is linked with the active ear growth phase and categorized as a critical phase for approximation of kernel number during silking (Otegui and Bonhomme 1998 ).

The retort of rice output to high temperature presents disparities in flowering patterns, and seed set lessens and lessens grain weight (Qasim et al. 2020 ; Qasim, Hammad, Maqsood, Tariq, & Chawla). During the daytime, heat directly impacts flowers which lessens the thesis period and quickens the earlier peak flowering (Tao et al. 2006 ). Antagonistic effect of higher daytime temperature d on pollen sprouting proposed seed set decay, whereas, seed set was lengthily reduced than could be explicated by pollen growing at high temperatures 40◦C (Matsui et al. 2001 ).

The decline in wheat output is linked with higher temperatures, confirmed in numerous studies (Semenov 2009 ; Stone and Nicolas 1994 ). High temperatures fast-track the arrangements of plant expansion (Blum et al. 2001 ), diminution photosynthetic process (Salvucci and Crafts‐Brandner 2004 ), and also considerably affect the reproductive operations (Farooq et al. 2011 ).

The destructive impacts of CC induced weather extremes to deteriorate the integrity of crops (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ), e.g., Spartan cold and extreme fog cause falling and discoloration of betel leaves (Rosenzweig et al. 2001 ), giving them a somehow reddish appearance, squeezing of lemon leaves (Pautasso et al. 2012 ), as well as root rot of pineapple, have reported (Vedwan and Rhoades 2001 ). Henceforth, in tackling the disruptive effects of CC, several short-term and long-term management approaches are the crucial need of time (Fig.  4 ). Moreover, various studies (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ; Patz et al. 2005 ; Pautasso et al. 2012 ) have demonstrated adapting trends such as ameliorating crop diversity can yield better adaptability towards CC.

Schematic description of potential impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector and the appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures to overcome its impact.

Climate change impacts on biodiversity

Global biodiversity is among the severe victims of CC because it is the fastest emerging cause of species loss. Studies demonstrated that the massive scale species dynamics are considerably associated with diverse climatic events (Abraham and Chain 1988 ; Manes et al. 2021 ; A. M. D. Ortiz et al. 2021 ). Both the pace and magnitude of CC are altering the compatible habitat ranges for living entities of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial regions. Alterations in general climate regimes influence the integrity of ecosystems in numerous ways, such as variation in the relative abundance of species, range shifts, changes in activity timing, and microhabitat use (Bates et al. 2014 ). The geographic distribution of any species often depends upon its ability to tolerate environmental stresses, biological interactions, and dispersal constraints. Hence, instead of the CC, the local species must only accept, adapt, move, or face extinction (Berg et al. 2010 ). So, the best performer species have a better survival capacity for adjusting to new ecosystems or a decreased perseverance to survive where they are already situated (Bates et al. 2014 ). An important aspect here is the inadequate habitat connectivity and access to microclimates, also crucial in raising the exposure to climate warming and extreme heatwave episodes. For example, the carbon sequestration rates are undergoing fluctuations due to climate-driven expansion in the range of global mangroves (Cavanaugh et al. 2014 ).

Similarly, the loss of kelp-forest ecosystems in various regions and its occupancy by the seaweed turfs has set the track for elevated herbivory by the high influx of tropical fish populations. Not only this, the increased water temperatures have exacerbated the conditions far away from the physiological tolerance level of the kelp communities (Vergés et al. 2016 ; Wernberg et al. 2016 ). Another pertinent danger is the devastation of keystone species, which even has more pervasive effects on the entire communities in that habitat (Zarnetske et al. 2012 ). It is particularly important as CC does not specify specific populations or communities. Eventually, this CC-induced redistribution of species may deteriorate carbon storage and the net ecosystem productivity (Weed et al. 2013 ). Among the typical disruptions, the prominent ones include impacts on marine and terrestrial productivity, marine community assembly, and the extended invasion of toxic cyanobacteria bloom (Fossheim et al. 2015 ).

The CC-impacted species extinction is widely reported in the literature (Beesley et al. 2019 ; Urban 2015 ), and the predictions of demise until the twenty-first century are dreadful (Abbass et al. 2019 ; Pereira et al. 2013 ). In a few cases, northward shifting of species may not be formidable as it allows mountain-dwelling species to find optimum climates. However, the migrant species may be trapped in isolated and incompatible habitats due to losing topography and range (Dullinger et al. 2012 ). For example, a study indicated that the American pika has been extirpated or intensely diminished in some regions, primarily attributed to the CC-impacted extinction or at least local extirpation (Stewart et al. 2015 ). Besides, the anticipation of persistent responses to the impacts of CC often requires data records of several decades to rigorously analyze the critical pre and post CC patterns at species and ecosystem levels (Manes et al. 2021 ; Testa et al. 2018 ).

Nonetheless, the availability of such long-term data records is rare; hence, attempts are needed to focus on these profound aspects. Biodiversity is also vulnerable to the other associated impacts of CC, such as rising temperatures, droughts, and certain invasive pest species. For instance, a study revealed the changes in the composition of plankton communities attributed to rising temperatures. Henceforth, alterations in such aquatic producer communities, i.e., diatoms and calcareous plants, can ultimately lead to variation in the recycling of biological carbon. Moreover, such changes are characterized as a potential contributor to CO 2 differences between the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods (Kohfeld et al. 2005 ).

Climate change implications on human health

It is an understood corporality that human health is a significant victim of CC (Costello et al. 2009 ). According to the WHO, CC might be responsible for 250,000 additional deaths per year during 2030–2050 (Watts et al. 2015 ). These deaths are attributed to extreme weather-induced mortality and morbidity and the global expansion of vector-borne diseases (Lemery et al. 2021; Yang and Usman 2021 ; Meierrieks 2021 ; UNEP 2017 ). Here, some of the emerging health issues pertinent to this global problem are briefly described.

Climate change and antimicrobial resistance with corresponding economic costs

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an up-surging complex global health challenge (Garner et al. 2019 ; Lemery et al. 2021 ). Health professionals across the globe are extremely worried due to this phenomenon that has critical potential to reverse almost all the progress that has been achieved so far in the health discipline (Gosling and Arnell 2016 ). A massive amount of antibiotics is produced by many pharmaceutical industries worldwide, and the pathogenic microorganisms are gradually developing resistance to them, which can be comprehended how strongly this aspect can shake the foundations of national and global economies (UNEP 2017 ). This statement is supported by the fact that AMR is not developing in a particular region or country. Instead, it is flourishing in every continent of the world (WHO 2018 ). This plague is heavily pushing humanity to the post-antibiotic era, in which currently antibiotic-susceptible pathogens will once again lead to certain endemics and pandemics after being resistant(WHO 2018 ). Undesirably, if this statement would become a factuality, there might emerge certain risks in undertaking sophisticated interventions such as chemotherapy, joint replacement cases, and organ transplantation (Su et al. 2018 ). Presently, the amplification of drug resistance cases has made common illnesses like pneumonia, post-surgical infections, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, etc., too difficult and costly to be treated or cure well (WHO 2018 ). From a simple example, it can be assumed how easily antibiotic-resistant strains can be transmitted from one person to another and ultimately travel across the boundaries (Berendonk et al. 2015 ). Talking about the second- and third-generation classes of antibiotics, e.g., most renowned generations of cephalosporin antibiotics that are more expensive, broad-spectrum, more toxic, and usually require more extended periods whenever prescribed to patients (Lemery et al. 2021 ; Pärnänen et al. 2019 ). This scenario has also revealed that the abundance of resistant strains of pathogens was also higher in the Southern part (WHO 2018 ). As southern parts are generally warmer than their counterparts, it is evident from this example how CC-induced global warming can augment the spread of antibiotic-resistant strains within the biosphere, eventually putting additional economic burden in the face of developing new and costlier antibiotics. The ARG exchange to susceptible bacteria through one of the potential mechanisms, transformation, transduction, and conjugation; Selection pressure can be caused by certain antibiotics, metals or pesticides, etc., as shown in Fig.  5 .

A typical interaction between the susceptible and resistant strains.

Source: Elsayed et al. ( 2021 ); Karkman et al. ( 2018 )

Certain studies highlighted that conventional urban wastewater treatment plants are typical hotspots where most bacterial strains exchange genetic material through horizontal gene transfer (Fig.  5 ). Although at present, the extent of risks associated with the antibiotic resistance found in wastewater is complicated; environmental scientists and engineers have particular concerns about the potential impacts of these antibiotic resistance genes on human health (Ashbolt 2015 ). At most undesirable and worst case, these antibiotic-resistant genes containing bacteria can make their way to enter into the environment (Pruden et al. 2013 ), irrigation water used for crops and public water supplies and ultimately become a part of food chains and food webs (Ma et al. 2019 ; D. Wu et al. 2019 ). This problem has been reported manifold in several countries (Hendriksen et al. 2019 ), where wastewater as a means of irrigated water is quite common.

Climate change and vector borne-diseases

Temperature is a fundamental factor for the sustenance of living entities regardless of an ecosystem. So, a specific living being, especially a pathogen, requires a sophisticated temperature range to exist on earth. The second essential component of CC is precipitation, which also impacts numerous infectious agents’ transport and dissemination patterns. Global rising temperature is a significant cause of many species extinction. On the one hand, this changing environmental temperature may be causing species extinction, and on the other, this warming temperature might favor the thriving of some new organisms. Here, it was evident that some pathogens may also upraise once non-evident or reported (Patz et al. 2000 ). This concept can be exemplified through certain pathogenic strains of microorganisms that how the likelihood of various diseases increases in response to climate warming-induced environmental changes (Table ​ (Table2 2 ).

Examples of how various environmental changes affect various infectious diseases in humans

Source: Aron and Patz ( 2001 )

A recent example is an outburst of coronavirus (COVID-19) in the Republic of China, causing pneumonia and severe acute respiratory complications (Cui et al. 2021 ; Song et al. 2021 ). The large family of viruses is harbored in numerous animals, bats, and snakes in particular (livescience.com) with the subsequent transfer into human beings. Hence, it is worth noting that the thriving of numerous vectors involved in spreading various diseases is influenced by Climate change (Ogden 2018 ; Santos et al. 2021 ).

Psychological impacts of climate change

Climate change (CC) is responsible for the rapid dissemination and exaggeration of certain epidemics and pandemics. In addition to the vast apparent impacts of climate change on health, forestry, agriculture, etc., it may also have psychological implications on vulnerable societies. It can be exemplified through the recent outburst of (COVID-19) in various countries around the world (Pal 2021 ). Besides, the victims of this viral infection have made healthy beings scarier and terrified. In the wake of such epidemics, people with common colds or fever are also frightened and must pass specific regulatory protocols. Living in such situations continuously terrifies the public and makes the stress familiar, which eventually makes them psychologically weak (npr.org).

CC boosts the extent of anxiety, distress, and other issues in public, pushing them to develop various mental-related problems. Besides, frequent exposure to extreme climatic catastrophes such as geological disasters also imprints post-traumatic disorder, and their ubiquitous occurrence paves the way to developing chronic psychological dysfunction. Moreover, repetitive listening from media also causes an increase in the person’s stress level (Association 2020 ). Similarly, communities living in flood-prone areas constantly live in extreme fear of drowning and die by floods. In addition to human lives, the flood-induced destruction of physical infrastructure is a specific reason for putting pressure on these communities (Ogden 2018 ). For instance, Ogden ( 2018 ) comprehensively denoted that Katrina’s Hurricane augmented the mental health issues in the victim communities.

Climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Forests are the global regulators of the world’s climate (FAO 2018 ) and have an indispensable role in regulating global carbon and nitrogen cycles (Rehman et al. 2021 ; Reichstein and Carvalhais 2019 ). Hence, disturbances in forest ecology affect the micro and macro-climates (Ellison et al. 2017 ). Climate warming, in return, has profound impacts on the growth and productivity of transboundary forests by influencing the temperature and precipitation patterns, etc. As CC induces specific changes in the typical structure and functions of ecosystems (Zhang et al. 2017 ) as well impacts forest health, climate change also has several devastating consequences such as forest fires, droughts, pest outbreaks (EPA 2018 ), and last but not the least is the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. The rising frequency and intensity of another CC product, i.e., droughts, pose plenty of challenges to the well-being of global forests (Diffenbaugh et al. 2017 ), which is further projected to increase soon (Hartmann et al. 2018 ; Lehner et al. 2017 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ). Hence, CC induces storms, with more significant impacts also put extra pressure on the survival of the global forests (Martínez-Alvarado et al. 2018 ), significantly since their influences are augmented during higher winter precipitations with corresponding wetter soils causing weak root anchorage of trees (Brázdil et al. 2018 ). Surging temperature regimes causes alterations in usual precipitation patterns, which is a significant hurdle for the survival of temperate forests (Allen et al. 2010 ; Flannigan et al. 2013 ), letting them encounter severe stress and disturbances which adversely affects the local tree species (Hubbart et al. 2016 ; Millar and Stephenson 2015 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ).

Climate change impacts on forest-dependent communities

Forests are the fundamental livelihood resource for about 1.6 billion people worldwide; out of them, 350 million are distinguished with relatively higher reliance (Bank 2008 ). Agro-forestry-dependent communities comprise 1.2 billion, and 60 million indigenous people solely rely on forests and their products to sustain their lives (Sunderlin et al. 2005 ). For example, in the entire African continent, more than 2/3rd of inhabitants depend on forest resources and woodlands for their alimonies, e.g., food, fuelwood and grazing (Wasiq and Ahmad 2004 ). The livings of these people are more intensely affected by the climatic disruptions making their lives harder (Brown et al. 2014 ). On the one hand, forest communities are incredibly vulnerable to CC due to their livelihoods, cultural and spiritual ties as well as socio-ecological connections, and on the other, they are not familiar with the term “climate change.” (Rahman and Alam 2016 ). Among the destructive impacts of temperature and rainfall, disruption of the agroforestry crops with resultant downscale growth and yield (Macchi et al. 2008 ). Cruz ( 2015 ) ascribed that forest-dependent smallholder farmers in the Philippines face the enigma of delayed fruiting, more severe damages by insect and pest incidences due to unfavorable temperature regimes, and changed rainfall patterns.

Among these series of challenges to forest communities, their well-being is also distinctly vulnerable to CC. Though the detailed climate change impacts on human health have been comprehensively mentioned in the previous section, some studies have listed a few more devastating effects on the prosperity of forest-dependent communities. For instance, the Himalayan people have been experiencing frequent skin-borne diseases such as malaria and other skin diseases due to increasing mosquitoes, wild boar as well, and new wasps species, particularly in higher altitudes that were almost non-existent before last 5–10 years (Xu et al. 2008 ). Similarly, people living at high altitudes in Bangladesh have experienced frequent mosquito-borne calamities (Fardous; Sharma 2012 ). In addition, the pace of other waterborne diseases such as infectious diarrhea, cholera, pathogenic induced abdominal complications and dengue has also been boosted in other distinguished regions of Bangladesh (Cell 2009 ; Gunter et al. 2008 ).

Pest outbreak

Upscaling hotter climate may positively affect the mobile organisms with shorter generation times because they can scurry from harsh conditions than the immobile species (Fettig et al. 2013 ; Schoene and Bernier 2012 ) and are also relatively more capable of adapting to new environments (Jactel et al. 2019 ). It reveals that insects adapt quickly to global warming due to their mobility advantages. Due to past outbreaks, the trees (forests) are relatively more susceptible victims (Kurz et al. 2008 ). Before CC, the influence of factors mentioned earlier, i.e., droughts and storms, was existent and made the forests susceptible to insect pest interventions; however, the global forests remain steadfast, assiduous, and green (Jactel et al. 2019 ). The typical reasons could be the insect herbivores were regulated by several tree defenses and pressures of predation (Wilkinson and Sherratt 2016 ). As climate greatly influences these phenomena, the global forests cannot be so sedulous against such challenges (Jactel et al. 2019 ). Table ​ Table3 3 demonstrates some of the particular considerations with practical examples that are essential while mitigating the impacts of CC in the forestry sector.

Essential considerations while mitigating the climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Source : Fischer ( 2019 )

Climate change impacts on tourism

Tourism is a commercial activity that has roots in multi-dimensions and an efficient tool with adequate job generation potential, revenue creation, earning of spectacular foreign exchange, enhancement in cross-cultural promulgation and cooperation, a business tool for entrepreneurs and eventually for the country’s national development (Arshad et al. 2018 ; Scott 2021 ). Among a plethora of other disciplines, the tourism industry is also a distinct victim of climate warming (Gössling et al. 2012 ; Hall et al. 2015 ) as the climate is among the essential resources that enable tourism in particular regions as most preferred locations. Different places at different times of the year attract tourists both within and across the countries depending upon the feasibility and compatibility of particular weather patterns. Hence, the massive variations in these weather patterns resulting from CC will eventually lead to monumental challenges to the local economy in that specific area’s particular and national economy (Bujosa et al. 2015 ). For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report demonstrated that the global tourism industry had faced a considerable decline in the duration of ski season, including the loss of some ski areas and the dramatic shifts in tourist destinations’ climate warming.

Furthermore, different studies (Neuvonen et al. 2015 ; Scott et al. 2004 ) indicated that various currently perfect tourist spots, e.g., coastal areas, splendid islands, and ski resorts, will suffer consequences of CC. It is also worth noting that the quality and potential of administrative management potential to cope with the influence of CC on the tourism industry is of crucial significance, which renders specific strengths of resiliency to numerous destinations to withstand against it (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). Similarly, in the partial or complete absence of adequate socio-economic and socio-political capital, the high-demanding tourist sites scurry towards the verge of vulnerability. The susceptibility of tourism is based on different components such as the extent of exposure, sensitivity, life-supporting sectors, and capacity assessment factors (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). It is obvious corporality that sectors such as health, food, ecosystems, human habitat, infrastructure, water availability, and the accessibility of a particular region are prone to CC. Henceforth, the sensitivity of these critical sectors to CC and, in return, the adaptive measures are a hallmark in determining the composite vulnerability of climate warming (Ionescu et al. 2009 ).

Moreover, the dependence on imported food items, poor hygienic conditions, and inadequate health professionals are dominant aspects affecting the local terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Meanwhile, the greater dependency on ecosystem services and its products also makes a destination more fragile to become a prey of CC (Rizvi et al. 2015 ). Some significant non-climatic factors are important indicators of a particular ecosystem’s typical health and functioning, e.g., resource richness and abundance portray the picture of ecosystem stability. Similarly, the species abundance is also a productive tool that ensures that the ecosystem has a higher buffering capacity, which is terrific in terms of resiliency (Roscher et al. 2013 ).

Climate change impacts on the economic sector

Climate plays a significant role in overall productivity and economic growth. Due to its increasingly global existence and its effect on economic growth, CC has become one of the major concerns of both local and international environmental policymakers (Ferreira et al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Abbass et al. 2021b ; Lamperti et al. 2021 ). The adverse effects of CC on the overall productivity factor of the agricultural sector are therefore significant for understanding the creation of local adaptation policies and the composition of productive climate policy contracts. Previous studies on CC in the world have already forecasted its effects on the agricultural sector. Researchers have found that global CC will impact the agricultural sector in different world regions. The study of the impacts of CC on various agrarian activities in other demographic areas and the development of relative strategies to respond to effects has become a focal point for researchers (Chandioet al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Mosavi et al. 2020 ).

With the rapid growth of global warming since the 1980s, the temperature has started increasing globally, which resulted in the incredible transformation of rain and evaporation in the countries. The agricultural development of many countries has been reliant, delicate, and susceptible to CC for a long time, and it is on the development of agriculture total factor productivity (ATFP) influence different crops and yields of farmers (Alhassan 2021 ; Wu  2020 ).

Food security and natural disasters are increasing rapidly in the world. Several major climatic/natural disasters have impacted local crop production in the countries concerned. The effects of these natural disasters have been poorly controlled by the development of the economies and populations and may affect human life as well. One example is China, which is among the world’s most affected countries, vulnerable to natural disasters due to its large population, harsh environmental conditions, rapid CC, low environmental stability, and disaster power. According to the January 2016 statistical survey, China experienced an economic loss of 298.3 billion Yuan, and about 137 million Chinese people were severely affected by various natural disasters (Xie et al. 2018 ).

Mitigation and adaptation strategies of climate changes

Adaptation and mitigation are the crucial factors to address the response to CC (Jahanzad et al. 2020 ). Researchers define mitigation on climate changes, and on the other hand, adaptation directly impacts climate changes like floods. To some extent, mitigation reduces or moderates greenhouse gas emission, and it becomes a critical issue both economically and environmentally (Botzen et al. 2021 ; Jahanzad et al. 2020 ; Kongsager 2018 ; Smit et al. 2000 ; Vale et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2021 ; Verheyen 2005 ).

Researchers have deep concern about the adaptation and mitigation methodologies in sectoral and geographical contexts. Agriculture, industry, forestry, transport, and land use are the main sectors to adapt and mitigate policies(Kärkkäinen et al. 2020 ; Waheed et al. 2021 ). Adaptation and mitigation require particular concern both at the national and international levels. The world has faced a significant problem of climate change in the last decades, and adaptation to these effects is compulsory for economic and social development. To adapt and mitigate against CC, one should develop policies and strategies at the international level (Hussain et al. 2020 ). Figure  6 depicts the list of current studies on sectoral impacts of CC with adaptation and mitigation measures globally.

Sectoral impacts of climate change with adaptation and mitigation measures.

Conclusion and future perspectives

Specific socio-agricultural, socio-economic, and physical systems are the cornerstone of psychological well-being, and the alteration in these systems by CC will have disastrous impacts. Climate variability, alongside other anthropogenic and natural stressors, influences human and environmental health sustainability. Food security is another concerning scenario that may lead to compromised food quality, higher food prices, and inadequate food distribution systems. Global forests are challenged by different climatic factors such as storms, droughts, flash floods, and intense precipitation. On the other hand, their anthropogenic wiping is aggrandizing their existence. Undoubtedly, the vulnerability scale of the world’s regions differs; however, appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures can aid the decision-making bodies in developing effective policies to tackle its impacts. Presently, modern life on earth has tailored to consistent climatic patterns, and accordingly, adapting to such considerable variations is of paramount importance. Because the faster changes in climate will make it harder to survive and adjust, this globally-raising enigma calls for immediate attention at every scale ranging from elementary community level to international level. Still, much effort, research, and dedication are required, which is the most critical time. Some policy implications can help us to mitigate the consequences of climate change, especially the most affected sectors like the agriculture sector;

Warming might lengthen the season in frost-prone growing regions (temperate and arctic zones), allowing for longer-maturing seasonal cultivars with better yields (Pfadenhauer 2020 ; Bonacci 2019 ). Extending the planting season may allow additional crops each year; when warming leads to frequent warmer months highs over critical thresholds, a split season with a brief summer fallow may be conceivable for short-period crops such as wheat barley, cereals, and many other vegetable crops. The capacity to prolong the planting season in tropical and subtropical places where the harvest season is constrained by precipitation or agriculture farming occurs after the year may be more limited and dependent on how precipitation patterns vary (Wu et al. 2017 ).

The genetic component is comprehensive for many yields, but it is restricted like kiwi fruit for a few. Ali et al. ( 2017 ) investigated how new crops will react to climatic changes (also stated in Mall et al. 2017 ). Hot temperature, drought, insect resistance; salt tolerance; and overall crop production and product quality increases would all be advantageous (Akkari 2016 ). Genetic mapping and engineering can introduce a greater spectrum of features. The adoption of genetically altered cultivars has been slowed, particularly in the early forecasts owing to the complexity in ensuring features are expediently expressed throughout the entire plant, customer concerns, economic profitability, and regulatory impediments (Wirehn 2018 ; Davidson et al. 2016 ).

To get the full benefit of the CO 2 would certainly require additional nitrogen and other fertilizers. Nitrogen not consumed by the plants may be excreted into groundwater, discharged into water surface, or emitted from the land, soil nitrous oxide when large doses of fertilizer are sprayed. Increased nitrogen levels in groundwater sources have been related to human chronic illnesses and impact marine ecosystems. Cultivation, grain drying, and other field activities have all been examined in depth in the studies (Barua et al. 2018 ).

• The technological and socio-economic adaptation

The policy consequence of the causative conclusion is that as a source of alternative energy, biofuel production is one of the routes that explain oil price volatility separate from international macroeconomic factors. Even though biofuel production has just begun in a few sample nations, there is still a tremendous worldwide need for feedstock to satisfy industrial expansion in China and the USA, which explains the food price relationship to the global oil price. Essentially, oil-exporting countries may create incentives in their economies to increase food production. It may accomplish by giving farmers financing, seedlings, fertilizers, and farming equipment. Because of the declining global oil price and, as a result, their earnings from oil export, oil-producing nations may be unable to subsidize food imports even in the near term. As a result, these countries can boost the agricultural value chain for export. It may be accomplished through R&D and adding value to their food products to increase income by correcting exchange rate misalignment and adverse trade terms. These nations may also diversify their economies away from oil, as dependence on oil exports alone is no longer economically viable given the extreme volatility of global oil prices. Finally, resource-rich and oil-exporting countries can convert to non-food renewable energy sources such as solar, hydro, coal, wind, wave, and tidal energy. By doing so, both world food and oil supplies would be maintained rather than harmed.

IRENA’s modeling work shows that, if a comprehensive policy framework is in place, efforts toward decarbonizing the energy future will benefit economic activity, jobs (outweighing losses in the fossil fuel industry), and welfare. Countries with weak domestic supply chains and a large reliance on fossil fuel income, in particular, must undertake structural reforms to capitalize on the opportunities inherent in the energy transition. Governments continue to give major policy assistance to extract fossil fuels, including tax incentives, financing, direct infrastructure expenditures, exemptions from environmental regulations, and other measures. The majority of major oil and gas producing countries intend to increase output. Some countries intend to cut coal output, while others plan to maintain or expand it. While some nations are beginning to explore and execute policies aimed at a just and equitable transition away from fossil fuel production, these efforts have yet to impact major producing countries’ plans and goals. Verifiable and comparable data on fossil fuel output and assistance from governments and industries are critical to closing the production gap. Governments could increase openness by declaring their production intentions in their climate obligations under the Paris Agreement.

It is firmly believed that achieving the Paris Agreement commitments is doubtlful without undergoing renewable energy transition across the globe (Murshed 2020 ; Zhao et al. 2022 ). Policy instruments play the most important role in determining the degree of investment in renewable energy technology. This study examines the efficacy of various policy strategies in the renewable energy industry of multiple nations. Although its impact is more visible in established renewable energy markets, a renewable portfolio standard is also a useful policy instrument. The cost of producing renewable energy is still greater than other traditional energy sources. Furthermore, government incentives in the R&D sector can foster innovation in this field, resulting in cost reductions in the renewable energy industry. These nations may export their technologies and share their policy experiences by forming networks among their renewable energy-focused organizations. All policy measures aim to reduce production costs while increasing the proportion of renewables to a country’s energy system. Meanwhile, long-term contracts with renewable energy providers, government commitment and control, and the establishment of long-term goals can assist developing nations in deploying renewable energy technology in their energy sector.

Author contribution

KA: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Study design, Formal analysis, Visualization, Revised draft, Writing-review, and editing. MZQ: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Writing-review, and editing. HS: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, literature review, Revised drapt, and writing review and editing. MM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. HM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. IY: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, literature review, and writing review and editing.

Availability of data and material

Declarations.

Not applicable.

The authors declare no competing interests.

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Contributor Information

Kashif Abbass, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@ssabbafihsak .

Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim, Email: moc.kooltuo@888misaqnahseez .

Huaming Song, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@gnimauh .

Muntasir Murshed, Email: [email protected] .

Haider Mahmood, Email: moc.liamtoh@doomhamrediah .

Ijaz Younis, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@sinuoyzaji .

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• Published: 16 November 2022

Climate change and human behaviour

Nature Human Behaviour volume  6 ,  pages 1441–1442 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Climate change is an immense challenge. Human behaviour is crucial in climate change mitigation, and in tackling the arising consequences. In this joint Focus issue between Nature Climate Change and Nature Human Behaviour , we take a closer look at the role of human behaviour in the climate crisis.

In the late 19th century, the scientist (and suffragette) Eunice Newton Foote published a paper suggesting that a build-up of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere could cause increased surface temperatures 1 . In the mid-20th century, the British engineer Guy Callendar was the first to concretize the link between carbon dioxide levels and global warming 2 . Now, a century and a half after Foote’s work, there is overwhelming scientific evidence that human behaviour is the main driver of climatic changes and global warming.

The negative effects of rising temperatures on the environment, biodiversity and human health are becoming increasingly noticeable. The years 2020 and 2016 were among the hottest since the record keeping of annual surface temperatures began in 1880 (ref. 3 ). Throughout 2022, the globe was plagued by record-breaking heatwaves. Even regions with a naturally warm climate, such as Pakistan or India, experienced some of their hottest days much earlier in the year — very probably a consequence of climate change 4 . According to the National Centers for Environmental Information of the United States, the surface global temperature during the decade leading up to 2020 was +0.82 °C (+1.48 °F) above the 20th-century average 5 . It is clear that we are facing a global crisis that requires urgent action.

During the Climate Change Conference (COP21) of the United Nations in Paris 2015, 196 parties adopted a legally binding treaty with the aim to limit global warming to ideally 1.5 °C and a maximum of 2 °C, compared to pre-industrial levels. A recent report issued by the UN suggests that we are very unlikely to meet the targets of the Paris Agreement. Instead, current policies are likely to cause temperatures to increase up to 2.8 °C this century 6 . The report suggests that to get on track to 2 °C, new pledges would need to be four times higher — and seven times higher to get on track to 1.5 °C. This November, world leaders will meet for the 27th time to coordinate efforts in facing the climate crisis and mitigating the effects during COP27 in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt.

This Focus issue

Human behaviour is not only one of the primary drivers of climate change but also is equally crucial for mitigating the impact of the Anthropocene. In 2022, this was also explicitly acknowledged in the report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). For the first time, the IPCC directly discussed behavioural, social and cultural dynamics in climate change mitigation 7 . This joint Focus highlights some of the aspects of the human factor that are central in the adaptation to and prevention of a warming climate, and the mitigation of negative consequences. It features original pieces, and also includes a curated collection of already published content from across journals in the Nature Portfolio.

Human behaviour is a neglected factor in climate science

In the light of the empirical evidence for the role of human behaviour in climatic changes, it is curious that the ‘human factor’ has not always received much attention in key research areas, such as climate modelling. For a long time, climate models to predict global warming and emissions did not account for it. This oversight meant that predictions made by these models have differed greatly in their projected rise in temperatures 8 , 9 .

Human behaviour is complex and multidimensional, making it difficult — but crucial — to account for it in climate models. In a Review , Brian Beckage and colleagues thus look at existing social climate models and make recommendations for how these models can better embed human behaviour in their forecasting.

The psychology of climate change

The complexity of humans is also reflected in their psychology. Despite an overwhelming scientific consensus on anthropogenic climate change, research suggests that many people underestimate the effects of it, are sceptical of it or deny its existence altogether. In a Review , Matthew Hornsey and Stephan Lewandowsky look at the psychological origins of such beliefs, as well as the roles of think tanks and political affiliation.

Psychologists are not only concerned with understanding and addressing climate scepticism but are also increasingly worried about mental health consequences. Two narrative Reviews address this topic. Neil Adger et al. discuss the direct and indirect pathways by which climate change affects well-being, and Fiona Charlson et al. adopt a clinical perspective in their piece. They review the literature on the clinical implications of climate change and provide practical suggestions for mental health practitioners.

Individual- and system-level behaviour change

To limit global warming to a minimum, system-level and individual-level behaviour change is necessary. Several pieces in this Focus discuss how such change can be facilitated.

Many interventions for individual behaviour change and for motivating environmental behaviour have been proposed. In a Review , Anne van Valkengoed and colleagues introduce a classification system that links different interventions to the determinants of individual environmental behaviour. Practitioners can use the system to design targeted interventions for behaviour change.

Ideally, interventions are scalable and result in system-level change. Scalability requires an understanding of public perceptions and behaviours, as Mirjam Jenny and Cornelia Betsch explain in a Comment . They draw on the experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic and discuss crucial structures, such as data observatories, for the collection of reliable large-scale data.

Such knowledge is also key for designing robust climate policies. Three Comments in Nature Climate Change look at how insights from behavioural science can inform policy making in areas such as natural-disaster insurance markets , carbon taxing and the assignment of responsibility for supply chain emissions .

Time to act

To buck the trend of rising temperatures, immediate and significant climate action is needed.

Natural disasters have become more frequent and occur at ever-closer intervals. The changing climate is driving biodiversity loss, and affecting human physical and mental health. Unfortunately, the conversations about climate change mitigation are often dominated by Global North and ‘WEIRD’ (Western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic) perspectives, neglecting the views of countries in the Global South. In a Correspondence , Charles Ogunbode reminds us that climate justice is social justice in the Global South and that, while being a minor contributor to emissions and global warming, this region has to bear many of the consequences.

The fight against climate change is a collective endeavour and requires large-scale solutions. Collective action, however, usually starts with individuals who raise awareness and drive change. In two Q&As, Nature Human Behaviour entered into conversation with people who recognized the power of individual behaviour and took action.

Licypriya Kangujam is a 10-year-old climate activist based in India. She tells us how she hopes to raise the voices of the children of the world in the fight against climate change and connect individuals who want to take action.

Wolfgang Knorr is a former academic who co-founded Faculty for a Future to help academics to transform their careers and address pressing societal issues. In a Q&A , he describes his motivations to leave academia and offers advice on how academics can create impact.

Mitigation of climate change (as well as adaptation to its existing effects) is not possible without human behaviour change, be it on the individual, collective or policy level. The contents of this Focus shed light on the complexities that human behaviour bears, but also point towards future directions. It is the duty of us all to turn this knowledge into action.

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Essay on Climate Change: Check Samples in 100, 250 Words

• Updated on  
• Sep 21, 2023

Writing an essay on climate change is crucial to raise awareness and advocate for action. The world is facing environmental challenges, so in a situation like this such essay topics can serve as s platform to discuss the causes, effects, and solutions to this pressing issue. They offer an opportunity to engage readers in understanding the urgency of mitigating climate change for the sake of our planet’s future.

Must Read: Essay On Environment  

Table of Contents

• 1 What Is Climate Change?
• 2 What are the Causes of Climate Change?
• 3 What are the effects of Climate Change?
• 4 How to fight climate change?
• 5 Essay On Climate Change in 100 Words
• 6 Climate Change Sample Essay 250 Words

What Is Climate Change?

Climate change is the significant variation of average weather conditions becoming, for example, warmer, wetter, or drier—over several decades or longer. It may be natural or anthropogenic. However, in recent times, it’s been in the top headlines due to escalations caused by human interference.

What are the Causes of Climate Change?

Obama at the First Session of COP21 rightly quoted “We are the first generation to feel the impact of climate change, and the last generation that can do something about it.”.Identifying the causes of climate change is the first step to take in our fight against climate change. Below stated are some of the causes of climate change:

• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Mainly from burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) for energy and transportation.
• Deforestation: The cutting down of trees reduces the planet’s capacity to absorb carbon dioxide.
• Industrial Processes: Certain manufacturing activities release potent greenhouse gases.
• Agriculture: Livestock and rice cultivation emit methane, a potent greenhouse gas.

What are the effects of Climate Change?

Climate change poses a huge risk to almost all life forms on Earth. The effects of climate change are listed below:

• Global Warming: Increased temperatures due to trapped heat from greenhouse gases.
• Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels: Ice caps and glaciers melt, causing oceans to rise.
• Extreme Weather Events: More frequent and severe hurricanes, droughts, and wildfires.
• Ocean Acidification: Oceans absorb excess CO2, leading to more acidic waters harming marine life.
• Disrupted Ecosystems: Shifting climate patterns disrupt habitats and threaten biodiversity.
• Food and Water Scarcity: Altered weather affects crop yields and strains water resources.
• Human Health Risks: Heat-related illnesses and the spread of diseases.
• Economic Impact: Damage to infrastructure and increased disaster-related costs.
• Migration and Conflict: Climate-induced displacement and resource competition.

How to fight climate change?

‘Climate change is a terrible problem, and it absolutely needs to be solved. It deserves to be a huge priority,’ says Bill Gates. The below points highlight key actions to combat climate change effectively.

• Energy Efficiency: Improve energy efficiency in all sectors.
• Protect Forests: Stop deforestation and promote reforestation.
• Sustainable Agriculture: Adopt eco-friendly farming practices.
• Advocacy: Raise awareness and advocate for climate-friendly policies.
• Innovation: Invest in green technologies and research.
• Government Policies: Enforce climate-friendly regulations and targets.
• Corporate Responsibility: Encourage sustainable business practices.
• Individual Action: Reduce personal carbon footprint and inspire others.

Essay On Climate Change in 100 Words

Climate change refers to long-term alterations in Earth’s climate patterns, primarily driven by human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, which release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These gases trap heat, leading to global warming. The consequences of climate change are widespread and devastating. Rising temperatures cause polar ice caps to melt, contributing to sea level rise and threatening coastal communities. Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and wildfires, become more frequent and severe, endangering lives and livelihoods. Additionally, shifts in weather patterns can disrupt agriculture, leading to food shortages. To combat climate change, global cooperation, renewable energy adoption, and sustainable practices are crucial for a more sustainable future.

Must Read: Essay On Global Warming

Climate Change Sample Essay 250 Words

Climate change represents a pressing global challenge that demands immediate attention and concerted efforts. Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This results in a greenhouse effect, trapping heat and leading to a rise in global temperatures, commonly referred to as global warming.

The consequences of climate change are far-reaching and profound. Rising sea levels threaten coastal communities, displacing millions and endangering vital infrastructure. Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, and wildfires, have become more frequent and severe, causing devastating economic and human losses. Disrupted ecosystems affect biodiversity and the availability of vital resources, from clean water to agricultural yields.

Moreover, climate change has serious implications for food and water security. Changing weather patterns disrupt traditional farming practices and strain freshwater resources, potentially leading to conflicts over access to essential commodities.

Addressing climate change necessitates a multifaceted approach. First, countries must reduce their greenhouse gas emissions through the transition to renewable energy sources, increased energy efficiency, and reforestation efforts. International cooperation is crucial to set emission reduction targets and hold nations accountable for meeting them.

In conclusion, climate change is a global crisis with profound and immediate consequences. Urgent action is needed to mitigate its impacts and secure a sustainable future for our planet. By reducing emissions and implementing adaptation strategies, we can protect vulnerable communities, preserve ecosystems, and ensure a livable planet for future generations. The time to act is now.

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in Earth’s climate patterns, primarily driven by human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation.

Five key causes of climate change include excessive greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, notably burning fossil fuels and deforestation. 

We hope this blog gave you an idea about how to write and present an essay on climate change that puts forth your opinions. The skill of writing an essay comes in handy when appearing for standardized language tests. Thinking of taking one soon? Leverage Edu provides the best online test prep for the same via Leverage Live . Register today to know more!

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The Adaptation Principles: 6 Ways to Build Resilience to Climate Change

STORY HIGHLIGHTS

• Climate risk cannot be reduced to zero, which means governments must take decisive action to help households and businesses manage them.
• A new World Bank report, “The Adaptation Principles: A Guide for Designing Strategies for Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience”, lays out 6 universal principles to help policymakers plan for adaptation…
• … Along with 26 actions, 12 tool boxes and 111 indicators.

Over the past decades, Uganda made remarkable progress in reducing poverty and boosting socio-economic development. In 1992, some 56 percent of the population was living in poverty. By 2016, that figure had fallen to 21 percent . Yet, the global economic ramifications of the COVID-19 pandemic and the effects of climate change are forcing the country to confront new challenges: shocks not only threaten further progress but can reverse hard won successes of the past.

Around 72 percent of Uganda’s labor force works in agriculture – a sector that is highly climate sensitive. Take coffee: Uganda is Africa’s second largest exporter of coffee. Over 17 percent of Uganda’s exports coming from just this high-value crop. Recent droughts, however, are estimated to have destroyed half of all coffee yields. In the coming decades, changing climatic conditions are expected to pose profound challenges to Uganda’s coffee sector : without adaptive measures, only 1 percent of Uganda’s current coffee producing land is expected to be able to continue production. And coffee is just one sector that could face mounting impacts from climate change: around 2.3 million poor people in Uganda also face high levels of flood risk.

In countries around the world, climate change poses a significant risk threatening the lives and livelihoods of people. These risks cannot be reduced to zero, which means governments must take decisive action to help firms and people manage them. Doing so requires planning ahead and putting in place proactive measures that not only reduce climate risk but also accelerate development, and cut poverty, according to a new report, The Adaptation Principles: A Guide for Designing Strategies for Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience .

“Adaptation cannot be an afterthought to development. Instead, by integrating it into policy thinking up front, governments can catalyze robust economic development while also reducing vulnerability to climate change,” says Lead Economist, Stéphane Hallegatte , who co-authored the report with Jun Rentschler and Julie Rozenberg, all of the World Bank.

The report lays out six universal “Principles of Adaptation and Resilience” and 26 concrete actions that governments can use to develop effective strategies. To support the development and design of these actions, it also includes 12 toolboxes with methodologies and data sources that can ensure that strategies are evidence-based.  

1. Build resilient foundations with rapid and inclusive development

Poverty and the lack of access to basic services—including infrastructure, financial services, health care, and social protection—are strong predictors of vulnerability to climate change . To put it another way: the poorer communities are, the more climate change will affect them. No adaptation strategy can be successful without ensuring high-vulnerability populations have the financial, technical, and institutional resources they need to adapt.

2. Help people and firms do their part.

It’s critical to boost the adaptive capacity of households and firms: many already have incentives to adapt, but they need help overcoming obstacles, ranging from a lack of information and financing, to behavioral biases and imperfect markets. Governments can make information on climate risks available, clarify responsibilities and liabilities, support innovation and access to the best technologies , and ensure financing is available to all especially for solutions that come with high upfront costs. And they will also need to provide direct support to the poorest people, who cannot afford to invest in adaptation but are the most vulnerable to experiencing devastating effects of climate change .

3. Revise land use plans and protect critical infrastructure.

In addition to direct support to households and businesses, governments must also play a role in protecting public investments, assets, and services. Power and water outages and transport disruptions are estimated to cost more than $390 billion per year already in developing countries. But if countries have the right data, risk models, and decision-making methods available, the incremental cost of building the resilience of new infrastructure assets is small—only around 3 percent of total investments. Urban and land use plans are also important responsibilities of the public sector, and they influence massive private investments in housing and productive assets, so it is vital these adapt to evolving long-term climate risks to avoid locking people into high-risk areas.

4. Help people and firms recover faster and better.

Risks and impacts cannot be reduced to zero. Governments must develop strategies to ensure that when disasters do occur, people and firms can cope without devastating long-term consequences, and can recover quickly. Preparation such as better hydromet data , early warning and emergency management systems reduces physical damage and economic losses—for example, shuttering windows ahead of a hurricane can reduce damage by up to 50 percent. The benefits of providing universal access to early warning systems globally have been repeatedly found to largely exceed costs, by factors of at least 4 to 10 . And then, financial inclusion, such as access to emergency borrowing, and social protection are essential ways to help firms and people get back on their feet. Adaptive social protection systems , which can be rapidly scaled up to cover more people and provide bigger support after a disaster, are particularly efficient, but they rely on delivery and finance mechanisms that have to be created before a crisis occurs.

5. Manage impacts at the macro level.

Coping with climate change impacts in one economic sector is already complicated. Coping with climate change impacts in all sectors at once requires strategic planning at the highest levels. Through many impacts in many sectors ---  from floods affecting housing prices to changes in ecosystems affecting agriculture productivity --- climate change will affect the macroeconomic situation and tax revenues. Some impacts on major sectors (especially exporting ones) can affect a country’s trade balance and capital flows. And spending needs for adaptation and resilience need to be added on top of existing contingent liabilities and current debt levels to create further pressure on public finances. The combination of these factors may result in new risks for macroeconomic stability, public finances and debt sustainability, and the broader financial sector. Governments will need to manage these risks . Because of the massive uncertainty that surrounds macroeconomic estimates of future climate change impacts, strategies to build the resilience of the economy, especially through appropriate diversification of the economic structure, export composition and tax base, are particularly attractive over the short term.

6. Prioritize according to needs, implement across sectors and monitor progress.

Governments must not only prioritize actions to make them compatible with available resources and capacity; they must also establish a robust institutional and legal framework , and a consistent system for monitoring progress. The main objective of an adaptation and resilience strategy is not to implement stand-alone projects: it is to ensure that all government departments and public agencies adopt and mainstream the strategy in all their decisions, and that governments continuously monitor and evaluate the impact of their decisions and actions, so they can address any challenges and adjust their actions accordingly.

The report provides a range of practical tools that can help governments implement adaptation strategies. For instance, economic analysis methodologies can help to select the most important interventions, and budget tagging methods can ensure spending is consistent with expectations. A set of 111 indicators is also provided to enable governments to track progress toward greater resilience, to identify areas that are lagging behind, and to prioritize effective measures. It also sheds light on how the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent economic crisis can affect the design of an adaptation and resilience strategy, recognizing how it has changed the development landscape in all countries.

The impacts of climate change are already here and fast increasing and there is no silver bullet to prevent them. Proactive and robust actions ahead of time, however, can go a long way to helping people and communities so that when a natural disaster strikes, not only are they better prepared to respond, but hard-won development gains are not lost.

Join us on Tuesday, December 1 2020, for a discussion on the main findings of this report .

“The Adaptation Principles: A Guide for Designing Strategies for Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience” was produced with financial support from the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery .

• Report: The Adaptation Principles - A Guide for Designing Strategies for Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience
• Infographic: The Adaptation Principles at a Glance

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Human activity affects global surface temperatures by changing Earth ’s radiative balance—the “give and take” between what comes in during the day and what Earth emits at night. Increases in greenhouse gases —i.e., trace gases such as carbon dioxide and methane that absorb heat energy emitted from Earth’s surface and reradiate it back—generated by industry and transportation cause the atmosphere to retain more heat, which increases temperatures and alters precipitation patterns.

Global warming, the phenomenon of increasing average air temperatures near Earth’s surface over the past one to two centuries, happens mostly in the troposphere , the lowest level of the atmosphere, which extends from Earth’s surface up to a height of 6–11 miles. This layer contains most of Earth’s clouds and is where living things and their habitats and weather primarily occur.

Continued global warming is expected to impact everything from energy use to water availability to crop productivity throughout the world. Poor countries and communities with limited abilities to adapt to these changes are expected to suffer disproportionately. Global warming is already being associated with increases in the incidence of severe and extreme weather, heavy flooding , and wildfires —phenomena that threaten homes, dams, transportation networks, and other facets of human infrastructure. Learn more about how the IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report, released in 2021, describes the social impacts of global warming.

Polar bears live in the Arctic , where they use the region’s ice floes as they hunt seals and other marine mammals . Temperature increases related to global warming have been the most pronounced at the poles, where they often make the difference between frozen and melted ice. Polar bears rely on small gaps in the ice to hunt their prey. As these gaps widen because of continued melting, prey capture has become more challenging for these animals.

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global warming , the phenomenon of increasing average air temperatures near the surface of Earth over the past one to two centuries. Climate scientists have since the mid-20th century gathered detailed observations of various weather phenomena (such as temperatures, precipitation , and storms) and of related influences on climate (such as ocean currents and the atmosphere’s chemical composition). These data indicate that Earth’s climate has changed over almost every conceivable timescale since the beginning of geologic time and that human activities since at least the beginning of the Industrial Revolution have a growing influence over the pace and extent of present-day climate change .

Giving voice to a growing conviction of most of the scientific community , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was formed in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), published in 2021, noted that the best estimate of the increase in global average surface temperature between 1850 and 2019 was 1.07 °C (1.9 °F). An IPCC special report produced in 2018 noted that human beings and their activities have been responsible for a worldwide average temperature increase between 0.8 and 1.2 °C (1.4 and 2.2 °F) since preindustrial times, and most of the warming over the second half of the 20th century could be attributed to human activities.

AR6 produced a series of global climate predictions based on modeling five greenhouse gas emission scenarios that accounted for future emissions, mitigation (severity reduction) measures, and uncertainties in the model projections. Some of the main uncertainties include the precise role of feedback processes and the impacts of industrial pollutants known as aerosols , which may offset some warming. The lowest-emissions scenario, which assumed steep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions beginning in 2015, predicted that the global mean surface temperature would increase between 1.0 and 1.8 °C (1.8 and 3.2 °F) by 2100 relative to the 1850–1900 average. This range stood in stark contrast to the highest-emissions scenario, which predicted that the mean surface temperature would rise between 3.3 and 5.7 °C (5.9 and 10.2 °F) by 2100 based on the assumption that greenhouse gas emissions would continue to increase throughout the 21st century. The intermediate-emissions scenario, which assumed that emissions would stabilize by 2050 before declining gradually, projected an increase of between 2.1 and 3.5 °C (3.8 and 6.3 °F) by 2100.

Many climate scientists agree that significant societal, economic, and ecological damage would result if the global average temperature rose by more than 2 °C (3.6 °F) in such a short time. Such damage would include increased extinction of many plant and animal species, shifts in patterns of agriculture , and rising sea levels. By 2015 all but a few national governments had begun the process of instituting carbon reduction plans as part of the Paris Agreement , a treaty designed to help countries keep global warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) above preindustrial levels in order to avoid the worst of the predicted effects. Whereas authors of the 2018 special report noted that should carbon emissions continue at their present rate, the increase in average near-surface air temperature would reach 1.5 °C sometime between 2030 and 2052, authors of the AR6 report suggested that this threshold would be reached by 2041 at the latest.

The AR6 report also noted that the global average sea level had risen by some 20 cm (7.9 inches) between 1901 and 2018 and that sea level rose faster in the second half of the 20th century than in the first half. It also predicted, again depending on a wide range of scenarios, that the global average sea level would rise by different amounts by 2100 relative to the 1995–2014 average. Under the report’s lowest-emission scenario, sea level would rise by 28–55 cm (11–21.7 inches), whereas, under the intermediate emissions scenario, sea level would rise by 44–76 cm (17.3–29.9 inches). The highest-emissions scenario suggested that sea level would rise by 63–101 cm (24.8–39.8 inches) by 2100.

The scenarios referred to above depend mainly on future concentrations of certain trace gases, called greenhouse gases , that have been injected into the lower atmosphere in increasing amounts through the burning of fossil fuels for industry, transportation , and residential uses. Modern global warming is the result of an increase in magnitude of the so-called greenhouse effect , a warming of Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere caused by the presence of water vapour , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxides , and other greenhouse gases. In 2014 the IPCC first reported that concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides in the atmosphere surpassed those found in ice cores dating back 800,000 years.

Of all these gases, carbon dioxide is the most important, both for its role in the greenhouse effect and for its role in the human economy. It has been estimated that, at the beginning of the industrial age in the mid-18th century, carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere were roughly 280 parts per million (ppm). By the end of 2022 they had risen to 419 ppm, and, if fossil fuels continue to be burned at current rates, they are projected to reach 550 ppm by the mid-21st century—essentially, a doubling of carbon dioxide concentrations in 300 years.

A vigorous debate is in progress over the extent and seriousness of rising surface temperatures, the effects of past and future warming on human life, and the need for action to reduce future warming and deal with its consequences. This article provides an overview of the scientific background related to the subject of global warming. It considers the causes of rising near-surface air temperatures, the influencing factors, the process of climate research and forecasting, and the possible ecological and social impacts of rising temperatures. For an overview of the public policy developments related to global warming occurring since the mid-20th century, see global warming policy . For a detailed description of Earth’s climate, its processes, and the responses of living things to its changing nature, see climate . For additional background on how Earth’s climate has changed throughout geologic time , see climatic variation and change . For a full description of Earth’s gaseous envelope, within which climate change and global warming occur, see atmosphere .

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Research Article

Climate change beliefs, emotions and pro-environmental behaviors among adults: The role of core personality traits and the time perspective

Contributed equally to this work with: Kinga Tucholska, Bożena Gulla, Agnieszka Ziernicka-Wojtaszek

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Department of Ecology, Climatology and Air Protection, University of Agriculture, Krakow, Poland

• Kinga Tucholska, 
• Bożena Gulla, 
• Agnieszka Ziernicka-Wojtaszek

• Published: April 10, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246
• Reader Comments

Climate change and its consequences are recognized as one of the most important challenges to the functioning of the Earth’s ecosystem and humanity. However, the response to the threat posed by the climate crisis still seems inadequate. The question of which psychological factors cause people to engage (or not) in pro-environmental behavior remains without a comprehensive answer. The aim of this study is to establish the links between the cognitive (level of knowledge about climate change and degree of belief in climate myths), emotional (various climate emotions, especially climate anxiety) and behavioral aspects of attitudes towards the climate crisis and their determinants in the form of the Big Five personality domains and time perspectives. The stated hypotheses were verified by analyzing data collected in an online survey of 333 adults using knowledge tests and self-report methods, including psychological questionnaires ( Climate Change Anxiety Scale by Clayton and Karazsia, Big Five Inventory–short version by Schupp and Gerlitz, and Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory by Zimbardo and Boyd), and measurement scales developed for this study ( Climate myth belief scale , Climate emotion scale , and Inventories of current and planned pro-environmental activities ). The results of stepwise regression analysis demonstrate the importance of the core personality traits and the dominant temporal perspective as determinants of belief in climate change myths, climate anxiety, as well as actual and planned pro-environmental behavior.

Citation: Tucholska K, Gulla B, Ziernicka-Wojtaszek A (2024) Climate change beliefs, emotions and pro-environmental behaviors among adults: The role of core personality traits and the time perspective. PLoS ONE 19(4): e0300246. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246

Editor: Sorin Adam Matei, Purdue University, UNITED STATES

Received: February 6, 2023; Accepted: February 24, 2024; Published: April 10, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Tucholska et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All raw data set necessary to replicate the study findings are available from the RODBUK Cracow Open Research Data Repository database ( https://rodbuk.pl/ ). DOI: https://doi.org/10.57903/UJ/PNWSTH .

Funding: KT, BG, and AZ-W research was funded by the Priority Research Area Society of the Future under the program “Excellence Initiative – Research University” at the Jagiellonian University in Krakow. https://id.uj.edu.pl/en_GB/inicjatywa-doskonalosci The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

According to the latest information from the World Meteorological Organization (2022) [ 1 ], the climate situation is dramatically worsening. The last decade was one of the warmest in human history. The anthropogenic nature of climate change is undeniable. However, it is also clear that through policy decisions and systemic solutions aimed at transitioning to a sustainable economy, as well as a range of individual pro-environmental behavior (PEB), people can contribute to slowing or even solving these climate problems.

A number of situational, social, and demographic factors have been identified that influence the extent to which individuals take action to improve the global environmental and climate situation. Research findings indicate that views on climate change and the willingness to address it are dependent on financial resources [ 2 ], cultural orientation [ 3 ], social influence [ 4 ], political views [ 5 ], and levels of trust in scientists and authorities [ 6 ]. However, some people–despite having the knowledge, resources, role models, social support, and intention to change their behavior to be more pro-environmental–do not engage sufficiently, consistently or systematically in activities that could particularly benefit the environment. This phenomenon is described by environmental and conservation psychologists as an “attitude-behavior gap” [ 2 ] or a “concern-behavior gap” [ 3 ]. To understand inconsistencies in the PEB domain, it appears crucial to also look for their correlates in knowledge and emotions related to climate change, as well as determinants in personality structures, which explain relatively persistent tendencies to respond in a certain way to situational challenges, irrespective of external factors. Our project is part of a stream of research attempting to describe and understand the “pro-environmental individual” (PEI) [ 7 ] facing the climate crisis. Our goal is to fill the knowledge gap on personality traits and temporal orientations as determinants of attitudes toward climate change, a key aspect of which is the willingness to take pro-environmental action, beliefs about climate change and experienced climate emotions. The research model we have adopted also allows us to identify some barriers to engaging in pro-environmental activity that are related to personality traits and time perspective (TP), so this model will also help explain why some people do not engage in pro-environmental activity.

Mental-emotional responses to and attitudes toward the climate situation

Although the scientific consensus that climate change is real, man-made, and one of humanity’s greatest challenges that must be confronted immediately [ 8 ] is now widely known, certain social groups do not share this view. Survey results indicate that only 62% of Americans recognize that global warming is caused by humanity [ 5 ]; in the Polish population, this belief is shared by 68.5% of respondents [ 9 ]. Deficiencies in knowledge about the climate situation, ways of improving it, and low levels of trust in science are a few of the many possible explanations for unwillingness to engage in PEB. Convictions about the uncertainty of climate change, its distant time horizon, or its natural (but not necessarily anthropogenic) causes, as well as doubts as to its negative consequences, allow the status quo to persist. The lower an individual’s degree of cognitive openness and the greater their rigidity and tendency towards stereotypical thinking, the more easily they succumb to climate myths [ 10 ]. However, cognitive factors are not of primary importance. A classic meta-analysis of 128 studies on the correlations between indicators of knowledge and attitudes, attitudes and intentions, and intentions and environmentally responsible behavior indicates that they are weak [ 11 ].

Another factor that may prevent people from making behavioral changes to protect the planet’s resources is overwhelming unpleasant emotions brought on by realization of the seriousness of the climate situation. These can range from climate anxiety [ 12 ], depression, sadness or apathy [ 13 ], to climate despair [ 14 ], anger or rage [ 13 ]. They may also experience emotions related to self-awareness, such as feelings of shame or guilt, or emotions that do not involve discomfort, such as indifference, active hope [ 15 ] or compassion [ 16 ]. Many people take small steps that they believe can stop climate change. However, these require self-sacrifice, as giving up a comfortable lifestyle based on unlimited consumption entails effort and economic costs, and therefore the changes made are often unsystematic. Even individuals who are strongly committed to climate activism become progressively burned out as they cannot see the impact of the beneficial changes they make [ 17 ].

Pro-environmental attitudes (PEAs) depend on both knowledge about the climate situation and beliefs and convictions about its anthropogenic origin. The following types of climate attitudes can be distinguished [ 18 , 19 ]: lack of interest; belittling the problem; active denial of the problem (climate denialism); rigidity (no denial of the problem but a desire to maintain one’s current lifestyle in spite of it); dramatization, which reduces motivation and energy for action; active preparation for an apocalypse in any form (represented by so-called “preppers“); and realism and commitment associated with climate-related emotions which are appropriate to the situation and taking steps to contribute to improving the situation.

In the view of Aronson, Wilson and Akert [ 20 ], the classics of social psychology attitudes are a combination of a cognitive, emotional and behavioral component. The cognitive component of an attitude is the belief or idea associated with a particular object. The affective component includes the individual’s evaluation and valuing of the object, as well as the emotions associated with it. The behavioral component includes an action or predisposition to act directed towards that object. However, declared attitudes tend to be a relatively poor predictor of behavioral action, as both attitudes and behavior are influenced by many other factors (personality factors, situational factors and, among these, especially social factors). Consequently, it is more accurate to predict behavior on the basis of attitudes with consideration of action in the long term [ 21 ]. However, it is also worth examining attitudes that are more specific, towards a well-defined object, as such attitudes have greater predictive value. The higher the accuracy of the diagnosis of attitudes in the three aspects of their manifestation (cognitive, emotional and behavioral), the stronger the link between attitudes and action itself [ 22 ].

Core dimensions of personality, the time perspective, and environmentalism

Personality is defined as the characteristic, relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors exhibited by individuals. As the source of beliefs, values, and motives, it can be considered a fundamental explanation for individual differences in PEA and PEB. Initially, psychologists studying the personality correlates of PEA and PEB focused on specific narrow aspects and personality traits. This is reflected in work by Hines, Hungerford and Tomera [ 23 ] that analyzed and summarized the initial findings of research on responsible environmental behavior. This first meta-analysis confirmed that statistically significant correlates of PEB are PEA (r = 0.35), locus of control (r = 0.37), personal responsibility (r = 0.33), economic orientation (r = 0.16), and verbal commitment (r = 0.49).

A recent meta-analysis of data from 38 sources, collected from nearly 50,000 individuals [ 24 ], verified the associations between the core personality dimensions described in the Big Five model [ 25 ] and the six-factor HEXACO model [ 26 ], PEA, and PEB. Five-Factor Theory of Personality includes five dimensions. These are [ 27 ]: (1) Neuroticism (characteristic adaptation: low self-esteem, irrational perfectionistic beliefs, pessimistic attitudes), (2) Extraversion (characteristic adaptation: social skills, numerous friendships, enterprising vocational interests, participation in sports, club memberships), (3) Openness to Experience (characteristic adaptation: interest in travel, many different hobbies, knowledge of foreign cuisine, diverse vocational interests, friends who share tastes), (4) Agreeableness (characteristic adaptation: compliance, forgiving attitudes, belief in cooperation, inoffensive language, reputation as a pushover), (5) Conscientiousness (characteristic adaptation: achievement striving, leadership skills, long-term plans, organized support network, technical expertise). In addition to the above-mentioned five factors, the HEXACO model includes sixth dimension which is Honesty-Humility, a basic personality trait representing “the tendency to be fair and genuine in dealing with others, in the sense of cooperation with others even when one might exploit others without suffering retaliation” [ 26 ].

The highest correlation coefficients were found between openness, honesty-humility, and PEAi (r = 0.22 and 0.20, respectively), as well as with PEB (r = 0.21 and 0.25, respectively). Agreeableness, conscientiousness, and, to a slightly lesser extent, extraversion were also found to be related to PEA (r = 0.15, 0.12, and 0.09) and PEB (r = 0.10, 0.11, and 0.10). A later study by Soutter and Mõttus [ 28 ] essentially confirmed these relationships. Openness appears to correlate most strongly with PEA and PEB (r = 0.46 and 0.35), followed by agreeableness (r = 0.34 and 0.25, respectively) and conscientiousness (r = 0.16 and 0.18). Extraversion and neuroticism did not show statistically significant associations with PEA, but the facet-level traits expressing them appeared to be related to PEB (r = 0.12 and -0.09).

Among the basic personality traits, openness appears to be the most important in the context of relationships with the environment [ 24 ]. Openness is associated with the capacity for flexible, abstract thinking, which is necessary for the individual to imagine the complex temporal and spatial consequences of the climate crisis. Openness may also influence pro-environmental behavior indirectly, through values held [ 29 ]. Political orientation was found to be strongly associated with PEA [ 6 ], and openness to experience may be partly responsible for this effect.

As Pahl and colleges stated [ 30 ] most basic temporal dimension of climate change is its extension into the future. While impacts are already happening, the most significant and far-reaching impacts of climate change lie in the future. A further temporal aspect of climate change which complicates temporal distance is the time lag between cause and effect. The climate effects we see now are related to carbon emissions that entered the atmosphere a long time ago. Even if we stopped all additional carbon emissions today, the carbon already in the atmosphere will continue to have impacts for centuries. Environmental engagement evokes two types of dilemmas: social (individual interest vs. collective interests) and temporal concern (short- vs. long-term interests, immediate vs. delayed consequences of one’s actions) [ 31 ]. The psychological variable that helps to explain individual differences in decision-making while taking into account time frames is time perspective (TP). According to Zimbardo and Boyd [ 32 ], TP is “the often non-conscious personal attitude that each of us holds toward time and the process whereby the continual flow of existence is bundled into time categories that help to give order, coherence, and meaning to our lives” (p. 51). People can be distinguished by their preferred time perspective. Some people habitually prefer a future time perspective, characterized by subjectively important and meaningful mental representations of the future and a focus on future goals and achievements, whereas others habitually think more about the past or the present.

Measurement of TP involves the assessment of relative preferences for past/present/future events, experiences and goals, and it helps to understand engagement or apathy towards environmental problems. Research on environmental engagement and TP is most commonly conducted with the Consideration of Future Consequences Scale [ 33 ] which captures the tendency to focus on the distant future or the immediate consequences of one’s actions. Research is also conducted using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory [ 34 ], which measures five various time frames (past positive and negative, present hedonistic and fatalistic, and future).

A meta-analysis of studies conducted by Milfont, Wilson, and Diniz [ 35 ], using data from 19 independent samples and 6,301 respondents from seven countries, indicates that the future TP has a more significant relationship with PEBs (medium effect; r(k = 13) = 0. 26) and PEAs (small effect; r(k = 10) = 0.17) than the combined score of the past-present perspective (significant but trivial effect found only for PEBs; r(k = 4) = 0.06)). However, these results may be due to the fact that far fewer studies included a full temporal perspective (not only on the future, but also on the present and past). Additionally, it is important to note that the association between the future perspective and PEB is stronger than its association with PEA.

There is a lack of research considering the combined effects of basic personality traits and TP on PEB; our study is designed to fill this gap.

Goal, research model and hypotheses

Accordingly, in line with the three-component concept of attitudes [ 20 ] we consider three components of attitudes toward climate change: the cognitive component (knowledge, beliefs, and misconceptions about the climate and its changes), the affective component (emotional reactions in the face of climate change), and the behavioral component (willingness to act and how to behave in relation to progressive climate change). The research goal was to determine the level of knowledge about climate change and the degree of belief in climate myths in a sample of adult Poles, the emotional reactions aroused in response to the climate-environmental situation, and forms and frequency of PEB undertaken and planned by the subjects. We also aimed to explore the interplay between these three aspects of attitudes to climate change. The main objective of the study was to capture the intrapsychic variables (basic personality traits and TP) that are relevant to explaining the above three aspects of attitudes to climate change. Based on the information presented above, the following general research model (see Fig 1 ) and hypotheses were made:

• H1a. Openness predict the level of knowledge about climate changes—the higher the level of openness the higher the level of knowledge about climate change.
• H1b. Conscientiousness predict the level of knowledge about climate changes—the higher the level consciousness, the higher the level of knowledge about climate change.
• H1c. Future time perspective predict the level of knowledge about climate changes—the higher the level of future time perspective, the higher the level of knowledge about climate change.
• H2a. Openness predicts the level of belief in climate myths—the lower the level of openness, the higher the level of belief in climate myths.
• H2b. Neuroticism predicts belief in climate myths—the lower the level of neuroticism, the higher the level of belief in climate myths.
• H2c. Past positive perspective predicts belief in climate myths–the higher the level of past positive perspective, the higher the level of belief in climate myths.
• H3a. Neuroticism predicts the level of cognitive and emotional impairment as aspects of climate anxiety–the higher the level of neuroticism, the higher the level of cognitive and emotional impairment.
• H3b. Conscientiousness predicts the level of functional impairment as aspect of climate anxiety–the lower the level of conscientiousness, the higher the level of functional impairment.
• H3c. Future time perspective predicts the experience of climate change–the higher the level of future time perspective, the higher the level of climate change experience.
• H4a. Openness predicts behavioral engagement in pro-environmental activity–the higher the level of openness, the higher the level of behavioral engagement.
• H4b. Conscientiousness predicts current pro-environmental activity–the higher the level of conscientiousness, the higher the level of current pro-environmental activity.
• H4c. Present hedonism predicts current pro-environmental activity–the lower the level of present hedonism, the higher the level of current pro-environmental activity.
• H4d. Present fatalism predicts current pro-environmental activity–the lower the level of present fatalism, the higher the level of current pro-environmental activity.
• H4e. Future time perspective predicts current pro-environmental activity–the higher the level of future time perspective, the higher the level of current pro-environmental activity.
• H5a. Openness predicts planned pro-environmental activity–the higher the level of openness, the higher the level of planned pro-environmental activity.
• H5b. Neuroticism predicts planned pro-environmental activity–the higher the level of neuroticism, the higher the level of planned pro-environmental activity.
• H5c. Future time perspective predicts planned pro-environmental activity–the higher the level of future time perspective, the higher the level of planned pro-environmental activity.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246.g001

Materials and methods

Participants.

A total of 333 participants, adult Poles, took part in the study (30.33% male), with a mean age of 29.14 years (SD = 11.20, range 18–80); see Table 1 for detailed participant characteristics.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246.t001

Climate myth belief scale –a method developed for this project (see S1 Appendix ). A person assigns beliefs (representing so-called climate myths, e.g., “Humans are too insignificant to influence the planet’s climate”) a rating from 1 to 5 stars; the more stars the participant chooses, the stronger his or her belief that a given statement is true. One star (coded as 1 point) means that the respondent does not agree with the statement. The score is the sum of the points (min 10; max 50).

Knowledge test about climate and its changes –a method developed for the purposes of this project (see S2 Appendix ). It consists of 15 questions measuring the participant’s level of knowledge about the causes of climate change, its consequences, the anthropogenic sources of the crisis, and possible ways to improve the environment. It is a multiple-choice test: four answer options are given, including one correct answer (scored). The knowledge indicator is the sum of the points in the test (min. 0; max. 15).

Climate Change Anxiety Scale (CCA) by Clayton and Karazsia [ 36 ] is 22-item scale with a 5-point Likert-type response format for assessing climate anxiety as a psychological response to climate change. Scores on four factor scales are assigned: (1) cognitive-emotional impairment—reflected in rumination, difficulty sleeping or concentrating, and nightmares or crying; (2) functional impairment—high ratings on this factor indicate that concern about climate change is interfering with a person’s ability to work or socialize; (3) experience of climate change; and (4) behavioral engagement—not just engaging in sustainable behavior, but endorsing the significance of a behavioral response. Scales 1–3 measure the severity of climate change anxiety; scale 4 measures pro-climate engagement.

Climate emotion scale (CES)–a method developed for this project (see S3 Appendix ) based on Climate Change Distress by Searle and Gow [ 37 ], to which four items were added (”mobilized”, “indifferent”, “full of energy”, and “calm”). The subject’s task is to complete the sentence “Thinking about climate change right now makes me feel…” by defining the intensity of 15 emotions and feelings, assigning 1–5 points to each one. A score of 1 means that the feeling is minimal or absent. Indices are established for each of the 15 climate emotions (min. 1; max. 5).

Inventory of current pro-environmental activities –a method developed for this project (see S4 Appendix ). It is a 10-item list of various actions that can mitigate the effects of climate change (e.g., saving electricity or water, or reducing travel). The participant indicates the extent to which they currently carry out a given action or activity using a 5-point scale, where 1 = not at all, 2 = rarely, 3 = quite often, 4 = often, 5 = almost always. The index of frequency of current pro-environmental activities is the sum of the scores.

Inventory of planned pro-environmental activities –a method developed for this project. It is a 10-item list of actions that can mitigate the effects of climate change. The respondent indicates the extent to which they want and intend to implement these behaviors in the future by rating each on a 5-point scale, where 1 = not at all, 2 = rarely, 3 = quite often, 4 = often, 5 = almost always. A summary index of the frequency of planned pro-environmental behaviors is established.

Big Five Inventory–short version (BFI-S) by Schupp and Gerlitz [ 38 ], adapted by Strus, Cieciuch, and Rowinski. This is a shortened, 15-item version of a questionnaire for measuring the five basic dimensions of personality. The subject responds to 15 statements using a graphically represented 7-point scale whose anchors are described as 1 = strongly NO, 7 = strongly YES. Scores are assigned on five factor scales: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) by Zimbardo and Boyd [ 34 ], 15-item version in Polish translation developed by Cybis, Rowinski, Przepiórka, and Meisner. An inventory for measuring TP, i.e., how one relates to the past, present, and future. The respondent indicates how well each of the 15 statements characterizes them using a 5-point scale: 1 = completely disagree, 2 = mostly disagree, 3 = hard to say, 4 = mostly agree, 5 = completely agree. Factor scales are present hedonistic, present fatalistic, past positive, past negative, and future.

The self-report study was conducted online. Participants were recruited form among students of Jagiellonian University in Krakow and the Agricultural University in Cracow. The “snowball sampling” method was then used to extend the study population to include non-students. An invitation to participate in the study was posted on the university’s online research platform, along with a link to the survey form. Everyone who was interested was provided with information about the purpose of the study, the anonymous nature of participation in the study, the use of the results for research purposes only, and the possibility of withdrawing from the study at any stage without any consequences before taking part. Everyone who chose to participate in the study confirmed that he or she was of legal age and gave written informed consent to participate in the study. Respondents were asked to share information about the study and a link to the form with other interested parties outside the student body. The subjects were not compensated for their participation. The Research Ethics Committee at the Institute of Applied Psychology at Jagiellonian University in Krakow gave a positive opinion of the project.

A multiple testing and comparisons between variables including Pearson’s correlation (as a form of preliminary analysis) and a full stepwise procedure was applied, that is, a combination of forward and backward analysis. The analyses were done by means of the software PS IMAGO PRO (SPSS 26) [ 39 ].

Preliminary analysis

Descriptive statistics of the indicators along with reliability measures are included in Table 2 . Correlation analyses (see Table 3 ) were conducted as the preliminary analysis using the data obtained in the study.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246.t002

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246.t003

Knowledge about the climate crisis and their correlates.

Analysis of the knowledge test results showed that the respondents had fairly reliable knowledge about the anthropogenic causes of climate change (96.7% correct answers), recognition of carbon dioxide as a gas causing the greenhouse effect (94.89%), observed extreme weather events (96.1%), knowledge about renewable energy (98.2%), and the need to take adaptive actions in response to climate change (91.6%). On the other hand, respondents were least responsive to questions related to the natural causes of climate change (56.76%), sources of methane (55.26%), the onset of rising temperatures (53.75%), changes in the nature of precipitation in Poland (55.26%), and knowledge of international organizations working on climate issues (53.75%). The lowest results were recorded in response to the question about the rate of temperature increase in Poland (33.93%). Belief in climate myths was low in the surveyed population. The myths that persisted among respondents included the belief that the increase in average global temperatures is due to natural causes (M = 2.10, SD = 1.08); that the climate has changed before, and therefore the current changes are nothing special (M = 2.23, SD = 1.19); and the belief that the average citizen has no influence on climate policy (M = 2.01, SD = 1.20).

The correlation between the indices of climate knowledge and belief in climate myths is negative but weak (r = -0.15; p = 0.008). The higher the index of climate knowledge, the higher the index of pro-environmental actions currently taken and planned for the future. This relationship is weak but significant at r = 0.22 (p < 0.01) for current and r = 0.13 (p < 0.01) for planned PEBs. The higher the level of belief in climate myths, the lower the pro-climate activity currently undertaken (r = -0.19, p < 0.01) and planned for the future (r = -0.34, p < 0.01).

Emotions related to climate change and their correlates.

The most frequently expressed emotions in the face of the climate change situation (see Table 2 ) are worry, sadness, concern, depression, anger, and helplessness. The least frequent were calmness and indifference. The greater the belief in climate myths, the less intense the negative emotions (depressed, sad, scared, concerned, worried, angry, tense, anxious, powerless, and hopeless; r = -0.36 to r = -0.16), and the stronger the feelings of indifference (r = 0.36), calmness (r = 0.37), and energy (r = 0.14). The climate knowledge index does not correlate with any of the climate emotions.

Neuroticism correlates positively with a range of climate emotions indicative of distress (depressed, sad, angry, powerless, scared, worried, anxious, helpless, tense, concerned, hopeless; r = 0.18 to r = 0.29; p < 0.01) and shows a negative relationship with feelings of indifference (r = - 0.16; p < .01) and calmness (r = -0.29; p < 0.01) toward the climate situation. Extraversion and agreeableness correlate positively but weakly with feelings of mobilization (r = 0.18 and r = 0.16, respectively, p < 0.01) and energy (r = 0.13 and r = 0.16, respectively; p < 0.01). Openness is positively associated with climate change-related emotions of sadness and anger, as well as to feeling depressed, scared, worried, anxious, tense, concerned, hopeless, and mobilized (r = 0.15 to r = 0.23, p < 0.01); it is negatively related to indifference (r = -.019, p < 0.01). Conscientiousness was associated with feeling mobilized, calm, and full of energy, while a negative relationship was shown with feeling scared, helpless, and hopeless.

The statistically significant correlational relationships between TP and climate change-related emotions are weak. The present hedonistic perspective is associated with experiencing the widest range of emotions–feeling sad, depressed, angry, and helpless, but also mobilized–and with a low level of indifference. The present fatalistic perspective is positively correlated with mobilization and negatively correlated with indifference and hopelessness. This may be due to perception of the negative aspects of multiple areas of current reality, which reduces the relative perceived significance of climate issues so that they do not evoke negative emotions. Past positive is associated with indicators of mobilization and energy surge. Past negative is associated with indicators of anxiety and hopelessness, as well as with feelings of mobilization and energy; it is negatively associated with indifference, helplessness, and hopelessness. Future perspective has a positive relationship with feelings of mobilization and energy and a negative relationship with helplessness.

As measured by the CCA scale, climate anxiety indices of cognitive-emotional impairment and functional impairment are positively weakly related to neuroticism and openness. Additionally, openness shows a weak relationship with the index of personal experience of the effects of climate change. Examination of the correlational links between the climate anxiety indices and TP reveals a weak positive association between the present hedonistic perspective and cognitive-emotional impairment; it also reveals a weak negative association between past positive and functional impairment.

Current and planned pro-environmental behaviors and their correlates.

Positive relationships of weak to moderate strength were found between the index of current PEB and almost all emotions measured by the CES; only indifference correlates negatively with current activity. Helplessness and calmness are two of the fifteen emotional states that show no relationship with the index of current environmental action. The intensity of planned environmental actions correlates significantly with the entire spectrum of climate emotions, indicating both distress and positive feelings (mobilization, energy); only the feelings of indifference and calmness correlate negatively. The correlation coefficients between climate change-related emotions and planned environmental actions are higher than in the case of actions already taken.

The intensity of currently undertaken PEBs is positively related to extraversion and conscientiousness (weak correlation) and openness (moderate correlation). Pro-environmental actions are also positively related to future and present hedonistic TPs (weak correlations). Pro-environmental action planning is related to neuroticism and openness; it is also related to hedonistic and fatalistic present and future TPs (weak correlations).

Predictors of climate change knowledge and belief in climate myths

Baseline personality traits and TP were not statistically significant predictors of climate knowledge (see Table 4 ), thus hypotheses H1a, H1b, and H1c must be rejected. The statistically significant predictors of belief in climate myths were: past positive TP, which explained 1.92% of the variance in the dependent variable; openness, which was negative and explained 1.46% of the variance in the dependent variable; and neuroticism, which was negative and explained 1.29% of the variance. Overall, the predictors in the model explained 5% of the variance in the dependent variable; this value was statistically significant (p = 0.002). Hypothesis H2a, which postulated that the lower the level of openness, the higher the level of belief in climate myths, has been positively verified (Beta = -.12; p = .025). Hypothesis H2b, which postulated that the lower the level of neuroticism, the higher the level of belief in climate myths has been confirmed (Beta = -.11; p = .035). Hypothesis H2c, which postulated that the higher the level of past positive perspective, the higher the level of belief in climate myths has been also positively verified (Beta = 14; p = .011).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246.t004

Predictors of climate anxiety

The statistically significant predictors of cognitive and emotional impairment (which is one of the factors of climate anxiety) are as follows (see Table 5 ): openness–positive, explaining 3.64% of the variance in the dependent variable; neuroticism–positive, explaining 2.21% of the variance in the dependent variable; present hedonistic perspective–positive (2.17% of the variance), and conscientiousness–negative (1.24% of the variance). Together, the predictors in the model explained 9% of the variance in the dependent variable; this value was statistically significant (p < 0.001). Hypothesis H3a, which postulated that the lower the level of neuroticism, the higher the level of belief in climate myths, has been positively verified (Beta = .15; p = .005).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246.t005

The predictors of functional impairment are: the past positive perspective–negative, explaining 2.28% of the variance in the dependent variable; openness–positive, explaining 2.04% of the variance in the dependent variable; present hedonistic perspective–positive, explaining 1.81% of the variance in the dependent variable; and conscientiousness–negative, explaining 1.36% of the variance. Together, the predictors in the model explained 6% of the variance in the dependent variable; this value was statistically significant (p < 0.001). Hypothesis H3b, which postulated that the lower the level of conscientiousness, the higher the level of functional impairment, has been confirmed (Beta = -.12; p = .03).

The following were revealed as experience of climate anxiety predictors: openness–positive, explaining 1.42% of the variance in the dependent variable; past positive perspective–negative (2.14% of the variance); and present hedonistic perspective–positive (1.30% of the variance). In total, the predictors in the model explained 4% of the variance in the dependent variable; this value was statistically significant (p = 0.003). Hypothesis H3c must be rejected because the results of the study do not indicate that the future time perspective predicts the experience of climate change.

Predictors of pro-environmental behavior

According to the data presented in Table 6 , statistically significant predictors of behavioral engagement (measured by CCA) are openness–positive, explaining 6.44% of the variance in the dependent variable; future TP–positive, explaining 3.05% of the variance; and neuroticism–positive, explaining 2.53% of the variance. In total, the predictors in the model explained 12% of the variance in the dependent variable; this value was statistically significant (p < 0.001). Hypothesis H4a, which postulated that openness predicts behavioral engagement in pro-environmental activity–the higher the level of openness, the higher the level of behavioral engagement, has been confirmed (Beta = .25; p < .001).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246.t006

The following proved to be statistically significant predictors of current PEB (measured by Inventory of current pro-environmental activities ): openness–positive, explaining 14.13% of the variance of the dependent variable; future TP–positive, explaining 2.13% of the variance; and agreeableness–negative, explaining 1.16% of the variance. In total, the predictors in the model explained 17% of the variance in the dependent variable; this value was statistically significant (p < 0.001). Hypotheses H4b, H4c, H4d have been rejected. Hypothesis H4e, which postulated that the higher the level of future time perspective, the higher the level of current pro-environmental activity, has been positively verified (Beta = .15; p = .004).

Planned PEB has the following personality predictors: openness–positive, explaining 7.22% of the variance; neuroticism–positive, explaining 5.50% of the variance; and present fatalistic perspective–positive, explaining 1.84% of the variance. Together, the predictors in the model explained 15% of the variance in the dependent variable; this value was statistically significant (p < 0.001). Hypothesis H5a, which postulated that the higher the level of openness, the higher the level of planned pro-environmental activity, has been confirmed (Beta = .27; p < .001) as well as hypothesis H5b, which stated that the higher the level of neuroticism, the higher the level of planned pro-environmental activity (Beta = .24; p < .001). Hypothesis H5c, which postulated that future time perspective predicts planned pro-environmental activity has been rejected.

Although the Big Five personality traits and TPs are relatively well-recognized constructs and are regarded as important for understanding environmental issues, there has been no previous research on their interconnectedness and combined empirical relation to PEB. Confirming the results of previous studies, our findings provide additional empirical evidence that the core personality domains and diverse TPs underlie PEB. Moreover, their associations with belief in climate myths, a broad spectrum of climate emotions, and climate anxiety indicate that both the Big Five traits and TP are important constructs to be considered in psychological studies related to environmental issues.

The complex research model adopted was essentially concerned with the influence of core personality traits and individual TPs on cognitive, emotional and behavioral aspects of attitudes toward climate change. Seventeen partial hypotheses were formulated and tested in the course of the study. A summary of the verification effects is presented in Table 7 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246.t007

Strengths of the study

Our findings add to existing knowledge in several ways. The broad selection of variables in the research program is undoubtedly an asset. Novel aspects of the research are the inclusion of not only an index of climate change knowledge, but also belief in climate myths, and examination of their associations with climate anxiety and a range of climate change related emotions (including those not indicative of distress) and actions in the face of the climate crisis. Investigating the links between the three aspects of attitudes toward climate change (cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects), which have been studied separately, and their personality determinants is also a novel research idea.Our data on the positive but weak correlation between environmental knowledge and PEB is supported by previous research findings [ 40 , 41 ]. Additionally, the notion that having reliable knowledge about climate change translates into greater awareness of the seriousness of the situation, reflected in the configuration of emotions experienced, its possible consequences, and motivation to take pro-environmental actions is reinforced not only by the negative correlation between the climate myths belief index and PEB, but also by the data supporting the assumption that the knowledge index is weakly negatively correlated with the climate myths belief index. As we have demonstrated empirically, indifference and calmness in the face of the climate crisis are emotional states that co-occur with belief in climate myths. Thus, the results of our study provide arguments in favor of undertaking pro-environmental education and disseminating scientifically verified knowledge on this topic. At the same time, the data we obtained on the intrapsychic determinants of the tendency to adhere to climate myths (whose predictors are the past positive perspective–positive, openness and neuroticism–negative) suggest these variables must be taken into account as individual factors that may limit the effectiveness of the educational process. The possibility of modifying these aspects of personality is limited and–given the known relationship between past positive perspective and well-being [ 42 , 43 ]–attempts to change this time perspective would be unethical. Hence, it seems necessary not to modify but to balance it. The past positive perspective, which is generally conducive to life satisfaction but is also associated with traditionalism and sentimentality [ 34 ], neither of which seems beneficial in the context of the climate crisis, should be balanced by strengthening the future perspective towards an optimal balanced TP [ 44 ]. This can be achieved, for example, by following the method described by Zimbardo, Sword, and Sword [ 45 ].Considering a wide range of TPs, i.e., retrospective, present, and future orientations, allowed us to fill the gaps in knowledge concerning their relation to PEA. Research linking TP and environmental issues still focuses mainly on the future perspective [ 35 ]. As confirmed by our study, future TP affects current PEB, as it was shown to be its predictor (explaining slightly more than 2% of the variance of this variable). It also influences the level of involvement in pro-climate activity, as measured by the CCA scale (explaining 3.05% of the variance of this variable). The future perspective is additionally a predictor of the estimated probability of making changes in the level of pro-environmental activity. It also shows a positive relationship with feelings of mobilization and energy, and a negative relationship with helplessness in the face of crisis. Interestingly, future TP does not affect the strength of the planned PEB index, nor, somewhat surprisingly, does it affect the level of climate anxiety in any of its aspects as measured by the CCA scale. Equally puzzling is the small but statistically significant positive effect of the present fatalistic TP on the level of planned environmental action. Present fatalistic refers to the perception of a lack of personal influence on the situation, which is seen as determined by more or less predetermined external forces (such as fate). It is expressed, in part, by the belief that whatever one does, the outcome is a foregone conclusion. Previous research indicates a negative association between external locus of control and PEA and PEB [ 23 , 46 ]. The present fatalistic orientation does not encourage current PEB; it only encourages its planning, which can be described as fantasizing about undertaking such activities. However, the relationships captured should be verified in further research.

Experiencing climate anxiety, whose symptoms include cognitive-emotional and functional impairment, appears to be conditioned to some extent by the present hedonistic TP (positive, explaining 2.21% of the variance in the former variable and 2.04% of the latter) and the past positive TP (negative, 2.28% of the variance in the latter). Given the nature of the present hedonistic TP and the findings regarding its relationship with PEB [ 34 , 47 ], it is understandable that an orientation that is inclined to focus on and seek pleasure, even if short-lived, gives rise to anxiety in the face of a progressive climate crisis. A poorly expressed past positive perspective, which is associated with having resources in the form of positive, empowering past experiences and a strong sense of identity, results in impaired functioning in the course of climate anxiety.

There were also new findings regarding the core domains of personality in the context of experiencing the climate situation and PEB. This represents significant progress in this area, as the findings indicate that examination of the relationship between current and planned PEBs and domain-level personality traits can significantly contribute to the characterization of PEIs, as well as to knowledge of correlates and the sources of climate anxiety. They also shed light on the underlying trait-based drivers of PEB. Experience of the negative effects of climate anxiety that are expressed in cognitive-emotional impairment is influenced by such personality traits as openness-positive, conscientiousness-negative, and neuroticism-positive, while functional impairment is associated with the first two of these core traits. Correlation analysis captured a moderately strong positive relationship between current PEB and the openness trait, as well as a weak correlation with conscientiousness and extraversion. Planned PEB is related to openness and neuroticism. Regression analysis identified the core traits of openness-positive and agreeableness-negative as predictors of current PEBs, while openness-positive and neuroticism-positive domains were predictors of planned PEBs. These results are generally in line with previous findings [ 7 , 24 , 48 ]. Openness conditions intellectual curiosity, willingness to acquire new knowledge, and flexibility of cognitive and behavioral strategies; it is associated with appreciation of beauty, including the natural environment, which helps to understand the empirically demonstrated association of this trait with PEB. Agreeableness is a trait that is associated with empathy and altruistic behavior; altruism is one of the specific traits that comprises the agreeableness dimension (the mid-level facet of Big Five agreeableness) [ 49 ]. It seems possible that PEBs may be undertaken because they are perceived as contributing to the good of others and as socially acceptable and preferred (Markowitz et al., 2012) [ 7 ]. Reports on the links between neuroticism and PEBs are varied. The model in our study addressed this problem by distinguishing between current and planned actions. This enabled us to study not only intentions motivated by neurotic anxiety, but also actual steps taken and the degree of discrepancy between them. Neuroticism was found to be a predictor of the PEBs that individuals intend to undertake in the future. The links identified between PEBs and various aspects of personality may indicate underlying motives that support and sustain the current and planned actions.

Limitations of the study

Despite its contribution to the body of knowledge, the study presented here has its limitations. Firstly, the findings were based on a relatively small sample consisting only of Poles, which limits the possibility of generalizing the conclusions. It would be worth repeating the study on a larger and more diverse sample, from other countries and socio-cultural traditions and affected to different degrees by the climate crisis. Due to the elaborate research model and the large number of methods completed by the respondents, we refrained from controlling for some demographic variables, such as the political orientation or income level of the respondents, which could have been related to pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors. It would be worthwhile for subsequent studies to take these into account. Secondly, the results indicate significant but low correlation coefficients and regression coefficients. It is worth keeping in mind that low coefficient values are not exceptional in psychological research and may have practical meaning. However, they may be the result of insufficiently reliable research methods. In some scales, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was lower than recommended (0.70), which may have been due to the use of abbreviated versions of the methods. Because the research program was extensive and included many indicators at the same time, the methods needed to be as short as possible so as not to overburden the subjects. In addition, the research was conducted using self-report measures, whose validity in relation to PEB is sometimes questioned [ 50 ].

Conclusions

The results mostly verify the basic premises of the study. They indicate that basic personality domains and TPs are significant psychological constructs that should be taken into account in research concerning individual experiences of the climate crisis and engaging in PEB. While our findings confirm and, in some respects, enrich existing knowledge on the correlates and predictors of belief in climate myths, climate emotions, and PEBs, they should be replicated and validated in studies on more diverse groups of individuals.

Supporting information

S1 appendix. climate myth beliefs scale..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246.s001

S2 Appendix. Knowledge test.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246.s002

S3 Appendix. Climate emotion scale.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246.s003

S4 Appendix. Inventory of current pro-environmental activities.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300246.s004

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Climate change.

Climate change is a long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns. Often climate change refers specifically to the rise in global temperatures from the mid-20th century to present.

Earth Science, Climatology

Fracking tower

Fracking is a controversial form of drilling that uses high-pressure liquid to create cracks in underground shale to extract natural gas and petroleum. Carbon emissions from fossils fuels like these have been linked to global warming and climate change.

Photograph by Mark Thiessen / National Geographic

Climate is sometimes mistaken for weather. But climate is different from weather because it is measured over a long period of time, whereas weather can change from day to day, or from year to year. The climate of an area includes seasonal temperature and rainfall averages, and wind patterns. Different places have different climates. A desert, for example, is referred to as an arid climate because little water falls, as rain or snow, during the year. Other types of climate include tropical climates, which are hot and humid , and temperate climates, which have warm summers and cooler winters.

Climate change is the long-term alteration of temperature and typical weather patterns in a place. Climate change could refer to a particular location or the planet as a whole. Climate change may cause weather patterns to be less predictable. These unexpected weather patterns can make it difficult to maintain and grow crops in regions that rely on farming because expected temperature and rainfall levels can no longer be relied on. Climate change has also been connected with other damaging weather events such as more frequent and more intense hurricanes, floods, downpours, and winter storms.

In polar regions, the warming global temperatures associated with climate change have meant ice sheets and glaciers are melting at an accelerated rate from season to season. This contributes to sea levels rising in different regions of the planet. Together with expanding ocean waters due to rising temperatures, the resulting rise in sea level has begun to damage coastlines as a result of increased flooding and erosion.

The cause of current climate change is largely human activity, like burning fossil fuels , like natural gas, oil, and coal. Burning these materials releases what are called greenhouse gases into Earth’s atmosphere . There, these gases trap heat from the sun’s rays inside the atmosphere causing Earth’s average temperature to rise. This rise in the planet's temperature is called global warming. The warming of the planet impacts local and regional climates. Throughout Earth's history, climate has continually changed. When occuring naturally, this is a slow process that has taken place over hundreds and thousands of years. The human influenced climate change that is happening now is occuring at a much faster rate.

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What Is Climate Change?

Climate change is a long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define Earth’s local, regional and global climates. These changes have a broad range of observed effects that are synonymous with the term.

Changes observed in Earth’s climate since the mid-20th century are driven by human activities, particularly fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s atmosphere, raising Earth’s average surface temperature. Natural processes, which have been overwhelmed by human activities, can also contribute to climate change, including internal variability (e.g., cyclical ocean patterns like El Niño, La Niña and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation) and external forcings (e.g., volcanic activity, changes in the Sun’s energy output , variations in Earth’s orbit ).

Scientists use observations from the ground, air, and space, along with computer models , to monitor and study past, present, and future climate change. Climate data records provide evidence of climate change key indicators, such as global land and ocean temperature increases; rising sea levels; ice loss at Earth’s poles and in mountain glaciers; frequency and severity changes in extreme weather such as hurricanes, heatwaves, wildfires, droughts, floods, and precipitation; and cloud and vegetation cover changes.

“Climate change” and “global warming” are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings. Similarly, the terms "weather" and "climate" are sometimes confused, though they refer to events with broadly different spatial- and timescales.

What Is Global Warming?

Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth’s surface observed since the pre-industrial period (between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s atmosphere. This term is not interchangeable with the term "climate change."

Since the pre-industrial period, human activities are estimated to have increased Earth’s global average temperature by about 1 degree Celsius (1.8 degrees Fahrenheit), a number that is currently increasing by more than 0.2 degrees Celsius (0.36 degrees Fahrenheit) per decade. The current warming trend is unequivocally the result of human activity since the 1950s and is proceeding at an unprecedented rate over millennia.

Weather vs. Climate

“if you don’t like the weather in new england, just wait a few minutes.” - mark twain.

Weather refers to atmospheric conditions that occur locally over short periods of time—from minutes to hours or days. Familiar examples include rain, snow, clouds, winds, floods, or thunderstorms.

Climate, on the other hand, refers to the long-term (usually at least 30 years) regional or even global average of temperature, humidity, and rainfall patterns over seasons, years, or decades.

Find Out More: A Guide to NASA’s Global Climate Change Website

This website provides a high-level overview of some of the known causes, effects and indications of global climate change:

Evidence. Brief descriptions of some of the key scientific observations that our planet is undergoing abrupt climate change.

Causes. A concise discussion of the primary climate change causes on our planet.

Effects. A look at some of the likely future effects of climate change, including U.S. regional effects.

Vital Signs. Graphs and animated time series showing real-time climate change data, including atmospheric carbon dioxide, global temperature, sea ice extent, and ice sheet volume.

Earth Minute. This fun video series explains various Earth science topics, including some climate change topics.

Other NASA Resources

Goddard Scientific Visualization Studio. An extensive collection of animated climate change and Earth science visualizations.

Sea Level Change Portal. NASA's portal for an in-depth look at the science behind sea level change.

NASA’s Earth Observatory. Satellite imagery, feature articles and scientific information about our home planet, with a focus on Earth’s climate and environmental change.

Header image is of Apusiaajik Glacier, and was taken near Kulusuk, Greenland, on Aug. 26, 2018, during NASA's Oceans Melting Greenland (OMG) field operations. Learn more here . Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Discover More Topics From NASA

Explore Earth Science

Earth Science in Action

Earth Science Data

Facts About Earth

Climate Change: Evidence and Causes: Update 2020 (2020)

Chapter: conclusion, c onclusion.

This document explains that there are well-understood physical mechanisms by which changes in the amounts of greenhouse gases cause climate changes. It discusses the evidence that the concentrations of these gases in the atmosphere have increased and are still increasing rapidly, that climate change is occurring, and that most of the recent change is almost certainly due to emissions of greenhouse gases caused by human activities. Further climate change is inevitable; if emissions of greenhouse gases continue unabated, future changes will substantially exceed those that have occurred so far. There remains a range of estimates of the magnitude and regional expression of future change, but increases in the extremes of climate that can adversely affect natural ecosystems and human activities and infrastructure are expected.

Citizens and governments can choose among several options (or a mixture of those options) in response to this information: they can change their pattern of energy production and usage in order to limit emissions of greenhouse gases and hence the magnitude of climate changes; they can wait for changes to occur and accept the losses, damage, and suffering that arise; they can adapt to actual and expected changes as much as possible; or they can seek as yet unproven “geoengineering” solutions to counteract some of the climate changes that would otherwise occur. Each of these options has risks, attractions and costs, and what is actually done may be a mixture of these different options. Different nations and communities will vary in their vulnerability and their capacity to adapt. There is an important debate to be had about choices among these options, to decide what is best for each group or nation, and most importantly for the global population as a whole. The options have to be discussed at a global scale because in many cases those communities that are most vulnerable control few of the emissions, either past or future. Our description of the science of climate change, with both its facts and its uncertainties, is offered as a basis to inform that policy debate.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The following individuals served as the primary writing team for the 2014 and 2020 editions of this document:

• Eric Wolff FRS, (UK lead), University of Cambridge
• Inez Fung (NAS, US lead), University of California, Berkeley
• Brian Hoskins FRS, Grantham Institute for Climate Change
• John F.B. Mitchell FRS, UK Met Office
• Tim Palmer FRS, University of Oxford
• Benjamin Santer (NAS), Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
• John Shepherd FRS, University of Southampton
• Keith Shine FRS, University of Reading.
• Susan Solomon (NAS), Massachusetts Institute of Technology
• Kevin Trenberth, National Center for Atmospheric Research
• John Walsh, University of Alaska, Fairbanks
• Don Wuebbles, University of Illinois

Staff support for the 2020 revision was provided by Richard Walker, Amanda Purcell, Nancy Huddleston, and Michael Hudson. We offer special thanks to Rebecca Lindsey and NOAA Climate.gov for providing data and figure updates.

The following individuals served as reviewers of the 2014 document in accordance with procedures approved by the Royal Society and the National Academy of Sciences:

• Richard Alley (NAS), Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University
• Alec Broers FRS, Former President of the Royal Academy of Engineering
• Harry Elderfield FRS, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge
• Joanna Haigh FRS, Professor of Atmospheric Physics, Imperial College London
• Isaac Held (NAS), NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
• John Kutzbach (NAS), Center for Climatic Research, University of Wisconsin
• Jerry Meehl, Senior Scientist, National Center for Atmospheric Research
• John Pendry FRS, Imperial College London
• John Pyle FRS, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge
• Gavin Schmidt, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
• Emily Shuckburgh, British Antarctic Survey
• Gabrielle Walker, Journalist
• Andrew Watson FRS, University of East Anglia

The Support for the 2014 Edition was provided by NAS Endowment Funds. We offer sincere thanks to the Ralph J. and Carol M. Cicerone Endowment for NAS Missions for supporting the production of this 2020 Edition.

F OR FURTHER READING

For more detailed discussion of the topics addressed in this document (including references to the underlying original research), see:

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2019: Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [ https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc ]
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM), 2019: Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda [ https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25259 ]
• Royal Society, 2018: Greenhouse gas removal [ https://raeng.org.uk/greenhousegasremoval ]
• U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP), 2018: Fourth National Climate Assessment Volume II: Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States [ https://nca2018.globalchange.gov ]
• IPCC, 2018: Global Warming of 1.5°C [ https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15 ]
• USGCRP, 2017: Fourth National Climate Assessment Volume I: Climate Science Special Reports [ https://science2017.globalchange.gov ]
• NASEM, 2016: Attribution of Extreme Weather Events in the Context of Climate Change [ https://www.nap.edu/catalog/21852 ]
• IPCC, 2013: Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) Working Group 1. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis [ https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1 ]
• NRC, 2013: Abrupt Impacts of Climate Change: Anticipating Surprises [ https://www.nap.edu/catalog/18373 ]
• NRC, 2011: Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts Over Decades to Millennia [ https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12877 ]
• Royal Society 2010: Climate Change: A Summary of the Science [ https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/publications/2010/climate-change-summary-science ]
• NRC, 2010: America’s Climate Choices: Advancing the Science of Climate Change [ https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12782 ]

Much of the original data underlying the scientific findings discussed here are available at:

• https://data.ucar.edu/
• https://climatedataguide.ucar.edu
• https://iridl.ldeo.columbia.edu
• https://ess-dive.lbl.gov/
• https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/
• https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/
• http://scrippsco2.ucsd.edu
• http://hahana.soest.hawaii.edu/hot/

Climate change is one of the defining issues of our time. It is now more certain than ever, based on many lines of evidence, that humans are changing Earth's climate. The Royal Society and the US National Academy of Sciences, with their similar missions to promote the use of science to benefit society and to inform critical policy debates, produced the original Climate Change: Evidence and Causes in 2014. It was written and reviewed by a UK-US team of leading climate scientists. This new edition, prepared by the same author team, has been updated with the most recent climate data and scientific analyses, all of which reinforce our understanding of human-caused climate change.

Scientific information is a vital component for society to make informed decisions about how to reduce the magnitude of climate change and how to adapt to its impacts. This booklet serves as a key reference document for decision makers, policy makers, educators, and others seeking authoritative answers about the current state of climate-change science.

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