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Education Standards

Radford university.

Learning Domain: Social Work

Standard: Basic Research Methodology

Lesson 10: Sampling in Qualitative Research

Lesson 11: qualitative measurement & rigor, lesson 12: qualitative design & data gathering, lesson 1: introduction to research, lesson 2: getting started with your research project, lesson 3: critical information literacy, lesson 4: paradigm, theory, and causality, lesson 5: research questions, lesson 6: ethics, lesson 7: measurement in quantitative research, lesson 8: sampling in quantitative research, lesson 9: quantitative research designs, powerpoint slides: sowk 621.01: research i: basic research methodology.

The twelve lessons for SOWK 621.01: Research I: Basic Research Methodology as previously taught by Dr. Matthew DeCarlo at Radford University. Dr. DeCarlo and his team developed a complete package of materials that includes a textbook, ancillary materials, and a student workbook as part of a VIVA Open Course Grant.

The PowerPoint slides associated with the twelve lessons of the course, SOWK 621.01: Research I: Basic Research Methodology, as previously taught by Dr. Matthew DeCarlo at Radford University. 

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Any kind of research that produced findings not arrived at by ... establish rapport, good listener, politeness, articulate enough to prompt respondents to talk ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• Any kind of research that produced findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means quantification.
• It is concerned more with meanings and processes rather than simply measurements.
• Qualitative research is based on a methodology which seeks to understand human behaviour from the subjects own frame of reference, hence it is called Phenomenological.
• Aims to elicit the individual contextualized understanding of a problem
• Achieved through designs that minimize researcher manipulation of social setting
• Close interaction with subjects
• Meaning and interpretation cannot be dealt with statistically
• Human behaviours is significantly influenced by the setting in which it occurs
• The technique in quantitative research can affect the findings
• One cannot understand the human behaviour without understanding the framework within which subjects interpret their feelings, thoughts and actions
• More valid results based on research experiences.
• Nature of research problems some problems lend more to qualitative research
• Helps to understand what lies behind any phenomenon about which little is known
• Details of phenomena that are difficult to convey with quantitative methods
• Questionnaires developed in the West threat to validity in our setting Qualitative methods in the initial phase avoid type III error
• Culturally appropriate measuring instruments Etic Vs. Emic approach
• It helps in identifying variables important to the phenomenon under study
• To understand the perceptions and experiences of participants and community
• Field study research can explore the process and meaning and provide comprehensive description
• Developing and delineating program elements before a quantitative evaluation
• Boosting the power of quantitative design
• Broadening the observation field
• Analyzing process and individual cases to explain the how and why of an outcome
• Generating theory
• Refers to the belief that social science can be scientific in the same way as physical science and prefer quantitative methods
• Assume that reality is objectively given and can be described by measurable properties independent of the observer
• Prefers a method standardized, repeatable and that test a pre-existing hypothesis
• Study situations in the everyday world - viewpoint of the experiencing person
• Focus on the social construction of the life world, emphasizing that peoples actions can only be understood when they are situated in the meanings and routines that control their everyday life.
• Gain understanding of the essence of phenomena Eg. Sufferings of schizophrenia
• Closely associated with anthropological research
• Focus on culture of a group of people
• Interpret and present findings from a cultural perspective
• Heart of Ethnography- Thick description obtained through an immersion in the every day life of the group or a given social setting
• Through the process of role taking a person imagines how they appear to others ,thus becoming a symbolic object to themselves
• Experiences takes on meaning as they become symbolically significant through shared interactions
• Meanings are continually created,recreated and modified in interactions
• It is argued (Dorothy Smith) as a consciousness raising that it attempts to identify how private experiences of oppression may be understood as part of a general system of oppression that shapes womens experience
• Many womens private issues are not recorded as shared public issues
• Advocates methods that enable women to express their experiences from their own perspective
• Examine the way people develop interpretation of their life in relation to their life experiences
• Similar to phenomenology ,but takes a broader view of both past and future and broader cultural factors Eg Story telling
• An inductive technique developed by Glaser and Strauss(1967)
• Grounded Theories are grounded ( it has its root) in the empirical data and built up inductively through a process of careful analysis and comparison
• Developed in opposition to positivist and deductive approach
• To inform what people are doing, thinking, and saying about a problem
• To identify the important problem to be solved at community/local/policy levels
• Generate a list of options for interventions
• To investigate how best to implement promising interventions
• To monitor response to interventions and assess how best to present its results to public and scientific community
• When numbers are needed to make a decision (what proportion of people )
• Results are to be projected to the total population (unless generalisability ensured by researcher through appropriate measures)
• Qualitative Research required theoretical and social sensitivity
• Ability to maintain analytical distance while drawing upon experience and knowledge to interpret what is seen
• Power of observation
• Good interactional skills.
• Ability to organize and synthesize many different types of data
• Ability to gain trust of individuals / groups
• Respect for individuals and awareness of the ethical responsibilities
• Knowledge and experience of social,cultural,reli gious and economic characteristic of group/community/setting.
• Data come from various sources
• Different analytic or interpretive procedures.
• E.g. Coding, Writing of memos, diagramming
• Written and Verbal reports.
• NATURALISTIC Natural setting as source of data
• INDUCTIVE It seeks to build theory from data avoid imposing researcher own categories of analysis
• HOLISTIC It looks at the phenomenon in totality takes an overall perspective
• THICK DESCRIPTION Descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning understanding gained through words pictures use quotations
• PERSONAL CONTACT Shares the experience of subjects , not trying to be an objective outsider
• DYNAMIC There is constant shifting with changing phenomenon context
• UNIQUE CASE SELECTION Not concerned about generalization stress on uniqueness of each case
• CONTEXT SENSITIVITY Emphasis many aspects of social, historical physical contexts
• EMPATHETIC Trying to take view of other person via introspection reflection, yet non-judgemental
• FLEXIBLE DESIGN- Emergent design as opposed to pre-determined in quan.methods
• INTERPRETIVE Aimed at discovering the meaning the events have for the individuals who experience them interpretation of these meaning by researcher
• PROCESS ORIENTED Primarily concerned with process rather than outcome
• RESEARCHER AS INSTRUMENT Data are mediated through human instrument rather than inventories or questionnaires
• MULTIPLE SOURCES OF EVIDENCE-Multiple forms of evidence. Judgment at usefulness and credibility is left to the researcher
• Particularistic, guided by objectives
• Generalize and extrapolate findings
• Holistic, rich in context, emphasizes interactions
• Recognizes the individuality of responses and findings.
• Unfamiliar, artificial
• PRE-determined structured design. Manipulation control
• Familiar, natural
• Flexible evolving design
• Cross sectional studies, cohort, case control, RCT
• Semi structured / unstructured interviews, Focus group discussions, observations, key informantinterviews, case study
• Deals with words, texts and observations
• Open ended. Depth of information.
• Produce a wealth of detailed data about a much smaller number of people. Depends on purpose, resources and interests of those involved.
• Deals with numbers
• Use of standardized approach - the experiences of people are limited to certain predetermined response categories
• Measure reactions of many subjects to set of questions, thus facilitating comparison and statistical aggregation of data
• Probability Sampling
• Non-Probability sampling-Typically focus in depth on small samples selected purposively
• Large Sample Size
• No rule for sample size. Depends on what you want to know purpose of enquiring what will be useful, what will have credibility and what can be done with available resources.
• Researcher as primary instrument Personal involvement empathic understanding
• Inanimate Instruments- Scales,Tests, Questionnaires
• Detachment objective portrayal
• Analysis tend to be deductive. Test hypothesis using quantitative methods Statistical analysis
• Usually inductive. unit of analysis can be individuals, families, groups. No statistical techniques used.
• Generalizations made. Statistical predictions because of representative sample.
• Reliability
• More in depth data and help us to find out how and why of an outcome. Sequence of event depicted.
• NON- PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• Purposeful selection
• Goal is to understand phenomena, not to represent population
• Selection of information-rich cases for intensive study
• Quota Sampling
• Snowball Sampling
• Typical Case Sampling
• Critical Case Sampling
• Homogeneous
• Maximum variation
• Extreme or deviant cases
• Criterion Sampling
• It is a form of convenient sampling
• Selection of quota groups of accessible sampling units by age, sex, social class etc
• Assignment of quota groups specified by predetermined traits in specific proportions
• A method of stratified sampling in which selection within strata is non-random
• Subjects are asked to recommend others they know for the researcher to contact
• Useful in studies of social networks or in difficult to find populations
• Use in research on sensitive issues like sexual practices ,IV drug use etc.
• To describe a typical case serves as a profile for understanding the principal features of a group of programes or class of individuals.
• Sample typical case as illustrative
• In deviant case sampling, cases at either end of a continuum or unusual cases are selected
• More useful in finding critical variables contributing to the phenomenon
• Its effectiveness depends on understanding what is happening in that case
• Identification depends on key factors that make a case as critical
• The results of intervention would provide a critical case for the feasibility of the programe
• If it works here ,it will work everywhere
• Subjects with similarities in background are selected
• Better able to focus on a central issue that is relevant to all of them
• Eg. Focus Group Discussion (stimulating people with a common identity to discuss their shared experiences)
• Selecting sample with maximum variation in defined attributes eg. Education, gender
• To highlight the experiences or outcomes which these maximally varied samples have in common
• Document unique experiences shared patterns
• Sample cases to meet a criterion of importance to the study eg. membership in a particular group or participation in a programme
• May be done as follow up of a survey to identify particular subjects for in-depth analyses
• The validity, meaningfulness and insights generated from qualitative enquiry have more to do with the information,richness of cases selected and the observational/ analytical capabilities of the researcher than with sample size (patton)
• Depends upon completion of data- sample selection to the point of redundancy
• Might begin with small sample based on expected reasonable coverage and expand if needed
• Large enough to make meaningful comparisons
• Small purposive samples based on study purpose, but describe, justify and explain
• Care not to over generalize from purposive samples
• No of comparison groups- more groups more samples
• Complexity and depth of information- more in-depth information go for small sample
• Explain similarities and differences in particular context
• Availability of resources
• In-depth Interviews
• Key informant Interviews
• Observation
• Focus Group Discussions
• Case studies
• Illness narratives, Surrogate patient studies
• PRA / PLA Techniques
• It is a qualitative research technique that allows person to person discussion which can lead to increased insight into peoples thoughts, feelings and behaviour on important issues.
• It can be used as one of the effective ways for understanding reasons for problem behaviours and gather ideas to guide measures to correct a problem
• Characterized by extensive probing and open-ended questions
• Subject matter is complex
• Detailed information sought
• Highly sensitive subject matter
• Interest on individual experiences and its unique interpretation
• Respondents dissimilar to be meaningfully grouped
• Identification of the respondents
• Ensure Trained interviewer
• Selection of a comfortable location
• Other logistics- transport, audio or video etc
• Consider access to local population
• Limit to a small sample size
• Select people who are well informed about the issue
• Purposive sampling
• Respondents fairly representative of the various groups in the study population
• Informant preferably unknown to interviewers
• Interview guide
• Structured open-ended schedule
• Different sets may be needed suitable to different categories in the study population
• The guide makes the interviewing more systematic and comprehensive
• List the important topics to be explored in the study Eg. Malnutrition among children- Feeding adequacy, Care of the child, Health seeking
• Write sub themes for each topic Eg. Under feeding adequacy, elicit information Breast feeding ,weaning, complimentary feeding, food preferences etc.
• Make a draft of possible questions based on conceptual frame work
• Check that they can help you obtain all the information you need
• Questions not to elicit simple Yes or No answers
• Construction of probes
• Probes are devices used to prompt a respondent to speak further when an initial question fails to elicit the desired information
• Sequence of topics- Never rigid. Phrasing and order may be redefined to fit the characteristics of respondent
• Ensure that your questions are
• Clear and unambiguous
• Simple and easy to understand
• Reasonable and within the experience of the targeted population
• Experienced/Skilled
• Knowledge about the topic
• Personality traits easily gain peoples confidence and cooperation, good speech and language proficiency
• Other qualities self confidence, ability to establish rapport, good listener, politeness, articulate enough to prompt respondents to talk
• Training is a pre-requisite if team work
• Unstructured interviews
• Semi-structured interviews
• Structured open-ended interviews
• Self introduction
• Explain the general purpose of the interview
• Impress upon the respondent that his opinions are important
• Seek privacy
• Establish rapport and assure confidentiality
• Consent for the interview recording
• Carry the interview in a natural, conversational style
• Know the objectives of each question to make sure that the answers satisfy it
• Interview runs dry use expressions like Uh-huh or That is interesting or I see
• Be alert to discover drifting of conversation
• Wrapping-up of interview
• Ask clear and open-ended questions
• Ask behaviour /experience before opinion questions
• Sequence-follow a funnelling method-general to specific
• Probe and follow-up questions Eg . Could you tell me more about it?
• Reluctant participant
• Speculation can help to open up .eg. I am not sure, could it be that women do not have access to health care, compared to men ?
• Try to explore their thoughts Eg. Could you elaborate on that? Or explain why you think that way?
• Rambler Politely control Eg. Excuse me, could we change the subject a bit and get back on your thoughts on ..
• Participant uncomfortable- Let them talk about the part he/she comfortable with.
• Confused OK, Sorry, let me rephrase it
• Contradictory statement-seek clarification
• Begin with a friendly greeting
• Maintain privacy and confidentiality
• Listen with an open mind
• Use probes where appropriate
• Ensure a natural flow of interview
• play dumb give informant time to talk
• Be open to unexpected information
• Judgemental attitude
• Move quickly from one topic to the next
• Letting silence grow while interviewing
• Arguing or enter into dispute
• Field editing
• De-briefing
• Transcribing
• Translation if needed
• A brief description of the participants
• Memos Helps one to reflect on the interview
• Theoretical memos/notesSummarises theoretical ideas surfaced
• Methdological memos What happened during the interview, quality of data,participantcomfortleve l
• Personal memos Interviewer relaxed ? Were he inhibited in asking certain questions?
• Explanatory tool
• Emic perspective
• Facilitate rapport
• More appropriate in rural setting
• Responses more valid
• Disadvantages
• Replicality difficult
• Results not strictly comparable
• Time consuming
• Require familiarity with language and culture
• Reading Developing an intimate relationship with the data
• Coding Identifying emergent themes
• Choosing and using a software if needed
• Displaying data
• Developing hypothesis, questioning, verifying
• Data reduction Getting the big picture and interpretation
• Deductive coding
• Done prior to data collection
• Use existing literature or theoretical frames to develop categories for coding prior to field work
• Provides a conceptual framework to guide the research
• Inductive Coding
• Designs coding scheme from data collected through interviews, FGDs etc
• They are like street signs inserted into margins of notes or typed in after a segment of text
• Main purpose is to allow research findings to emerge from frequent dominant or significant themes inherent in raw data
• Condense extensive raw text
• Establish clear links between research objectives and findings derived from raw data
• Develop a model or theory about underlying structure of experience or processes evident in the raw data
• Open coding involves fracturing, taking data apart and examining discrete parts for differences and similarities
• Axial coding connections are made between categories and sub categories
• Selective coding identifying one or more core categories to which all other sub categories relate
• Create 3-8 summary categories from many pages of text
• If more than 8 major themes re-examine them
• Decisions on combining and removing unimportant categories need to be made
• Free-listing
• Pile-sorting
• Domain identification
• Summarizing
• Comparative table across stakeholders (if more than one)
• In your opinion, who are the people that generally do not bring their children for polio drops on NIDs?
• Sometimes, it happens that parents are unaware of it or neglect it or there are some parents who do not give importance to it or they go outstation. Till now, they have not understood the importance of the drops and that it should be given. Some parents feel we have given three doses (routine doses) to out children and if these are not given it will do. These are the people who dont bring. Usually they are from slum areas. Others are educated, they know about it, constantly hear on TV/radio, so they bring. The area which I had got was a Mehammedan area so the women do not go out of the house. They did not even know that it had to be given. There was an announcement through the mosque but people might not have heard or something else, so many children did not turn up.
• Domain Evolution
• 0. Dont know
• None (everybody received OPV)
• Laborers / daily wages / beggars (affordability)
• No one at home / adult sickness
• Migrants / tribal (accessibility / out of station / traveling
• People with remote residence / adverse weather / transport difficulties (accessibility)
• Bad past experience (due to /fear of side effects) / fear of polio even after polio drops (acceptability)
• Non believers (no faith / believers of other systems / superstitions / rumours / socio-cultural / religious / death / caste)
• Misinformed groups (rich / educated) / do not like to go to IP / go to private practitioner / wrong impression)
• Lack of awareness / Illiterate
• Children with illness / new born (acceptability)
• Negative influences of the other family members / decision of family members
• Not applicable
• Develop an outline for report
• Review all field-notes and organize along identified domains in conformity with report outline
• Compare across stakeholder categories if needed
• Compare results of other qualitative methods with these findings
• Focus group discussions are group discussions with a small group of individuals from a well defined target population on pre-selected topics that rely on interaction between group members, under the guidance of a trained facilitator. Each participant is stimulated by the comments of others and in turn stimulate them.
• It is a qualitative method which helps to find out the How Why of human behaviour
• It can provide insight into how a group thinks about an issue, the range of opinions and ideas, and the inconsistencies and variations that exist in a particular community in terms of beliefs and their experiences practices
• Obtaining a range of perceptions, opinions or beliefs about an issue
• Gathering exploratory data to be used in future research Eg. Local names for diseases, local pattern of healthcare seeking
• Hypothesis generating
• Assist in explaining and illustrating results of a quantitative survey
• Intervention programmes- To identify various social or cultural factors that need to be taken into account in the design and implementation of the programme
• Ongoing assessment of programmes or as an evaluation tool
• Obtaining feed back for the cross cultural adaptation of materials.
• As a means of validating findings obtained by other means (Triangulation)
• As a Rapid Assessment Procedure for getting quick results
• The topic should is narrowly focused
• Selection of participants is also focused by targeting individuals who meet specific criteria
• Topic should be of interest to both the investigator and respondents.
• The emphasis should be on interaction between or among the group members.
• A set of detailed guidelines designed to generate discussion of concepts and ideas
• A trained moderator and a note taker
• Recording the discussion to permit later analysis of the result
• Setting the objectives
• Determine the target population
• Plan the number of of sessions
• Follow the guidelines regarding selection of participants, role of moderator/facilitator etc
• Developing F.G.D.guide
• Conducting F.G.D.
• Analysis and interpretation of results
• Define the problem and decide on the issues or areas you want to explore
• Decide on how the information be used Is this the only method to gather information or will it be used with other methods
• For eg. Are they to supplement quantitative data, used to define pretest questionnaires
• Determine who can provide the information you require and what characteristics define the individuals to be participated
• Often incorporate different subsets with potentially contrasting views or experiences concerning the issues under investigation
• Eg. Rural Vs Urban and Adolescents Vs Elderly
• Decide on the no. of sessions to be held
• Number of sessions is based on
• Resources (time and money)
• Types of different groups targeted
• Comparisons you wish to stress in the analysis.
• The composition should be homogeneous.
• Participants with different backgrounds and experience restrict the openness of discussion
• Representative of the population in which the investigator is interested.
• Ideally efforts may be made to select people who do not know each other personally.
• Exclude people previously participated in a FGD on the same subject.
• The number of participants should range between six to ten.
• Small group lt6 can be dominated by one person and variation of thought and queries remain restricted.
• Large group gt12 does not provide chance to all participants and often give way for small group formation.
• Any place people can easily go.
• Acceptable and convenient to the participants
• Any place where 6 to 10 people can be seated.
• Should not be held in open place (Guard against unwarranted intrusions)
• Best is to have participants in a circular fashion.
• Each participant should have the provision to see all other participants.
• Each one should feel physically and psychologically comfortable.
• Run FGs until you dont hear anything new Redundancy of information. Not over sample
• Either random or convenient sampling .
• Usually recruited through informal networks.
• Make sure representative ness of study population
• A flexible unstructured interview guide is used to conduct the discussion.
• keep the questions open- ended Eg. How do you feel about
• Questions should seek to discover the prevailing attitudes of the community, not just those of the group.
• Start with general question and then get more specific as the session progress. ( funnelling effect)
• The number of items in the guide should not exceed 6 or 7.
• The guide must be phrased in simple language using local terminology.
• Adequate knowledge on background information about the topic and experience in conducting FGD
• Good listening skills
• Leadership skills
• Relationship with the participants
• Patience and flexibility
• Orient the group in a proper manner.
• Put forth issues / sub issues in appropriate questions.
• Create a non-judgmental environment in which group members feel free to express.
• Encourage interaction between participants.
• Encourage quiet participants to speak up and quieten garrulous talkers.
• Guide the direction of discussion so that it does not wander too far from the designated focus.
• Pace the discussion appropriate for the participant
• Subtly control the time allotted to each question and to the entire discussion.
• Primarily an observer, tape record the session.
• Observe the nature of interaction , record non-verbal communication level of consensus
• Should know what type of data she/he is expected to collect.
• If facilitator has omitted a question from the guide, the recorder can point them out.
• Identify the speakers. Note down the first few words every time a new person speaks and make brief notes of the content
• Diagrammatic representation of entire session of FGD
• Offers a useful method of conceptualising group dynamics drawing comparisons between focus groups reflecting on moderating technique
• Greet the participant as they arrive
• Create a warm and friendly environment to build the rapport and gain their confidence
• Speak casual-talk general non-controversial subjects of mutual interest
• Self introduction Socio-demographic details can be collected
• Seek verbal consent and permission for using tape recorder
• Explain purpose of study and its utility.
• Spell out the ground rules of FGD
• Clarify that it is not a question answer session, but a discussion.
• Ensure confidentiality of their views.
• Emphasis that there is no right and wrong answers.
• Encourage participants to talk freely and should even express contradictory /opposite views
• Tell them that they should speak clearly , one at a time ,avoid interrupting one another
• Start with generic topic before coming to specific area of enquiry
• Initiate discussion by suitably framing the issues as statements
• Guide the discussion by logically steering the issues. Picking up responses and probing further can be done
• Avoid questions eliciting Yes/ No answer
• Make sure not to leave any issue
• Atmosphere Warm, friendly and non-judgemental
• Pauses and prompts
• - Pausing allow to think more on the topic, but should not last more than five seconds
• -Establishing eye contact, nodding and other gestures encourage people to talk
• -Verbal prompts I see, keep on,mmm, uh-huh
• The probe Encourage speaker to give more information
• -Prepare probes for each question
• -Use probes where ever needed during discussion eg. Could you explain further?, Would you give an example?
• Rephrasing- A question can be rephrased using different words, not diluting the issue
• Clarification- To clarify an issue,facilitator can request Can you repeat it or Please elaborate
• Reorientation-Facilitator use participants response to restate the question for another participant
• Hypothetical Question- Suppose the baby develops high fever what would you do?
• Dominant participant.
• Facilitator should avoid eye contact. Facilitator can change the subject. If the said strategies failed, the facilitator can politely request that the others be allowed to speak.
• Can offer lot of useful information, but should not be allowed to take over and prevent others from speaking
• Facilitator should have more eye contact.
• Facilitator can ask the person to comment on what another person has said or to summarize what the group has discussed.
• Answering one by one-Explain once more that discussion among participants are crucial
• Participant bring small child If dont disrupt, let him/her remain
• Leave the group early- allow
• Bored/ look sleepy- Cut jokes, brief break serve cold/hot drinks
• Note the details of discussion
• The note should also include
• -Information required for the session report
• -Group dynamics
• -The intermission and distractions occur
• - What makes the participants laugh
• What seems to make them reluctant to answer.
• Whether the facilitator lost control of the meeting.
• How the discussion is concluded
• Should use quotation marks to indicate participants words.
• Inform participants that discussion is going to end and if they have any query or want to contribute they can do.
• Thank them for their cooperation and valuable comments.
• Assure the participants that under no circumstances the discussion would prove counter productive to the interest of the group
• During this debriefing period, tape recorder should remain on valuable comments are some times made at this time.
• Lot of information - quickly less costly
• Excellent in obtaining information from illiterate communities
• Flexibility- discover attitudes and opinions that might not be revealed otherwise
• Well accepted by the community
• If simple issues- managed by people not trained in qualitative research methods
• Most valuable when used in conjunction with other quantitative information
• Not suitable for arriving at generalizable conclusions
• Quality of information depends heavily on moderator skills
• Limited value in exploring complex beliefs
• Number of questions are limited
• Sensitive and personal issues-Socially acceptable responses unless put as general questions
• Data source for analysis
• Debriefings
• Quick and easy way of summarizing data immediately after the field work.
• Notes and comments of both verbal and non verbal information compiled by the moderator and observer.
• Transcripts
• Transcribing is very demanding,
• Translation from Local Language if necessary
• Two approaches
• Systematic coding using content analysis
• Ethnographic Summary
• Transcript analysis soon after transcripts available
• - Not after completion of all FGDs.
• Edit Transcript
• - Removing sections poorly transcribed or do not make sense
• Read the transcript with objectives fresh in mind. Look for major opinions and attitude.
• Evolving Domains
• Look for patterns and themes evolving from the data
• Marking the transcripts using codes
• Sorting the coded transcripts and summarize.
• Log Book (Overview grid)
• Useful summarizing tool.
• Enable to find out how many times an issue was discussed across all the Focus Groups as well as how many times a response was given.
• Try to Avoid quantification while summarizing,
• Semi quantification can be done with groups as unit of analysis.
• Comparison can be done across different categories of stakeholders
• Writing the report
• Using Log book, codes from transcripts, observers notes as well as debriefing notes.
• Present findings according to topics
• Use quotations to illustrate strongly expressed thoughts, beliefs and emotions
• Describe overall consensus of the group, Majority minority feelings as well as differences by characteristics of respondents.
• Common style is to say The majority of participants said .. Or few of them..
• Interpretation
• Interpretation involved explaining your findings in terms of the problem or question you want to answer.
• The format of FGD report should consist of three parts
• 1. Description of setting and participants.
• 2. Discussion of findings.
• 3. Conclusion and recommendations.
• Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study
• It is a technique that involves directly observing behaviour with the purpose of describing it .
• To observe means to examine an object, an individual, group of people or an event with all of the senses in order to describe it. It includes seeing, hearing and perceiving.
• It is a method to collect firsthand data on programme, processes or behaviours being studied-what people actually do
• Opportunity to collect data on a wide range of behaviours to capture a great variety of interactions to openly explore a topic
• Holistic perspective, understanding of the context within which it operates
• Serves a formulated research purpose
• Planned deliberately
• Recorded systematically
• Subject to checks and controls on validity and reliability
• Validity is assessed by examining how well the observations agree with alternative measures of the same construct
• Reliability entails consistency and freedom from measurement error
• Participant
• events planed in advance
• use of observational guide
• No predetermined guide
• Observer is part of the phenomenon or group which is observed
• Roots in ethnographic research-immerse in the culture to see how people respond to situations, how they organise their lives, learning what is meaningful in their lives
• See things from people perspective and a deeper understanding of them
• Often conduct casual informal interviews while watching and recording to increase understanding
• Level of participation depends upon the nature of study desired outcome
• Requires lengthy period of engagement in the field
• The observed may not be aware of the researcher purpose
• Useful in understanding basic values behaviour associated with particular actions
• Discover the relationship between knowledge, attitude and practice
• Observer will be able to record context which gives meaning to the observed behaviour and heard statements
• Can be effectively combined with other methods
• Narrows the range of observation
• To the extent that observer participates emotionally, the objectivity is lost
• Participation can interfere with observation and recording.
• Research skills essential
• Systematically observing and documenting something in its natural setting
• Silent observers
• Researcher watches records information about people or event without intruding into the scene
• Look for many things and describe the situations at many different levels
• Ethical issues need to be addressed
• No rule as to how many- spread observations over time
• Unstructured observation involves broadly focussed encounters without a pre-determined guide
• Data primarily used for descriptive accounts
• More of exploratory in nature
• Observes events that have been planned in advance
• Validate data obtained from other methods
• Standardization of observational technique
• Typified by clear and explicit decisions on what, how and when to observe (Persons/locations, duration of observations, time to conduct, frequency)
• Can be quantified , but with little contextual description
• Selection criteria - Depends on the purpose of the study
• Sampling purposive Sampling
• Sources of information consider what is to be observed, who is the foci of attention, where will the observation take place and what is the most appropriate recording system
• Observer qualities Familiarity with cultural background of people being observed
• Knowledge of social research technique
• Observers role unobtrusive, interest in the events being observed
• Training to enable them take note of un-forseen events, share study objectives, how to conduct and how to deal with field problems
• Issues to be observed prepared in advance based on the research objectives
• Inputs from observers / observers familiar with the issues in the study
• Goal oriented and suitable to local condition
• The items should appear in logical grouping and in the order in which to observe them
• Prior site selection and permission from authorities
• No of observation sites availability, accessibility and study specific
• Date and time- Remember that observations are activity linked
• No of observations per site - depend upon the purpose of study
• Inform and explain your presence
• Gain confidence and cooperation of subjects
• Remain detached yet involved with the group
• Take note of the observation situations and also of non-verbal communication
• Avoid making extensive notes during observation
• Use all senses to describe the setting-physical and social environment non-verbal communication
• Field notes- include observation notes, feelings and reflections
• Direct quotations
• Technological tools-Tape recorder, camera, Laptop etc.
• Categorization of data Qualitative part
• Coding Quantitative aspects and categorized data
• Summarizing Report as percentages and / or in a narrative style depending on data
• Findings combined with other methods to make a complete report
• Recording in context possibility of cross check
• Basic to other more systematic research
• Discover the relationship between K, A and P
• Opportunity for identifying unanticipated outcome
• Ideally long periods of intense field work
• Local language fluency
• Replicality a problem
• Difficult to quantify
• No use in studying past event or activity
• Observer bias
• Change in behaviour
• Questionable reliability
• Observer may influence behaviour
• Actins can only be observed-not thinking
• Several researchers make observations
• Systematically repeat observations
• Repeat observations. Spent time to reduce self-consciousness
• Mix with other methods like interview
• Strategies to ensure rigour systematic research design, data collection, interpretation and communication techniques
• Create an account of method and data which can stand up to independent scrutiny
• Produce coherent explanation of the phenomena under scrutiny
• Maintain record of interviews and observations
• Document entire processes
• Develop coding framework
• Presence of audio or video tapes provides opportunities for analysis by independent observers
• Internal Validity
• Quan Measuring what you intend to measure
• Qual Findings need to reflect the truth
• External validity
• - Quan Generalizability through stat inference
• - Qual Transferability through understanding of relationship between context and findings
• Main research tool researchers themselves
• Subjective nature of data can open it to criticism
• Method to enhance quality of data through triangulation data, researcher, combining methods
• Can be assessed by
• Careful documentation of research process
• Independent replication of research process
• Comparison with findings with previous research
• Triangulation
• Consistency checks Independent coder given research objectives categories and their description without raw text
• Then given a sample of raw text and asked to assign section of text from which initial categories where developed.
• Stake holder check Participants, service providers, funding agencies comment on categories or interpretations made
• QDA does not completely analyze data
• A tool that supports the process of qualitative data analysis
• Large volume of data can be structured very quickly and clearly presented
• Helps the researcher in searching texts, memos or coded passage easily
• Great flexibility
• Complex analysis becomes feasible
• Analysis can be more systematic
• Easy to handle large amount of data
• Increases the status and believability
• Danger of loosing touch with data
• We can perform quick but irrelevant analysis
• High degrees of complexity can lead to poor manageability
• Can lead to dull and meaningless analysis result
• Text Base Beta
• The Ethnograph

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Monograph Matters

Qualitative analysis: process and examples | powerpoint – 85.2.

Authors Laura Wray-Lake and Laura Abrams describe qualitative data analysis, with illustrative examples from their SRCD monograph,  Pathways to Civic Engagement Among Urban Youth of Color . This PowerPoint document includes presenter notes, making it an ideal resource for researchers learning about qualitative analysis and for instructors teaching about it in upper-level undergraduate or graduate courses.

Created by Laura Wray-Lake and Laura S. Abrams. All rights reserved.

Citation: Wray-Lake, L. & Abrams, L. S. (2020) Qualitative Analysis: Process and Examples [PowerPoint]. Retrieved from https://monographmatters.srcd.org/2020/05/12/teachingresources-qualitativeanalysis-powerpoint-85-2

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PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1: QUALITATIVE

Published by Helen Banks Modified over 6 years ago

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Presentation on theme: "PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1: QUALITATIVE"— Presentation transcript:

Research Methods in Crime and Justice

REVIEW OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND PRINCIPLES OF QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS SCWK 242 – SESSION 2 SLIDES.

Note: The majority of content in this powerpoint was obtained from the website of B. Dodge, Department of Applied Health Science at Indiana University.

Research Methodologies

Qualitative Paradigm: Phenomenology, Case Studies & Etnography

 It’s an approach to research that examines a concept or phenomenon from the perspective of the individual who is experiencing it  The research purpose.

Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches

Outline: Research Methodology: Case Study - what is case study

Chapter 16 Narrative Research Gay, Mills, and Airasian

Case Study Research By Kenneth Medley.

Chapter 15 Ethnographic Designs

Case Study Research A Qualitative Approach to Inquiry

Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches Dr. William M. Bauer

Qualitative vs. Quantitative QUANTITATIVE Hypothesis: All beans are alike. NULL: No beans are different. Method: Count the beans. QUALITATIVE Question:

Overview of Research Designs Qualitative. Outline Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative Research Types of Qualitative Research Data Collection in.

Chapter 10 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Chapter 10 Qualitative Research.

Qualitative Research.

Evidence Based Practice (EBP) For Physical Therapists.

Chapter 10 Qualitative Methods in Health and Human Performance.

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Chapter 8 Qualitative Inquiry.

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Nov 14, 2014

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH. What is qualitative research?. Describes and analysis culture & behavior from the point of view of those being studied ( emic perspective) Emphasis is on providing a “holistic” understanding of the social setting in which research is conducted

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• qualitative research
• local language
• depth interviewing
• community research questions
• local cultural beliefs practices

Presentation Transcript

What is qualitative research? • Describes and analysis culture & behavior from the point of view of those being studied (emic perspective) • Emphasis is on providing a “holistic” understanding of the social setting in which research is conducted • Relies on a research strategy which is flexible and iterative

What is qualitative research • Systematic exploration of illness requires in-depth interviewing & probing • Rapport building essential for eliciting sensitive information • Useful method of discovering local language usage by which people communicate

What are its uses? • QR especially useful for: • Exploring a health problem • Identifying local perceptions • Identifying relevant interventions • Investigating feasibility, acceptability & appropriateness of health programs

What are its uses? • Developing suitable information, education & communication • Identifying problems in on going interventions & suggesting solutions • Complementing quantitative data by helping to interpret it • Designing more valid survey instruments

Qualitative Research Techniques • Wide range available: • Individual in-depth interviews • Semi-structured interviews • Focus group discussions • Participant Observation • Systematic Interviewing Techniques

In-Depth Interview • Most widely used method of data collection in cultural anthropology • Researcher has some idea of topics to be covered • May use some sort of a topic list or guide • But, minimal control over order in which topics are covered & over respondents responses • Neither specific questions nor range and type of possible answers pre-defined

In-depth Interviewing • It is informal and conversational • Aim is to get informants to “open up” • Express themselves in their own terms • Key to a successful interview is effective probing • Stimulate respondent to produce more information without introducing own words, ideas

Key Elements of Process • Introduction Introduce project • Interview Express cultural ignorance Express interest Use local expressions • Closing Thank Informant

Qualitative Guides • Purpose: To identify and provide preliminary exploration of relevant topics with selected informants • Introduction: Purpose of study, consent • Questions: Open-ended; exploratory, identify local terms • Using the Guide: As a starting point; a set of cues • Not to be followed precisely like a structured survey • Yet, we do want to cover topics outlined

Guidelines for Formulating Questions • Avoid yes/no questions eg. “Are you currently ill?” • Avoid leading questions eg. “Do you think allopathic medicines are the best means of treatment for illnesses? • Use “describe… “tell me about…” • Learn how to rephrase questions

Main Techniques • Be very familiar with the field guide • Develop rapport---informal, conversational style, listen, watch and read non-verbal expressions, react as appropriate • Probe, probe, probe…..

Probing Techniques Silence “uh-huh” (nodding) O.K. “What else?” Repetition “Tell me more about”

Tape recording The Interviews • Asking permission • Benefits • Risks • Minimizing risks • Always take written notes as well • Monitor the recording as you go along

Follow-Up Interview Goal: • To probe deeper, more sensitive, personal topics • Read first interview and develop, adjust questions accordingly • “Last time we spoke, you mentioned…” • “Tell me more about….”

Ethical Issues • Respect the participant All information is voluntary All information is anonymous Everyone informed of study risks and benefits before they give permission • Protecting participants from harm Providing information/referrals

Interview Boundaries • Interview versus Education/Counseling • Your role as interviewer: listen, provide information or referral at end of interview, or stop interview if needed

In-Depth Interviews Key Informant Interviews • A KI is one from whom we receive extensive information • KIs include, experts & those in positions of authority & also “ordinary people” • “Expertness” is based on knowledge of local cultural beliefs & practices

Characteristics of A KI KI should be a person: • With whom we have developed a special relationship & have more than one contact • Who provides us with “expert information” • Who are “good observers”, who like to talk • Who are able to “synthesize”, “analyze”, give “thoughtful” explanations

Types of KIs • Administrators, leaders, other authorities eg, government officers, NGO personnel • Community based out-reach workers: eg ANMs, Community health workers • Members of the study population: eg marries & pregnant women, adolescent girls, men etc.

Semi-Structured Interviews • Effective means of collecting data suitable for systematic comparisons & testing hypotheses • Ensures that a range of selected items are covered systematically • Structure of interview should create a context that enables rather than impedes respondents

Semi-Structured Interviews • Can also include open-ended questions • These may be followed by more specific probes • Interview may include skip outs • Must recognize field conditions – importance of privacy

Type of information • Provides both quantifiable numeric, coded, as well as qualitative prose data “What kind of healers have you used for skin problems”? “have you consulted a health worker for a skin problem”? • Provision for comments of interviewer about interview, useful

Strengths of Semi-Structured Interviews • Enables coverage of wider range of topics systematically • May also facilitate comparisons of qualitative data that are keyed directly to coded variables • Provides opportunities to explain meaning of quantitative findings

Limitations of Semi-Structured Interviews • Demands fund of knowledge about community & research questions to be studied • Relies on substantial experience specially in research settings where cultural differences exist

When to Use Semi-Structured Interviews • When single subject responses are required-unit of analysis is the individual • When measurement is required on certain topics • When measurement of variation in views among study population is required

Case Studies • Also in-depth interviews, but focused on individual’s own actions & explanations • Individual “illness episode” very useful type of case study, wherein ask: 1. Subject to tell about entire illness episode 2. Use a checklist of items to fill in entire sequence of treatment seeking

3. Get subject to tell about actual encounter with health provider, use probes 4. Ask for explanations on cause of illness, reasons for worsening/improvements 5. Re-visit subject for more details

Focus group Discussion A carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a non-threatening environment

Focus group Discussion (Contd…) • Conducted with 7-8 people by a skilled interviewer who helps guide the discussion • Group should be homogenous with members being unfamiliar to each other • Group members influence each other by responding to ideas & comments • Ideally discussions should be recorded after obtaining the permission of the group

Focus Group Discussions • Conducted by a moderator, assisted by a note-taker & an organizer • Give ample time for identifying & recruiting group members • Over-include to guard against potential drop-outs • Group proceedings can be recorded after obtaining consent • Notes on body language, socio-gram on group dynamic important

Uses of A Focus Group Discussion • Generate information on a questionnaire • Needs assessment • Develop/Test new programs/interventions • To gain an understanding of local beliefs, cultural practices, perceptions, attitudes

Participant Observation • An approach where investigator becomes active functioning member of culture under study • Participates in activities, observes what others do, attempts to see through eyes of member of the culture • Is a general approach to data collection involving unstructured interviews and observations • Seeks a holistic view of people and behaviors being observed

Strengths of Participant Observation • Methods help to reduce reactivity • Helps to formulate appropriate & relevant questions in native language • Provides an intuitive understanding of what’s happening in a culture • Helps in understanding meaning of data collected • Maximizes ability to make valid statements

Useful when context is new or not well known • Particularly useful at the beginning of research when problems is not well understood • Useful when situation of interest is obscured or hidden • Especially appropriate for understanding processes, events, norms, values, context of a social situation

Weaknesses of Participant Observation • Can be time consuming • Researcher must speak the local language • Be skilled at observing details • Have good memory • Be skilled at writing detailed notes about what was observed • Sometimes increased familiarity with culture under study makes it difficult to notice things

Structured Interviewing Techniques • Involves exposing every informant in a sample to the same stimuli • These data collection methods produce data that is quantifiable • Aims to describe & analyze culture & behavior of respondents from their own point of view • Help to isolate & define cultural domains eg: ways to cure a headache; kinds of cars

Free Listing • Free lists help to isolate & define relevant domains • Simply asks respondents to list as many items as they can think of in a particular domain Example: “Please tell me all the illnesses that children here get?” “What are all the different kinds of drugs that people in your school use?’

Strengths & Weaknesses • Useful first step in research involving definition of new domains • Best way to ensure that concepts & domains are culturally relevant • Informants can usually do the task easily • Need to be familiar with culture & language of informants to identify appropriate domain names to start listing

Pile Sorting Aims to study relations among items within a domain Useful for discovering perceptions on similarities & differences among items Helps to look at intra-cultural variations in how informants define domains Informants asked to sort cards with names of items written into piles or groups according to their own criteria

Pile Sort Informants asked to make as many or as few piles as they wish Once pile sort completed, informant asked to explain the different piles Example: “What do all the items in this pile have in common?” Technique of successive pile sort used to construct taxonomies which illustrates relations among items

Taxonomy Based On A Pile Sort Kinds of pets Goldfish Turtle Rabbit Mouse Parrot Horse Cat Dog Goldfish Turtle Parrot Mouse Rabbit Dog Cat Horse Goldfish Turtle Parrot

Strengths & Weaknesses of Pile Sort • Can be done using large number of items • Is easy to administer • Cannot be used with non-literate samples unless items are pictures or actual stimuli • Simple hand analysis possible • Computerized analysis faster but requires knowledge of appropriate software

Sampling Techniques Selection of respondents based on information they can provide Types of sampling strategies: • Purposive • Snowball • Convenience • Quota • Extreme Cases Sample size: Sample to informational redundancy or sample to saturation

Qualitative Data Analysis • Taped interviews transcribed verbatim • Translated into English • Codes assigned to segments to segments of text • Coding framework developed • Look for patterns & emerging themes

Triangulation • Main research tool used are the researchers themselves • Subjective nature of data can open it to criticism • A method to enhance quality of data is through triangulation: Data, Researcher, Combining qualitative & quantitative methods

Sampling in Qualitative Studies • Techniques used vastly different from quantitative research • Logic behind the approach uniquely different from those of quantitative research • Non-probability sampling techniques used

Non-Probability Sampling Reasons for using non-probability sampling: Pilot studies to test questions & scales may not require representative study Subjects chosen because of special attributes There may be difficulties in identifying a sampling frame Aim is not to generalize or extrapolate findings

Characteristics of Non-Probability Sampling • Not specified or drawn in advance • Sample selected in serial fashion and is purposive in nature • Criteria for sampling may change as study progresses • Sampling terminated when information becomes repetitive (informational redundancy)

Non-Probability Sampling Techniques (1) • Extreme or deviant case sampling: Learn from highly unusual manifestations of the phenomenon of interest • Maximum variation sampling: Selecting a wide range of variation on dimensions of interest to identify common patterns • Homogenous Sampling: Selecting similar types to describe a particular group in-depth

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