We believe that a hidden chain of thought presents a unique opportunity for monitoring models. Assuming it is faithful and legible, the hidden chain of thought allows us to "read the mind" of the model and understand its thought process. For example, in the future we may wish to monitor the chain of thought for signs of manipulating the user. However, for this to work the model must have freedom to express its thoughts in unaltered form, so we cannot train any policy compliance or user preferences onto the chain of thought. We also do not want to make an unaligned chain of thought directly visible to users.
Therefore, after weighing multiple factors including user experience, competitive advantage, and the option to pursue the chain of thought monitoring, we have decided not to show the raw chains of thought to users. We acknowledge this decision has disadvantages. We strive to partially make up for it by teaching the model to reproduce any useful ideas from the chain of thought in the answer. For the o1 model series we show a model-generated summary of the chain of thought.
o1 significantly advances the state-of-the-art in AI reasoning. We plan to release improved versions of this model as we continue iterating. We expect these new reasoning capabilities will improve our ability to align models to human values and principles. We believe o1 – and its successors – will unlock many new use cases for AI in science, coding, math, and related fields. We are excited for users and API developers to discover how it can improve their daily work.
Dataset | Metric | gpt-4o | o1-preview | o1 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Competition Math AIME (2024) | cons@64 | 13.4 | 56.7 | 83.3 |
pass@1 | 9.3 | 44.6 | 74.4 | |
Competition Code CodeForces | Elo | 808 | 1,258 | 1,673 |
Percentile | 11.0 | 62.0 | 89.0 | |
GPQA Diamond | cons@64 | 56.1 | 78.3 | 78.0 |
pass@1 | 50.6 | 73.3 | 77.3 | |
Biology | cons@64 | 63.2 | 73.7 | 68.4 |
pass@1 | 61.6 | 65.9 | 69.2 | |
Chemistry | cons@64 | 43.0 | 60.2 | 65.6 |
pass@1 | 40.2 | 59.9 | 64.7 | |
Physics | cons@64 | 68.6 | 89.5 | 94.2 |
pass@1 | 59.5 | 89.4 | 92.8 | |
MATH | pass@1 | 60.3 | 85.5 | 94.8 |
MMLU | pass@1 | 88.0 | 92.3 | 90.8 |
MMMU (val) | pass@1 | 69.1 | n/a | 78.2 | pass@1 | 63.8 | n/a | 73.9 |
https://www.anthropic.com/news/claude-3-5-sonnet (opens in a new window) , https://deepmind.google/technologies/gemini/pro (opens in a new window)
Our evaluations used the same 500 problem test split found in https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.20050 (opens in a new window)
https://codeforces.com/blog/entry/68288 (opens in a new window)
Journal of Applied Crystallography Journal of Applied Crystallography |
4. discussion, 5. conclusion, supporting information.
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JOURNAL OF APPLIED CRYSTALLOGRAPHY |
a University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria, b European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Grenoble, France, c University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom, d Aix Marseille Univ. CNRS, Centrale Med, Institut Fresnel, Marseille, France, e Danish Technological Institute, Høje Taastrup, Denmark, f Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium, g Univ. Grenoble Alpes, UMR SyMMES, CEA-Grenoble/IRIG, Grenoble, France, and h Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom * Correspondence e-mail: [email protected]
Energy-dispersive Laue diffraction (EDLD) is a powerful method to obtain position-resolved texture information in inhomogeneous biological samples without the need for sample rotation. This study employs EDLD texture scanning to investigate the impact of two salivary peptides, statherin (STN) and histatin-1 (HTN) 21 N -terminal peptides (STN21 and HTN21), on the crystallographic structure of dental enamel. These proteins are known to play crucial roles in dental caries progression. Three healthy incisors were randomly assigned to three groups: artificially demineralized, demineralized after HTN21 peptide pre-treatment and demineralized after STN21 peptide pre-treatment. To understand the micro-scale structure of the enamel, each specimen was scanned from the enamel surface to a depth of 250 µm using microbeam EDLD. Via the use of a white beam and a pixelated detector, where each pixel functions as a spectrometer, pole figures were obtained in a single exposure at each measurement point. The results revealed distinct orientations of hydroxyapatite crystallites and notable texture variation in the peptide-treated demineralized samples compared with the demineralized control. Specifically, the peptide-treated demineralized samples exhibited up to three orientation populations, in contrast to the demineralized control which displayed only a single orientation population. The texture index of the demineralized control (2.00 ± 0.21) was found to be lower than that of either the STN21 (2.32 ± 0.20) or the HTN21 (2.90 ± 0.46) treated samples. Hence, texture scanning with EDLD gives new insights into dental enamel crystallite orientation and links the present understanding of enamel demineralization to the underlying crystalline texture. For the first time, the feasibility of EDLD texture measurements for quantitative texture evaluation in demineralized dental enamel samples is demonstrated.
Keywords: dental enamel ; texture ; Laue diffraction ; crystallographic texture ; hydroxyapatite ; salivary proteins .
( ) A simplified diagram of a human tooth, illustrating its different components. ( ) A scanning electron micrograph presenting the organizational pattern of enamel prisms. ( ) A schematic representation detailing the 3D arrangement of crystallites within enamel prisms, redrawn from Habelitz (2001 ) with permission from Elsevier. |
The concept of EDLD texture measurement. ( ) Laue diffraction from a single crystal. ( )(i) The white beam is diffracted and single reflections hit the detector. ( )(ii) A representation in Reflections occur where the intersects the reciprocal The radius depends on the wavelength λ. In the white beam, a continuous spectrum from λ to λ is present. ( ) Laue diffraction from a strongly polycrystalline sample. ( )(i) In this case, many orientations contribute, yielding a multitude of reflections. ( )(ii) A representation in The is smeared out due to the many crystallite orientations. In the case of a completely random orientation, continuous hollow spheres would be present. For a given energy (or Ewald sphere) we can see a powder pattern (made of rings) on the detector. In the case of a texture, the rings show modulated intensity. Ewald spheres of different radii (originating from different incident wavelengths) intersect the reciprocal object at different points, thus providing information about intensity variations in the rings (spheres). ( )(iii) The diffraction patterns recorded at different energies in one shot show varying signals at different energies, which can be used to obtain information about the 3D orientation distribution of the crystallites (crystallographic texture). |
In the present paper we demonstrate, for the first time, the feasibility of EDLD texture measurements for quantitative texture evaluation in demineralized dental enamel samples.
In the present study, we examine the impact of HTN and STN 21 N -terminal peptides (HTN21 and STN21) on the demineralization process and on the associated crystallographic texture of human dental enamel using energy-dispersive Laue diffraction (EDLD) texture measurements. Due to the one-shot nature of the employed method and the absence of sample rotation, we were able to perform small step scans across slices of tooth enamel with a micrometre-sized X-ray beam and study the local texture at every measurement point. Through quantitative evaluation, we gain insight into the orientation patterns in the differently treated samples. This insight could guide the development of targeted treatments for conditions affecting dental enamel. In essence, our study not only demonstrates the practical applications of EDLD but also helps to obtain a mechanistic understanding of the dynamic alteration of enamel demineralization induced by peptide treatments.
A 10 mmol l −1 phosphate-buffered saline solution was prepared by dissolving phosphate-buffered saline powder (Sigma–Aldrich, UK) in deionized water. The final solution had a pH of 7.4 and contained 0.138 mol l −1 NaCl and 0.0027 mol l −1 KCl.
A total of three healthy incisors were collected with informed consent from patients treated at Barts and the London Dental Hospital (London, UK) clinics (QMREC 2011/99). They were randomly separated into three groups: DC – artificially demineralized, DH – demineralized with truncated histatin (HTN21) and DS – demineralized with STN21.
The demineralization solution was prepared by diluting a stock solution of 100 mmol l −1 acetic acid (AnalaR VWR) with deionized water and adjusting the pH to 4.0 using a 1000 mmol l −1 NaOH solution (Sigma–Aldrich, UK).
Sample DC was immersed in a demineralization solution of pH 4.0, consisting of 100 mmol l −1 acetic acid, for 2 d. Following this, it was rinsed with distilled water and transferred to a PBS solution for 24 h. After the PBS treatment it was immersed once again in the demineralization solution for an additional 2 d. Samples DH and DS underwent similar treatment to sample DC. However, in the case of sample DH, it was transferred to a PBS solution containing HTN21 at a concentration of 200 nmol ml −1 , while sample DS was transferred to a PBS solution containing STN21 at a concentration of 200 nmol ml −1 . All steps were carried out at 25.0 ± 2.0 ˚ C.
The specimens were embedded in fast-curing acrylic cold-mounting resin (ClaroCit Kit, Struers, Ballerup, Denmark). Each of the embedded teeth was cut through the mid-point perpendicular to the bucco-lingual surface using a Struers Accutom-5 diamond saw (Struers, Ballerup, Denmark) to produce a 300 µm thick mid-slice for each tooth. The slices were then wet-polished down to 20 µm using 800 grit silicon carbide abrasive paper (Wetordry Tri-M-Ite paper, 3M, Minnesota, USA), as described in more detail in the supporting information (Note S1)
EDLD measurements were carried out on the CRG-InterFace beamline BM32 at the European synchrotron (ESRF). A polychromatic beam with a continuous energy distribution from 5 to 23 keV was used. This beam was obtained through a two-step demagnification of the white beam coming from a bending magnet (0.85 T): Primary mirrors in the optics hutch were employed to first focus the beam vertically onto a secondary source downstream. Subsequently, Kirkpatrick–Baez (KB) mirrors located close to the sample further reduced the beam size to 1 µm as a compromise regarding the grain size and the number of illuminated grains. To minimize air scattering, a helium-purged lead collimator was placed between the exit window of the KB mirror and the sample.
The diffraction signal was recorded by an energy-dispersive pixelated detector of pnCCD type (SLcam). The active area consisted of 264 × 264 pixels, each with a pixel size of 48 × 48 µm. Each pixel could record an energy range from 1.7 to 40 keV using 1024 channels. The chip was read out at a frequency of 400 Hz, resulting in a maximum count rate of approximately 600 000 counts per second (cps) for the entire chip, or approximately 10 cps for an individual pixel. Due to the small size of the active area, the detector was mounted on a home-built manually adjustable goniometer stage. While the sample remained stationary, the stage allowed moving the detector (SLcam) around the sample in a 2 × 2 array to detect diffraction at larger angles, minimizing geometric distortion of the diffraction images.
The primary beam was blocked by a small gold beamstop (200 µm diameter, 4 mm length) mounted on a spherical Kapton shell with a thickness of 100 µm to allow the scattered radiation to pass through. Both the beamstop and the sample were mounted on downstream extensions, allowing a small sample-to-detector distance and, simultaneously, rotation of the SLcam around the centre of rotation of the home-built stage to access larger scattering angles. The active area of the detector was placed 22 mm behind the sample. A range of up to 2 θ = 40° was covered by four slightly overlapping detector positions.
A schematic diagram illustrating a tooth slice and the diffraction geometry in the synchrotron experiment, with a close-up showing the beam direction in relation to the orientation of the enamel prisms. |
The data were normalized to account for variations in incident intensity, detector sensitivity and sample absorption at different energies and were background corrected before further evaluation, as described in Note S2 in the supporting information .
( ) A diffraction image stack (data cube containing 2D diffraction images at different energies) obtained from one position of the detector. ( ) A ( , χ, ) data cube obtained by integration (caking) from diffraction images of all detector positions. Bragg reflections appear as vertical lines of varying intensity. For each reflection to be evaluated, a narrow range around the reflection was chosen and integrated over . The resulting χ– maps for each reflection can be directly transformed into χ–θ maps and displayed as ( ) a pole figure for an individual reflection. |
( ) The arrangement of HAp crystallites in a fibre texture about the crystallographic axis. ( ) Simulated full PFs, ( ) the estimated ODF from the full PFs, ( ) incomplete PFs in the experimentally accessible range, ( ) the estimated ODF from the incomplete PFs and ( ) reconstructed pole figures from the ODF obtained from the partial pole figures. |
Experimental pole figures of enamel were used to calculate ODFs at every scan point. Fibre orientations were fitted using the implemented MTEX function `fibrefit', and the positions of the fibres in the reference coordinate system are given in Cartesian coordinates as an output. These coordinates are later used to display the orientation of the fibres in the reference coordinate system and to obtain the tilt angle of the fibres with the enamel surface and the misorientation angle between fibres. In the case of several fibre populations present in the sample, the `fibrefit' algorithm was used to determine the most dominant fibre component. Once these results were obtained, the columns in the ODF representing this first component were erased from the ODF and the `fibrefit' algorithm was used to find the next dominant component. This procedure was repeated until only noise was fitted.
ODFs were also used to obtain quantitative information. The relative volume of crystals close to a certain orientation is given by
A useful parameter describing the degree of preferred orientation, or texture strength, is the texture index, given by
( ) Experimental pole figures. ( )(i) The estimated ODF and ( )(ii) reconstructed pole figures showing a single orientation population with an out-of-plane tilt of 7° on average with the enamel surface. ( )(iii) The fibre axis in the reference coordinate system. ( )(i) and ( )(ii) Reconstructed pole figures and ODF, respectively, showing two populations offset by 68°. ( )(iii) Both fibre axes in the reference coordinate system. ( )(i) and ( )(ii) Reconstructed pole figures and ODF, respectively, showing two populations offset by a value of 36°. ( )(iii) Both fibre axes in the reference coordinate system. |
Due to the wealth of 3D information contained in the measured PFs and the calculated ODFs, we can determine the actual 3D orientation of the crystallite populations with respect to each other. This capability stands in contrast to conventional 2D XRD with a monochromatic beam and an area detector, as 2D XRD techniques are unable to detect out-of-plane tilts directly.
From the analysis of measured PFs and calculated ODFs, several key parameters regarding enamel crystallites were determined at each scan point. These parameters include:
(i) The crystallite orientation represented by the tilt angle of the c axis with respect to the sample section plane (out-of-plane tilt). When reading the pole figures, note that the sample plane also corresponds to the equator in the pole figure.
(ii) The relative volume of each orientation population (population volume) determined as the volume fraction V f of crystallites close to a given fibre texture.
(iii) The texture index J ODF .
(iv) The c -axis orientation difference between different populations if more than one population is present.
(Left) An optical microscope image of the demineralized tooth without peptide treatment (DC), indicating the positions of both line scans. ( )(i), ( )(ii) and ( )(iii) Histograms displaying the values of the tilt angle of the crystallites, the volume of crystallites having one fibre texture and the texture index, respectively, for Line A. ( )(i), ( )(ii) and ( )(iii) Histograms showing the values of the tilt angle of the crystallites, the volume of crystallites having one fibre texture and the texture index, respectively, for Line B. |
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The sample was affixed to a silicon nitride membrane and placed on a sample holder which was mounted on an automated x-y-z stage and brought into the centre of the home-built goniometer stage. Line scans with a step width of 5-7 µm were performed on the sample, starting at the enamel surface and extending 250 µm into the enamel.
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