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Essays on The Protestant Reformation

Writing an essay on The Protestant Reformation is important because it was a significant event in the history of Christianity and Europe. The Reformation led to the creation of Protestantism, which had a lasting impact on religious, social, and political structures. By writing an essay on this topic, you can gain a deeper understanding of the causes, key figures, and consequences of the Reformation.

When writing an essay on The Protestant Reformation, it is important to start by conducting thorough research. This will help you gather relevant information and understand the different perspectives on the topic. You should also carefully consider the thesis statement of your essay, which will guide the direction of your argument and analysis.

It is also important to organize your essay effectively, with a clear introduction, body paragraphs that support your thesis, and a strong conclusion. Use evidence from primary and secondary sources to support your arguments, and consider the historical context in which the Reformation took place.

Finally, when writing about The Protestant Reformation, it is crucial to critically analyze the different interpretations of the events and their impact. This will allow you to develop a nuanced and well-supported argument in your essay.

What Makes a Good The Protestant Reformation Essay Topics

When it comes to writing a compelling essay on The Protestant Reformation, choosing the right topic is crucial. A good essay topic should be thought-provoking, relevant, and engaging. When brainstorming for Essay Topics, consider the impact of The Protestant Reformation, its historical significance, and its lasting effects on society. It's important to choose a topic that allows for in-depth research and analysis, and that will captivate the reader's interest. Additionally, a good essay topic should be unique and original, offering a fresh perspective on this pivotal period in history.

Best The Protestant Reformation Essay Topics

• The role of Martin Luther in The Protestant Reformation
• The impact of The Protestant Reformation on art and culture
• The effects of The Protestant Reformation on political power
• The role of women in The Protestant Reformation
• The influence of The Protestant Reformation on education
• The relationship between The Protestant Reformation and the printing press
• The impact of The Protestant Reformation on religious freedom
• The effects of The Protestant Reformation on the economy
• The role of music in The Protestant Reformation
• The lasting legacy of The Protestant Reformation on modern society
• The connection between The Protestant Reformation and the rise of individualism
• The impact of The Protestant Reformation on the concept of authority
• The role of propaganda in The Protestant Reformation
• The effects of The Protestant Reformation on the Catholic Church
• The influence of The Protestant Reformation on the concept of salvation
• The connection between The Protestant Reformation and the rise of nationalism
• The impact of The Protestant Reformation on the concept of church and state
• The role of the printing press in spreading The Protestant Reformation
• The effects of The Protestant Reformation on social and class structures
• The lasting impact of The Protestant Reformation on religious diversity

The Protestant Reformation Essay Topics Prompts

• If you could interview Martin Luther, what questions would you ask him about The Protestant Reformation?
• Imagine you are a musician during The Protestant Reformation. How would you use music to express your views on religion and society?
• Write a letter from the perspective of a woman living during The Protestant Reformation, discussing the impact of this period on your life.
• Create a propaganda poster promoting or opposing The Protestant Reformation, using imagery and slogans to convey your message.
• Write a short story set during The Protestant Reformation, exploring the daily life and challenges faced by ordinary people during this time of religious and social upheaval.

The Factors that Sparked The Protestant Reformation

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The Protestant Reformation and Martin Luther King

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The Effect of The Protestant Reformation on Healthcare

The protestant reformation and its impact on europe, john calvin - the image of medieval christian reformation, martin luther - the leader of protestant reformation, reformation in christianity: luther’s the five solas, the diversity within protestant tradition as the result of the medieval reformation, christian history: martin luther and the protestant reformation, history of christianity, causes of the protestant reformation and resulting catholic reformation, erasmuss influence on the protestant reformation, similarities between luther and john calvinism, effects of the protestant reformation.

c. 1517 - c. 1600

John Calvin, Thomas Cranmer, Henry VIII, John Knox, Martin Luther

The Protestant Reformation was the religious revolution that took place in the Western church in the 16th century and played a key role in the development of the North American colonies and the eventual United States. Its greatest leaders were Martin Luther and John Calvin. The Reformation became the basis for the founding of Protestantism and the split of the Western Church into Protestantism and the Roman Catholic Church.

The Protestant Reformation started in Wittenberg, Germany, on October 31, with the publication of Martin Luther’s "95 Theses" in 1517. Luther argued that the church had to be reformed. However, the pope condemned the Reformation movement, and Luther was excommunicated from the church in 1521.

There were essentially three main reformation movements; one in Germany, one in England, and one in Switzerland - with all of them occurring around the same time in the 16th century. It was led by famous reformers such as John Calvin (1509–1564) and Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) in Switzerland and John Knox (1513–1572) in Scotland. In England the Reformation’s roots were both political and religious. By mid century, Lutheranism dominated northern Europe.

The decades of rebellions, wars and bloody persecutions were consequences of the Protestant Reformation in Europe. But also, it strengthened the intellectual and cultural prosperity.

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Introduction, section snippets, references (184), cited by (74).

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• What did the Reformation do?
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Ninety-five Theses

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• Luther College - Why 1517? The Ninety-Five Theses in Context (Y. Petry)
• Christianity Today - 1517 Luther Posts the 95 Theses
• Academia - The Ninety-five Theses by Martin Luther October 31, 1517, Wittenberg, Germany 1 The Ninety-Five Theses The Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences Posted: October 31, 1517 The Eve of All Saints Day Castle Church Wittenberg, Germany
• Eternal Word Television Network - Luther's 95 Theses
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• LutheranReformation.org - The Ninety-Five Theses

Ninety-five Theses , propositions for debate concerned with the question of indulgences , written (in Latin ) and possibly posted by Martin Luther on the door of the Schlosskirche (Castle Church), Wittenberg , on October 31, 1517. This event came to be considered the beginning of the Protestant Reformation . ( See Researcher’s Note .)

Luther originally had no intention of breaking from the Catholic church, assuming that his call for theological and ecclesiastical reform would be heard, and ordinarily his theses would have been of interest only to professional theologians. However, various political and religious situations of the time, and the fact that printing had been invented, combined to make the theses known throughout Germany within a few weeks. Luther did not give them to the people, although he did send copies to the archbishop of Mainz and to the bishop of Brandenburg. Others, however, translated them into German and had them printed and circulated. Thus, they became a manifesto that turned a protest about an indulgence scandal into the greatest crisis in the history of the Western Christian church, and ultimately Luther and his followers were excommunicated .

The doctrine concerning indulgences was uncertain in the Roman Catholic Church prior to the Council of Trent (1545–63), which defined the doctrine and eliminated abuses. Indulgences were the commutation for money of part of the temporal penalty due for sin —i.e., the practical satisfaction that was a part of the sacrament of penance. They were granted on papal authority and made available through accredited agents. Not at any time did they imply that divine forgiveness could be bought or sold or that they availed for those who were impenitent or unconfessed. But during the Middle Ages , as papal financial difficulties grew more complicated, they were resorted to very often, and abuses grew common. Further misunderstanding developed after Pope Sixtus IV extended indulgences to souls in purgatory . The often outrageous statements of indulgence sellers were a matter of protest among theologians.

The immediate cause of scandal in Germany in 1517 was the issue of an indulgence that was to pay for the rebuilding of St. Peter’s in Rome. But by secret agreement, of which most Germans, probably including Luther, were unaware, half the proceeds of the German sales were to be diverted to meet the huge debt owed to the financial house of Fugger by the archbishop and elector Albert of Mainz , who had incurred the debt in order to pay the pope for appointing him to high offices. Such a prince could not afford to be squeamish about the methods and language used by his agents, and the agent in Germany, the Dominican Johann Tetzel , made extravagant claims for the indulgence he was selling. The sale of this indulgence was forbidden in Wittenberg by the elector Frederick III the Wise , who preferred that the faithful should make their offerings at his own great collection of relics , exhibited in the Church of All Saints. Nevertheless, Wittenberg church members went to Tetzel, who was preaching nearby, and they showed the pardons for their sins received from him to Luther. Outraged at what he considered grave theological error, Luther wrote the Ninety-five Theses.

The theses were tentative opinions, about some of which Luther had not decided. In the theses the papal prerogative in this matter was not denied, though by implication papal policy was criticized. The spiritual, inward character of the Christian faith was stressed. The fact was emphasized that money was being collected from poor people and sent to the rich papacy in Rome, a point popular with the Germans, who had long resented the money they were forced to contribute to Rome.

Subsequently, the archbishop of Mainz, alarmed and annoyed, forwarded the documents to Rome in December 1517, with the request that Luther be inhibited . A counterthesis was prepared by a Dominican theologian and defended before a Dominican audience at Frankfurt in January 1518. When Luther realized the extensive interest his tentative theses had aroused, he prepared a long Latin manuscript with explanations of his Ninety-five Theses, published in the autumn of 1518.

The practice of dating the beginning of the Reformation from the date that the Ninety-five Theses were supposedly posted did not develop until after the mid-17th century.

Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation Essay

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Introduction

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The entire historical course of transforming the Roman Catholic Church into a powerful secular monarchy persistently led to its inevitable departure from the principles of the Universal Church and internal contradiction. The principle of general unconditional obedience was linked not to the Holy Roman Church but its sole leader – the Pope. The latter acted as the sovereign of the monarchs, resorting to armed force to suppress heresies and completing a series of crusades.

In the sphere of moral concepts, there was a departure of Roman Christianity from the Gospel principles. The doctrines of papal indulgences and satisfaction for sins distracted the attention of laity from striving for moral purity and directed to ways of avoiding punishments. Among other challenges, there was simony, the replacement of church positions with people completely inappropriate for pastoral service, the decline of morality among the clergy, large fees, and overall excessive enrichment of the Church.

Martin Luther, a German theologian who was indignant by the widespread trade in indulgences, decided to hold a theological dispute over the identified situation. He disputed whether a sinful soul could be saved for money as the Pope and the Roman curia asserted. According to Luther, this was contrary to the Scriptures and the very idea of a church. The theologian considered that a sinful person who truly believed in an omnipotent and perfect God becomes righteous in His eyes, and he or she does not need any indulgences.

Justification understood as forgiveness of sins is, according to Luther, exclusively God’s grace that does not depend on a person’s actions, righteous deeds, or money. The dissatisfaction with the activity of the church had already begun to rise among the laity, but nobody spoke about it since people were frightened to fall into disgrace of the Pope of Rome.

The assumptions proposed by Luther undermined the foundation on which the spiritual power of Catholicism was built and threatened to destroy this foundation completely. Through his theses, Luther declared that the church should not be a mediator between a person and God. It was also claimed that the Pope is not entitled to give absolution because a man can save his or her soul only through faith in the Lord but not by means of the church.

At first, the Pope paid no attention to the mentioned ideas since he regarded them as the manifestations of feuds between parishes, which were quite common in that period. Then, the Church regarded Luther’s ideas as threatening, which was based on extremely raising confusion among people and support to such ideas. As a result, the Reformation as a broad religious and socio-political movement in Western and Central Europe of the 16th and early 17th century aimed at reforming Catholic Christianity in accordance with the Bible.

The impact of Luther’s reforms on the laity was enormous since the theological rejected the Papal decree forbidding continuing the controversy and continued to struggle against the infringement of church foundations. Luther wrote and published three temperamentally written books in which he outlined his program, including ting the papal yoke from Germany, abolishing monasticism, priesthood, and ecclesiastical landownership, and focusing on baptism and communion.

In particular, the following actions were suggested: to cancel the mass and cult of the saints as idolatry since God does not need intermediaries, open free access to the Bible, as well as eliminate indulgences and overall secular power. The speech of the identified theologian shook the laity who started to organize the movement, which demanded church transformations and the elimination of monastic rules. Luther gained special support among the emerging capitalists as the papal church rejected the commercial activity along with the economic autonomy of the population by denouncing personal savings.

Luther was a key persona that affected the onset and further transformation of the Catholic Church. As stated by Luther, the focal idea of the Reformation was to non-violently restrict the authority of the Pope of Rome without conflicts. However, the unstructured demonstrations of the population were often followed by massacres of Catholic parishes. Luther began with a critique of indulgences and simplified views on repentance in the Roman Catholic Church, and he came to rather important spiritual and practical generalizations that aimed people at a new attitude to God, the church, and social foundations.

The impact of Luther was revolutionary as it changed the attitudes of people towards the very way of life. The market economy, technical progress, social protection institutions, and struggle for various rights – all these consequences were promoted by the Reformation.

Speaking of Luther’s understanding of God, it is important to pinpoint that his ideas changed with time. In particular, the goal of his life was striving towards God, believing that the soul needs God’s mercy, and it is saved only when it follows the Word of God. The adoption of the thesis of salvation by personal faith, which implies opening one’s soul to the action of God’s grace, contributed to the formation of anti-Catholic and, eventually, an anti-Pap sentiment. Time of the Diet of Worms was the most brilliant moment in Luther’s life – he was not yet the founder of the new church, but he defended the right of people to freedom of conscience. His true greatness was that he solemnly, in the face of the whole world, declared that there is a part of a human life with which no power can interfere.

The main statement of Luther was the idea that the church organization as an intermediary between God and a man is not needed as every believer can communicate directly with God through prayer, fasting, and reading the Bible. No one should authoritatively and coercively instruct people in matters of faith, and they have the right and the ability to decide how to believe and what to do in life. In other words, Luther attempted to state that every person perceives God differently, and it is correct until the universal norms are followed. The provision of a specific definition might lead to social, political, and economic problems based on the fact that Luther wanted to integrate various social layers and resolve the largest political and economic concerns.

In conclusion, it is essential to emphasize that the Reformation was largely driven by Luther’s 95 theses and arguments. They showed the decline of the papal church and defended theological approaches to the ideology of bourgeois emancipation. The theologian justified the secularization of church property and legitimized the shift in property relations in favor of the burghers and nobility. The doctrine of justification only by faith and the priesthood of all believers were put in the foundation of the reformational ideology consistent with the interests of the burghers, the humanist intelligentsia, and laity.

Bobo, David. “The Concept of the Church in the Reformation Movement.” Restoration Quarterly 2 (1958): 220-227.

Luther, Martin. Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther on the power and efficacy of indulgences . Delhi: Prabhat Prakashan, 2000.

“ Selected Works of Martin Luther 1483 – 1546. ” Internet Christian Library. Web.

Surburg, Raymond F. The Significance of Luther’s Hermeneutics for the Protestant Reformation . Missouri, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 1953.

Wiesner, Merry E. Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789 . 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.

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Essay on The Protestant Reformation and Christianity

PDF of essay on the Protestant Reformation and Christianity.

By Cole S. Rogers, Spring 2016

 The Roman Catholic Church dominated Western Europe up until the Protestant Reformation. The church prior to the Reformation owned nearly one-third of all European land.  With financial dominance, political influence, and publicly accepted doctrine, the church experienced extraordinary size. With the extreme success of the church, corruption followed, and the church began to profiteer off rituals. The sale of indulgences for profit promoted even further corruption within the church. At the time indulgences were being sold by the Catholic Church, the movement of the Renaissance was sweeping across all of Europe. The movement of the Renaissance created more and more public dissent towards the Catholic Church. This Renaissance would eventually lead to the Protestant Reformation.

The Protestant Reformation changed the religion of Christianity forever. Prior to the Reformation, the Renaissance sparked a change in the way of thinking throughout Europe. This change in thinking promoted a society based on individuality, and finding the truth.  Martin Luther, a German monk in the Catholic Church is directly responsible for creating the movement behind the Protestant Reformation. Luther through study and immersion in scripture discovered the corruption behind the Church, and publicly exposed this corruption.  Luther in 1517 nailed 95 Theses to the Church in Wittenberg, Germany.  The 95 Theses exposed the fundamental corruption behind the Church and specifically the sale of indulgences. Luther introduced the concept of salvation being gained only through faith in God. Luther’s work resulted in religious conflict throughout all of Europe.

The Protestant Reformation promoted self-immersion in scripture. Luther’s translation of the Bible from Latin to German gained extreme attention as for the first time in history average people began to explore scripture themselves rather than relying on the Catholic Church for everything. This ideology influenced the rise in several different movements of Christianity that each found individual similarities throughout scripture.  In this time period, a new era of churches arose throughout all of Europe, which challenged the Catholic Church and shaped the future of Christianity. 

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Stone altars, wooden tables, silver chalices, unleavened hosts, and plain bread: the long reformation of the eucharist’s materiality in the pays de vaud (1400–1600).

1. Introduction

2. the pays de vaud in context, 3. from stone altar to wooden table, 3.1. diocesan visits, 3.2. altars and their materiality, 3.3. breaking the altars, 3.4. celebrating the protestant eucharist.

“On the day of Pentecost, which was the 28th day of the month of May, the first Eucharist ( Cène ) in the town of Orbe was done ( fait ) by the preacher Farel, in the following way: First, Farel preached at 6 in the morning; after the preaching, they extended a cloth ( toile ) on a bench ( banc ) and placed upon it some wafers ( oublies ) or hosts ( hosties ), and some wine; as Farel went on one side of the bench and all the others knelt on the other side, Farel said to them: “Do you all forgive each other?” And they answered that they did. Then Farel gave them each a piece ( lopin ) [of wafers/hosts], saying that he was giving it to them in memory of the Passion of Christ, and then he gave them to drink. The number of those who took the Supper was seven: noble Hugonin d’Arney, Christophe Hollard, his mother, Jean Cordey, his wife, Guillaume Viret, and Georges Grivat, alias Calley. Having done this, our Lutherans 1 went their way, and we commenced singing the Mass.” ( Pierrefleur [1530–1569] 1933, p. 33 )

4. Liturgical Vessels

4.1. developments in medieval liturgical vessels, 4.2. translatio vasorum.

“You led me to remember a story, which was told to me, of a bishop who had entered a temple ( temple , i.e., church) to see the relics of the saints, in which he found an elderly woman who showed him the pastoral staff of some old saint who had been bishop. And because the staff was made of wood, she told him: “See here, once upon a time, bishops’ staffs were made of wood, and bishops were made of gold; but now to the contrary, bishops are made of wood, and their staffs are made of gold”” ( Viret 1545, p. 24 ).

“When the Church had neither chalice, nor paten, nor dishes, nor images, nor relics of gold or of silver, and when Christians and the faithful were content to celebrate the holy Eucharist ( saincte Cène ) of our Lord Jesus Christ, and holy Baptism, with simple vessels of clay or of wood, the Church had prophets, apostles, evangelists, doctors, bishops, priests, pastors and ministers of gold and of silver, of more faith (which is more precious than gold) and of more love ( charité ); and [they were] clothed ( ornés ) with all virtues and divine knowledge, which rendered the Church so much more beautiful, noble, rich and precious than if all the gold, silver and precious stones of the world were there. […] When do you think that the Supper of Jesus Christ was celebrated with the greatest honor and reverence? In the time of the Apostles, and of their true successors, when only vessels of wood and of clay were used? Or since Pope Sepherinus [(199–219)], who was first to order the use of vessels of glass? Or since Pope Urban [(222–230)], who forbade the use of anything other than gold or silver, or at the very least brass?” ( Viret 1545, pp. 25, 27 ).

5. From Unleavened Host to Plain Bread

5.1. maintaining hosts, 5.2. breaking plain bread.

“And today still, the breads of the alpine people are large and not thick, [and] are easily broken, [and] are likewise not cut. Sibenthaler brott, persten brott, klepffen , etc.” ( Aretius 1578b, II, f. 32b )

6. Conclusions

Institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Abraham, C. Stone Altars, Wooden Tables, Silver Chalices, Unleavened Hosts, and Plain Bread: The Long Reformation of the Eucharist’s Materiality in the Pays de Vaud (1400–1600). Religions 2024 , 15 , 1140. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15091140

Abraham C. Stone Altars, Wooden Tables, Silver Chalices, Unleavened Hosts, and Plain Bread: The Long Reformation of the Eucharist’s Materiality in the Pays de Vaud (1400–1600). Religions . 2024; 15(9):1140. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15091140

Abraham, Caleb. 2024. "Stone Altars, Wooden Tables, Silver Chalices, Unleavened Hosts, and Plain Bread: The Long Reformation of the Eucharist’s Materiality in the Pays de Vaud (1400–1600)" Religions 15, no. 9: 1140. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15091140

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Martin Luther and the 95 Theses

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 6, 2019 | Original: October 29, 2009

Born in Eisleben, Germany, in 1483, Martin Luther went on to become one of Western history’s most significant figures. Luther spent his early years in relative anonymity as a monk and scholar. But in 1517 Luther penned a document attacking the Catholic Church’s corrupt practice of selling “indulgences” to absolve sin. His “95 Theses,” which propounded two central beliefs—that the Bible is the central religious authority and that humans may reach salvation only by their faith and not by their deeds—was to spark the Protestant Reformation. Although these ideas had been advanced before, Martin Luther codified them at a moment in history ripe for religious reformation. The Catholic Church was ever after divided, and the Protestantism that soon emerged was shaped by Luther’s ideas. His writings changed the course of religious and cultural history in the West.

Martin Luther (1483–1546) was born in Eisleben, Saxony (now Germany), part of the Holy Roman Empire, to parents Hans and Margaretta. Luther’s father was a prosperous businessman, and when Luther was young, his father moved the family of 10 to Mansfeld. At age five, Luther began his education at a local school where he learned reading, writing and Latin. At 13, Luther began to attend a school run by the Brethren of the Common Life in Magdeburg. The Brethren’s teachings focused on personal piety, and while there Luther developed an early interest in monastic life.

Did you know? Legend says Martin Luther was inspired to launch the Protestant Reformation while seated comfortably on the chamber pot. That cannot be confirmed, but in 2004 archeologists discovered Luther's lavatory, which was remarkably modern for its day, featuring a heated-floor system and a primitive drain.

Martin Luther Enters the Monastery

But Hans Luther had other plans for young Martin—he wanted him to become a lawyer—so he withdrew him from the school in Magdeburg and sent him to new school in Eisenach. Then, in 1501, Luther enrolled at the University of Erfurt, the premiere university in Germany at the time. There, he studied the typical curriculum of the day: arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and philosophy and he attained a Master’s degree from the school in 1505. In July of that year, Luther got caught in a violent thunderstorm, in which a bolt of lightning nearly struck him down. He considered the incident a sign from God and vowed to become a monk if he survived the storm. The storm subsided, Luther emerged unscathed and, true to his promise, Luther turned his back on his study of the law days later on July 17, 1505. Instead, he entered an Augustinian monastery.

Luther began to live the spartan and rigorous life of a monk but did not abandon his studies. Between 1507 and 1510, Luther studied at the University of Erfurt and at a university in Wittenberg. In 1510–1511, he took a break from his education to serve as a representative in Rome for the German Augustinian monasteries. In 1512, Luther received his doctorate and became a professor of biblical studies. Over the next five years Luther’s continuing theological studies would lead him to insights that would have implications for Christian thought for centuries to come.

Martin Luther Questions the Catholic Church

In early 16th-century Europe, some theologians and scholars were beginning to question the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. It was also around this time that translations of original texts—namely, the Bible and the writings of the early church philosopher Augustine—became more widely available.

Augustine (340–430) had emphasized the primacy of the Bible rather than Church officials as the ultimate religious authority. He also believed that humans could not reach salvation by their own acts, but that only God could bestow salvation by his divine grace. In the Middle Ages the Catholic Church taught that salvation was possible through “good works,” or works of righteousness, that pleased God. Luther came to share Augustine’s two central beliefs, which would later form the basis of Protestantism.

Meanwhile, the Catholic Church’s practice of granting “indulgences” to provide absolution to sinners became increasingly corrupt. Indulgence-selling had been banned in Germany, but the practice continued unabated. In 1517, a friar named Johann Tetzel began to sell indulgences in Germany to raise funds to renovate St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.

The 95 Theses

Committed to the idea that salvation could be reached through faith and by divine grace only, Luther vigorously objected to the corrupt practice of selling indulgences. Acting on this belief, he wrote the “Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences,” also known as “The 95 Theses,” a list of questions and propositions for debate. Popular legend has it that on October 31, 1517 Luther defiantly nailed a copy of his 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Castle church. The reality was probably not so dramatic; Luther more likely hung the document on the door of the church matter-of-factly to announce the ensuing academic discussion around it that he was organizing.

The 95 Theses, which would later become the foundation of the Protestant Reformation, were written in a remarkably humble and academic tone, questioning rather than accusing. The overall thrust of the document was nonetheless quite provocative. The first two of the theses contained Luther’s central idea, that God intended believers to seek repentance and that faith alone, and not deeds, would lead to salvation. The other 93 theses, a number of them directly criticizing the practice of indulgences, supported these first two.

In addition to his criticisms of indulgences, Luther also reflected popular sentiment about the “St. Peter’s scandal” in the 95 Theses:

Why does not the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter with his own money rather than with the money of poor believers?

The 95 Theses were quickly distributed throughout Germany and then made their way to Rome. In 1518, Luther was summoned to Augsburg, a city in southern Germany, to defend his opinions before an imperial diet (assembly). A debate lasting three days between Luther and Cardinal Thomas Cajetan produced no agreement. Cajetan defended the church’s use of indulgences, but Luther refused to recant and returned to Wittenberg.

Luther the Heretic

On November 9, 1518 the pope condemned Luther’s writings as conflicting with the teachings of the Church. One year later a series of commissions were convened to examine Luther’s teachings. The first papal commission found them to be heretical, but the second merely stated that Luther’s writings were “scandalous and offensive to pious ears.” Finally, in July 1520 Pope Leo X issued a papal bull (public decree) that concluded that Luther’s propositions were heretical and gave Luther 120 days to recant in Rome. Luther refused to recant, and on January 3, 1521 Pope Leo excommunicated Martin Luther from the Catholic Church.

On April 17, 1521 Luther appeared before the Diet of Worms in Germany. Refusing again to recant, Luther concluded his testimony with the defiant statement: “Here I stand. God help me. I can do no other.” On May 25, the Holy Roman emperor Charles V signed an edict against Luther, ordering his writings to be burned. Luther hid in the town of Eisenach for the next year, where he began work on one of his major life projects, the translation of the New Testament into German, which took him 10 months to complete.

Martin Luther's Later Years

Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1521, where the reform movement initiated by his writings had grown beyond his influence. It was no longer a purely theological cause; it had become political. Other leaders stepped up to lead the reform, and concurrently, the rebellion known as the Peasants’ War was making its way across Germany.

Luther had previously written against the Church’s adherence to clerical celibacy, and in 1525 he married Katherine of Bora, a former nun. They had five children. At the end of his life, Luther turned strident in his views, and pronounced the pope the Antichrist, advocated for the expulsion of Jews from the empire and condoned polygamy based on the practice of the patriarchs in the Old Testament.

Luther died on February 18, 1546.

Significance of Martin Luther’s Work

Martin Luther is one of the most influential figures in Western history. His writings were responsible for fractionalizing the Catholic Church and sparking the Protestant Reformation. His central teachings, that the Bible is the central source of religious authority and that salvation is reached through faith and not deeds, shaped the core of Protestantism. Although Luther was critical of the Catholic Church, he distanced himself from the radical successors who took up his mantle. Luther is remembered as a controversial figure, not only because his writings led to significant religious reform and division, but also because in later life he took on radical positions on other questions, including his pronouncements against Jews, which some have said may have portended German anti-Semitism; others dismiss them as just one man’s vitriol that did not gain a following. Some of Luther’s most significant contributions to theological history, however, such as his insistence that as the sole source of religious authority the Bible be translated and made available to everyone, were truly revolutionary in his day.

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A Review of Max Weber's Thesis on the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

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This essay will seek to explain and analyse Max Weber’s Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism thesis. In doing so, a thorough description of Weber’s thesis will consist of half of this piece, whilst offering an analyses upon each point made. Firstly this essay will discuss Weber’s view on Capitalism, and what it is. Focus will then shift towards Weber’s theological explanation for the rise of modern capitalism. In which he describes The Protestant Reformation as an accelerating force of Capitalism. Weber’s theory offers an insight into the dynamics of capitalism, but it is also open to scrutiny, of which focus will turn towards conflicting theories on capitalism and its origins, with particular attention focused on the writings of Karl Marx.

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• Ninety-Five Theses.

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• Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum
• Martin Luther's Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum of 1517, commonly known as the Ninety-Five Theses, is considered the central document of the Protestant Reformation. Its complete title reads: "Out of love and zeal for clarifying the truth, these items written below will be debated at Wittenberg. Reverend Father Martin Luther, Master of Arts and of Sacred Theology and an official professor at Wittenberg, will speak in their defense. He asks this in the matter: That those who are unable to be present to debate with us in speech should, though absent from the scene, treat the matter by correspondence. In the Name of Our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen." The document went on to list 95 clerical abuses, chiefly relating to the sale of indulgences (payment for remission of earthly punishment of sins) by the Roman Catholic Church. Luther (1483--1546), a German priest and professor of theology, became the most important figure in the great religious revolt against the Catholic Church known as the Reformation. While he intended to use the 95 theses as the basis for an academic dispute, his indictment of church practices rapidly spread, thanks to the then still-new art of printing. By the end of 1517, three editions of the theses were published in Germany, in Leipzig, Nuremberg, and Basel, by printers who did not supply their names. It is estimated that each of these early editions was of about 300 copies, of which very few survived. This copy in the collections of the Berlin State Library was printed in Nuremberg by Hieronymus Höltzel. It was discovered in a London bookshop in 1891 by the director of the Berlin Kupferstichkabinett (Museum of Prints and Drawings) and presented to the Royal Library by the Prussian Ministry for Education and Culture.
• Luther, Martin, 1483-1546 Author.

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Martin luther and the reformation: a reflection on the five-hundredth anniversary.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 May 2017

I once quipped in a class that I wondered if the Martin Luther portrayed in some books would even be able to recognize the Martin Luthers of other works. Would Erik Erikson's sexually repressed, rebellious Luther recognize the confident and assertive Luther of the recent popularly aimed biography How a Monk and a Mallet Changed the World ? The five-hundredth anniversary of the Reformation seems an apt moment to reflect a bit on the place and significance of Martin Luther in the Reformation and the church. The anniversary year will see at least a half-dozen new biographies, numerous conferences, and nearly ubiquitous commemorations. As we mark this year, what portraits are now being drawn? What conclusions? Is there any hope of synthesis and common representation, or shall we each have our own Luther, few of whom recognize the other? Since the last centennial of the Reformation, scholarship on the Reformation generally and Luther specifically has emerged from the tight quarters of confessionalized history. In 1917, there were no commemorations. Luther was celebrated by Protestants and lamented by Roman Catholics. There was little in the way of neutral ground between those two poles. In 1999, the Lutheran World Federation and the Vatican issued a Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification. In 2016, Pope Francis traveled to Sweden to participate in a joint commemoration of the Reformation with a Lutheran (and female) bishop. Such would have been unthinkable in 1917, or 1817, or 1617. As Luther has been released from the confessionalized walls that held him so long, what image do we see now? In what follows, I would like to reflect on three aspects of the “new” or “newer” Luther that has emerged.

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1 Compare Erikson , Erik H. , Young Man Luther ( New York : The Norton Library , 1962 ) Google Scholar and Nichols , Stephen J. , The Reformation: How a Monk and a Mallet Changed the World ( Wheaton, IL : Crossway Books , 2007 ) Google Scholar .

2 “Göttlicher Schrifftmessiger, woldenckwürdiger Traum…”, 1617. Images and more information on the broadsheet can be found at the British Museum.

3 d'Aubigné , J. H. Merle , History of the Reformation of the Sixteenth Century , trans. White , Henry ( New York : American Tract Society , 1853 ), 1:277 Google Scholar .

4 The image appears on the reverse side of the title page. Luther , Martin , Acta et res gestae ( Strassbourg : Schott , 1521 ) Google Scholar .

5 The image is attributed to Hans Brosamer and appears on the title page. Cochlaeus , Johannes , Septiceps Lutherus: ubiq[ue] sibi, suis scriptis, co[n]trari[us], in visitatione[m] Saxonica[m] , ( Leipzig : Valentinus Schumann , 1529 ) Google Scholar .

6 Compare Leppin , Volker , Martin Luther ( Darmstadt : Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft , 2010 ), 29 Google Scholar ; and Roper , Lyndal , Martin Luther: Renegade and Luther ( London : The Bodley Head , 2016 ), 47 Google Scholar . Leppin's biography has recently been translated into English: Leppin , Volker , Martin Luther , trans. Bezzant , Rhys and Roe , Karen ( Grand Rapids, MI : Baker Academic , 2017 ) Google Scholar .

7 Oberman , Heiko , Luther: Man between God and the Devil , trans. Walliser-Schwarzbart , Eileen ( New York : Doubleday , 1982 ), 155 Google Scholar .

8 Whitford , David M. , “ Erasmus Openeth the Way before Luther: Revisiting Humanism's Influence on the Ninety-Five Theses and the Early Luther ,” Church History and Religious Culture 96 , no. 4 ( 2016 ): 516 –40 CrossRef Google Scholar .

9 Bainton , Roland , Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther ( New York : Abingdon-Cokesbury , 1950 ) Google Scholar .

10 Kasper , Walter , Martin Luther: An Ecumenical Perspective ( New York : Paulist Press , 2016 ) Google Scholar .

11 Said during an interview on a plane from Armenia to Rome, June 6, 2016, http://www.lastampa.it/2016/06/26/vaticaninsider/eng/the-vatican/the-pope-on-brexit-no-to-balcanisation-but-we-need-a-new-european-union-vj94ZnoFQTdjk8kQK4BZpK/pagina.html .

12 Schilling , Heinz , Martin Luther: Rebell in einer Zeit des Umbruchs ( Munich : Beck , 2013 ) Google Scholar .

13 Eire , Carlos M. N. , Reformations: The Early Modern World, 1450–1650 ( New Haven, CT : Yale University Press , 2016 ) Google Scholar .

14 MacCulloch , Diarmaid , The Reformation: A History ( New York : Penguin , 2003 ) Google Scholar .

15 Gregory , Brad S. , The Unintended Reformation: How a Religious Revolution Secularized Society ( Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press , 2012 ) CrossRef Google Scholar .

16 Ibid ., 15 (emphasis in the original).

17 Ibid ., 7.

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• Volume 44, Issue 1
• David M. Whitford (a1)
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/hor.2017.2

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Martin Luther's 95 Theses

Martin Luther 's 95 Theses of 31 October 1517, although they have since come to represent the beginning of the Protestant Reformation , were not written to challenge the authority of the Roman Catholic Church but were simply an invitation to clergy to debate any or all of the propositions listed.

Luther's 97 theses on the topic of scholastic theology had been posted only a month before his 95 theses focusing on the sale of indulgences. Both writs were only intended to invite discussion of the topic. Martin Luther (l. 1483-1546) objected to scholastic theology on the grounds that it could not reveal the truth of God and denounced indulgences – writs sold by the Church to shorten one's stay (or a loved one's) in purgatory – as unbiblical and avaricious.

The 95 Theses became the catalyst for reformation because they were soon after translated from Latin into German and, thanks to the technology of the printing press, were made available to the public. Within a year of the initial distribution of the theses, they had already been translated into other languages and ignited the Reformation movement in other countries because, to those who read them or heard them read, they represented a direct challenge to the authority of the Church from a respected clergyman in good standing.

The following are the 95 Theses in English published through the website Reasonable Theology from the translation by Adolph Spaeth, et. al. as they appear in Works of Martin Luther . The text is given below without commentary and slight changes in phrasing and punctuation for clarity.

The 95 Theses

Out of love for the truth and the desire to bring it to light, the following propositions will be discussed at Wittenberg, under the presidency of the Reverend Father Martin Luther, Master of Arts and of Sacred Theology, and Lecturer in Ordinary on the same at that place. Wherefore he requests that those who are unable to be present and debate orally with us, may do so by letter. In the Name our Lord Jesus Christ . Amen. 1. Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, when He said "Repent", willed that the whole life of believers should be repentance. 2. This word cannot be understood to mean sacramental penance, i.e. confession and satisfaction, which is administered by the priests. Remove Ads Advertisement 3. Yet it means not inward repentance only; nay, there is no inward repentance which does not outwardly work diverse mortifications of the flesh. 4. The penalty [of sin], therefore, continues so long as hatred of self continues; for this is the true inward repentance, and continues until our entrance into the kingdom of heaven. 5. The pope does not intend to remit and cannot remit any penalties other than those which he has imposed either by his own authority or by that of the Canons. Remove Ads Advertisement 6. The pope cannot remit any guilt, except by declaring that it has been remitted by God and by assenting to God's remission; though, to be sure, he may grant remission in cases reserved to his judgment. If his right to grant remission in such cases were despised, the guilt would remain entirely unforgiven. 7. God remits guilt to no one whom He does not, at the same time, humble in all things and bring into subjection to His vicar, the priest, in 1517. 8. The penitential canons are imposed only on the living, and, according to them, nothing should be imposed on the dying. Remove Ads Advertisement 9. Therefore the Holy Spirit in the pope is kind to us, because in his decrees he always makes exception of the article of death and of necessity. 10. Ignorant and wicked are the doings of those priests who, in the case of the dying, reserve canonical penances for purgatory. 11. This changing of the canonical penalty to the penalty of purgatory is quite evidently one of the tares that were sown while the bishops slept. 12. In former times the canonical penalties were imposed not after, but before absolution, as tests of true contrition. 13. The dying are freed by death from all penalties; they are already dead to canonical rules and have a right to be released from them. 14. The imperfect health [of soul], that is to say, the imperfect love, of the dying brings with it, of necessity, great fear ; and the smaller the love, the greater is the fear. 15. This fear and horror is sufficient of itself alone (to say nothing of other things) to constitute the penalty of purgatory, since it is very near to the horror of despair. Love History? Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter! 16. Hell, purgatory, and heaven seem to differ as do despair, almost-despair, and the assurance of safety. 17. With souls in purgatory it seems necessary that horror should grow less and love increase. 18. It seems unproved, either by reason or Scripture, that they are outside the state of merit, that is to say, of increasing love. 19. Again, it seems unproved that they, or at least that all of them, are certain or assured of their own blessedness, though we may be quite certain of it. 20. Therefore by "full remission of all penalties" the pope means not actually "of all," but only of those imposed by himself. 21. Therefore those preachers of indulgences are in error, who say that by the pope's indulgences a man is freed from every penalty and saved. 22. Whereas he remits to souls in purgatory no penalty which, according to the canons, they would have had to pay in this life. 23. If it is at all possible to grant to any one the remission of all penalties whatsoever, it is certain that this remission can be granted only to the most perfect, that is, to the very fewest. 24. It must needs be, therefore, that the greater part of the people are deceived by that indiscriminate and high-sounding promise of release from penalty. 25. The power which the pope has, in a general way, over purgatory, is just like the power which any bishop or curate has, in a special way, within his own diocese or parish. 26. The pope does well when he grants remission to souls [in purgatory], not by the power of the keys (which he does not possess), but by way of intercession. 27. They preach man who say that so soon as the penny jingles into the money-box, the soul flies out [of purgatory]. 28. It is certain that when the penny jingles into the money-box, gain and avarice can be increased, but the result of the intercession of the Church is in the power of God alone. 29. Who knows whether all the souls in purgatory wish to be bought out of it, as in the legend of Saints Severinus and Paschal. 30. No one is sure that his own contrition is sincere; much less that he has attained full remission. 31. Rare as is the man that is truly penitent, so rare is also the man who truly buys indulgences, i.e. such men are most rare. 32. They will be condemned eternally, together with their teachers, who believe themselves sure of their salvation because they have letters of pardon. 33. Men must be on their guard against those who say that the pope's pardons are that inestimable gift of God by which man is reconciled to Him. 34. For these " graces of pardon" concern only the penalties of sacramental satisfaction, and these are appointed by man. 35. They preach no Christian doctrine who teach that contrition is not necessary in those who intend to buy souls out of purgatory or to buy confessional. 36. Every truly repentant Christian has a right to full remission of penalty and guilt, even without letters of pardon. 37. Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has part in all the blessings of Christ and the Church; and this is granted him by God, even without letters of pardon. 38. Nevertheless, the remission and participation [in the blessings of the Church] which are granted by the pope are in no way to be despised, for they are, as I have said, the declaration of divine remission. 39. It is most difficult, even for the very keenest theologians, at one and the same time to commend to the people the abundance of pardons and [the need of] true contrition. 40. True contrition seeks and loves penalties, but liberal pardons only relax penalties and cause them to be hated, or at least, furnish an occasion [for hating them]. 41. Apostolic pardons are to be preached with caution, lest the people may falsely think them preferable to other good works of love. 42. Christians are to be taught that the pope does not intend the buying of pardons to be compared in any way to works of mercy. 43. Christians are to be taught that he who gives to the poor or lends to the needy does a better work than buying pardons. 44. Because love grows by works of love, and man becomes better; but by pardons man does not grow better, only more free from penalty. 45. Christians are to be taught that he who sees a man in need, and passes him by, and gives [his money] for pardons, purchases not the indulgences of the pope, but the indignation of God. 46. Christians are to be taught that unless they have more than they need, they are bound to keep back what is necessary for their own families, and by no means to squander it on pardons. 47. Christians are to be taught that the buying of pardons is a matter of free will, and not of commandment. 48. Christians are to be taught that the pope, in granting pardons, needs, and therefore desires, their devout prayer for him more than the money they bring. 49. Christians are to be taught that the pope's pardons are useful, if they do not put their trust in them; but altogether harmful, if through them they lose their fear of God. 50. Christians are to be taught that if the pope knew the exactions of the pardon-preachers, he would rather that St. Peter's church should go to ashes, than that it should be built up with the skin, flesh, and bones of his sheep. 51. Christians are to be taught that it would be the pope's wish, as it is his duty, to give of his own money to very many of those from whom certain hawkers of pardons cajole money, even though the church of St. Peter might have to be sold. 52. The assurance of salvation by letters of pardon is vain, even though the commissary, nay, even though the pope himself, were to stake his soul upon it. 53. They are enemies of Christ and of the pope, who bid the Word of God be altogether silent in some Churches, in order that pardons may be preached in others. 54. Injury is done the Word of God when, in the same sermon, an equal or a longer time is spent on pardons than on this Word. 55. It must be the intention of the pope that if pardons, which are a very small thing, are celebrated with one bell, with single processions and ceremonies, then the Gospel, which is the very greatest thing, should be preached with a hundred bells, a hundred processions, a hundred ceremonies. 56. The "treasures of the Church," out of which the pope grants indulgences, are not sufficiently named or known among the people of Christ. 57. That they are not temporal treasures is certainly evident, for many of the vendors do not pour out such treasures so easily, but only gather them. 58. Nor are they the merits of Christ and the Saints, for even without the pope, these always work grace for the inner man, and the cross, death, and hell for the outward man. 59. St. Lawrence said that the treasures of the Church were the Church's poor, but he spoke according to the usage of the word in his own time. 60. Without rashness we say that the keys of the Church, given by Christ's merit, are that treasure. 61. For it is clear that, for the remission of penalties and of reserved cases, the power of the pope is of itself sufficient. 62. The true treasure of the Church is the Most Holy Gospel of the glory and the grace of God. 63. But this treasure is naturally most odious, for it makes the first to be last. 64. On the other hand, the treasure of indulgences is naturally most acceptable, for it makes the last to be first. 65. Therefore the treasures of the Gospel are nets with which they formerly were wont to fish for men of riches. 66. The treasures of the indulgences are nets with which they now fish for the riches of men. 67. The indulgences which the preachers cry as the "greatest graces" are known to be truly such, in so far as they promote gain. 68. Yet they are in truth the very smallest graces compared with the grace of God and the piety of the Cross. 69. Bishops and curates are bound to admit the commissaries of apostolic pardons, with all reverence. 70. But still more are they bound to strain all their eyes and attend with all their ears, lest these men preach their own dreams instead of the commission of the pope. 71. He who speaks against the truth of apostolic pardons, let him be anathema and accursed! 72. But he who guards against the lust and license of the pardon-preachers, let him be blessed! 73. The pope justly thunders against those who, by any art, contrive the injury of the traffic in pardons. 74. But much more does he intend to thunder against those who use the pretext of pardons to contrive the injury of holy love and truth. 75. To think the papal pardons so great that they could absolve a man even if he had committed an impossible sin and violated the Mother of God – this is madness. 76. We say, on the contrary, that the papal pardons are not able to remove the very least of venial sins, so far as its guilt is concerned. 77. It is said that even St. Peter, if he were now Pope, could not bestow greater graces; this is blasphemy against St. Peter and against the pope. 78. We say, on the contrary, that even the present pope, and any pope at all, has greater graces at his disposal; to wit, the Gospel, powers, gifts of healing, etc., as it is written in I Corinthians 12. 79. To say that the cross, emblazoned with the papal arms, which is set up [by the preachers of indulgences], is of equal worth with the Cross of Christ, is blasphemy. 80. The bishops, curates, and theologians who allow such talk to be spread among the people, will have an account to render. 81. This unbridled preaching of pardons makes it no easy matter, even for learned men, to rescue the reverence due to the pope from slander, or even from the shrewd questionings of the laity. 82. To wit: – "Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls that are there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with which to build a Church? The former reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial." 83. Again: – "Why are mortuary and anniversary masses for the dead continued, and why does he not return or permit the withdrawal of the endowments founded on their behalf, since it is wrong to pray for the redeemed?" 84. Again: – "What is this new piety of God and the pope, that for money they allow a man who is impious and their enemy to buy out of purgatory the pious soul of a friend of God, and do not rather, because of that pious and beloved soul's own need, free it for pure love's sake?" 85. Again: – "Why are the penitential canons long since in actual fact and through disuse abrogated and dead, now satisfied by the granting of indulgences, as though they were still alive and in force?" 86. Again: – "Why does not the pope, whose wealth is to-day greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of poor believers?" 87. Again: – "What is it that the pope remits, and what participation does he grant to those who, by perfect contrition, have a right to full remission and participation?" 88. Again: – "What greater blessing could come to the Church than if the pope were to do a hundred times a day what he now does once, and bestow on every believer these remissions and participations?" 89. "Since the pope, by his pardons, seeks the salvation of souls rather than money, why does he suspend the indulgences and pardons granted heretofore, since these have equal efficacy?" 90. To repress these arguments and scruples of the laity by force alone, and not to resolve them by giving reasons, is to expose the Church and the pope to the ridicule of their enemies, and to make Christians unhappy. 91. If, therefore, pardons were preached according to the spirit and mind of the pope, all these doubts would be readily resolved; nay, they would not exist. 92. Away, then, with all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, "Peace, peace," and there is no peace! 93. Blessed be all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, "Cross, cross," and there is no cross! 94. Christians are to be exhorted that they be diligent in following Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, and hell. 95. And thus be confident of entering into heaven rather through many tribulations, than through the assurance of peace.

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Bibliography

• Bainton, R. H. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther. Abingdon Press, 2013.
• Martin Luther’s 95 Theses from Reasonable Theology , accessed 29 Nov 2021.
• Roper, L. Martin Luther: Renegade and Prophet. Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2018.
• Rublack, U. The Oxford Handbook of the Protestant Reformations . Oxford University Press, 2017.

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Mark, J. J. (2021, December 01). Martin Luther's 95 Theses . World History Encyclopedia . Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1891/martin-luthers-95-theses/

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Protestant Reformation essay. Influence of Protestantism Nowadays

The 16th-century religious, intellectual, social, cultural and political movement that changed Catholic Europe and set in place the structures that would largely define the development of the generations to come - this is the most concise definition of reformation you can probably find anywhere. The movement that in a great way defined the development of the continent is much more complex phenomenon and its significance cannot be squeezed into just one sentence. Many scholars and scientists have been studying the age of reformation for years now and its impact can be seen in our everyday lives whether we are aware of this fact or not.

Reformation. Why that happened?

The Reformation has started in 1517 with Martin Luther’s “95 theses” that questioned the Catholic Church which had an immense influence in the society at that time in Europe. Over the centuries it was deeply involved in the political and social life of Western Europe which resulted in political manipulations and spiritual bankruptcy of the Roman Catholic Church. By his 95 theses Martin Luther attacked not only the corruption of the church but he also went to the theological roots of the issue (what initially caused reformation was the perversion of the doctrines about God’s grace and redemption).

The reformation age is believed to have lasted for 38 years having far reaching impact on the society. The Protestant Reformation has purified the church creating new ones that focused on the Word of God rather than mere tradition. This has influenced not only the religious aspect of peoples’ lives but also it had economic impact as well. From the teachings of John Calvin, another famous reformation leader, there emerged so-called “protestant work ethic” which contributed to the development of the economic system of capitalism. Religious reforms promoted anti-authoritarianism which ultimately led to the democratic movement around the world (through the recoil against the feudal system). More than that, the abolition of slavery can be traced back to the principles emerged out of the reformation age.

Martin Luther and John Calvin as main leaders of reformation

Martin Luther and John Calvin are considered two main people who have launched the Protestant Reformation. They had very similar views on such theological doctrines, as the redemption and grace which motivated them to oppose the Roman Catholic Church at the time. They were both totally committed to God’s Word and lived their lives to accomplish the will of God. Interestingly enough, although Martin Luther and John Calvin were the two leaders of the Reformation, it is believed they never met each other as they lived in different countries.

Although they had many things in common, they also had some distinctions in their teachings. They didn’t agree on a couple of theological issues which resulted in the creation of different branches or Protestantism. Nevertheless, the distinctions in theological views they had didn’t stand in the way of initiating religious reforms in the countries they resided within. Reformed Catholic Church was something they both wanted to achieve despite all persecutions and hardships they had to go through. These two leaders remain great examples of how sincere faith and commitment can change the corrupt systems.

Reformed Catholic Church nowadays. 500 years of reformation celebration in the US

Despite the hardships and all persecution each of the reformers had faced (there were many others apart from Luther and Calvin who were attacking the corrupt Catholic Church in the 16th century), in 2017 the world will celebrate 500 years of reformation. Despite the European origin of the holiday, there are many events planned in the USA to commemorate the age that brought so many positive changes in the society.

Passionate reformers have achieved many things among which is the Reformed Catholic Church which is different today from what it used to be in the 16th century. It doesn’t have such an absolute authority over the lives of people as the Bibles are now available almost in any country and city (as opposed to the time when the only church could read and interpret the Book). The Renaissance and reformation are somewhat similar; in their core lies the revival of the true values and virtues. This revival has brought up many good things we can enjoy today, including economic and democratic development.

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The Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation that began with Martin Luther in 1517 played a key role in the development of the North American colonies and the eventual United States.

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Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms 1521

Martin Luther, a German teacher and a monk, brought about the Protestant Reformation when he challenged the Catholic Church's teachings starting in 1517.

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The Protestant Reformation was a religious reform movement that swept through Europe in the 1500s. It resulted in the creation of a branch of Christianity called Protestantism , a name used collectively to refer to the many religious groups that separated from the Roman Catholic Church due to differences in doctrine . The Protestant Reformation began in Wittenberg, Germany, on October 31, 1517, when Martin Luther, a teacher and a monk, published a document he called Disputation on the Power of Indulgences , or 95 Theses . The document was a series of 95 ideas about Christianity that he invited people to debate with him. These ideas were controversial because they directly contradicted the Catholic Church 's teachings. Luther's statements challenged the Catholic Church 's role as intermediary between people and God, specifically when it came to the indulgence system, which in part allowed people to purchase a certificate of pardon for the punishment of their sins. Luther argued against the practice of buying or earning forgiveness, believing instead that salvation is a gift God gives to those who have faith. Luther's objections to the indulgence system paved the way for other challenges to the Catholic doctrine throughout Europe. For example, John Calvin in France and Huldrych Zwingli in Switzerland proposed new ideas about the practice of Holy Communion, and a group called Anabaptists rejected the idea that infants should be baptized in favor of the notion that baptism was reserved for adult Christians. Broadly speaking, most of the challenges to the Catholic Church revolved around the notion that individual believers should be less dependent on the Catholic Church , and its pope and priests, for spiritual guidance and salvation. Instead, Protestants believed people should be independent in their relationship with God, taking personal responsibility for their faith and referring directly to the Bible, the Christian holy book, for spiritual wisdom. Protestant reform in England began with Henry VIII in 1534 because the Pope would not grant him a marriage annulment. Subsequently, King Henry rejected the Pope's authority, instead creating and assuming authority over the Church of England, a sort of hybrid church that combined some Catholic doctrine and some Protestant ideals. Over the next 20 years, there was religious turbulence in England as Queen Mary (1553–1558) reinstated Catholicism in England while persecuting and exiling Protestants , only to have Queen Elizabeth I and her Parliament attempt to lead the country back toward Protestantism during her reign (1558–1603). Some English citizens did not believe Queen Elizabeth's efforts to restore England to Protestantism went far enough. These citizens fell into two groups, both labeled Puritans by their opponents. The first group, known as separatists , believed the Church of England was so corrupt that their only choice was to leave England, separate from the church , and start a new church . They called this the English Separatist Church . Around 1607 or 1609, some of the separatists tried to start the new lives they imagined in Holland, in the Netherlands. Ultimately, the endeavor failed due to poverty and the sense that the children were assimilating too much into Dutch culture, so many of the separatists returned to England. By 1620, members of the English Separatist Church were ready for a second try at establishing a new life and church . Those who set sail aboard the Mayflower for New England and eventually landed near Plymouth, Massachusetts, would, in time, become known as the Pilgrims . The other group of English citizens who did not believe Queen Elizabeth's reform efforts went far enough were called non separatists ; over time, the term " Puritan " would become synonymous with the non separatists . They did not seek to leave the Church of England; they wanted only to reform it by eliminating the remnants of Catholicism that remained. In terms of theology, most of them were Calvinists. Although they did not desire to separate from the Church of England, some Puritans saw emigrating to New England as their best chance at true reform of the church and freedom to worship as they chose. In 1630, a decade after the Pilgrims embarked on a similar journey for similar reasons, the first Puritans traveled to the New World and established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in Boston, Massachusetts. Though the separatists and non separatists disagreed about whether to sever ties to the Church of England, both groups of early North American colonists shared a dissatisfaction with the church and a mindset that they were free to establish a church more in alignment with their spiritual views. Perhaps predictably, this freedom to practice religion according to one's beliefs led to the creation of countless different churches , denominations , and doctrines in the colonies. Equally predictable, throughout history this diversity has led to disagreements. However, this diversity of religious thought has also become a core part of the identity of the United States: The Bill of Rights explicitly forbids "establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” Over 400 years in the making, this belief in personal empowerment and independence in religious matters, with its roots in the Protestant Reformation , has become an enduring part of the American mindset.

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