Organizing knowledge syntheses: A taxonomy of literature reviews
A taxonomy of literature reviews in education and psychology is presented. The taxonomy categorizes reviews according to: (a) focus; (b) goal; (c) perspective; (d) coverage; (e) organization; and (f) audience. The seven winners of the American Educational Research Association's Research Review Award are used to illustrate the taxonomy's categories. Data on the reliability of taxonomy codings when applied by readers is presented. Results of a survey of review authors provides baseline data on how frequently different types of reviews appear in the education and psychology literature. How the taxonomy might help in judging the quality of literature reviews is discussed, along with more general standards for evaluating reviews. © 1988 Springer-Verlag.
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Literature Reviews: An Overview of Systematic, Integrated, and Scoping Reviews
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Literature reviews are a main part of the research process. Literature Reviews can be stand-alone research projects, or they can be part of a larger research study. In both cases, literature reviews must follow specific guidelines so they can meet the rigorous requirements for being classified as a scientific contribution. More importantly, these reviews must be transparent so that they can be replicated or reproduced if desired. The rigorous requirements set out by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) aim to support researchers in conducting literature reviews as well as address the replication crisis that has challenged scientific disciplines over the past decade. The current chapter identifies some of the requirements along with highlighting different types of reviews and recommendations for conducting a rigorous review.
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Turner, J.R. (2023). Literature Reviews: An Overview of Systematic, Integrated, and Scoping Reviews. In: Jagadeesh, G., Balakumar, P., Senatore, F. (eds) The Quintessence of Basic and Clinical Research and Scientific Publishing. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1284-1_38
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Organizing knowledge syntheses: A taxonomy of literature reviews
1988, Knowledge, Technology & Policy
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British Educational Research Journal
Martyn Hammersley
Reviews are one of the main means by which the findings of educational research are communicated to audiences outside the research community. In this article, we look at some aspects of the production of reviews in the light of this function. Attention is given to issues relating to the initiation of reviews, the definition of the field to be covered, the coverage and treatment of relevant research, and the drawing of conclusions. The discussion is illustrated by reference to some recent examples of reviews of educational research.
Sarah Elaine Eaton
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to provide students of educational research with clear guidance on how to choose high quality sources for research papers and theses. Methods: Using an information-analysis approach, this evidence-based guide draws from social sciences research methodology literature. It addresses a gap in the literature by offering pragmatic guidance on how to engage in an informed decision-making process about what types of literature are appropriate for inclusion in educational research reports. Results: The primary outcome of this work is a clear, plain-language guide for students to help them build their understanding of the kinds of sources to include in a literature review. Implications: As a result of better understanding the types of sources that constitute a credible literature review, students may develop both their competence and confidence selecting appropriate sources for their research writing. Although written for an educational research audience, researchers in other disciplines may find it applicable. Additional Materials: 12 references, 1 figure.
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The ability to conduct an explicit and robust literature review by students, scholars or scientists is critical in producing excellent journal articles, academic theses, academic dissertations or working papers. A literature review is an evaluation of existing research works on a specific academic topic, theme or subject to identify gaps and propose future research agenda. Many postgraduate students in higher education institutions lack the necessary skills and understanding to conduct in-depth literature reviews. This may lead to the presentation of incorrect, false or biased inferences in their theses or dissertations. This study offers scientific knowledge on how literature reviews in different fields of study could be conducted to mitigate against biased inferences such as unscientific analogies and baseless recommendations. The literature review is presented as a process that involves several activities including searching, identifying, reading, summarising, compiling, analysing, interpreting and referencing. We hope this article serves as reference material to improve the academic rigour in the literature review chapters of postgraduate students' theses or dissertations. This article prompts established scholars to explore more innovative ways through which scientific literature reviews can be conducted to identify gaps (empirical, knowledge, theoretical, methodological, application and population gap) and propose a future research agenda.
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We thank Joseph Maxwell (this issue of Educational Researcher, pp. 28–31) for accepting our invitation to examine the roles and expectations of dissertation literature reviews. We agree that most are inadequate but disagree why. Maxwell argues that dissertations should emulate research articles and include a conceptual framework that only discusses relevant literature. Candidates need not present a thorough analysis and synthesis of the scholarship and research, Maxwell argues, or justify claims made about the literature. Finally, he asserts that we misunderstand the relationship between literature and research, leading to an accusation of “foundationalism.” However, these specific disagreements ignore fundamental differences about the purposes of the doctoral dissertation and the relationship between those purposes and doctoral program goals. In this rejoinder, we briefly explore these conceptual and normative differences.
Ahmed OUARET
• Learning outcomes • The nature of a literature review • Identifying the main subject and themes • Reviewing previous research • Emphasizing leading research studies • Exploring trends in the literature • Summarizing key ideas in a subject area • Summary A literature review is usually regarded as being an essential part of student projects, research studies and dissertations. This chapter examines the reasons for the importance of the literature review, and the things which it tries to achieve. It also explores the main strategies which you can use to write a good literature review.
Alfi Rahman
This Study Guide explains why literature reviews are needed, and how they can be conducted and reported. Related Study Guides are: Referencing and bibliographies, Avoiding plagiarism, Writing a dissertation, What is critical reading? What is critical writing? The focus of the Study Guide is the literature review within a dissertation or a thesis, but many of the ideas are transferable to other kinds of writing, such as an extended essay, or a report. After reading your literature review, it should be clear to the reader that you have up-to-date awareness of the relevant work of others, and that the research question you are asking is relevant. However, don't promise too much! Be wary of saying that your research will solve a problem, or that it will change practice. It would be safer and probably more realistic to say that your research will 'address a gap', rather than that it will 'fill a gap'.
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The primary focus of this study is to critically analyse two academic papers published in the educational field in terms of the validity and reliability of their methods of data collection and analysis, research design, and ethical implications. This is done in an attempt to demonstrate the valid procedure of conducting a research paper as a general aim for the current study. This is a desk research study conducted primarily for educational purposes. Data was collected from different resources found in the library of the University of Huddersfield in the United Kingdom. The analysis of the current research was conducted in the light of many educational resources specialized in research papers and publication. Results from the current study show that due to the lack of many standards, Brown's research is not reliable, valid and authentic, whereas Ornprapat and Saovapa's research is outstanding, valid, reliable, and authentic.
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Conceptual and practical classification of research reviews and other evidence synthesis products
This paper builds on existing taxonomies and typologies of research reviews to create an inclusive conceptual framework for classifying diverse evidence synthesis methods. Previous typologies are incomplete and there is little consistency among them in descriptions of review and synthesis methods. A more inclusive framework may promote better understanding, wider applications, and more judicious use of synthesis methods.
INTRODUCTION
Growing interest in evidence synthesis has stimulated development of novel synthesis methods. Along with valuable new tools and approaches for handling different kinds of questions and data, the proliferation of synthesis methods has produced some confusion. Some review terms are applied in idiosyncratic or indiscriminate ways, some methods are ill‐defined, and the fit between questions and synthesis methods is often under‐emphasized or unclear. In this paper, I examine the terms and typologies used to describe diverse synthesis methods, identify distinct and overlapping types of synthesis, and consider the goodness of fit between different synthesis questions and methods. This paper is motivated by interest in supporting judicious selection of synthesis methods that are fit for different purposes.
The production of systematic reviews and meta‐analyses in the social and health sciences began to increase exponentially in the early 1990s, but this trend is overshadowed by even steeper rises in the production of non‐systematic reviews ( Bastian, Glasziou, & Chalmers, 2010 ; Littell, 2016 ). This rise in research synthesis activity is due, in part, to increased research output ( Bastian et al., 2010 ) and awareness that synthesized evidence is more robust and potentially more useful than results of individual studies ( Grimshaw, Eccles, Lavis, Hill, & Squires, 2012 ).
Beyond meta‐analyses of data from randomized controlled trials on effects of interventions, systematic review methods have been extended to diverse types of research questions and data. New search, appraisal, and synthesis methods have emerged within and across disciplines. On one hand, such diverse methods are needed to synthesize different types of evidence on the wide range of topics that are important to funders, policy makers, consumers, and researchers. However, stakeholders are now faced with a rather bewildering array of review and synthesis products, including: systematic reviews, meta‐analyses, network meta‐analyses, rapid reviews, realist reviews, qualitative evidence syntheses, scoping reviews, and evidence and gap maps.
CONFUSING TERMINOLOGY
For purposes of this paper, I use the terms “research review” and “evidence synthesis” interchangeably to refer to a wide range of approaches to the identification, appraisal, and analysis of empirical research; these efforts may or may not include the synthesis of results across studies.
There is little consensus on the meanings of terms commonly used to describe research reviews. This is similar to the terminological confusion that appears in the literature on designs for primary research (e.g., the terms “controlled study” and “quasi‐experimental design” have multiple meanings). In the research literature, this confusion is known as the jingle/jangle fallacy ( Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991 ).
The jingle fallacy
The jingle fallacy is the erroneous belief that two different things are the same because they are given the same name. As a prime example, the term “systematic review” has taken on multiple meanings in recent years. According to the Cochrane Handbook,
A systematic review attempts to collate all empirical evidence that fits pre‐specified eligibility criteria in order to answer a specific research question. It uses explicit, systematic methods that are selected with a view to minimizing bias, thus providing more reliable findings from which conclusions can be drawn and decisions made (Higgins & Green, 2011).
With these twin emphases on comprehensive coverage and accuracy, systematic reviews are viewed as the most reliable sources of evidence for practice and policy ( Clarke, 2011 ). However, the term “systematic review” has been applied to a wide range of review methods, including approaches that are neither comprehensive nor reliable. Some reviews are described as systematic solely because they used keyword searches of an electronic database. Other so‐called “systematic reviews” follow explicit rules and procedures that have been shown to invite bias and error (e.g., systematically excluding eligible unpublished studies, or relying on a single coder).
Similarly, the term “rapid review” has been used to describe diverse approaches ( Polisena et al., 2015 ), and “scoping reviews” use a wide range of methods ( Pham et al., 2014 ). When the same terms are applied to disparate approaches, readers may not be aware of important distinctions between them.
The jangle fallacy
The jangle fallacy is the erroneous belief that two identical (or nearly identical) things are different because they are given different names. For example, the terms used to describe reviews of existing reviews include: overviews, umbrella reviews, systematic reviews of reviews, and meta‐reviews – although distinctions between these terms are neither consistent nor clear ( Ballard & Montgomery, 2017 ).
To address this confusion, it is necessary to look beyond the current lexicon to consider important elements of diverse approaches to the identification, analysis, and synthesis of empirical evidence. To do this, we shall examine and build on existing classification systems.
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Typologies and taxonomies are two different types of classification systems ( Bailey, 1994 ). A taxonomy uses empirical observations to classify items into categories, while a typology is based on theoretical or conceptual distinctions. Either approach can employ multi‐dimensional structures. Classification systems are useful for organizing information and identifying important dimensions on which members of the class (in our case, research reviews) may vary ( Collier, LaPorte, & Seawright, 2012 ). However, attempts at classification risk the imposition of artificial structures on phenomena that may not fit neatly into prescribed categories; and multi‐dimensional classification schemes do not necessarily solve this problem.
Like designs for primary research (see Beissel‐Durrant, 2004 ; Luff, Byatt, & Martin, 2015 ) and public policies (see Smith, 2002 ), research reviews defy a basic rule of classification, which stipulates that categories must be both exhaustive (covering all instances) and mutually exclusive (with no member belonging to more than one category). In other words, in classical set theory there must be one category – but only one category – for each member ( Bailey, 1994 ). More flexible approaches to classification are possible, when we use “fuzzy sets” that don't have clear or arbitrary boundaries and allow each member of a class to take on multiple values or positions within a category.
Cooper (1988) and Gough, Thomas, and Oliver (2012) noted that research reviews differ and overlap in so many aspects that a simple taxonomy or typology of reviews is not possible. They identified key characteristics or dimensions on which reviews vary.
Key characteristics of reviews
Harris Cooper was one of the first social scientists to suggest that research reviews should follow basic steps in the scientific process. Cooper (1988) developed and assessed a taxonomy of reviews based on existing literature, unstructured interviews with 14 scholars in psychology and education, reliability checks on independent classifications of 37 reviews, and a survey completed by 108 review authors. As shown in Figure 1 , Cooper (1988) characterized literature reviews according to their foci, goals, perspectives, coverage, organization, and audience. Using this taxonomy, Cooper found low initial agreement on independent classifications of reviews, in part because many reviews have multiple foci or multiple goals. However, when reviewers were asked to describe their own reviews using Cooper's taxonomy, few objected to these categories or suggested new ones.
Comparison of Cooper's (1988) taxonomy and Gough et al. (2012) dimensions of reviews.
Gough, Thomas, and Oliver (2012) provided another classification system, focusing on variations in the aims and approaches, structures and components, and breadth and depth of research reviews. They identified several dimensions (or continua) on which reviews vary, including philosophy, relation to theory, approaches to synthesis, use of iterative or a priori methods, search strategies, approaches to quality assessment, products, and uses.
As shown in Figure 1 , there is little overlap between Cooper's (1988) taxonomy and the dimensions identified by Gough and colleagues (2012) .
Typologies of reviews
Several typologies of research reviews and emerging knowledge synthesis methods are shown in Table 1 . (1) Grant and Booth (2009) identified 14 types of reviews and described the methods commonly used within each approach for searching, appraisal, synthesis, and analysis of evidence. (2) The Royal Pharmaceutical Company (2011) described key features, similarities, and differences of eight types of reviews. (3) Tricco and colleagues (2016) conducted a scoping review of “emerging knowledge synthesis methods” in health, education, sociology, and philosophy. They identified 25 distinct synthesis methods; of these, 12 provided guidance for the entire process (including search, critical appraisal, and synthesis; these are shown in Table 1 ) and 13 provided guidance for synthesis only. (4) Perrier and colleagues (2016) found more than 600 articles on “emerging knowledge synthesis methods” published in 330 different journals, with steady increases in the number of these publications after 2003; the most commonly used approaches are shown in Table 1 .
Typologies of research reviews and emerging knowledge synthesis methods
Label | Royal Pharmaceutical Society (2011) | Tricco et al. (2016) | Perrier et al. (2016) | Other labels | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Content analysis | X | ||||
Concept synthesis | X | ||||
Critical interpretive synthesis | X | X | |||
Critical review | X | ||||
Integrative review | X | X | |||
Literature review | X | X | |||
Mapping review or systematic map | X | Evidence and gap map (3ie, Campbell) | |||
Meta‐analysis | X | X | |||
Meta‐ethnography | X | X | |||
Meta‐interpretation | X | ||||
Meta‐narrative | X | X | |||
Meta‐study | X | X | |||
Meta‐summary or meta‐aggregation | X | ||||
Meta‐synthesis | X | X | |||
Mixed studies or mixed methods review | X | Combine quantitative & qualitative studies | X | X | Multi‐level vs. parallel syntheses ( ) |
Narrative synthesis | X | X | |||
Overview | X | ||||
Qualitative review or evidence synthesis | X | X | |||
Rapid review | X | Rapid evidence review | Rapid evidence assessment (CEBMa) | ||
Realist review | X | X | X | ||
Scoping review | X | X | |||
State‐of‐the‐art review | X | ||||
Systematic review (SR) | X | X | SR w/ novel methods | 10 SR types ( ) | |
Systematic search and review | X | ||||
Systematized review | X | ||||
Thematic analysis | X | ||||
Umbrella review | X |
In contrast to typologies that focus on review methods, Munn and colleagues (2018) propose a typology of systematic reviews (in the medical and health sciences) that categorizes review topics. Their typology includes 10 foci of systematic reviews: effectiveness, experiential (qualitative), costs/economic evaluations, prevalence and/or incidence, diagnostic test accuracy, etiology and/or risk, expert opinion or policy, psychometric, prognostic, and methodology.
Diverse methodologies for the synthesis of qualitative evidence have also been identified by several teams. As shown in Table 2 , four teams of authors have identified a total of 23 distinct qualitative evidence synthesis (QES) methodologies. Some of these methodologies (e.g., meta‐ethnography and qualitative comparative analysis) include multiple methods for analysis or synthesis and some analysis/synthesis methods (e.g., thematic analysis) are shared by different methodologies.
Methodologies for synthesizing qualitative evidence
Label | CRD (2009) | Booth et al. (2016) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Case survey | X | |||
Concept analysis | X | |||
Content analysis | X | X | ||
Critical interpretive synthesis | X | X | ||
Ecological triangulation | X | X | ||
EPPI‐Centre methods | X | |||
Framework synthesis | X | |||
Grounded theory, constant comparative method | X | X | X | X |
Meta‐aggregation | X | |||
Meta‐ethnography | X | X | X | X |
Meta‐interpretation | X | X | X | |
Meta‐narrative | X | X | ||
Meta‐study | X | X | X | |
Meta‐summary | X | X | ||
Meta‐synthesis | X | |||
Miles & Huberman's analysis | X | |||
Narrative summary | X | |||
Narrative synthesis | X | X | X | |
Qualitative comparative analysis | X | |||
Qualitative interpretive meta‐synthesis | X | |||
Qualitative meta‐summary | X | |||
Realist synthesis | X | |||
Thematic synthesis | X | X | X |
Authors of previous review typologies note the overlap between review types, lack of explicit methodologies for some approaches ( Grant & Booth, 2009 ), and an overall “lack of guidance on how to select a knowledge synthesis method” ( Tricco et al., 2016 , p. 19).
Tables 1 and and2 2 suggest that each typology is incomplete. There is little overlap in the review types – or terminology used to describe reviews – across these papers.
CONCEPTUAL CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH REVIEWS
I aim to develop a more comprehensive system for classifying research reviews across topics, methods, and disciplines. This classification schema is informed by the taxonomies and typologies described above, including pivotal examples ( Cooper, 1988 ; Grant & Booth, 2009 ; Gough et al., 2012 ), empirical studies ( Tricco et al., 2016 ; Perrier et al. 2016 ), and divergent approaches (e.g., Munn et al., 2018 ).
Instead of a typology of “crisp sets” (mutually exclusive, exhaustive categories), this schema uses multiple criteria (dimensions) and recognizes that reviews can take on more than one value or position within each set of criteria. For example, reviews can have multiple goals. This multi‐dimensional, conceptual schema reflects the inherent complexity and flexibility of research reviews. A summary of the schema is shown in Appendix A and discussed below.
Embedded within the following discussion of these dimensions and characteristics are several emboldened terms; these are terms that are often used to describe certain “types” of reviews; it will become clear that these commonly‐used labels are incomplete and rather idiosyncratic descriptors.
Topics and questions for evidence synthesis
Domains | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Topics | Sample Questions | Topics | Sample Questions | Topics | Sample Questions | |
Constructs, categories | Assessment, diagnosis | How is Y defined, viewed, or assessed in different contexts? | Treatment types, processes, implementation | Which interventions are provided for Y problem? How are these interventions implemented? | Construct validity, diagnostic test accuracy | What are the properties of measurement instruments? (reliability, validity, sensitivity, specificity, underlying dimensions) |
What are different types of Y? experiences of Y? | How do interventions differ? | |||||
Rates, trends | Incidence, prevalence | How often? How much? What is the incidence or prevalence of Y? | Treatment participation, acceptability | Attendance, retention, drop‐out, completion | Trend analyses | How to analysis and synthesis of data on rates and trends? |
Has incidence or prevalence of Y changed over time, place, context, subgroup? | Has attendance/retention changed over time? | Time series analyses | How to analyze and synthesize longitudinal, event history data? | |||
Treatment costs | What are the costs of X treatment? | Cost analyses | How to analyze and synthesize cost data? | |||
Associations | Correlates | What is the relationship between X and Y? | Treatment correlates | What characteristics are associated with program completion? | Bivariate and multivariate models | How to analyze and synthesize data on associations? |
Predictions | Risk and protective factors | To what extent does X predict Y? | Outcomes | Do initial client characteristics predict attendance or completion of treatment? | Prognostic test accuracy | What are the properties of a prognostic test? (predictive validity, sensitivity, specificity) |
Causes and effects | Etiology | Does an increase in X cause an increase in Y? | Impact, efficacy, effectiveness | What are the effects of X treatment on Y outcomes? | Internal validity | How well do various methods control for threats to internal validity, rule out alternative plausible explanations, reduce risk of bias or error? |
Comparative effectiveness | What are the relative effects of X1 treatment vs X2 treatment on Y outcomes? | Design effects | How do elements of research design relate to results? | |||
Causal pathways | What direct and indirect pathways affect Y? | Moderators, mediators | Theories of change, moderator analysis | Complex models | How to synthesize data from complex networks or causal models? | |
Cost effectiveness | Is one treatment more/less cost‐effective than another? | Economic analyses | How to estimate cost‐effectiveness, cost‐benefit? | |||
Applications | Generaliz‐ability | How well do patterns hold up across samples, settings, or contexts? | Replication, transportability | Are intervention effects replicable? Is intervention transportable? | External validity | To what extent do measures or methods developed in one situation apply to others? |
- 1.1 Conditions of interest include social, cultural, economic, environmental, political, medical, cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and/or relational phenomena such as attributes, perceptions, experiences, situations, problems, and disorders.
- 1.2 Interventions are practices, programs, and policies that attempt to change one or more conditions. Reviews can focus on implementation, acceptability, utilization, complexity, equity, theories of change, outcomes, impacts, costs, replication, and/or dissemination of interventions. Barriers and facilitators to implementation, uptake, and effectiveness may be of interest, along with adherence to and adaptability of interventions in different contexts.
- 1.3 Methodology reviews are a form of meta‐research, which can consider qualities of research methods, measures, and/or reports.
Logic and evidentiary requirements for different kinds of inferences
Logic and evidentiary requirements | ||||||
Inferences | Reliable and valid measures or thick description | Counts, ratios, proportions, or scales | Measures of association, statistical power | Time order | Theory of change, ability to rule out other plausible explanations | Probability sampling, inferential statistics, or proximal similarity |
Constructs, categories | X | |||||
Rates, trends | X | X | ||||
Associations | X | X | X | |||
Predictions | X | X | X | X | ||
Causes and effects | X | X | X | X | X | |
Generaliz‐ability | X | ‐ | ‐ | ‐ | ‐ | X |
‐ depends on types of inferences that are generalized
- 2.1 Constructs and categories. To synthesize data about constructs and categories, we need reliable and valid measures or thick descriptions. Relevant topics in each of our three domains include diagnostic categories, treatment typologies, and properties of measurement instruments. Reviews can synthesize data on how people view, understand, or experience a condition or intervention. We might ask how a construct is defined or measured (what nominal and operational definitions are used?) What are the characteristics or properties of a construct (categories, level of measurement, underlying dimensions)? Methodological reviews can assess various properties of measurement instruments including reliability, validity, sensitivity, specificity, and underlying dimensions.
- 2.2 Rates and trends include studies of incidence and prevalence, other proportions, ratios, averages, and variations. With clear constructs in mind and reliable and valid measures, we can synthesize descriptive data on the incidence or prevalence of a problem or condition (e.g., a disease, crime, school failure, child abuse, poverty). For continuous variables of interest (e.g., household income, years of school completed), we can analyze and synthesize data on averages and distributions. We can also examine changes in rates, averages, or distributions over time, in different places or contexts, or across subgroups.
- 2.3 Associations between constructs of interest are typically assessed with bivariate and multivariate analyses, which can be synthesized in meta‐analysis. Primary studies and meta‐analyses will need sufficient statistical power to detect associations between variables if these associations exist. Reviews of research on binary gender differences are examples of associational reviews.
- 2.4 Predictions . In addition to establishing associations between variables, predictions require information on time order, usually in the form of longitudinal data. Reviews in this category can identify risk and protective factors, examine the predictive validity of diagnostic or prognostic tests, or identify outcomes (but not effects or impacts) of different interventions.
- 2.5 Causes and effects . Reviews of research on the etiology and outcomes of various conditions, belong in this category, along with reviews on the impacts of interventions. In addition to establishing correlation and time order (prediction), reviews in this category will include studies that attempt to rule out rival plausible explanations for causal relationships. In intervention research, this is often done with randomized controlled trials or high‐quality quasi‐experimental designs ( Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002 ). Relevant questions concern the efficacy, effectiveness, and comparative effectiveness of interventions, along with questions about mediators and moderators of these effects. Logic models or theories of change are useful in these reviews. Intervention research on costs effectiveness and cost‐benefit analysis also belongs in this category, as it relies on causal inferences. Methodological reviews can include studies of elements of research design (e.g., as moderators of effect size), features of studies that are associated with reductions in the risk of bias or error, along with methods for analysis and synthesis of data involving complex networks or causal models.
- 2.6 Applications. Reviews can explore the generalizability of empirical constructs and patterns across studies, settings, populations, cultures, and geopolitical contexts; replication and transportability of interventions; and external validity of research measures and methods. Inferences about generalizability rely on probability sampling methods and inferential statistics or on the proximal similarity of study samples and target populations ( Shadish, 1995 ).
- 3.1 Configure information . Reviews can identify patterns and main themes without necessarily synthesizing study results. For example, scoping reviews identify existing studies and evidence and gap maps configure information on available studies in matrices (e.g., indicating the types of interventions and outcomes that have been studied); these approaches can inform decisions about future primary studies and syntheses.
- 3.2 Aggregate or synthesize results. Cooper (1998) suggested that synthesis involves building general statements from specific instances, resolving apparent contradictions by proposing new explanations, and linguistic bridge‐building to unite ideas or observations that may have been expressed differently in different studies. Meta‐analytic tools for these activities include pooling effect sizes across studies, identifying moderators that may account for heterogeneous results, and converting original data to standard metrics. Reviews often combine aggregation and configuration activities in attempts to explore or resolve apparent contradictions across studies.
- 3.3 Appraise study qualities . Some reviews assess or criticize studies using explicit or implicit external criteria ( Cooper, 1988 ).
- 3.4 Maintain a neutral stance or espouse a position ( Cooper, 1988 ). Reviews that eschew a prior positions on key issues can avoid conflicts of interest and use systematic review methods to minimize bias and error at each step in the review process.
- 3.5 Generate, explore, or test theory or hypotheses. Reviews can consider theories of etiology, theories of change, and alternative plausible explanations.
- 3.6 Inform practice, policy, and/or further research.
Note that any one or more of these goals could be applied to any topic or question in Table 3 . For example, reviewers can configure information (perhaps in evidence and gap maps) on existing studies of: the incidence or prevalence of a condition, treatment participation, associations, comparative effectiveness of interventions, or the predictive validity of prognostic tools; the same topics can be addressed in reviews that synthesize results across studies.
- 4.1 A priori plans are often described in a protocol, with the expectation that any changes in or deviations from these initial plans will be explained in the final report. This approach is related to the goal of minimizing bias in reviews.
- 4.2 Iterative planning is more common in reviews that are exploratory in nature.
- 5.1 Exhaustive. Reviewers attempt to locate and include all studies on a particular topic. Absent clear eligibility criteria, an exhaustive search may be overly broad and inefficient. Hence, many reviewers attempt to find all studies that meet a priori eligibility criteria. For example, Campbell and Cochrane intervention reviews pre‐specify characteristics of research participants, interventions, comparisons, outcomes, and study designs (PICOS) that will (and will not) be included in a review.
- 5.2 Representative. Instead of locating all relevant research, reviewers obtain a representative sample of the studies conducted on a topic. This is difficult to do absent a sampling frame (exhaustive list) of all relevant studies.
- 5.3 Purposive. Some reviewers choose to focus on central or pivotal works in an area, rather than an exhaustive or representative set of studies ( Cooper, 1988 ). When this is done, reviewers should provide a clear rationale for the selection of studies.
- 5.4 Selective and incomplete . Rapid reviews are selective and incomplete by design; thus, they should (and often do) include appropriate caveats about likely missing data.
Reviews that purport to be exhaustive but only cite selected works are difficult for readers to evaluate and, in this sense, they are incomplete. Reviews that are limited to published studies are likely to be affected by reporting and publication biases, particularly if these reviews relate to intervention effects or other forms of hypothesis testing.
- 6.1 Quantitative primary studies (randomized controlled trials, cohort studies)
- 6.2 Qualitative primary studies provide raw material for qualitative evidence synthesis .
- 6.3 Individual participant data.
- 6.4 Previous reviews. Reviews of reviews are often called overviews.
- 7.1 Narrative. Virtually all reviews include narrative summaries.
- 7.2 Tabular. Tables are used to organize and display information (e.g., on characteristics of included studies, results of risk of bias assessments, summary of findings, other data matrices, evidence and gap maps).
- 7.3 Graphic displays (e.g., PRISMA flow charts, forest plots, funnel plots, visual illustrations of theories of change).
- 7.4 Qualitative methods include content analysis, critical interpretive synthesis, thematic synthesis, and qualitative comparative analysis (see Table 2 ).
- 7.5 Pseudo‐statistical vote‐counting.
- 7.6 Statistical meta‐analysis includes techniques for handling effect size multiplicity and pooling results across studies (generating point estimates, confidence intervals, and prediction intervals), assessing heterogeneity, moderator analysis (ANOVA analog, meta‐regression), network meta‐analysis , SROC curves, multivariate (SEM) models, hierarchical linear models (HLM), assessment of small sample and publication bias, and other sensitivity analyses.
- 7.7 Economic analyses focus on service costs, cost‐effectiveness, or cost‐benefit comparisons.
- 8.1 Historical
- 8.2 Conceptual
- 8.3 Methodological
- 9.1 Periodic. Updates are often planned to occur every few years, but this may depend on the availability of resources and new data.
- 9.2 Ongoing. Living systematic reviews are continually updated, incorporating relevant new evidence as it becomes available (Elliott, Synnot, Turner, Simmonds, Akl, McDonald, et al., 2017).
- 10.1 Plain language summary
- 10.2 Brief report
- 10.3 Full technical report
Not included in this classification scheme are issues of philosophy of science and epistemology. Following Morgan (2007) , who emphasized the importance of abduction (moving back and forth between inductive and deductive reasoning), inter‐subjectivity, and transferability, I believe that a pragmatic approach is needed to promote more robust and integrated synthesis methodologies. Toward that end, the classification scheme advanced here supports methodological pluralism, which is based on the premise that the “best” method for any particular study or review depends on the questions one is asking and the aims of the project. Far from an “anything goes” approach, methodological pluralism advances the value of goodness‐of‐fit between questions and methods. Thus, for example, the logic and evidence needed to support causal inferences differ from the logic and evidence needed to establish associations or generalizability ( Table 4 ).
As noted above, I emboldened some terms that are commonly used to describe research reviews. The location of these terms within a broader framework illustrates the incomplete and idiosyncratic ways in which reviews are described: Some reviews are distinguished by their goals (scoping reviews and evidence and gap maps configure information, but do not (usually) aggregate results; meta‐analyses aggregate information; while systematic reviews are usually designed to maintain a neutral stance by minimizing bias and error). Other reviews are characterized by their coverage (rapid reviews), the type of information they use (qualitative evidence synthesis, individual participant data, and overviews), analytic methods (network meta‐analysis), or updating plans (living systematic reviews). A comprehensive framework is needed to fully describe the foci, goals, and methods of research reviews.
CONCLUSIONS
By classifying research reviews, we aim to provide a conceptual scaffolding that can be used to describe available options, enhance communication about the types of reviews that are desired (e.g., when commissioning new reviews), support development of new reviews, and assess qualities of completed reviews. It is hoped that this can be useful for funders, review authors, consumers, and other stakeholders.
- 1.1. Conditions
- 1.2. Interventions
- 1.3. Methodology
- 2.1. Constructs and categories
- 2.2. Rates and trends
- 2.3. Associations
- 2.4. Predictions
- 2.5. Causes and effects
- 2.6. Applications
- 3.1. Configure information
- 3.2. Aggregate or synthesize results
- 3.3. Appraise study qualities
- 3.4. Maintain a neutral stance or espouse a position
- 3.5. Generate, explore, or test theory or hypotheses
- 3.6. Inform practice, policy, and/or further research
- 4.1. A priori
- 4.2. Iterative
- 5.1. Exhaustive
- 5.2. Representative
- 5.3. Purposive
- 5.4. Selective and incomplete
- 6.1. Quantitative primary studies
- 6.2. Qualitative primary studies
- 6.3. Individual participant data
- 6.4. Previous reviews
- 7.1. Narrative
- 7.2. Tabular
- 7.3. Graphic
- 7.4. Qualitative
- 7.5. Pseudo‐statistical vote‐counting
- 7.6. Statistical meta‐analysis
- 7.7. Economic
- 8.1. Historical
- 8.2. Conceptual
- 8.3. Methodological
- 9.1. Periodic
- 9.2. Ongoing
- 10.1. Plain language summary
- 10.2. Brief report
- 10.3. Full technical report
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Cooper, Harris M.,"A Taxonomy of Literature Reviews." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, 1985. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 254541.
Harris M. Cooper
Posits components of a literature review (focus, goals, prespective, coverage, organization, audience) and uses them to analyze examples; suggests other uses for the taxonomy.
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Curriculum Inquiry Guidelines, Critique and Utilization of Curriculum Research and Inquiry
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A Taxonomy of Literature Reviews Harris M. Cooper A taxonomy of literature reviews in education and psychology is pre- sented. The taxonomy categorizes reviews according to: (a) focus; (b) ... 106 Knowledge in Society/Spring 1988 topic are being solicited and each review is meant to take a different approach. Finally, the taxonomy can be used ...
A taxonomy of literature reviews in education and psychology is presented. The taxonomy categorizes reviews according to: (a) focus; (b) goal; (c) perspective; (d) coverage; (e) organization; and (f) audience. The seven winners of the American Educational Research Association's Research Review Award are used to illustrate the taxonomy's categories. Data on the reliability of taxonomy ...
A taxonomy of literature reviews in education and psychology is presented. The taxonomy categorizes reviews according to: (a) focus; (b) goal; (c) perspective; (d) coverage; (e) organization; and (f) audience. The seven winners of the American Educational Research Association's Research Review Award are used to illustrate the taxonomy's categories. Data on the reliability of taxonomy ...
Taxonomy of Literature Reviews An effective method to begin planning a research review is to consider where the proposed review fits into Cooper's (1988) Taxonomy of Literature Reviews. As shown in Table 1, Cooper suggests that literature reviews can be classified according to five characteristics: focus, goal, perspective, coverage ...
As shown in Figure 1, Cooper (1988) characterized literature reviews according to their foci, goals, perspectives, coverage, organization, and audience. Using this taxonomy, Cooper found low initial agreement on independent classifications of reviews, in part because many reviews have multiple foci or multiple goals.
Cooper, HM. Published in: Knowledge in Society. March 1, 1988. Published version (DOI) A taxonomy of literature reviews in education and psychology is presented. The taxonomy categorizes reviews according to: (a) focus; (b) goal; (c) perspective; (d) coverage; (e) organization; and (f) audience. The seven winners of the American Educational ...
H. M. Cooper (1988) has developed a taxonomy that classified literature reviews based on six characteristics: (1) focus of attention; (2) goal of the synthesis; (3) perspective on the literature; (4) coverage of the literature; (5) organization of the perspective; and (6) intended audience. One hundred and three meta-analyses identified from the literature on educational achievement were coded ...
H. M. Cooper (1988) has developed a taxonomy that classified literature reviews based on six characteristics: (1) focus of attention; (2) goal of the synthesis; (3) perspective on the literature; (4) coverage of the literature; (5) organization of the perspective; and (6) intended audience.
Synthesizing research : a guide for literature reviews Bookreader Item Preview ... Cooper, Harris M. Integrating research Boxid IA40273218 Camera Sony Alpha-A6300 (Control) Collection_set printdisabled External-identifier urn:oclc:record:1058110433 urn:lcp:synthesizingrese0000coop_3rded:lcpdf:061e4810-70ab-4cc4-9ba9-8bf9ea48f9ab ...
starting point in defining literature reviews is the following by Cooper (1988): First a literature review uses as its database of reports of primary or original scholarship and does not report new primary scholarship itself. The primary reports used in the literature may be verbal, but in the vast majority of cases
Title. Cooper, Harris M., "Organizing Knowledge Synthesis: A Taxonomy of Literature Reviews," Knowledge in Society, 1(Spring, 1988), 104-126.
The researcher used Cooper's (1988) taxonomy of literature reviews (CTLR) as methodological tool to critically review the claims of the author. The researcher found the article an interesting and useful work of the author in providing guidelines about writing literature reviews. ... (1983) third criteria. In a recent study of quality criteria ...
Download scientific diagram | Classification of literature review (taxonomy adapted from Cooper 1988) from publication: Frontiers of business intelligence and analytics 3.0: a taxonomy-based ...
Citation. Cooper, H. (1998). Synthesizing research: A guide for literature reviews (3rd ed.). Sage Publications, Inc. Abstract. This book shows how to do a comprehensive synthesis of past research on a topic via a 5-stage, step-by-step process of synthesizing research, beginning with the conceptualization of the problem to be reviewed through the presentation of the results.
H. M. Cooper (1988) has developed a taxonomy that classified literature reviews based on six characteristics: (1) focus of attention; (2) goal of the synthesis; (3) perspective on the. literature; (4) coverage of the literature; (5) organization of the perspective; and (6) intended audience. One hundred and three
Cooper [] presented a taxonomy of six characteristics distinguishing between literature reviews.This taxonomy highlights the different options available to the researcher when planning a literature review. These characteristics include focus, goal, perspective, coverage, organization, and audience (see also []).4.1 Focus. The focus of the literature review includes four potential categories ...
How a paper is organized is a fifth characteristic that differentiates research reviews• Reviews can be arranged: (a) historically, so that topics are introduced in the chronological order in which 112 Knowledge in Society/Spring 1988 they appeared in the literature; (b) conceptually, so that works relating to the same abstract ideas appear ...
Cooper (1988) and Gough, Thomas, and Oliver (2012) noted that research reviews differ and overlap in so many aspects that a simple taxonomy or typology of reviews is not possible. They identified key characteristics or dimensions on which reviews vary. ... Organizing knowledge syntheses: A taxonomy of literature reviews. Knowledge in Society, 1 ...
Collaborative Approaches to Watershed Management. [REVIEW] Bruce P. Hooper - 2007 - Knowledge, Technology & Policy 20 (3):215-217. John M. Cooper, Knowledge, Nature, and the Good: Essays on Ancient Philosophy Reviewed by. Sylvia Berryman - 2005 - Philosophy in Review 25 (5):334-336. The distribution and use of policy knowledge in the policy ...
Organizing knowledge syntheses: A taxonomy of literature reviews. Knowledge in Society, 1(1), ... sci hub to open science. ↓ save. Cooper, H. M. (1988). Organizing knowledge syntheses: A taxonomy of literature reviews. Knowledge in Society, 1(1), 104-126. doi ...
To clearly define the scope of the review, the authors draw on the established taxonomy for literature reviews as presented by Cooper (1988), highlighting relevant categories in Figure 2.
Posits components of a literature review (focus, goals, prespective, coverage, organization, audience) and uses them to analyze examples; suggests other uses for the taxonomy. ... Cooper, Harris M.,"A Taxonomy of Literature Reviews." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, 1985. ERIC ...