introduction stress management essay

Essay on Stress Management

500 words essay on stress management.

Stress is a very complex phenomenon that we can define in several ways. However, if you put them together, it is basically the wear and tear of daily life. Stress management refers to a wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies for controlling a person’s stress level, especially chronic stress . If there is effective stress management, we can help one another break the hold of stress on our lives. The essay on stress management will throw light on the very same thing.

Identifying the Source of Stress

The first step of stress management is identifying the source of stress in your life. It is not as easy as that but it is essential. The true source of stress may not always be evident as we tend to overlook our own stress-inducing thoughts and feelings.

For instance, you might constantly worry about meeting your deadline. But, in reality, maybe your procrastination is what leads to this stress than the actual deadline. In order to identify the source of stress, we must look closely within ourselves.

If you explain away stress as temporary, then it may be a problem. Like if you yourself don’t take a breather from time to time, what is the point? On the other hand, is stress an integral part of your work and you acknowledging it like that?

If you make it a part of your personality, like you label things as crazy or nervous energy, you need to look further. Most importantly, do you blame the stress on people around you or the events surrounding you?

It is essential to take responsibility for the role one plays in creating or maintaining stress. Your stress will remain outside your control if you do not do it.

Strategies for Stress Management

It is obvious that we cannot avoid all kinds of stress but there are many stressors in your life which you can definitely eliminate. It is important to learn how to say no and stick to them.  Try to avoid people who stress you out.

Further, if you cannot avoid a stressful situation, try altering it. Express your feelings don’t bottle them up and manage your time better. Moreover, you can also adapt to the stressor if you can’t change it.

Reframe problems and look at the big picture. Similarly, adjust your standards and focus on the positive side. Never try to control the uncontrollable. Most importantly, make time for having fun and relaxing.

Spend some time with nature, go for a walk or call a friend, whatever pleases you.  You can also try working out, listening to music and more. As long as it makes you happy, never give up.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conclusion of the Essay on Stress Management

All in all, we can control our stress levels with relaxation techniques that evoke the relaxation response of our body. It is the state of restfulness that is the opposite of the stress response. Thus, when you practice these techniques regularly, you can build your resilience and heal yourself.

FAQ of Essay on Stress Management

Question 1: What is the importance of stress management?

Answer 1: Stress management is very efficient as it helps in breaking the hold which stress has on our lives. Moreover, you can also become happy, healthy and more productive because of it. The ultimate goal should be to live a balanced life and have the resilience to hold up under pressure.

Question 2: Give some stress management techniques.

Answer 2: There are many stress management techniques through which one can reduce stress in their lives. One can change their situation or their reaction to it. We can try by altering the situation. If not, we can change our attitudes towards it. Remember, accept things that you cannot change.

Customize your course in 30 seconds

Which class are you in.

• Travelling Essay
• Picnic Essay
• Our Country Essay
• My Parents Essay
• Essay on Favourite Personality
• Essay on Memorable Day of My Life
• Essay on Knowledge is Power
• Essay on Gurpurab
• Essay on My Favourite Season
• Essay on Types of Sports

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Download the App

Presentations made painless

• Get Premium

110 Stress Management Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Stress is a common problem that affects people of all ages and backgrounds. Whether it's due to work, school, relationships, or other factors, stress can have a negative impact on our physical and mental health if not managed properly. To help you better understand and cope with stress, here are 110 stress management essay topic ideas and examples:

• The impact of stress on physical health
• The relationship between stress and mental health disorders
• Effective ways to manage stress in the workplace
• The benefits of exercise in reducing stress
• The role of mindfulness and meditation in stress management
• How diet and nutrition can affect your stress levels
• The importance of sleep in coping with stress
• The connection between stress and chronic illnesses
• The impact of stress on academic performance
• Strategies for managing stress during exams
• The role of social support in stress management
• How time management can help reduce stress
• The benefits of relaxation techniques in stress relief
• The link between stress and substance abuse
• Coping with stress in a fast-paced society
• The impact of stress on relationships
• How to communicate effectively to reduce stress
• The benefits of journaling in stress management
• The role of laughter in stress relief
• The impact of technology on stress levels
• Strategies for managing stress in the digital age
• The benefits of nature in reducing stress
• The role of hobbies and interests in stress relief
• The connection between stress and perfectionism
• Coping with stress in a competitive environment
• The benefits of volunteering in stress management
• The impact of financial stress on mental health
• Strategies for managing stress in times of uncertainty
• The benefits of self-care in stress relief
• The role of positive thinking in coping with stress
• The impact of stress on creativity and productivity
• How to set boundaries to reduce stress
• The benefits of setting realistic goals in stress management
• The connection between stress and self-esteem
• Coping with stress in a multicultural society
• The role of cultural practices in stress relief
• The impact of stress on parenting
• Strategies for managing stress as a caregiver
• The benefits of pets in reducing stress
• The link between stress and sleep disorders
• Coping with stress in the LGBTQ+ community
• The role of therapy in stress management
• The benefits of art therapy in stress relief
• The connection between stress and trauma
• Strategies for managing stress after a traumatic event
• The impact of stress on the immune system
• The benefits of mindfulness-based stress reduction programs
• The role of exercise in stress management for older adults
• Coping with stress in retirement
• The link between stress and memory loss
• The benefits of cognitive-behavioral therapy in stress relief
• The connection between stress and social media
• Strategies for managing stress in a virtual world
• The impact of stress on decision-making
• The benefits of deep breathing exercises in stress management
• The role of music in reducing stress
• Coping with stress during a crisis
• The link between stress and eating disorders
• The benefits of aromatherapy in stress relief
• The connection between stress and chronic pain
• Strategies for managing stress in chronic illness
• The impact of stress on the cardiovascular system
• The benefits of biofeedback in stress management
• The role of resilience in coping with stress
• Coping with stress in the military
• The link between stress and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• The benefits of peer support in stress relief
• The connection between stress and addiction
• Strategies for managing stress in recovery
• The impact of stress on decision-making in organizations
• The benefits of emotional intelligence in stress management
• The role of conflict resolution in reducing stress
• Coping with stress in a toxic work environment
• The link between stress and burnout
• The benefits of career counseling in stress relief
• The connection between stress and job satisfaction
• Strategies for managing stress in a remote work setting
• The impact of stress on team dynamics
• The benefits of team-building activities in stress management
• The role of leadership in reducing stress in the workplace
• Coping with stress in a high-pressure job
• The link between stress and turnover rates
• The benefits of flexible work arrangements in stress relief
• The connection between stress and job insecurity
• Strategies for managing stress in a global workforce
• The impact of stress on work-life balance
• The benefits of mindfulness training in stress management
• The role of emotional regulation in reducing stress
• Coping with stress in a diverse workplace
• The link between stress and discrimination
• The benefits of diversity training in stress relief
• The connection between stress and job performance
• Strategies for managing stress in a competitive industry
• The impact of stress on job satisfaction
• The benefits of career development programs in stress management
• The role of mentorship in reducing stress at work
• Coping with stress in a fast-paced industry
• The link between stress and creativity in the workplace
• The benefits of employee wellness programs in stress relief
• The connection between stress and absenteeism
• Strategies for managing stress in a high-stress job
• The impact of stress on team morale
• The benefits of conflict resolution training in stress management
• The role of communication in reducing stress at work
• Coping with stress in a toxic organizational culture
• The link between stress and turnover rates in nonprofits
• The benefits of self-care programs in stress relief
• The connection between stress and job burnout
• Strategies for managing stress in a non-profit organization
• The impact of stress on employee engagement and retention

These essay topic ideas and examples can help you explore different aspects of stress management and provide valuable insights on how to cope with stress effectively. By addressing these topics in your essays, you can raise awareness about the importance of stress management and help others lead healthier and happier lives.

Want to research companies faster?

Instantly access industry insights

Let PitchGrade do this for me

Leverage powerful AI research capabilities

We will create your text and designs for you. Sit back and relax while we do the work.

Explore More Content

• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Service

© 2024 Pitchgrade

Stress Management - Essay Examples And Topic Ideas For Free

An essay on stress management can explore strategies and techniques for coping with stress in modern life. It can discuss the physical and psychological effects of stress, mindfulness practices, time management, and the importance of work-life balance in reducing stress and promoting overall well-being. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Stress Management you can find at Papersowl. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Self Care in Stress Management

Humans or individuals as living creatures created by God with all their abilities and advantages compared to other living things, for example having a mind that can be used to think we need to be grateful. Just like staying and caring for yourself (self care) by utilizing the abilities we have. Every individual with the right conditions and conditions in accordance with the basic conditions that have an instinct also the body's ability to be able to care for, protect, […]

Importance of Stress Management at Workplace

What is stress? Stress is the body’s way of responding to any kind of demand.it could be negative or positive. 1. Demands This includes the demands of the workload and the work environment. The times when employees feel work stress could be: • harsh deadlines and expectations • technology overload • unmanageable workloads • long work hours 2. Lack of Control Lack of control at workplace means how much authority employees have about the way they do their work. Lack […]

Causes of Teenage Stress: Understanding the Effects

Causes of Teenage Stress According to dictionary.com, stress is defined as “importance attached to a thing.” As teenagers, we are constantly bombarded with homework, college, and the future, and it can become very stressful. Stress has a lot of causes and effects on teenagers, and sometimes it can get a little overwhelming. As a teenager myself, I have found that sometimes when I get too stressed, I get flustered. Like other teenagers, I would like to know what causes so […]

We will write an essay sample crafted to your needs.

An Observation of Stress and Stress Management in a Modern World

Everyone experiences stress one way or another whether it be acute or major. According to Psychology by Sandra E. Hockenbury, stress is a negative emotional response to events that are perceived to be exceeding a person’s resources or natural abilities (Hockenbury 531). According to the cognitive appraisal model founded by Richard Lazarus, people only experience stress if the stressor or what causes the stress is perceived to uncontrollable (Hockenbury 531). Once a person deems the stressor to be uncontrollable, they […]

Stress Management Case Study Report

The stress management case study involves college student, Katya who has an upcoming chemistry exam, she normally tries her best to study as much as possible because she experiences anxiety before taking tests. Her lack of confidence causes Katya to believe that no matter how hard she studies it will not make a difference in her tests. Katya knows she has to do well in her upcoming exam or she may lose her scholarship. While studying for her chemistry exam […]

Stress Among Police Officers: Understanding and Addressing

Causes of Stress for Police Officers High expectations are placed on police officers to put everything and everyone aside when duty calls, and it can be tiring and stressful at times to meet this demand due to family and other personal demands. In the eye of the community, the police are expected to go above and beyond the call of duty, and this is demanding as they are only human. It can often be very stressful for an officer when […]

Stress Management: how Stress Can Cause Mental Illness and how to Treat it

Every day, people experience stress or a stressful moment, at least at one point in the day or multiple times. Stress is defined as “a general, not a specific, term and refers to any demand (physical or psychological) that is outside the norm and that signals a disparity between what is optimal and what actually exists” (Herbert, 1997, 530). From this definition, stress is an event that is mentally and physically draining and a very common cause for people to […]

Coping with Stress: Exploring Strategies for Effective Stress Management

Personal Stress Assessment People respond to stress in three different ways: emotionally, physiologically, and behaviorally (Weiten, Dunn, & Hammer, 2018). I completed the stress assessment (R. Roberts, personal communication, January 31, 2019) to determine how I handle stressful situations. Lower numbers, between 7 and 70, indicated a weaker response to stress. The assessment (R. Roberts, personal communication, January 31, 2019) indicated that I respond to stressful situations mentally more than physically or emotionally; I scored a 37 for the mental […]

Causes of Stress Among College Students: Exploring the Daily Life

Stress is the natural response of the human body that happens when challenges come by. As college students, they are bombarded with loads of stress on a daily basis. Starting college can hold a whole new experience, and it can be scary without the safety net of family, friends, or guardians to come home to days away from a support structure that loves you no matter what. Stress and Its Effects on College Students Students are exposed to stress by […]

Trauma, Violence and Stress Management in America

Attachment Therapy Intervention Child-parent psychotherapy is an intervention technique used in young children with attachment disorders. This approach looks at the parental role in a child's emotional attachments and how the child-parent relationship affects other relationships in a child's life. According to Hagan, Browne, Sulik, Ippen, Bush, & Lieberman (2017), the main goal of child-parent psychotherapy is to address the quality of attachments between a young child and their primary caregiver, and to discover how those attachments affect the child's […]

When Stress Turns to Panic: the Stress Management Techniques

When Stress Turns to Panic For many people, stress is the trigger for an even bigger health problem: anxiety and panic attacks. If you are currently suffering from anxiety and panic attacks, along with stress, then it can feel like you're in the rabbit hole – as if there’s no real hope of a solution. The stress management techniques are highly effective for relieving and even eliminating stress. However, if you are experiencing intense episodes of anxiety and panic, you […]

Do not Let Negative Feelings Destroy our Lives

Currently, many people suffer from negative feelings which have bad effect on people’s mental health and, more seriously, destroy someone’s ability to live a normal life. Therefore, it is necessary for everyone to learn how to deal with those kinds of negative feelings so that we can prevent them from developing into depression or we can know how to help ourselves even if we have already suffered from depression. However, most people do not really realize how negative feelings harm […]

Additional Example Essays

• Reasons Why I Want to Study Abroad
• The Cask of Amontillado Literary Analysis
• A Class Divided
• “Allegory of the Cave”
• Cinderella Marxism
• Failures and success in business
• The Girl (Jig) Character Analysis in Hills Like White Elephants
• Dental Hygiene Application Essay
• Their Eyes Were Watching God Literary Analysis
• August Heat Literary Analysis
• Rhetorical Analysis: The Raven
• Character Analysis: Nick Carraway in The Great Gatsby

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers

• Tools and Resources
• Customer Services
• Affective Science
• Biological Foundations of Psychology
• Clinical Psychology: Disorders and Therapies
• Cognitive Psychology/Neuroscience
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational/School Psychology
• Forensic Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems of Psychology
• Individual Differences
• Methods and Approaches in Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational and Institutional Psychology
• Personality
• Psychology and Other Disciplines
• Social Psychology
• Sports Psychology
• Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Article contents

Work, stress, coping, and stress management.

• Sharon Glazer Sharon Glazer University of Baltimore
•  and  Cong Liu Cong Liu Hofstra University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.30
• Published online: 26 April 2017

Work stress refers to the process of job stressors, or stimuli in the workplace, leading to strains, or negative responses or reactions. Organizational development refers to a process in which problems or opportunities in the work environment are identified, plans are made to remediate or capitalize on the stimuli, action is taken, and subsequently the results of the plans and actions are evaluated. When organizational development strategies are used to assess work stress in the workplace, the actions employed are various stress management interventions. Two key factors tying work stress and organizational development are the role of the person and the role of the environment. In order to cope with work-related stressors and manage strains, organizations must be able to identify and differentiate between factors in the environment that are potential sources of stressors and how individuals perceive those factors. Primary stress management interventions focus on preventing stressors from even presenting, such as by clearly articulating workers’ roles and providing necessary resources for employees to perform their job. Secondary stress management interventions focus on a person’s appraisal of job stressors as a threat or challenge, and the person’s ability to cope with the stressors (presuming sufficient internal resources, such as a sense of meaningfulness in life, or external resources, such as social support from a supervisor). When coping is not successful, strains may develop. Tertiary stress management interventions attempt to remediate strains, by addressing the consequence itself (e.g., diabetes management) and/or the source of the strain (e.g., reducing workload). The person and/or the organization may be the targets of the intervention. The ultimate goal of stress management interventions is to minimize problems in the work environment, intensify aspects of the work environment that create a sense of a quality work context, enable people to cope with stressors that might arise, and provide tools for employees and organizations to manage strains that might develop despite all best efforts to create a healthy workplace.

• stress management
• organization development
• organizational interventions
• stress theories and frameworks

Introduction

Work stress is a generic term that refers to work-related stimuli (aka job stressors) that may lead to physical, behavioral, or psychological consequences (i.e., strains) that affect both the health and well-being of the employee and the organization. Not all stressors lead to strains, but all strains are a result of stressors, actual or perceived. Common terms often used interchangeably with work stress are occupational stress, job stress, and work-related stress. Terms used interchangeably with job stressors include work stressors, and as the specificity of the type of stressor might include psychosocial stressor (referring to the psychological experience of work demands that have a social component, e.g., conflict between two people; Hauke, Flintrop, Brun, & Rugulies, 2011 ), hindrance stressor (i.e., a stressor that prevents goal attainment; Cavanaugh, Boswell, Roehling, & Boudreau, 2000 ), and challenge stressor (i.e., a stressor that is difficult, but attainable and possibly rewarding to attain; Cavanaugh et al., 2000 ).

Stress in the workplace continues to be a highly pervasive problem, having both direct negative effects on individuals experiencing it and companies paying for it, and indirect costs vis à vis lost productivity (Dopkeen & DuBois, 2014 ). For example, U.K. public civil servants’ work-related stress rose from 10.8% in 2006 to 22.4% in 2013 and about one-third of the workforce has taken more than 20 days of leave due to stress-related ill-health, while well over 50% are present at work when ill (French, 2015 ). These findings are consistent with a report by the International Labor Organization (ILO, 2012 ), whereby 50% to 60% of all workdays are lost due to absence attributed to factors associated with work stress.

The prevalence of work-related stress is not diminishing despite improvements in technology and employment rates. The sources of stress, such as workload, seem to exacerbate with improvements in technology (Coovert & Thompson, 2003 ). Moreover, accessibility through mobile technology and virtual computer terminals is linking people to their work more than ever before (ILO, 2012 ; Tarafdar, Tu, Ragu-Nathan, & Ragu-Nathan, 2007 ). Evidence of this kind of mobility and flexibility is further reinforced in a June 2007 survey of 4,025 email users (over 13 years of age); AOL reported that four in ten survey respondents reported planning their vacations around email accessibility and 83% checked their emails at least once a day while away (McMahon, 2007 ). Ironically, despite these mounting work-related stressors and clear financial and performance outcomes, some individuals are reporting they are less “stressed,” but only because “stress has become the new normal” (Jayson, 2012 , para. 4).

This new normal is likely the source of psychological and physiological illness. Siegrist ( 2010 ) contends that conditions in the workplace, particularly psychosocial stressors that are perceived as unfavorable relationships with others and self, and an increasingly sedentary lifestyle (reinforced with desk jobs) are increasingly contributing to cardiovascular disease. These factors together justify a need to continue on the path of helping individuals recognize and cope with deleterious stressors in the work environment and, equally important, to find ways to help organizations prevent harmful stressors over which they have control, as well as implement policies or mechanisms to help employees deal with these stressors and subsequent strains. Along with a greater focus on mitigating environmental constraints are interventions that can be used to prevent anxiety, poor attitudes toward the workplace conditions and arrangements, and subsequent cardiovascular illness, absenteeism, and poor job performance (Siegrist, 2010 ).

Even the ILO has presented guidance on how the workplace can help prevent harmful job stressors (aka hindrance stressors) or at least help workers cope with them. Consistent with the view that well-being is not the absence of stressors or strains and with the view that positive psychology offers a lens for proactively preventing stressors, the ILO promotes increasing preventative risk assessments, interventions to prevent and control stressors, transparent organizational communication, worker involvement in decision-making, networks and mechanisms for workplace social support, awareness of how working and living conditions interact, safety, health, and well-being in the organization (ILO, n.d. ). The field of industrial and organizational (IO) psychology supports the ILO’s recommendations.

IO psychology views work stress as the process of a person’s interaction with multiple aspects of the work environment, job design, and work conditions in the organization. Interventions to manage work stress, therefore, focus on the psychosocial factors of the person and his or her relationships with others and the socio-technical factors related to the work environment and work processes. Viewing work stress from the lens of the person and the environment stems from Kurt Lewin’s ( 1936 ) work that stipulates a person’s state of mental health and behaviors are a function of the person within a specific environment or situation. Aspects of the work environment that affect individuals’ mental states and behaviors include organizational hierarchy, organizational climate (including processes, policies, practices, and reward structures), resources to support a person’s ability to fulfill job duties, and management structure (including leadership). Job design refers to each contributor’s tasks and responsibilities for fulfilling goals associated with the work role. Finally, working conditions refers not only to the physical environment, but also the interpersonal relationships with other contributors.

Each of the conditions that are identified in the work environment may be perceived as potentially harmful or a threat to the person or as an opportunity. When a stressor is perceived as a threat to attaining desired goals or outcomes, the stressor may be labeled as a hindrance stressor (e.g., LePine, Podsakoff, & Lepine, 2005 ). When the stressor is perceived as an opportunity to attain a desired goal or end state, it may be labeled as a challenge stressor. According to LePine and colleagues’ ( 2005 ), both challenge (e.g., time urgency, workload) and hindrance (e.g., hassles, role ambiguity, role conflict) stressors could lead to strains (as measured by “anxiety, depersonalization, depression, emotional exhaustion, frustration, health complaints, hostility, illness, physical symptoms, and tension” [p. 767]). However, challenge stressors positively relate with motivation and performance, whereas hindrance stressors negatively relate with motivation and performance. Moreover, motivation and strains partially mediate the relationship between hindrance and challenge stressors with performance.

Figure 1. Organizational development frameworks to guide identification of work stress and interventions.

In order to (1) minimize any potential negative effects from stressors, (2) increase coping skills to deal with stressors, or (3) manage strains, organizational practitioners or consultants will devise organizational interventions geared toward prevention, coping, and/or stress management. Ultimately, toxic factors in the work environment can have deleterious effects on a person’s physical and psychological well-being, as well as on an organization’s total health. It behooves management to take stock of the organization’s health, which includes the health and well-being of its employees, if the organization wishes to thrive and be profitable. According to Page and Vella-Brodrick’s ( 2009 ) model of employee well-being, employee well-being results from subjective well-being (i.e., life satisfaction and general positive or negative affect), workplace well-being (composed of job satisfaction and work-specific positive or negative affect), and psychological well-being (e.g., self-acceptance, positive social relations, mastery, purpose in life). Job stressors that become unbearable are likely to negatively affect workplace well-being and thus overall employee well-being. Because work stress is a major organizational pain point and organizations often employ organizational consultants to help identify and remediate pain points, the focus here is on organizational development (OD) frameworks; several work stress frameworks are presented that together signal areas where organizations might focus efforts for change in employee behaviors, attitudes, and performance, as well as the organization’s performance and climate. Work stress, interventions, and several OD and stress frameworks are depicted in Figure 1 .

The goals are: (1) to conceptually define and clarify terms associated with stress and stress management, particularly focusing on organizational factors that contribute to stress and stress management, and (2) to present research that informs current knowledge and practices on workplace stress management strategies. Stressors and strains will be defined, leading OD and work stress frameworks that are used to organize and help organizations make sense of the work environment and the organization’s responsibility in stress management will be explored, and stress management will be explained as an overarching thematic label; an area of study and practice that focuses on prevention (primary) interventions, coping (secondary) interventions, and managing strains (tertiary) interventions; as well as the label typically used to denote tertiary interventions. Suggestions for future research and implications toward becoming a healthy organization are presented.

Defining Stressors and Strains

Work-related stressors or job stressors can lead to different kinds of strains individuals and organizations might experience. Various types of stress management interventions, guided by OD and work stress frameworks, may be employed to prevent or cope with job stressors and manage strains that develop(ed).

A job stressor is a stimulus external to an employee and a result of an employee’s work conditions. Example job stressors include organizational constraints, workplace mistreatments (such as abusive supervision, workplace ostracism, incivility, bullying), role stressors, workload, work-family conflicts, errors or mistakes, examinations and evaluations, and lack of structure (Jex & Beehr, 1991 ; Liu, Spector, & Shi, 2007 ; Narayanan, Menon, & Spector, 1999 ). Although stressors may be categorized as hindrances and challenges, there is not yet sufficient information to be able to propose which stress management interventions would better serve to reduce those hindrance stressors or to reduce strain-producing challenge stressors while reinforcing engagement-producing challenge stressors.

Organizational Constraints

Organizational constraints may be hindrance stressors as they prevent employees from translating their motivation and ability into high-level job performance (Peters & O’Connor, 1980 ). Peters and O’Connor ( 1988 ) defined 11 categories of organizational constraints: (1) job-related information, (2) budgetary support, (3) required support, (4) materials and supplies, (5) required services and help from others, (6) task preparation, (7) time availability, (8) the work environment, (9) scheduling of activities, (10) transportation, and (11) job-relevant authority. The inhibiting effect of organizational constraints may be due to the lack of, inadequacy of, or poor quality of these categories.

Workplace Mistreatment

Workplace mistreatment presents a cluster of interpersonal variables, such as interpersonal conflict, bullying, incivility, and workplace ostracism (Hershcovis, 2011 ; Tepper & Henle, 2011 ). Typical workplace mistreatment behaviors include gossiping, rude comments, showing favoritism, yelling, lying, and ignoring other people at work (Tepper & Henle, 2011 ). These variables relate to employees’ psychological well-being, physical well-being, work attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction and organizational commitment), and turnover intention (e.g., Hershcovis, 2011 ; Spector & Jex, 1998 ). Some researchers differentiated the source of mistreatment, such as mistreatment from one’s supervisor versus mistreatment from one’s coworker (e.g., Bruk-Lee & Spector, 2006 ; Frone, 2000 ; Liu, Liu, Spector, & Shi, 2011 ).

Role Stressors

Role stressors are demands, constraints, or opportunities a person perceives to be associated, and thus expected, with his or her work role(s) across various situations. Three commonly studied role stressors are role ambiguity, role conflict, and role overload (Glazer & Beehr, 2005 ; Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964 ). Role ambiguity in the workplace occurs when an employee lacks clarity regarding what performance-related behaviors are expected of him or her. Role conflict refers to situations wherein an employee receives incompatible role requests from the same or different supervisors or the employee is asked to engage in work that impedes his or her performance in other work or nonwork roles or clashes with his or her values. Role overload refers to excessive demands and insufficient time (quantitative) or knowledge (qualitative) to complete the work. The construct is often used interchangeably with workload, though role overload focuses more on perceived expectations from others about one’s workload. These role stressors significantly relate to low job satisfaction, low organizational commitment, low job performance, high tension or anxiety, and high turnover intention (Abramis, 1994 ; Glazer & Beehr, 2005 ; Jackson & Schuler, 1985 ).

Excessive workload is one of the most salient stressors at work (e.g., Liu et al., 2007 ). There are two types of workload: quantitative and qualitative workload (LaRocco, Tetrick, & Meder, 1989 ; Parasuraman & Purohit, 2000 ). Quantitative workload refers to the excessive amount of work one has. In a summary of a Chartered Institute of Personnel & Development Report from 2006 , Dewe and Kompier ( 2008 ) noted that quantitative workload was one of the top three stressors workers experienced at work. Qualitative workload refers to the difficulty of work. Workload also differs by the type of the load. There are mental workload and physical workload (Dwyer & Ganster, 1991 ). Excessive physical workload may result in physical discomfort or illness. Excessive mental workload will cause psychological distress such as anxiety or frustration (Bowling & Kirkendall, 2012 ). Another factor affecting quantitative workload is interruptions (during the workday). Lin, Kain, and Fritz ( 2013 ) found that interruptions delay completion of job tasks, thus adding to the perception of workload.

Work-Family Conflict

Work-family conflict is a form of inter-role conflict in which demands from one’s work domain and one’s family domain are incompatible to some extent (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985 ). Work can interfere with family (WIF) and/or family can interfere with work (FIW) due to time-related commitments to participating in one domain or another, incompatible behavioral expectations, or when strains in one domain carry over to the other (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985 ). Work-family conflict significantly relates to work-related outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention, burnout, absenteeism, job performance, job strains, career satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors), family-related outcomes (e.g., marital satisfaction, family satisfaction, family-related performance, family-related strains), and domain-unspecific outcomes (e.g., life satisfaction, psychological strain, somatic or physical symptoms, depression, substance use or abuse, and anxiety; Amstad, Meier, Fasel, Elfering, & Semmer, 2011 ).

Individuals and organizations can experience work-related strains. Sometimes organizations will experience strains through the employee’s negative attitudes or strains, such as that a worker’s absence might yield lower production rates, which would roll up into an organizational metric of organizational performance. In the industrial and organizational (IO) psychology literature, organizational strains are mostly observed as macro-level indicators, such as health insurance costs, accident-free days, and pervasive problems with company morale. In contrast, individual strains, usually referred to as job strains, are internal to an employee. They are responses to work conditions and relate to health and well-being of employees. In other words, “job strains are adverse reactions employees have to job stressors” (Spector, Chen, & O’Connell, 2000 , p. 211). Job strains tend to fall into three categories: behavioral, physical, and psychological (Jex & Beehr, 1991 ).

Behavioral strains consist of actions that employees take in response to job stressors. Examples of behavioral strains include employees drinking alcohol in the workplace or intentionally calling in sick when they are not ill (Spector et al., 2000 ). Physical strains consist of health symptoms that are physiological in nature that employees contract in response to job stressors. Headaches and ulcers are examples of physical strains. Lastly, psychological strains are emotional reactions and attitudes that employees have in response to job stressors. Examples of psychological strains are job dissatisfaction, anxiety, and frustration (Spector et al., 2000 ). Interestingly, research studies that utilize self-report measures find that most job strains experienced by employees tend to be psychological strains (Spector et al., 2000 ).

Leading Frameworks

Organizations that are keen on identifying organizational pain points and remedying them through organizational campaigns or initiatives often discover the pain points are rooted in work-related stressors and strains and the initiatives have to focus on reducing workers’ stress and increasing a company’s profitability. Through organizational climate surveys, for example, companies discover that aspects of the organization’s environment, including its policies, practices, reward structures, procedures, and processes, as well as employees at all levels of the company, are contributing to the individual and organizational stress. Recent studies have even begun to examine team climates for eustress and distress assessed in terms of team members’ homogenous psychological experience of vigor, efficacy, dedication, and cynicism (e.g., Kożusznik, Rodriguez, & Peiro, 2015 ).

Each of the frameworks presented advances different aspects that need to be identified in order to understand the source and potential remedy for stressors and strains. In some models, the focus is on resources, in others on the interaction of the person and environment, and in still others on the role of the person in the workplace. Few frameworks directly examine the role of the organization, but the organization could use these frameworks to plan interventions that would minimize stressors, cope with existing stressors, and prevent and/or manage strains. One of the leading frameworks in work stress research that is used to guide organizational interventions is the person and environment (P-E) fit (French & Caplan, 1972 ). Its precursor is the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research’s (ISR) role stress model (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964 ) and Lewin’s Field Theory. Several other theories have since evolved from the P-E fit framework, including Karasek and Theorell’s ( 1990 ), Karasek ( 1979 ) Job Demands-Control Model (JD-C), the transactional framework (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 ), Conservation of Resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1989 ), and Siegrist’s ( 1996 ) Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) Model.

Field Theory

The premise of Kahn et al.’s ( 1964 ) role stress theory is Lewin’s ( 1997 ) Field Theory. Lewin purported that behavior and mental events are a dynamic function of the whole person, including a person’s beliefs, values, abilities, needs, thoughts, and feelings, within a given situation (field or environment), as well as the way a person represents his or her understanding of the field and behaves in that space. Lewin explains that work-related strains are a result of individuals’ subjective perceptions of objective factors, such as work roles, relationships with others in the workplace, as well as personality indicators, and can be used to predict people’s reactions, including illness. Thus, to make changes to an organizational system, it is necessary to understand a field and try to move that field from the current state to the desired state. Making this move necessitates identifying mechanisms influencing individuals.

Role Stress Theory

Role stress theory mostly isolates the perspective a person has about his or her work-related responsibilities and expectations to determine how those perceptions relate with a person’s work-related strains. However, those relationships have been met with somewhat varied results, which Glazer and Beehr ( 2005 ) concluded might be a function of differences in culture, an environmental factor often neglected in research. Kahn et al.’s ( 1964 ) role stress theory, coupled with Lewin’s ( 1936 ) Field Theory, serves as the foundation for the P-E fit theory. Lewin ( 1936 ) wrote, “Every psychological event depends upon the state of the person and at the same time on the environment” (p. 12). Researchers of IO psychology have narrowed the environment to the organization or work team. This narrowed view of the organizational environment is evident in French and Caplan’s ( 1972 ) P-E fit framework.

Person-Environment Fit Theory

The P-E fit framework focuses on the extent to which there is congruence between the person and a given environment, such as the organization (Caplan, 1987 ; Edwards, 2008 ). For example, does the person have the necessary skills and abilities to fulfill an organization’s demands, or does the environment support a person’s desire for autonomy (i.e., do the values align?) or fulfill a person’s needs (i.e., a person’s needs are rewarded). Theoretically and empirically, the greater the person-organization fit, the greater a person’s job satisfaction and organizational commitment, the less a person’s turnover intention and work-related stress (see meta-analyses by Assouline & Meir, 1987 ; Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005 ; Verquer, Beehr, & Wagner, 2003 ).

Job Demands-Control/Support (JD-C/S) and Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model

Focusing more closely on concrete aspects of work demands and the extent to which a person perceives he or she has control or decision latitude over those demands, Karasek ( 1979 ) developed the JD-C model. Karasek and Theorell ( 1990 ) posited that high job demands under conditions of little decision latitude or control yield high strains, which have varied implications on the health of an organization (e.g., in terms of high turnover, employee ill-health, poor organizational performance). This theory was modified slightly to address not only control, but also other resources that could protect a person from unruly job demands, including support (aka JD-C/S, Johnson & Hall, 1988 ; and JD-R, Bakker, van Veldhoven, & Xanthopoulou, 2010 ). Whether focusing on control or resources, both they and job demands are said to reflect workplace characteristics, while control and resources also represent coping strategies or tools (Siegrist, 2010 ).

Despite the glut of research testing the JD-C and JD-R, results are somewhat mixed. Testing the interaction between job demands and control, Beehr, Glaser, Canali, and Wallwey ( 2001 ) did not find empirical support for the JD-C theory. However, Dawson, O’Brien, and Beehr ( 2016 ) found that high control and high support buffered against the independent deleterious effects of interpersonal conflict, role conflict, and organizational politics (demands that were categorized as hindrance stressors) on anxiety, as well as the effects of interpersonal conflict and organizational politics on physiological symptoms, but control and support did not moderate the effects between challenge stressors and strains. Coupled with Bakker, Demerouti, and Sanz-Vergel’s ( 2014 ) note that excessive job demands are a source of strain, but increased job resources are a source of engagement, Dawson et al.’s results suggest that when an organization identifies that demands are hindrances, it can create strategies for primary (preventative) stress management interventions and attempt to remove or reduce such work demands. If the demands are challenging, though manageable, but latitude to control the challenging stressors and support are insufficient, the organization could modify practices and train employees on adopting better strategies for meeting or coping (secondary stress management intervention) with the demands. Finally, if the organization can neither afford to modify the demands or the level of control and support, it will be necessary for the organization to develop stress management (tertiary) interventions to deal with the inevitable strains.

Conservation of Resources Theory

The idea that job resources reinforce engagement in work has been propagated in Hobfoll’s ( 1989 ) Conservation of Resources (COR) theory. COR theory also draws on the foundational premise that people’s mental health is a function of the person and the environment, forwarding that how people interpret their environment (including the societal context) affects their stress levels. Hobfoll focuses on resources such as objects, personal characteristics, conditions, or energies as particularly instrumental to minimizing strains. He asserts that people do whatever they can to protect their valued resources. Thus, strains develop when resources are threatened to be taken away, actually taken away, or when additional resources are not attainable after investing in the possibility of gaining more resources (Hobfoll, 2001 ). By extension, organizations can invest in activities that would minimize resource loss and create opportunities for resource gains and thus have direct implications for devising primary and secondary stress management interventions.

Transactional Framework

Lazarus and Folkman ( 1984 ) developed the widely studied transactional framework of stress. This framework holds as a key component the cognitive appraisal process. When individuals perceive factors in the work environment as a threat (i.e., primary appraisal), they will scan the available resources (external or internal to himself or herself) to cope with the stressors (i.e., secondary appraisal). If the coping resources provide minimal relief, strains develop. Until recently, little attention has been given to the cognitive appraisal associated with different work stressors (Dewe & Kompier, 2008 ; Liu & Li, 2017 ). In a study of Polish and Spanish social care service providers, stressors appraised as a threat related positively to burnout and less engagement, but stressors perceived as challenges yielded greater engagement and less burnout (Kożusznik, Rodriguez, & Peiro, 2012 ). Similarly, Dawson et al. ( 2016 ) found that even with support and control resources, hindrance demands were more strain-producing than challenge demands, suggesting that appraisal of the stressor is important. In fact, “many people respond well to challenging work” (Beehr et al., 2001 , p. 126). Kożusznik et al. ( 2012 ) recommend training employees to change the way they view work demands in order to increase engagement, considering that part of the problem may be about how the person appraises his or her environment and, thus, copes with the stressors.

Effort-Reward Imbalance

Siegrist’s ( 1996 ) Model of Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) focuses on the notion of social reciprocity, such that a person fulfills required work tasks in exchange for desired rewards (Siegrist, 2010 ). ERI sheds light on how an imbalance in a person’s expectations of an organization’s rewards (e.g., pay, bonus, sense of advancement and development, job security) in exchange for a person’s efforts, that is a break in one’s work contract, leads to negative responses, including long-term ill-health (Siegrist, 2010 ; Siegrist et al., 2014 ). In fact, prolonged perception of a work contract imbalance leads to adverse health, including immunological problems and inflammation, which contribute to cardiovascular disease (Siegrist, 2010 ). The model resembles the relational and interactional psychological contract theory in that it describes an employee’s perception of the terms of the relationship between the person and the workplace, including expectations of performance, job security, training and development opportunities, career progression, salary, and bonuses (Thomas, Au, & Ravlin, 2003 ). The psychological contract, like the ERI model, focuses on social exchange. Furthermore, the psychological contract, like stress theories, are influenced by cultural factors that shape how people interpret their environments (Glazer, 2008 ; Thomas et al., 2003 ). Violations of the psychological contract will negatively affect a person’s attitudes toward the workplace and subsequent health and well-being (Siegrist, 2010 ). To remediate strain, Siegrist ( 2010 ) focuses on both the person and the environment, recognizing that the organization is particularly responsible for changing unfavorable work conditions and the person is responsible for modifying his or her reactions to such conditions.

Stress Management Interventions: Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary

Remediation of work stress and organizational development interventions are about realigning the employee’s experiences in the workplace with factors in the environment, as well as closing the gap between the current environment and the desired environment. Work stress develops when an employee perceives the work demands to exceed the person’s resources to cope and thus threatens employee well-being (Dewe & Kompier, 2008 ). Likewise, an organization’s need to change arises when forces in the environment are creating a need to change in order to survive (see Figure 1 ). Lewin’s ( 1951 ) Force Field Analysis, the foundations of which are in Field Theory, is one of the first organizational development intervention tools presented in the social science literature. The concept behind Force Field Analysis is that in order to survive, organizations must adapt to environmental forces driving a need for organizational change and remove restraining forces that create obstacles to organizational change. In order to do this, management needs to delineate the current field in which the organization is functioning, understand the driving forces for change, identify and dampen or eliminate the restraining forces against change. Several models for analyses may be applied, but most approaches are variations of organizational climate surveys.

Through organizational surveys, workers provide management with a snapshot view of how they perceive aspects of their work environment. Thus, the view of the health of an organization is a function of several factors, chief among them employees’ views (i.e., the climate) about the workplace (Lewin, 1951 ). Indeed, French and Kahn ( 1962 ) posited that well-being depends on the extent to which properties of the person and properties of the environment align in terms of what a person requires and the resources available in a given environment. Therefore, only when properties of the person and properties of the environment are sufficiently understood can plans for change be developed and implemented targeting the environment (e.g., change reporting structures to relieve, and thus prevent future, communication stressors) and/or the person (e.g., providing more autonomy, vacation days, training on new technology). In short, climate survey findings can guide consultants about the emphasis for organizational interventions: before a problem arises aka stress prevention, e.g., carefully crafting job roles), when a problem is present, but steps are taken to mitigate their consequences (aka coping, e.g., providing social support groups), and/or once strains develop (aka. stress management, e.g., healthcare management policies).

For each of the primary (prevention), secondary (coping), and tertiary (stress management) techniques the target for intervention can be the entire workforce, a subset of the workforce, or a specific person. Interventions that target the entire workforce may be considered organizational interventions, as they have direct implications on the health of all individuals and consequently the health of the organization. Several interventions categorized as primary and secondary interventions may also be implemented after strains have developed and after it has been discerned that a person or the organization did not do enough to mitigate stressors or strains (see Figure 1 ). The designation of many of the interventions as belonging to one category or another may be viewed as merely a suggestion.

Primary Interventions (Preventative Stress Management)

Before individuals begin to perceive work-related stressors, organizations engage in stress prevention strategies, such as providing people with resources (e.g., computers, printers, desk space, information about the job role, organizational reporting structures) to do their jobs. However, sometimes the institutional structures and resources are insufficient or ambiguous. Scholars and practitioners have identified several preventative stress management strategies that may be implemented.

Planning and Time Management

When employees feel quantitatively overloaded, sometimes the remedy is improving the employees’ abilities to plan and manage their time (Quick, Quick, Nelson, & Hurrell, 2003 ). Planning is a future-oriented activity that focuses on conceptual and comprehensive work goals. Time management is a behavior that focuses on organizing, prioritizing, and scheduling work activities to achieve short-term goals. Given the purpose of time management, it is considered a primary intervention, as engaging in time management helps to prevent work tasks from mounting and becoming unmanageable, which would subsequently lead to adverse outcomes. Time management comprises three fundamental components: (1) establishing goals, (2) identifying and prioritizing tasks to fulfill the goals, and (3) scheduling and monitoring progress toward goal achievement (Peeters & Rutte, 2005 ). Workers who employ time management have less role ambiguity (Macan, Shahani, Dipboye, & Philips, 1990 ), psychological stress or strain (Adams & Jex, 1999 ; Jex & Elaqua, 1999 ; Macan et al., 1990 ), and greater job satisfaction (Macan, 1994 ). However, Macan ( 1994 ) did not find a relationship between time management and performance. Still, Claessens, van Eerde, Rutte, and Roe ( 2004 ) found that perceived control of time partially mediated the relationships between planning behavior (an indicator of time management), job autonomy, and workload on one hand, and job strains, job satisfaction, and job performance on the other hand. Moreover, Peeters and Rutte ( 2005 ) observed that teachers with high work demands and low autonomy experienced more burnout when they had poor time management skills.

Person-Organization Fit

Just as it is important for organizations to find the right person for the job and organization, so is it the responsibility of a person to choose to work at the right organization—an organization that fulfills the person’s needs and upholds the values important to the individual, as much as the person fulfills the organization’s needs and adapts to its values. When people fit their employing organizations they are setting themselves up for experiencing less strain-producing stressors (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005 ). In a meta-analysis of 62 person-job fit studies and 110 person-organization fit studies, Kristof-Brown et al. ( 2005 ) found that person-job fit had a negative correlation with indicators of job strain. In fact, a primary intervention of career counseling can help to reduce stress levels (Firth-Cozens, 2003 ).

Job Redesign

The Job Demands-Control/Support (JD-C/S), Job Demands-Resources (JD-R), and transactional models all suggest that factors in the work context require modifications in order to reduce potential ill-health and poor organizational performance. Drawing on Hackman and Oldham’s ( 1980 ) Job Characteristics Model, it is possible to assess with the Job Diagnostics Survey (JDS) the current state of work characteristics related to skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Modifying those aspects would help create a sense of meaningfulness, sense of responsibility, and feeling of knowing how one is performing, which subsequently affects a person’s well-being as identified in assessments of motivation, satisfaction, improved performance, and reduced withdrawal intentions and behaviors. Extending this argument to the stress models, it can be deduced that reducing uncertainty or perceived unfairness that may be associated with a person’s perception of these work characteristics, as well as making changes to physical characteristics of the environment (e.g., lighting, seating, desk, air quality), nature of work (e.g., job responsibilities, roles, decision-making latitude), and organizational arrangements (e.g., reporting structure and feedback mechanisms), can help mitigate against numerous ill-health consequences and reduced organizational performance. In fact, Fried et al. ( 2013 ) showed that healthy patients of a medical clinic whose jobs were excessively low (i.e., monotonous) or excessively high (i.e., overstimulating) on job enrichment (as measured by the JDS) had greater abdominal obesity than those whose jobs were optimally enriched. By taking stock of employees’ perceptions of the current work situation, managers might think about ways to enhance employees’ coping toolkit, such as training on how to deal with difficult clients or creating stimulating opportunities when jobs have low levels of enrichment.

Participatory Action Research Interventions

Participatory action research (PAR) is an intervention wherein, through group discussions, employees help to identify and define problems in organizational structure, processes, policies, practices, and reward structures, as well as help to design, implement, and evaluate success of solutions. PAR is in itself an intervention, but its goal is to design interventions to eliminate or reduce work-related factors that are impeding performance and causing people to be unwell. An example of a successful primary intervention, utilizing principles of PAR and driven by the JD-C and JD-C/S stress frameworks is Health Circles (HCs; Aust & Ducki, 2004 ).

HCs, developed in Germany in the 1980s, were popular practices in industries, such as metal, steel, and chemical, and service. Similar to other problem-solving practices, such as quality circles, HCs were based on the assumptions that employees are the experts of their jobs. For this reason, to promote employee well-being, management and administrators solicited suggestions and ideas from the employees to improve occupational health, thereby increasing employees’ job control. HCs also promoted communication between managers and employees, which had a potential to increase social support. With more control and support, employees would experience less strains and better occupational well-being.

Employing the three-steps of (1) problem analysis (i.e., diagnosis or discovery through data generated from organizational records of absenteeism length, frequency, rate, and reason and employee survey), (2) HC meetings (6 to 10 meetings held over several months to brainstorm ideas to improve occupational safety and health concerns identified in the discovery phase), and (3) HC evaluation (to determine if desired changes were accomplished and if employees’ reports of stressors and strains changed after the course of 15 months), improvements were to be expected (Aust & Ducki, 2004 ). Aust and Ducki ( 2004 ) reviewed 11 studies presenting 81 health circles in 30 different organizations. Overall study participants had high satisfaction with the HCs practices. Most companies acted upon employees’ suggestions (e.g., improving driver’s seat and cab, reducing ticket sale during drive, team restructuring and job rotation to facilitate communication, hiring more employees during summer time, and supervisor training program to improve leadership and communication skills) to improve work conditions. Thus, HCs represent a successful theory-grounded intervention to routinely improve employees’ occupational health.

Physical Setting

The physical environment or physical workspace has an enormous impact on individuals’ well-being, attitudes, and interactions with others, as well as on the implications on innovation and well-being (Oksanen & Ståhle, 2013 ; Vischer, 2007 ). In a study of 74 new product development teams (total of 437 study respondents) in Western Europe, Chong, van Eerde, Rutte, and Chai ( 2012 ) found that when teams were faced with challenge time pressures, meaning the teams had a strong interest and desire in tackling complex, but engaging tasks, when they were working proximally close with one another, team communication improved. Chong et al. assert that their finding aligns with prior studies that have shown that physical proximity promotes increased awareness of other team members, greater tendency to initiate conversations, and greater team identification. However, they also found that when faced with hindrance time pressures, physical proximity related to low levels of team communication, but when hindrance time pressure was low, team proximity had an increasingly greater positive relationship with team communication.

In addition to considering the type of work demand teams must address, other physical workspace considerations include whether people need to work collaboratively and synchronously or independently and remotely (or a combination thereof). Consideration needs to be given to how company contributors would satisfy client needs through various modes of communication, such as email vs. telephone, and whether individuals who work by a window might need shading to block bright sunlight from glaring on their computer screens. Finally, people who have to use the telephone for extensive periods of time would benefit from earphones to prevent neck strains. Most physical stressors are rather simple to rectify. However, companies are often not aware of a problem until after a problem arises, such as when a person’s back is strained from trying to move heavy equipment. Companies then implement strategies to remediate the environmental stressor. With the help of human factors, and organizational and office design consultants, many of the physical barriers to optimal performance can be prevented (Rousseau & Aubé, 2010 ). In a study of 215 French-speaking Canadian healthcare employees, Rousseau and Aubé ( 2010 ) found that although supervisor instrumental support positively related with affective commitment to the organization, the relationship was even stronger for those who reported satisfaction with the ambient environment (i.e., temperature, lighting, sound, ventilation, and cleanliness).

Secondary Interventions (Coping)

Secondary interventions, also referred to as coping, focus on resources people can use to mitigate the risk of work-related illness or workplace injury. Resources may include properties related to social resources, behaviors, and cognitive structures. Each of these resource domains may be employed to cope with stressors. Monat and Lazarus ( 1991 ) summarize the definition of coping as “an individual’s efforts to master demands (or conditions of harm, threat, or challenge) that are appraised (or perceived) as exceeding or taxing his or her resources” (p. 5). To master demands requires use of the aforementioned resources. Secondary interventions help employees become aware of the psychological, physical, and behavioral responses that may occur from the stressors presented in their working environment. Secondary interventions help a person detect and attend to stressors and identify resources for and ways of mitigating job strains. Often, coping strategies are learned skills that have a cognitive foundation and serve important functions in improving people’s management of stressors (Lazarus & Folkman, 1991 ). Coping is effortful, but with practice it becomes easier to employ. This idea is the foundation for understanding the role of resilience in coping with stressors. However, “not all adaptive processes are coping. Coping is a subset of adaptational activities that involves effort and does not include everything that we do in relating to the environment” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1991 , p. 198). Furthermore, sometimes to cope with a stressor, a person may call upon social support sources to help with tangible materials or emotional comfort. People call upon support resources because they help to restructure how a person approaches or thinks about the stressor.

Most secondary interventions are aimed at helping the individual, though companies, as a policy, might require all employees to partake in training aimed at increasing employees’ awareness of and skills aimed at handling difficult situations vis à vis company channels (e.g., reporting on sexual harassment or discrimination). Furthermore, organizations might institute mentoring programs or work groups to address various work-related matters. These programs employ awareness-raising activities, stress-education, or skills training (cf., Bhagat, Segovis, & Nelson, 2012 ), which include development of skills in problem-solving, understanding emotion-focused coping, identifying and using social support, and enhancing capacity for resilience. The aim of these programs, therefore, is to help employees proactively review their perceptions of psychological, physical, and behavioral job-related strains, thereby extending their resilience, enabling them to form a personal plan to control stressors and practice coping skills (Cooper, Dewe, & O’Driscoll, 2011 ).

Often these stress management programs are instituted after an organization has observed excessive absenteeism and work-related performance problems and, therefore, are sometimes categorized as a tertiary stress management intervention or even a primary (prevention) intervention. However, the skills developed for coping with stressors also place the programs in secondary stress management interventions. Example programs that are categorized as tertiary or primary stress management interventions may also be secondary stress management interventions (see Figure 1 ), and these include lifestyle advice and planning, stress inoculation training, simple relaxation techniques, meditation, basic trainings in time management, anger management, problem-solving skills, and cognitive-behavioral therapy. Corporate wellness programs also fall under this category. In other words, some programs could be categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary interventions depending upon when the employee (or organization) identifies the need to implement the program. For example, time management practices could be implemented as a means of preventing some stressors, as a way to cope with mounting stressors, or as a strategy to mitigate symptoms of excessive of stressors. Furthermore, these programs can be administered at the individual level or group level. As related to secondary interventions, these programs provide participants with opportunities to develop and practice skills to cognitively reappraise the stressor(s); to modify their perspectives about stressors; to take time out to breathe, stretch, meditate, relax, and/or exercise in an attempt to support better decision-making; to articulate concerns and call upon support resources; and to know how to say “no” to onslaughts of requests to complete tasks. Participants also learn how to proactively identify coping resources and solve problems.

According to Cooper, Dewe, and O’Driscoll ( 2001 ), secondary interventions are successful in helping employees modify or strengthen their ability to cope with the experience of stressors with the goal of mitigating the potential harm the job stressors may create. Secondary interventions focus on individuals’ transactions with the work environment and emphasize the fit between a person and his or her environment. However, researchers have pointed out that the underlying assumption of secondary interventions is that the responsibility for coping with the stressors of the environment lies within individuals (Quillian-Wolever & Wolever, 2003 ). If companies cannot prevent the stressors in the first place, then they are, in part, responsible for helping individuals develop coping strategies and informing employees about programs that would help them better cope with job stressors so that they are able to fulfill work assignments.

Stress management interventions that help people learn to cope with stressors focus mainly on the goals of enabling problem-resolution or expressing one’s emotions in a healthy manner. These goals are referred to as problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980 ; Pearlin & Schooler, 1978 ), and the person experiencing the stressors as potential threat is the agent for change and the recipient of the benefits of successful coping (Hobfoll, 1998 ). In addition to problem-focused and emotion-focused coping approaches, social support and resilience may be coping resources. There are many other sources for coping than there is room to present here (see e.g., Cartwright & Cooper, 2005 ); however, the current literature has primarily focused on these resources.

Problem-Focused Coping

Problem-focused or direct coping helps employees remove or reduce stressors in order to reduce their strain experiences (Bhagat et al., 2012 ). In problem-focused coping employees are responsible for working out a strategic plan in order to remove job stressors, such as setting up a set of goals and engaging in behaviors to meet these goals. Problem-focused coping is viewed as an adaptive response, though it can also be maladaptive if it creates more problems down the road, such as procrastinating getting work done or feigning illness to take time off from work. Adaptive problem-focused coping negatively relates to long-term job strains (Higgins & Endler, 1995 ). Discussion on problem-solving coping is framed from an adaptive perspective.

Problem-focused coping is featured as an extension of control, because engaging in problem-focused coping strategies requires a series of acts to keep job stressors under control (Bhagat et al., 2012 ). In the stress literature, there are generally two ways to categorize control: internal versus external locus of control, and primary versus secondary control. Locus of control refers to the extent to which people believe they have control over their own life (Rotter, 1966 ). People high in internal locus of control believe that they can control their own fate whereas people high in external locus of control believe that outside factors determine their life experience (Rotter, 1966 ). Generally, those with an external locus of control are less inclined to engage in problem-focused coping (Strentz & Auerbach, 1988 ). Primary control is the belief that people can directly influence their environment (Alloy & Abramson, 1979 ), and thus they are more likely to engage in problem-focused coping. However, when it is not feasible to exercise primary control, people search for secondary control, with which people try to adapt themselves into the objective environment (Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982 ).

Emotion-Focused Coping

Emotion-focused coping, sometimes referred to as palliative coping, helps employees reduce strains without the removal of job stressors. It involves cognitive or emotional efforts, such as talking about the stressor or distracting oneself from the stressor, in order to lessen emotional distress resulting from job stressors (Bhagat et al., 2012 ). Emotion-focused coping aims to reappraise and modify the perceptions of a situation or seek emotional support from friends or family. These methods do not include efforts to change the work situation or to remove the job stressors (Lazarus & Folkman, 1991 ). People tend to adopt emotion-focused coping strategies when they believe that little or nothing can be done to remove the threatening, harmful, and challenging stressors (Bhagat et al., 2012 ), such as when they are the only individuals to have the skills to get a project done or they are given increased responsibilities because of the unexpected departure of a colleague. Emotion-focused coping strategies include (1) reappraisal of the stressful situation, (2) talking to friends and receiving reassurance from them, (3) focusing on one’s strength rather than weakness, (4) optimistic comparison—comparing one’s situation to others’ or one’s past situation, (5) selective ignoring—paying less attention to the unpleasant aspects of one’s job and being more focused on the positive aspects of the job, (6) restrictive expectations—restricting one’s expectations on job satisfaction but paying more attention to monetary rewards, (7) avoidance coping—not thinking about the problem, leaving the situation, distracting oneself, or using alcohol or drugs (e.g., Billings & Moos, 1981 ).

Some emotion-focused coping strategies are maladaptive. For example, avoidance coping may lead to increased level of job strains in the long run (e.g., Parasuraman & Cleek, 1984 ). Furthermore, a person’s ability to cope with the imbalance of performing work to meet organizational expectations can take a toll on the person’s health, leading to physiological consequences such as cardiovascular disease, sleep disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, and diabetes (Fried et al., 2013 ; Siegrist, 2010 ; Toker, Shirom, Melamed, & Armon, 2012 ; Willert, Thulstrup, Hertz, & Bonde, 2010 ).

Comparing Coping Strategies across Cultures

Most coping research is conducted in individualistic, Western cultures wherein emotional control is emphasized and both problem-solving focused coping and primary control are preferred (Bhagat et al., 2010 ). However, in collectivistic cultures, emotion-focused coping and use of secondary control may be preferred and may not necessarily carry a negative evaluation (Bhagat et al., 2010 ). For example, African Americans are more likely to use emotion-focused coping than non–African Americans (Knight, Silverstein, McCallum, & Fox, 2000 ), and among women who experienced sexual harassment, Anglo American women were less likely to employ emotion focused coping (i.e., avoidance coping) than Turkish women and Hispanic American women, while Hispanic women used more denial than the other two groups (Wasti & Cortina, 2002 ).

Thus, whereas problem-focused coping is venerated in Western societies, emotion-focused coping may be more effective in reducing strains in collectivistic cultures, such as China, Japan, and India (Bhagat et al., 2010 ; Narayanan, Menon, & Spector, 1999 ; Selmer, 2002 ). Indeed, Swedish participants reported more problem-focused coping than did Chinese participants (Xiao, Ottosson, & Carlsson, 2013 ), American college students engaged in more problem-focused coping behaviors than did their Japanese counterparts (Ogawa, 2009 ), and Indian (vs. Canadian) students reported more emotion-focused coping, such as seeking social support and positive reappraisal (Sinha, Willson, & Watson, 2000 ). Moreover, Glazer, Stetz, and Izso ( 2004 ) found that internal locus of control was more predominant in individualistic cultures (United Kingdom and United States), whereas external locus of control was more predominant in communal cultures (Italy and Hungary). Also, internal locus of control was associated with less job stress, but more so for nurses in the United Kingdom and United States than Italy and Hungary. Taken together, adoption of coping strategies and their effectiveness differ significantly across cultures. The extent to which a coping strategy is perceived favorably and thus selected or not selected is not only a function of culture, but also a person’s sociocultural beliefs toward the coping strategy (Morimoto, Shimada, & Ozaki, 2013 ).

Social Support

Social support refers to the aid an entity gives to a person. The source of the support can be a single person, such as a supervisor, coworker, subordinate, family member, friend, or stranger, or an organization as represented by upper-level management representing organizational practices. The type of support can be instrumental or emotional. Instrumental support, including informational support, refers to that which is tangible, such as data to help someone make a decision or colleagues’ sick days so one does not lose vital pay while recovering from illness. Emotional support, including esteem support, refers to the psychological boost given to a person who needs to express emotions and feel empathy from others or to have his or her perspective validated. Beehr and Glazer ( 2001 ) present an overview of the role of social support on the stressor-strain relationship and arguments regarding the role of culture in shaping the utility of different sources and types of support.

Meaningfulness and Resilience

Meaningfulness reflects the extent to which people believe their lives are significant, purposeful, goal-directed, and fulfilling (Glazer, Kożusznik, Meyers, & Ganai, 2014 ). When faced with stressors, people who have a strong sense of meaning in life will also try to make sense of the stressors. Maintaining a positive outlook on life stressors helps to manage emotions, which is helpful in reducing strains, particularly when some stressors cannot be problem-solved (Lazarus & Folkman, 1991 ). Lazarus and Folkman ( 1991 ) emphasize that being able to reframe threatening situations can be just as important in an adaptation as efforts to control the stressors. Having a sense of meaningfulness motivates people to behave in ways that help them overcome stressors. Thus, meaningfulness is often used in the same breath as resilience, because people who are resilient are often protecting that which is meaningful.

Resilience is a personality state that can be fortified and enhanced through varied experiences. People who perceive their lives are meaningful are more likely to find ways to face adversity and are therefore more prone to intensifying their resiliency. When people demonstrate resilience to cope with noxious stressors, their ability to be resilient against other stressors strengthens because through the experience, they develop more competencies (Glazer et al., 2014 ). Thus, fitting with Hobfoll’s ( 1989 , 2001 ) COR theory, meaningfulness and resilience are psychological resources people attempt to conserve and protect, and employ when necessary for making sense of or coping with stressors.

Tertiary Interventions (Stress Management)

Stress management refers to interventions employed to treat and repair harmful repercussions of stressors that were not coped with sufficiently. As Lazarus and Folkman ( 1991 ) noted, not all stressors “are amenable to mastery” (p. 205). Stressors that are unmanageable and lead to strains require interventions to reverse or slow down those effects. Workplace interventions might focus on the person, the organization, or both. Unfortunately, instead of looking at the whole system to include the person and the workplace, most companies focus on the person. Such a focus should not be a surprise given the results of van der Klink, Blonk, Schene, and van Dijk’s ( 2001 ) meta-analysis of 48 experimental studies conducted between 1977 and 1996 . They found that of four types of tertiary interventions, the effect size for cognitive-behavioral interventions and multimodal programs (e.g., the combination of assertive training and time management) was moderate and the effect size for relaxation techniques was small in reducing psychological complaints, but not turnover intention related to work stress. However, the effects of (the five studies that used) organization-focused interventions were not significant. Similarly, Richardson and Rothstein’s ( 2008 ) meta-analytic study, including 36 experimental studies with 55 interventions, showed a larger effect size for cognitive-behavioral interventions than relaxation, organizational, multimodal, or alternative. However, like with van der Klink et al. ( 2001 ), Richardson and Rothstein ( 2008 ) cautioned that there were few organizational intervention studies included and the impact of interventions were determined on the basis of psychological outcomes and not physiological or organizational outcomes. Van der Klink et al. ( 2001 ) further expressed concern that organizational interventions target the workplace and that changes in the individual may take longer to observe than individual interventions aimed directly at the individual.

The long-term benefits of individual focused interventions are not yet clear either. Per Giga, Cooper, and Faragher ( 2003 ), the benefits of person-directed stress management programs will be short-lived if organizational factors to reduce stressors are not addressed too. Indeed, LaMontagne, Keegel, Louie, Ostry, and Landsbergis ( 2007 ), in their meta-analysis of 90 studies on stress management interventions published between 1990 and 2005 , revealed that in relation to interventions targeting organizations only, and interventions targeting individuals only, interventions targeting both organizations and individuals (i.e. the systems approach) had the most favorable positive effects on both the organizations and the individuals. Furthermore, the organization-level interventions were effective at both the individual and organization levels, but the individual-level interventions were effective only at the individual level.

Individual-Focused Stress Management

Individual-focused interventions concentrate on improving conditions for the individual, though counseling programs emphasize that the worker is in charge of reducing “stress,” whereas role-focused interventions emphasize activities that organizations can guide to actually reduce unnecessary noxious environmental factors.

Individual-Focused Stress Management: Employee Assistance Programs

When stress become sufficiently problematic (which is individually gauged or attended to by supportive others) in a worker’s life, employees may utilize the short-term counseling services or referral services Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) provide. People who utilize the counseling services may engage in cognitive behavioral therapy aimed at changing the way people think about the stressors (e.g., as challenge opportunity over threat) and manage strains. Example topics that may be covered in these therapy sessions include time management and goal setting (prioritization), career planning and development, cognitive restructuring and mindfulness, relaxation, and anger management. In a study of healthcare workers and teachers who participated in a 2-day to 2.5-day comprehensive stress management training program (including 26 topics on identifying, coping with, and managing stressors and strains), Siu, Cooper, and Phillips ( 2013 ) found psychological and physical improvements were self-reported among the healthcare workers (for which there was no control group). However, comparing an intervention group of teachers to a control group of teachers, the extent of change was not as visible, though teachers in the intervention group engaged in more mastery recovery experiences (i.e., they purposefully chose to engage in challenging activities after work).

Individual-Focused Stress Management: Mindfulness

A popular therapy today is to train people to be more mindful, which involves helping people live in the present, reduce negative judgement of current and past experiences, and practicing patience (Birnie, Speca, & Carlson, 2010 ). Mindfulness programs usually include training on relaxation exercises, gentle yoga, and awareness of the body’s senses. In one study offered through the continuing education program at a Canadian university, 104 study participants took part in an 8-week, 90 minute per group (15–20 participants per) session mindfulness program (Birnie et al., 2010 ). In addition to body scanning, they also listened to lectures on incorporating mindfulness into one’s daily life and received a take-home booklet and compact discs that guided participants through the exercises studied in person. Two weeks after completing the program, participants’ mindfulness attendance and general positive moods increased, while physical, psychological, and behavioral strains decreased. In another study on a sample of U.K. government employees, study participants receiving three sessions of 2.5 to 3 hours each training on mindfulness, with the first two sessions occurring in consecutive weeks and the third occurring about three months later, Flaxman and Bond ( 2010 ) found that compared to the control group, the intervention group showed a decrease in distress levels from Time 1 (baseline) to Time 2 (three months after first two training sessions) and Time 1 to Time 3 (after final training session). Moreover, of the mindfulness intervention study participants who were clinically distressed, 69% experienced clinical improvement in their psychological health.

Individual-Focused Stress Management: Biofeedback/Imagery/Meditation/Deep Breathing

Biofeedback uses electronic equipment to inform users about how their body is responding to tension. With guidance from a therapist, individuals then learn to change their physiological responses so that their pulse normalizes and muscles relax (Norris, Fahrion, & Oikawa, 2007 ). The therapist’s guidance might include reminders for imagery, meditation, body scan relaxation, and deep breathing. Saunders, Driskell, Johnston, and Salas’s ( 1996 ) meta-analysis of 37 studies found that imagery helped reduce state and performance anxiety. Once people have been trained to relax, reminder triggers may be sent through smartphone push notifications (Villani et al., 2013 ).

Smartphone technology can also be used to support weight loss programs, smoking cessation programs, and medication or disease (e.g., diabetes) management compliance (Heron & Smyth, 2010 ; Kannampallil, Waicekauskas, Morrow, Kopren, & Fu, 2013 ). For example, smartphones could remind a person to take medications or test blood sugar levels or send messages about healthy behaviors and positive affirmations.

Individual-Focused Stress Management: Sleep/Rest/Respite

Workers today sleep less per night than adults did nearly 30 years ago (Luckhaupt, Tak, & Calvert, 2010 ; National Sleep Foundation, 2005 , 2013 ). In order to combat problems, such as increased anxiety and cardiovascular artery disease, associated with sleep deprivation and insufficient rest, it is imperative that people disconnect from their work at least one day per week or preferably for several weeks so that they are able to restore psychological health (Etzion, Eden, & Lapidot, 1998 ; Ragsdale, Beehr, Grebner, & Han, 2011 ). When college students engaged in relaxation-type activities, such as reading or watching television, over the weekend, they experienced less emotional exhaustion and greater general well-being than students who engaged in resources-consuming activities, such as house cleaning (Ragsdale et al., 2011 ). Additional research and future directions for research are reviewed and identified in the work of Sonnentag ( 2012 ). For example, she asks whether lack of ability to detach from work is problematic for people who find their work meaningful. In other words, are negative health consequences only among those who do not take pleasure in their work? Sonnetag also asks how teleworkers detach from their work when engaging in work from the home. Ironically, one of the ways that companies are trying to help with the challenges of high workload or increased need to be available to colleagues, clients, or vendors around the globe is by offering flexible work arrangements, whereby employees who can work from home are given the opportunity to do so. Companies that require global interactions 24-hours per day often employ this strategy, but is the solution also a source of strain (Glazer, Kożusznik, & Shargo, 2012 )?

Individual-Focused Stress Management: Role Analysis

Role analysis or role clarification aims to redefine, expressly identify, and align employees’ roles and responsibilities with their work goals. Through role negotiation, involved parties begin to develop a new formal or informal contract about expectations and define resources needed to fulfill those expectations. Glazer has used this approach in organizational consulting and, with one memorable client engagement, found that not only were the individuals whose roles required deeper re-evaluation happier at work (six months later), but so were their subordinates. Subordinates who once characterized the two partners as hostile and akin to a couple going through a bad divorce, later referred to them as a blissful pair. Schaubroeck, Ganster, Sime, and Ditman ( 1993 ) also found in a three-wave study over a two-year period that university employees’ reports of role clarity and greater satisfaction with their supervisor increased after a role clarification exercise of top managers’ roles and subordinates’ roles. However, the intervention did not have any impact on reported physical symptoms, absenteeism, or psychological well-being. Role analysis is categorized under individual-focused stress management intervention because it is usually implemented after individuals or teams begin to demonstrate poor performance and because the intervention typically focuses on a few individuals rather than an entire organization or group. In other words, the intervention treats the person’s symptoms by redefining the role so as to eliminate the stimulant causing the problem.

Organization-Focused Stress Management

At the organizational level, companies that face major declines in productivity and profitability or increased costs related to healthcare and disability might be motivated to reassess organizational factors that might be impinging on employees’ health and well-being. After all, without healthy workers, it is not possible to have a healthy organization. Companies may choose to implement practices and policies that are expected to help not only the employees, but also the organization with reduced costs associated with employee ill-health, such as medical insurance, disability payments, and unused office space. Example practices and policies that may be implemented include flexible work arrangements to ensure that employees are not on the streets in the middle of the night for work that can be done from anywhere (such as the home), diversity programs to reduce stress-induced animosity and prejudice toward others, providing only healthy food choices in cafeterias, mandating that all employees have physicals in order to receive reduced prices for insurance, company-wide closures or mandatory paid time off, and changes in organizational visioning.

Organization-Focused Stress Management: Organizational-Level Occupational Health Interventions

As with job design interventions that are implemented to remediate work characteristics that were a source of unnecessary or excessive stressors, so are organizational-level occupational health (OLOH) interventions. As with many of the interventions, its placement as a primary or tertiary stress management intervention may seem arbitrary, but when considering the goal and target of change, it is clear that the intervention is implemented in response to some ailing organizational issues that need to be reversed or stopped, and because it brings in the entire organization’s workforce to address the problems, it has been placed in this category. There are several more case studies than empirical studies on the topic of whole system organizational change efforts (see example case studies presented by the United Kingdom’s Health and Safety Executive). It is possible that lack of published empirical work is not so much due to lack of attempting to gather and evaluate the data for publication, but rather because the OLOH interventions themselves never made it to the intervention stage, the interventions failed (Biron, Gatrell, & Cooper, 2010 ), or the level of evaluation was not rigorous enough to get into empirical peer-review journals. Fortunately, case studies provide some indication of the opportunities and problems associated with OLOH interventions.

One case study regarding Cardiff and Value University Health Board revealed that through focus group meetings with members of a steering group (including high-level managers and supported by top management) and facilitated by a neutral, non-judgemental organizational health consultant, ideas for change were posted on newsprint, discussed, and areas in the organization needing change were identified. The intervention for giving voice to people who initially had little already had a positive effect on the organization, as absence decreased by 2.09% and 6.9% merely 12 and 18 months, respectively, after the intervention. Translated in financial terms, the 6.9% change was equivalent to a quarterly savings of £80,000 (Health & Safety Executive, n.d. ). Thus, focusing on the context of change and how people will be involved in the change process probably helped the organization realize improvements (Biron et al., 2010 ). In a recent and rare empirical study, employing both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods, Sørensen and Holman ( 2014 ) utilized PAR in order to plan and implement an OLOH intervention over the course of 14 months. Their study aimed to examine the effectiveness of the PAR process in reducing workers’ work-related and social or interpersonal-related stressors that derive from the workplace and improving psychological, behavioral, and physiological well-being across six Danish organizations. Based on group dialogue, 30 proposals for change were proposed, all of which could be categorized as either interventions to focus on relational factors (e.g., management feedback improvement, engagement) or work processes (e.g., reduced interruptions, workload, reinforcing creativity). Of the interventions that were implemented, results showed improvements on manager relationship quality and reduced burnout, but no changes with respect to work processes (i.e., workload and work pace) perhaps because the employees already had sufficient task control and variety. These findings support Dewe and Kompier’s ( 2008 ) position that occupational health can be reinforced through organizational policies that reinforce quality jobs and work experiences.

Organization-Focused Stress Management: Flexible Work Arrangements

Dewe and Kompier ( 2008 ), citing the work of Isles ( 2005 ), noted that concern over losing one’s job is a reason for why 40% of survey respondents indicated they work more hours than formally required. In an attempt to create balance and perceived fairness in one’s compensation for putting in extra work hours, employees will sometimes be legitimately or illegitimately absent. As companies become increasingly global, many people with desk jobs are finding themselves communicating with colleagues who are halfway around the globe and at all hours of the day or night (Glazer et al., 2012 ). To help minimize the strains associated with these stressors, companies might devise flexible work arrangements (FWA), though the type of FWA needs to be tailored to the cultural environment (Masuda et al., 2012 ). FWAs give employees some leverage to decide what would be the optimal work arrangement for them (e.g., part-time, flexible work hours, compressed work week, telecommuting). In other words, FWA provides employees with the choice of when to work, where to work (on-site or off-site), and how many hours to work in a day, week, or pay period (Kossek, Thompson, & Lautsch, 2015 ). However, not all employees of an organization have equal access to or equitable use of FWAs; workers in low-wage, hourly jobs are often beholden to being physically present during specific hours (Swanberg McKechnie, Ojha, & James, 2011 ). In a study of over 1,300 full-time hourly retail employees in the United States, Swanberg et al. ( 2011 ) showed that employees who have control over their work schedules and over their work hours were satisfied with their work schedules, perceived support from the supervisor, and work engagement.

Unfortunately, not all FWAs yield successful results for the individual or the organization. Being able to work from home or part-time can have problems too, as a person finds himself or herself working more hours from home than required. Sometimes telecommuting creates work-family conflict too as a person struggles to balance work and family obligations while working from home. Other drawbacks include reduced face-to-face contact between work colleagues and stakeholders, challenges shaping one’s career growth due to limited contact, perceived inequity if some have more flexibility than others, and ambiguity about work role processes for interacting with employees utilizing the FWA (Kossek et al., 2015 ). Organizations that institute FWAs must carefully weigh the benefits and drawbacks the flexibility may have on the employees using it or the employees affected by others using it, as well as the implications on the organization, including the vendors who are serving and clients served by the organization.

Organization-Focused Stress Management: Diversity Programs

Employees in the workplace might experience strain due to feelings of discrimination or prejudice. Organizational climates that do not promote diversity (in terms of age, religion, physical abilities, ethnicity, nationality, sex, and other characteristics) are breeding grounds for undesirable attitudes toward the workplace, lower performance, and greater turnover intention (Bergman, Palmieri, Drasgow, & Ormerod, 2012 ; Velez, Moradi, & Brewster, 2013 ). Management is thus advised to implement programs that reinforce the value and importance of diversity, as well as manage diversity to reduce conflict and feelings of prejudice. In fact, managers who attended a leadership training program reported higher multicultural competence in dealing with stressful situations (Chrobot-Mason & Leslie, 2012 ), and managers who persevered through challenges were more dedicated to coping with difficult diversity issues (Cilliers, 2011 ). Thus, diversity programs can help to reduce strains by directly reducing stressors associated with conflict linked to diversity in the workplace and by building managers’ resilience.

Organization-Focused Stress Management: Healthcare Management Policies

Over the past few years, organizations have adopted insurance plans that implement wellness programs for the sake of managing the increasing cost of healthcare that is believed to be a result of individuals’ not managing their own health, with regular check-ups and treatment. The wellness programs require all insured employees to visit a primary care provider, complete a health risk assessment, and engage in disease management activities as specified by a physician (e.g., see frequently asked questions regarding the State of Maryland’s Wellness Program). Companies believe that requiring compliance will reduce health problems, although there is no proof that such programs save money or that people would comply. One study that does, however, boast success, was a 12-week workplace health promotion program aimed at reducing Houston airport workers’ weight (Ebunlomo, Hare-Everline, Weber, & Rich, 2015 ). The program, which included 235 volunteer participants, was deemed a success, as there was a total weight loss of 345 pounds (or 1.5 lbs per person). Given such results in Houston, it is clear why some people are also skeptical over the likely success of wellness programs, particularly as there is no clear method for evaluating their efficacy (Sinnott & Vatz, 2015 ).

Moreover, for some, such a program is too paternalistic and intrusive, as well as punishes anyone who chooses not to actively participate in disease management programs (Sinnott & Vatz, 2015 ). The programs put the onus of change on the person, though it is a response to the high costs of ill-health. The programs neglect to consider the role of the organization in reducing the barriers to healthy lifestyle, such as cloaking exempt employment as simply needing to get the work done, when it usually means working significantly more hours than a standard workweek. In fact, workplace health promotion programs did not reduce presenteeism (i.e., people going to work while unwell thereby reducing their job performance) among those who suffered from physical pain (Cancelliere, Cassidy, Ammendolia, & Côte, 2011 ). However, supervisor education, worksite exercise, lifestyle intervention through email, midday respite from repetitive work, a global stress management program, changes in lighting, and telephone interventions helped to reduce presenteeism. Thus, emphasis needs to be placed on psychosocial aspects of the organization’s structure, including managers and overall organizational climate for on-site presence, that reinforces such behavior (Cancelliere et al., 2011 ). Moreover, wellness programs are only as good as the interventions to reduce work-related stressors and improve organizational resources to enable workers to improve their overall psychological and physical health.

Concluding Remarks

Future research.

One of the areas requiring more theoretical and practical attention is that of the utility of stress frameworks to guide organizational development change interventions. Although it has been proposed that the foundation for work stress management interventions is in organizational development, and even though scholars and practitioners of organization development were also founders of research programs that focused on employee health and well-being or work stress, there are few studies or other theoretical works that link the two bodies of literature.

A second area that requires additional attention is the efficacy of stress management interventions across cultures. In examining secondary stress management interventions (i.e., coping), some cross-cultural differences in findings were described; however, there is still a dearth of literature from different countries on the utility of different prevention, coping, and stress management strategies.

A third area that has been blossoming since the start of the 21st century is the topic of hindrance and challenge stressors and the implications of both on workers’ well-being and performance. More research is needed on this topic in several areas. First, there is little consistency by which researchers label a stressor as a hindrance or a challenge. Researchers sometimes take liberties with labels, but it is not the researchers who should label a stressor but the study participants themselves who should indicate if a stressor is a source of strain. Rodríguez, Kozusznik, and Peiró ( 2013 ) developed a measure in which respondents indicate whether a stressor is a challenge or a hindrance. Just as some people may perceive demands to be challenges that they savor and that result in a psychological state of eustress (Nelson & Simmons, 2003 ), others find them to be constraints that impede goal fulfillment and thus might experience distress. Likewise, some people might perceive ambiguity as a challenge that can be overcome and others as a constraint over which he or she has little control and few or no resources with which to cope. More research on validating the measurement of challenge vs. hindrance stressors, as well as eustress vs. distress, and savoring vs. coping, is warranted. Second, at what point are challenge stressors harmful? Just because people experiencing challenge stressors continue to perform well, it does not necessarily mean that they are healthy people. A great deal of stressors are intellectually stimulating, but excessive stimulation can also take a toll on one’s physiological well-being, as evident by the droves of professionals experiencing different kinds of diseases not experienced as much a few decades ago, such as obesity (Fried et al., 2013 ). Third, which stress management interventions would better serve to reduce hindrance stressors or to reduce strain that may result from challenge stressors while reinforcing engagement-producing challenge stressors?

A fourth area that requires additional attention is that of the flexible work arrangements (FWAs). One of the reasons companies have been willing to permit employees to work from home is not so much out of concern for the employee, but out of the company’s need for the focal person to be able to communicate with a colleague working from a geographic region when it is night or early morning for the focal person. Glazer, Kożusznik, and Shargo ( 2012 ) presented several areas for future research on this topic, noting that by participating on global virtual teams, workers face additional stressors, even while given flexibility of workplace and work time. As noted earlier, more research needs to be done on the extent to which people who take advantage of FWAs are advantaged in terms of detachment from work. Can people working from home detach? Are those who find their work invigorating also likely to experience ill-health by not detaching from work?

A fifth area worthy of further research attention is workplace wellness programing. According to Page and Vella-Brodrick ( 2009 ), “subjective and psychological well-being [are] key criteria for employee mental health” (p. 442), whereby mental health focuses on wellness, rather than the absence of illness. They assert that by fostering employee mental health, organizations are supporting performance and retention. Employee well-being can be supported by ensuring that jobs are interesting and meaningful, goals are achievable, employees have control over their work, and skills are used to support organizational and individual goals (Dewe & Kompier, 2008 ). However, just as mental health is not the absence of illness, work stress is not indicative of an absence of psychological well-being. Given the perspective that employee well-being is a state of mind (Page & Vella-Brodrick, 2009 ), we suggest that employee well-being can be negatively affected by noxious job stressors that cannot be remediated, but when job stressors are preventable, employee well-being can serve to protect an employee who faces job stressors. Thus, wellness programs ought to focus on providing positive experiences by enhancing and promoting health, as well as building individual resources. These programs are termed “green cape” interventions (Pawelski, 2016 ). For example, with the growing interests in positive psychology, researchers and practitioners have suggested employing several positive psychology interventions, such as expressing gratitude, savoring experiences, and identifying one’s strengths (Tetrick & Winslow, 2015 ). Another stream of positive psychology is psychological capital, which includes four malleable functions of self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience (Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007 ). Workplace interventions should include both “red cape” interventions (i.e., interventions to reduce negative experiences) and “green cape” interventions (i.e., workplace wellness programs; Polly, 2014 ).

A Healthy Organization’s Pledge

A healthy workplace requires healthy workers. Period. Among all organizations’ missions should be the focus on a healthy workforce. To maintain a healthy workforce, the company must routinely examine its own contributions in terms of how it structures itself; reinforces communications among employees, vendors, and clients; how it rewards and cares for its people (e.g., ensuring they get sufficient rest and can detach from work); and the extent to which people at the upper levels are truly connected with the people at the lower levels. As a matter of practice, management must recognize when employees are overworked, unwell, and poorly engaged. Management must also take stock of when it is doing well and right by its contributors’ and maintain and reinforce the good practices, norms, and procedures. People in the workplace make the rules; people in the workplace can change the rules. How management sees its employees and values their contribution will have a huge role in how a company takes stock of its own pain points. Providing employees with tools to manage their own reactions to work-related stressors and consequent strains is fine, but wouldn’t it be grand if organizations took better notice about what they could do to mitigate the strain-producing stressors in the first place and take ownership over how employees are treated?

• Abramis, D. J. (1994). Work role ambiguity, job satisfaction, and job performance: Meta-analyses and review. Psychological Report, 75 , 1411–1433.
• Adams, G. A. , & Jex, S. M. (1999). Relationships between time management, control, work–family conflict, and strain. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1 , 72–77.
• Alloy, L. B. , & Abramson, L. Y. (1979). Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder but wiser? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108 , 441–483.
• Amstad, F. T. , Meier, L. L. , Fasel, U. , Elfering, A. , & Semmer, N. K. (2011). A meta-analysis of work-family conflict and various outcomes with a special emphasis on cross-domain versus matching-domain relations. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16 , 151–169.
• Assouline, M. , & Meir, E. I. (1987). Meta-analysis of the relationship between congruence and well-being measures. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31 , 319–332.
• Aust, B. , & Ducki, A. (2004). Comprehensive health promotion interventions at the workplace: Experiences with health circles in Germany. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 9 , 258–270.
• Bakker, A. B. Demerouti, E. , Sanz-Vergel, A. I. (2014). Burnout and work engagement: The JD-R approach. Annual Review of Organizational Behavior, 1 , 389–411.
• Bakker, A. B. , van Veldhoven, M. J. P. M. , & Xanthopoulou, D. (2010). Beyond the demand-control model: Thriving on high job demands and resources. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 9 , 3–16.
• Beehr, T. A. , Glaser, K. M. , Canali, K. G. , & Wallwey, D. A. (2001). Back to basics: Re-examination of demand control theory of occupational stress. Work & Stress, 15 , 115–130.
• Beehr, T. A. , & Glazer, S. (2001). A cultural perspective of social support in relation to occupational stress. In P. Perrewé , D. C. Ganster , & J. Moran (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well-being (pp. 97–142). Amsterdam: JAI Press.
• Bergman, M. E. , Palmieri, P. A. , Drasgow, F. , & Ormerod, A. J. (2012). Racial/ethnic harassment and discrimination, its antecedents, and its effect on job-related outcomes. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17 , 65–78.
• Bhagat, R. S. , Krishnan, B. , Nelson, T. A. , Leonard, K. M. , Ford, D. J. , & Billing, T. K. (2010). Organizational stress, psychological strain, and work outcomes in six national contexts: A closer look at the moderating influences of coping styles and decision latitude . Cross Cultural Management, 17 , 10–29.
• Bhagat, R. S. , O’Driscoll, M. P. , Babakus, E. , Frey, L. , Chokkar, J. , Ninokumar, B. H , et al. (1994). Organizational stress and coping in seven national contexts: A cross-cultural investigation . In G. P. Keita & J. J. Hurrell (Eds.), Job stress in a changing workforce: Investigating gender, diversity, and family issues (pp. 93–105). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Bhagat, R. S. , Segovis, J. C. , & Nelson, T. A. (2012). Work stress and coping in the era of globalization . New York: Routledge.
• Billings, A. G. , & Moos, R. H. (1981). The role of coping responses and social resources in attenuating the stress of life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4 , 139–157.
• Birnie, K. , Speca, M. , & Carlson, L. E. (2010). Exploring self-compassion and empathy in the context of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). Stress & Health, 26 , 359–371.
• Biron, C. , Gatrell, C. , & Cooper, C. L. (2010). Autopsy of a failure: Evaluating process and contextual issues in an organizational-level work stress intervention. International Journal of Stress Management, 17 , 135–158.
• Bowling, N. A. , & Kirkendall, C. (2012). Workload: A review of causes, consequences, and potential interventions. In J. Houdmont , S. Leka , & R. Sinclair (Eds.), Contemporary occupational health psychology (Vol. 2) (pp. 221–238). Chichester, U.K.: Wiley.
• Breaugh, J. A. , & Colihan, J. P. (1994). Measuring facets of job ambiguity: Construct validity evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79 , 191–202.
• Bruk-Lee, V. , & Spector, P. E. (2006). The social stressors-counterproductive work behaviors link: Are conflicts with supervisors and coworkers the same? . Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11 , 145–156.
• Cancelliere, C. , Cassidy, J. D. , Ammendolia, C. , & Côte, P. (2011). Are workplace health promotion programs effective at improving presenteeism in workers? A systematic review and best evidence synthesis of the literature. BMC Public Health, 11 , 395–406.
• Caplan, R. D. (1987). Person–environment fit in organizations: Theories, facts, and values. In A. W. Riley & S. J. Zaccaro (Eds.), Occupational stress and organizational effectiveness (pp. 103–140). New York: Praeger.
• Cartwright, S. , & Cooper, C. L. (2005). Individually targeted interventions. In J. Barling , E. K. Kelloway , & M. R. Frone (Eds.), Handbook of work stress (pp. 607–622). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Cavanaugh, M. A. , Boswell, W. R. , Roehling, M. V. , & Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An empirical examination of self-reported work stress among U.S. managers . Journal of Applied Psychology, 85 , 65–74.
• Chong, D. S. F. , van Eerde, W. , Rutte, C. G. , & Chai, K. H. (2012). Bringing employees closer: The effect of proximity on communication when teams function under time pressure. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 29 , 205–215.
• Chrobot-Mason, D. , & Leslie, J. B. (2012). The role of multicultural competence and emotional intelligence in managing diversity. Psychologist-Manager Journal, 15 , 219–236.
• Cilliers, F. (2011). Individual diversity management and salutogenic functioning. International Review of Psychiatry, 23 , 501–507.
• Claessens, B. C. , Van Eerde, W. , Rutte, C. G. , & Roe, R. A. (2004). Planning behavior and perceived control of time at work . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25 , 937–950.
• Cooper, C. L. , Dewe, P. D. , & O’Driscoll, M. P. (2011). Employee assistance programs: Strengths, challenges, and future roles. In J. C. Quick , L. E. Tetrick , J. C. Quick , L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (2d ed.) (pp. 337–356). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Cooper, C. L. , Dewe, P. J. , & O’Driscoll, M. P. (2001). Organizational stress: A review and critique of theory, research, and applications . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Coovert, M. D. & Thompson, L. F. (2003). Technology and workplace health. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 221–241). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Dawson, K. M. , O’Brien, K. E. , & Beehr, T. A. (2016). The role of hindrance stressors in the job demand-control-support model of occupational stress: A proposed theory revision . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37 (3), 397–415.
• Dewe, P. , & Kompier, M. (2008). Foresight mental capital and wellbeing project: Wellbeing and work: Future challenges . London: The Government Office for Science.
• Dopkeen, J. C. , & DuBois, R. (2014). Stress in the workplace: A policy synthesis on its dimensions and prevalence . White paper. University of Illinois Chicago, Center for Employee Health Studies, School of Public Health.
• Dwyer, D. J. , & Ganster, D. C. (1991). The effects of job demands and control on employee attendance and satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 12 , 595–608.
• Ebunlomo, E. O. , Hare-Everline, N. , Weber, A. , & Rich, J. (2015). Development of a comprehensive 12-week health promotion program for Houston Airport System. Texas Public Health Journal, 67 (1), 11–13.
• Edwards, J. R. (2008). Person-environment fit in organizations: An assessment of theoretical progress. The Academy of Management Annals, 2 , 167–230.
• Etzion, D. , Eden, D. , & Lapidot, Y. (1998). Relief from job stressors and burnout: Reserve service as a respite. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83 , 577–585.
• Firth-Cozens, J. (2003). Doctors, their wellbeing, and their stress: It’s time to be proactive about stress—and prevent it. British Medical Journal, 326 , 670–671.
• Flaxman, P. E. , & Bond, F. W. (2010). Worksite stress management training: Moderated effects and clinical significance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15 , 347–358.
• Folkman, S. , & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample . Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21 , 219–239.
• French, J. R. P., Jr. , & Caplan, R. D. (1972). Organizational stress and individual strain. In A. Marrow (Ed.), The failure of success . New York: AMACOM.
• French, J. R. P., Jr. , & Kahn, R. L. (1962). A programmatic approach to studying the industrial environment and mental health. Journal of Social Issues, 18 , 1–48.
• French, S. (2015, May 27). PCS workload and work-life balance survey 2013 . London: Public and Commercial Services Union.
• Fried, Y. , Laurence, G. A. , Shirom, A. , Melamed, S. , Toker, S. , Berliner, S. , & Shapira, I. (2013). The relationship between job enrichment and abdominal obesity: A longitudinal field study of apparently healthy individuals. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 18 , 458–468.
• Frone, M. R. (2000). Interpersonal conflict at work and psychological outcomes: Testing a model among young workers. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5 , 246–255.
• Giga, S. I. , Cooper, C. L. , & Faragher, B. (2003). The development of a framework for a comprehensive approach to stress management interventions at work. International Journal of Stress Management, 10 , 280–296.
• Glazer, S. (2008). Cross-cultural issues in stress and burnout. In J. R. B. Halbesleben (Ed.), Handbook of Stress and Burnout in Health Care (pp. 79–93). Huntington, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
• Glazer, S. , & Beehr, T. A. (2005). Consistency of the implications of three role stressors across four countries. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 26 , 467–487.
• Glazer, S. , Kożusznik, M. W. , Meyers, J. H. , & Ganai, O. (2014). Cultural implications of meaningfulness as a resource to mitigate work stress. In S. Leka & R. Sinclair (Eds.), Contemporary occupational health psychology: Global perspectives on research and practice (Vol. 3) (pp. 114–130). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
• Glazer, S. , Kożusznik, M. W. , & Shargo, I. A. (2012). Global virtual teams: A cure for- or a cause of- stress. In P. L. Perrewé , J. Halbesleben , & C. Rosen (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well being: The role of the economic context on occupational stress and well being (Vol. 10, pp. 213–266). Bingley, U.K.: Emerald.
• Glazer, S. , Stetz, T. A. , & Izso, L. (2004). Effects of personality on subjective job stress: A cultural analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 37 , 645–658.
• Greenhaus, J. H. , & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10 , 76–88.
• Hackman, J. R. , & Oldham, G. R. (1980). Work Redesign . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
• Hauke, A. , Flintrop, J. , Brun, E. , & Rugulies, R. (2011). The impact of work-related psychosocial stressors on the onset of musculoskeletal disorders in specific body regions: A review and meta-analysis of 54 longitudinal studies . Work & Stress, 25 , 243–256.
• Health & Safety Executive (n.d.). Cardiff and Value University Health Board—A stress case study .
• Heron, K. E. , & Smyth, J. M. (2010). Ecological momentary interventions: Incorporating mobile technology into psychosocial and health behaviour treatments. British Journal of Health Psychology, 15 , 1–39.
• Hershcovis, M. (2011). “Incivility, social undermining, bullying … oh my!”: A call to reconcile constructs within workplace aggression research . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32 , 499–519.
• Higgins, J. E. , & Endler, N. S. (1995). Coping, life stress, and psychological and somatic distress . European Journal of Personality, 9 , 253–270.
• Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44 , 513–524.
• Hobfoll, S. E. (1998). Stress, culture, and community: The psychology and philosophy of stress . New York: Plenum Press.
• Hobfoll, S. E. (2001). The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: Advancing Conservation of Resources Theory. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50 , 337–421.
• International Labor Organization (2012, July 5). Why stress at work matters . International Labor Organization.
• International Labor Organization (n.d.). Psychosocial risks and work-related stress . International Labor Organization.
• Jackson, S. E. , & Schuler, R. S. (1985). A meta-analysis and conceptual critique of research on role ambiguity and role conflict in work settings. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 36 , 16–78.
• Jayson, S. (2012, January 11). Yeah, we’re stressed but dealing with it; Americans report a decrease in stress for the first time in five years, maybe because it’s just the new normal . USA Today .
• Jex, S. M. , & Beehr, T. A. (1991). Emerging theoretical and methodological issues in the study of work-related stress. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 9 , 311–365.
• Jex, S. M. , & Elaqua, T. C. (1999). Time management as a moderator of relations between stressors and employee strain. Work & Stress, 13 , 182–191.
• Johnson, J. V. , & Hall, E. M. (1988). Job strain, workplace social support, and cardiovascular disease: A cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population. American Journal of Public Health, 78 , 1336–1342.
• Kahn, R. L. , Wolfe, D. M. , Quinn, R. P. , Snoek, J. D. , & Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Organizational stress: Studies in role conflict and ambiguity . New York: Wiley.
• Kannampallil, T. G. , Waicekauskas, K. , Morrow, D. G. , Kopren, K. M. , & Fu, W. (2013). External tools for collaborative medication scheduling. Cognition, Technology & Work, 15 , 121–131.
• Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly , 24 , 285–308.
• Karasek, R. A. , & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life . New York: Basic Books.
• van der Klink, J. J. L. , Blonk, R. W. B. , Schene, A. H. , & van Dijk, F. J. H. (2001). The benefits of interventions for work-related stress. American Journal of Public Health, 91 , 270–276.
• Knight, B. G. , Silverstein, M. , McCallum, T. J. , & Fox, L. S. (2000). A sociocultural stress and coping model for mental health outcomes among African American caregivers in southern California . The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 55B , 142–150.
• Kossek, E. E. , Thompson, R. J. , Lautsch, B. A. (2015). Balanced workplace flexibility: Avoiding the traps. California Management Review, 57 , 5–25.
• Kożusznik, M. , Rodriguez, I. , & Peiró, J. M. (2012). Cross-national outcomes of stress appraisal. Cross Cultural Management, 19 , 507–525.
• Kożusznik, M. , Rodriguez, I. , & Peiró, J. M. (2015). Eustress and distress climates in teams: Patterns and outcomes. International Journal of Stress Management, 22 , 1–23.
• Kristof-Brown, A. L. , Zimmerman, R. D. , & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals’ fit at work: A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58 , 281–342.
• LaMontagne, A. D. , Keegel, T. , Louie, A. M. , Ostry, A. , & Landsbergis, P. A. (2007). A systematic review of the job-stress intervention evaluation literature, 1990–2005. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 13 , 268–280.
• LaRocco, J. M. , Tetrick, L. E. , & Meder, D. (1989). Differences in perceptions of work environment conditions, job attitudes, and health beliefs among military physicians, dentists, and nurses. Military Psychology, 1 , 135–151.
• Lazarus, R. S. , & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping . New York: Springer.
• Lazarus, R. S. , & Folkman, S. (1991). The concept of coping. In A. Monat & R. S. Lazarus (Eds.), Stress and coping: An anthology (3d ed.) (pp. 189–206). New York: Columbia University Press.
• LePine, J. A. , Podsakoff, N. P. , & LePine, M. A. (2005). A meta-analytic test of the challenge stressor-hindrance stressor framework: An explanation for inconsistent relationships among stressors and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 48 , 764–775.
• Lewin, K. (1936). Principles of topological psychology . New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Lewin K. (1951). Field theory in social science . New York: Harper and Row.
• Lewin, K. (1997). Resolving social conflicts & Field theory in social science . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Previously published in 1948 and 1951.
• Lin, B. C. , Kain, J. M. , & Fritz, C. (2013). Don’t interrupt me! An examination of the relationship between intrusions at work and employee strain. International Journal of Stress Management, 20 , 77–94.
• Liu, C. , & Li, H. (2017) Stressor and stressor appraisals: The moderating effect of task efficacy . Journal of Business and Psychology , 1–14.
• Liu, C. , Liu, Y. , Spector, P. E. , Shi, L. (2011). The interaction of job autonomy and conflict with supervisor in China and the United States: A qualitative and quantitative comparison. International Journal of Stress Management, 18 , 222–245.
• Liu, C. , Spector, P. E. , & Shi, L. (2007). Cross-national job stress: A quantitative and qualitative study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28 , 209–239.
• Luckhaupt, S. E. , Tak, S. , Calvert, G. M. (2010). The prevalence of short sleep duration by industry and occupational in the National Health Interview Survey. Sleep, 33 , 149–159.
• Luthans, F. , Youssef, C. M. , & Avolio, B. J. (2007). Psychological capital: Developing the human competitive edge . New York: Oxford University Press.
• Macan, T. H. (1994). Time management: Test of a process model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79 , 381–391.
• Macan, T. H. , Shahani, C. , Dipboye, R. L. , & Philips, A. P. (1990). College students’ time management: Correlations with academic performance and stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82 , 760–768.
• Masuda, A. D. , Poelmans, S. A. Y. , Allen, T. D. , Spector, P. E. , Lapierre, L. M. , Cooper, C. L. , et al. (2012). Flexible work arrangements availability and their relationship with work-to-family conflict, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions: A comparison of three country clusters. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61 , 1–29.
• McMahon, M. (2007). Think you might be addicted to email? You’re not alone . AOL.
• Monat, A. , & Lazarus, R. S. (Eds.). (1991). Stress and coping: An anthology (3d ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.
• Morimoto, H. , Shimada, H. , & Ozaki, K. (2013). Does stressor evaluation mediate sociocultural influence on coping selection? An investigation using Japanese employees. International Journal of Stress Management, 20 , 1–19.
• Narayanan, L. , Menon, S. , & Spector, P. E. (1999). A cross-cultural comparison of job stressors and reactions among employees holding comparable jobs in two countries. International Journal of Stress Management, 6 , 197–212.
• National Sleep Foundation (2005). Segment profiles . National Sleep Foundation.
• National Sleep Foundation (2013). How much sleep do adults need? . National Sleep Foundation.
• Nelson, D. L. , & Simmons, B. L. (2003). Health psychology and work stress: A more positive approach. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology (pp. 97–119). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Norris, P. A. , Fahrion, S. L. , & Oikawa, L. O. (2007). Autogenic biofeedback training in psychophysiological therapy and stress management. In P. M. Lehrer , R. L. Woolfolk , & W. E. Sime (Eds.), Principles and practices of stress management (3d ed., pp. 175–205). New York: Guilford.
• Ogawa, N. (2009). Stress, coping behavior, and social support in Japan and the United States. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A , 69 , 3802.
• Oksanen, K. , & Ståhle, P. (2013). Physical environment as a source for innovation: Investigating the attributes of innovative space. Journal of Knowledge Management, 17 , 815–827.
• Page, K. M. , & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2009). The “what,” “why” and “how” of employee well-being: A new model. Social Indicators Research, 90 , 441–458.
• Parasuraman, S. , & Cleek, M. A. (1984). Coping behaviors and managers’ affective reactions to role stressors . Journal of Vocational Behavior, 24 , 179–193.
• Parasuraman, S. , & Purohit, Y. S. (2000). Distress and boredom among orchestra musicians: The two faces of stress. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5 , 74–83.
• Pawelski, J. O. (2016). Defining the “positive” in positive psychology: Part II. A normative analysis . Journal of Positive Psychology, 11 , 357–365.
• Pearlin, L. I. , & Schooler, C. (1978). The structure of coping . Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19 , 2–21.
• Peeters, M. A. G. , & Rutte, C. G. (2005). Time management behavior as a moderator for the job demand-control interaction. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology , 1 , 64–75.
• Peters, L. H. , & O’Connor, E. J. (1980). Situational constraints and work outcomes: The influence of a frequently overlooked construct. Academy of Management Review , 5, 391–397.
• Peters, L. H. , & O’Connor, E. J. (1988). Measuring work obstacles: Procedures, issues, and implications. In F. D. Schoorman & B. Schneider (Eds.), Facilitating work effectiveness (pp. 105–123). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
• Polly, S. (2014, July 2). Workplace well-being is not an oxymoron . Positive Psychology News Daily .
• Quick, C. J. , Quick, J. D. , Nelson, D. L. , & Hurrell, J. J. (2003). Preventive stress management in organizations . Washington, DC: APA.
• Quillian-Wolever, R. E. , & Wolever, M. E. (2003). Stress management at work . In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 355–375). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Ragsdale, J. M. , Beehr, T. A. , Grebner, S. , & Han, K. (2011). An integrated model of weekday stress and weekend recovery of students. International Journal of Stress Management, 18 , 153–180.
• Richardson, K. M. , & Rothstein, H. R. (2008). Effects of occupational stress management intervention programs: A meta-analysis. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13 , 69–93.
• Rodríguez, I. , Kozusznik, M. W. , & Peiró, J. M. (2013). Development and validation of the Valencia Eustress-Distress Appraisal Scale. International Journal of Stress Management, 20 , 279–308.
• Rothbaum, F. , Weisz, J. R. , & Snyder, S. S. (1982). Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42 , 5–37.
• Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80 , 609.
• Rousseau, V. , & Aubé, C. (2010). Social support at work and affective commitment to the organization: The moderating effect of job resource adequacy and ambient conditions. Journal of Social Psychology, 150 , 321–340.
• Saunders, T. , Driskell, J. E. , Johnston, J. , & Salas, E. (1996). The effect of stress inoculation training on anxiety and performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1 , 170–186.
• Schaubroeck, J. , Ganster, D. C. , Sime, W. E. , & Ditman, D. (1993). A field experiment testing supervisory role clarification. Personnel Psychology, 46 , 1–25.
• Selmer, J. (2002). Coping strategies applied by Western vs overseas Chinese business expatriates in China. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13 , 19–34.
• Siegrist, J. (1996). Adverse health effects of high effort/low reward conditions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1 , 27–41.
• Siegrist, J. (2010). Effort-reward imbalance at work and cardiovascular diseases. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 23 , 279–285.
• Siegrist, J. , Dragano, N. , Nyberg, S. T. , Lunau, T. , Alfredsson, L. , Erbel, R. , et al. (2014). Validating abbreviated measures of effort-reward imbalance at work in European cohort studies: The IPD-Work consortium. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 87 , 249–256.
• Sinha, B. K. , Willson, L. R. , & Watson, D. C. (2000). Stress and coping among students in India and Canada . Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement , 32 (4), 218–225.
• Sinnott, J. , & Vatz, R. E. (2015, March 13). Maryland doesn’t trust state employees to manage their health . Baltimore Sun .
• Siu, O. L. , Cooper, C. L. , & Phillips, D. R. (2013, July 1). Intervention studies on enhancing work well-being, reducing burnout, and improving recovery experiences among Hong Kong health care workers and teachers . International Journal of Stress Management, 21 , 69–84.
• Sonnentag, S. (2012). Psychological detachment from work during leisure time: The benefits of mentally disengaging from work. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21 , 114–118.
• Sørensen, O. H. , & Holman, D. (2014). A participative intervention to improve employee well-being in knowledge work jobs: A mixed-methods evaluation study. Work & Stress, 28 , 67–86.
• Spector, P. E. , Chen, P. Y. , & O’Connell, B. J. (2000). A longitudinal study of relations between job stressors and job strains while controlling for prior negative affectivity and strains. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85 , 211–218.
• Spector, P. E. , & Jex, S. M. (1998). Development of four self-report measures of job stressors and strains: Interpersonal Conflict at Work Scale, Organizational Constraints Scale, Quantitative Workload Inventory, and Physical Symptoms Inventory. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3 , 356–367.
• State of Maryland . (n.d.). Wellness program frequently asked questions . Maryland.gov.
• Strentz, T. , & Auerbach, S. M. (1988). Adjustment to the stress of simulated captivity: Effects of emotion-focused versus problem-focused preparation on hostages differing in locus of control . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55 , 652–660.
• Swanberg, J. E. , McKechnie, S. P. , Ojha, M. U. , & James, J. B. (2011). Schedule control, supervisor support and work engagement: A winning combination for workers in hourly jobs? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79 , 613–624.
• Tarafdar, M. , Tu, Q. , Ragu-Nathan, B. S. , & Ragu-Nathan, T. , (2007). The impact of technostress on role stress and productivity. Journal of Management Information Systems, 24 , 301–328.
• Tepper, B. J. , & Henle, C. A. (2011). A case for recognizing distinctions among constructs that capture interpersonal mistreatment in work organizations . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32 , 487–498.
• Tetrick, L. E. , & Winslow, C. J. (2015). Workplace stress management interventions and health promotion. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2 , 583–603.
• Thomas, D. C. , Au, K. , & Ravlin, E. C. (2003). Cultural variation and the psychological contract. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24 , 451–471.
• Toker, S. , Shirom, A. , Melamed, S. , & Armon, G. (2012). Work characteristics as predictors of diabetes incidence among apparently healthy employees. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17 , 259–267.
• Velez, B. L. , Moradi, B. , & Brewster, M. E. (2013). Testing the tenets of minority stres theory in workplace contexts. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60 , 532–542.
• Verquer, M. L. , Beehr, T. A. , & Wagner, S. H. (2003). A meta-analysis of relations between person–organization fit and work attitudes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63 , 473–489.
• Villani, D. , Grassi, A. , Cognetta, C. , Toniolo, D. , Cipresso, P. , & Riva, G. (2013). Self-help stress management training through mobile phones: An experience with oncology nurses. Psychological Services , 10 , 315–322.
• Vischer, J. C. (2007). The effects of the physical environment on job performance: Towards a theoretical model of workspace stress. Stress & Health, 23 , 175–184.
• Wasti, S. A. , & Cortina, L. M. (2002). Coping in context: Sociocultural determinants of responses to sexual harassment . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83, 394–405.
• Willert, M. V. , Thulstrup, A. M. , Hertz, J. , & Bonde, J. P. (2010). Sleep and cognitive failures improved by a three-month stress management intervention . International Journal of Stress Management, 17 , 193–213.
• Xiao Q. , Ottosson I. , & Carlsson I. (2013). Stressors and coping strategies in Chinese and Swedish students at a Swedish university. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21 , 309–312.

Related Articles

• Work and Family
• Organizational Climate and Culture
• Physical Activity and Stress Reactivity
• The Roles of Psychological Stress, Physical Activity, and Dietary Modifications on Cardiovascular Health Implications
• Inflammation as a Biomarker Method in Lifespan Developmental Methodology
• Stress and Coping Theory Across the Adult Lifespan
• Occupational Health Psychology

Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Psychology. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice).

date: 28 August 2024

• Cookie Policy
• Privacy Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility
• [185.194.105.172]
• 185.194.105.172

Character limit 500 /500

117 Stress Management Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best stress management topic ideas & essay examples, 💡 most interesting stress management topics to write about, ⭐ good research topics about stress management, 📃 simple & easy stress management essay titles, ❓ research questions about stress management.

• Time Management and Its Effect in Reducing Stress among Students One of the causes of stress among high school students and college students is the difficulty in interacting with a completely new set of students and an even larger social group within the body of […]
• Yoga for Stress Management For instance, Karma yoga, which is one of Yoga types, aids in controlling stress through the development of appropriate attitudes in relation to work environment coupled with enhancing the ability to respond positively to professional […]
• Stress Management While undertaking the survey on management of stress in organizations, I came to realize that the sources of stress to employees are many and vary from one employee to another.
• Time and Stress Management for Better Productivity Procrastination is the forwarding of events that have to be done at a specific time to another time in the future.
• Exam Stress: Effective Management It is important for a child to get enough rest for the relaxation of the mind and body. In line with Hemmings, it is important for parents to analyze the mood of a child who […]
• Stress Management Techniques for Students: Yoga Yoga’s most major benefits are its capacity to relieve stress and exhaustion, to stimulate and revive, and to be used for anti-aging and calming treatment.
• Personal Stress Management and Relaxation Techniques In fact, I was rather frustrated and I thought it was all my fault I could not do it. I love the ocean and when I am meditating, I imagine a palm by the ocean.
• Stress Management and Work Performance in the United Kingdom In this society, it is very important for the management of various firms and governmental organizations to take care of the interests of the employees.
• Stress Reduction Programs in an Organization There are different approaches to reducing stress levels in an organization. To choose the appropriate program, it is necessary to assess the available options based on a range of criteria.
• Stress Management in Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients The study also covered the epidemiological and pathophysiology of RA and looked at data linking psychological trauma to the emergence and aggravation of the clinical disease.
• Stress Management Benefits for Health Therefore, stress management strategies are crucial to eliminating the adverse impact of tension and anxiety. Physical activity and socializing are the techniques I have successfully applied to manage stress.
• Stress Management Skills of Student-Athletes Their responses will then be categorized as “low perceived stress,” “moderate perceived stress,” and “high perceived stress”. The students will then be qualified as possessing superior, above-average, average, or below-average stress management skills.
• Thoughts on Stress Management and Happiness Although she has all her financial needs met overwhelmingly, her failure to proceed with her studies and get employment makes her feel unsatisfied.
• Analysis of Stress Management Aspects In the science of stress management, there are a number of practices aimed at strengthening the mental health of the student, thus improving their response to potentially stressful events.
• Stress Management Techniques The proposed strategies and examples should help students to understand different situations and overcome stress disregarding settings and external factors.
• The Effectiveness of Occupational Stress Management However, as it relates to analyzing the shipbuilding and ship-repair industries, the level of occupational stress is higher in comparison to other sectors of the economy, and the effectiveness of managing the problem is lower.
• Stress Management for Patients With Arthritis The study’s primary objectives were to substantiate the hypothesis of the relation between RA activity and stress and find the evidence for the basis of further decisions.
• Stress Management Through Transcendental Meditation Thus, to improve productivity and the general wellbeing of its employees, a company ought to offer stress management program. However, transcendental meditation seems to be the most beneficial as it enables people to deal with […]
• Stress Management in University Students The purpose of this systematic review is to investigate how stress management research techniques have changed in the PICOS framework and tendencies in stress levels and stress factors in the period of the last ten […]
• Work Related Stress: Symptoms and Management The proper prevention of work-related stress is essential for successful outcomes, and it should include interventions that aim at reducing the stressful environment.
• Preventing Burnout in Preschool Teachers This follows with a decline in the immunity of the individual to fight the various common illnesses such as common cold, flu etc and in some cases gives rise to the blood pressure problem in […]
• Sports Demands and Stress Management in Athletics Stress is a harmful physical and emotional response that occur to and individual when the requirements of an activity exceed the capabilities and needs of the individual.
• Reducing Nurses’ Stress: A Web-Based Management Program The title of this primary source accurately depicts the key variable, which is the level of nurses’ stress and mentions the possible solution to this issue the introduction of a special computer program.
• UAE: Stress Management and Organizational Performance The goal of the paper is to examine the phenomenon of workplace stress and its relation to the organizational performance of employees in the UAE context.
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Management in Children The purpose of this paper is to determine whether the application of the perspective of clinical psychology as the platform for treating PTSD in children will have better effects than the adoption of the methods […]
• Employment and Stress Management Key to stress management is the capability to identify a victim. I reckon my stress management expertise needs enhancement in areas that relate to diagnosis of stress.
• Stress Management: Personal Success Plan I have also learnt that the world we live in is not perfect and at times people will do unpleasant things to me.
• Crisis Intervention Model and Critical Stress Management The difference between PFA and R-SSCIM is that the latter is aimed at a brief period while the former presupposes stable cooperation with the client.
• Stress Management for Life According to the Yerkes-Dodson principle, a small amount of stress is beneficial for performance and well-being; however, the prolonged influence of the level of stress that surpasses one’s coping ability might translate into the reduction […]
• Jobforartist.com Company: Stress Management As a result, the cohesiveness between workers and junior managers is at a very good level, with little to no confrontations, and thus, no stress.
• Office 2010 Transformation: Stress Management Plan The current stress management plan depends on the following factors: The team should be properly motivated to accept the Office 2010 transformation, and the manager has to understand what kind of strategy is more appropriate.
• Genentech Inc.’s Workplace Stress Management The relationship between the management and the employees also encourages the latter to contribute tirelessly towards the organisation’s mission and goals.
• Stress Management in the Adulthood To effectively handle stress, an individual must be able to recognize the symptoms of stress and understand the possible cause which is easy as stress changes an individual’s happiness level, health, and behavior.
• Stress Management Strategies in Applied Psychology It is possible to note that the development of applied psychology was a natural stage of the evolution of psychology as a field of study.
• Stress: Effects and Management Proposal In management of stress, one needs to analyze the causes of the stress, the level of the stress and the effects caused to the body and mind.
• Suggestions on Stress Management It can thus be summarized that if a stress victim adheres strictly to the suggestions made in the article, the victim is bound to reduce his/her level of stress.
• Stress Management and Work Performance in the UK The goal of the study is to establish the relationship between stress management and work performance and the best approach to manage stress to meet organizational goals.
• Critical Evaluation of Stress Management Approaches Thus, the objective of this paper is to analyze the approaches used by individuals and organizations to manage stress. A clear chain of command helps employees to avoid the stress that can result from uncertainty […]
• Stress Management in Work Environment Leka, Griffiths and Cox are of the opinion that work related stress arises from the disparity between the demands of the job and the pressure on the employee on one hand and the mismatch between […]
• Stress Management in the Hospitality Industry In the event of such aspects the body tries to bring its system to a balance by building adequate energy as well as staying alert to face any possibility of the threat happening.
• Stress Management among Customer Service Employees: Antecedents & Interventions A focus on the identification of current and potential stressors affecting this group of employees, and the subsequent development of interventions which could be used by the employees to manage and curtail stress effectively, is […]
• The Relationship between Stress Management and Criminal Recidivism Employment tends to increase the social capital of individuals, what is usually referred to as the networks of shared norms and values, which augments the access to the much-needed necessities.
• Herbal Stress Management Rule, Regular Exercise, and Healthy Diet
• Stress Management With Relaxation Exercises and Visualization
• Stress Management for Parents With a Preschooler
• Yoga and Music Therapy as Effective Methods of Stress Management
• Managerial Stress Management Program
• Relationship Between Time Management and Stress Management
• Stress Management Through the Use of Flowers
• Stress Management for Everyday Living: Solution for Stress Management as It Relates to the Online Student
• Stress Management and Conflict Management
• Stress Management Strategies and the Methods Among Police Officers
• Stress Management Program for Salespeople
• Employee Stress Management During Organizational Change
• The Unease Modulation Model: An Experiential Model of Stress With Implications for Health, Stress Management, and Public Policy
• Biofeedback for Everyday Stress Management: A Systematic Review
• Stress Management and Reduction for Nurses
• Stress Management, Life Balance, and Prioritization Strategies
• Conflict Management and Stress Management: How to Handle
• Personal Stress Management Plan
• Stress and Stress Management: How Food Can Help Your Stress Levels
• Perceived Stress Levels and Stress Management
• Stress Management and the Effects of Stress on the Mind and Body
• Stress Management During Exam Time
• Assessing the Therapeutic Uses and Effectiveness of Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, and Video Games for Emotion Regulation and Stress Management
• Stress: Personality Psychology and Stress Management Activities
• Stress Effects and Healthy Stress Management Strategies
• Leadership and Stress Management: Keep Moods and Outlooks Positive
• Stress Management Spa Treatments in the Age of Stress
• The Relationship Between Time and Stress Management
• Time and Stress Management in the Workplace
• Stress Management Among Bank Employees
• Stress Management Using Hypnotherapy
• Activities for Stress Management and Prevention
• Stress Management for Emergency Workers
• Stress Management During Pregnancy
• Stress Management and the Effects on Wellness
• Work-Related Stress and Stress Management
• Preventive Stress Management Methods
• Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Based Stress Management Interventions: An Evaluation of Methodology
• Effective Workplace Stress Management
• Decision-Making Skills and Stress Management Psychology
• Why Is Stress Management Necessary for Students?
• What Are the Approaches to Stress Management?
• What Are the Important Factors for Managing Stress?
• What Is Avoid in Stress Management?
• How Does Stress Affect Motivation?
• Why Is Stress Management Critical at the Workplace?
• What Are the Types of Stress Management?
• What Are the Main Stress Management Techniques?
• How Well Do Managers Manage Stress Management?
• What Are the Advantages of Stress Management?
• What Is the Meaning of Stress Management?
• What Is the First Step in Stress Management?
• What Are the Critical Factors for Stress Management?
• Why Is It Important to Study Stress Management?
• What Are the Objectives of Stress Management?
• What Is the Most Effective Stress Management Strategy?
• How Can Effective Stress Management Help to Develop Healthy Responses to Given Tasks?
• What Are the Stress Management Techniques and Relaxation Methods?
• What Is a Stress Management Study?
• What Are the Strategies of Stress Management?
• Why Is Stress Management Important to Health?
• What Are the Positive Methods of Stress Management?
• What Are the Sources of Stress Management?
• Why Is Stress Harmful?
• What Are the Steps for Stress Management?
• Why Is Stress Management Critical?
• What Are the 3 Stress Hormones?
• How Does Stress Affect the Brain?
• What Is the Best Definition of Stress Management?
• Positive Psychology Titles
• Yoga Questions
• Stress Titles
• Cognitive Psychology Topics
• Emotional Development Questions
• Personality Psychology Research Topics
• Depression Essay Topics
• Personality Development Ideas
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 29). 117 Stress Management Essay Topic Ideas & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/stress-management-essay-topics/

"117 Stress Management Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." IvyPanda , 29 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/stress-management-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2024) '117 Stress Management Essay Topic Ideas & Examples'. 29 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "117 Stress Management Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/stress-management-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "117 Stress Management Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/stress-management-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "117 Stress Management Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/stress-management-essay-topics/.

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Sweepstakes
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support
• Signs of Burnout
• Stress and Weight Gain
• Stress Reduction Tips
• Self-Care Practices
• Mindful Living

What Is Stress?

Stress is Inevitable - Learn to Maintain Your Emotional and Physical Well-Being

The Inner-Workings of the Stress Response

Ways to cope with stress, final thoughts.

• Next in How Stress Impacts Your Health Guide How to Recognize Burnout Symptoms

Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes physical, emotional, or mental strain. Stress is your body's response to anything that requires attention or action. 

Everyone experiences stress to some degree. The way you respond to stress, however, makes a big difference to your overall mental and physical well-being.

Verywell / Brianna Gilmartin

Sometimes, the best way to manage your stress involves changing your situation. At other times, the best strategy involves changing the way you respond to the situation.

Developing a clear understanding of how stress impacts your physical and mental health is important. It's also important to recognize how your mental and physical health affects your stress level.

Watch Now: 5 Ways Stress Can Cause Weight Gain

Clues that indicate you might be stressed.

Stress is not always easy to recognize, but there are some ways to identify some signs that you might be experiencing too much pressure. Sometimes stress can come from an obvious source, but sometimes even small daily stresses from work, school, family, and friends can take a toll on your mind and body.

If you think stress might be affecting you, there are a few things you can watch for:

• Cognitive signs such as difficulty concentrating, worrying, anxiety, and trouble remembering
• Emotional signs such as being angry, irritated, fearful, or moody
• Physical signs such as high blood pressure, headaches , clammy/sweaty hands, muscle tension and neck pain , changes in weight, frequent colds or infections , teeth grinding, digestive problems , and changes in the menstrual cycle and sex drive
• Behavioral signs such as poor self-care, not having time for the things you enjoy, or relying on drugs and alcohol to cope

What Does Stress Feel Like?

Stress can manifest in a variety of ways in your mind and body, and there is no one-size-fits-all answer. It can contribute to feelings of frustration, worry, and burnout. You may feel physically exhausted, worn out, and unable to cope.

Stress vs. Anxiety: What's the Difference?

Stress can sometimes be mistaken for anxiety, and experiencing a great deal of stress can contribute to feelings of anxiety. Stress and anxiety both contribute to nervousness, poor sleep, high blood pressure , muscle tension, and excess worry. Experiencing anxiety can make it more difficult to cope with stress and may contribute to other health issues, including increased depression, susceptibility to illness, and digestive problems.

In most cases, stress is caused by external events, while anxiety is caused by your internal reaction to stress. Stress may go away once the threat or the situation resolves, whereas anxiety may persist even after the original stressor is gone.

The Usual Suspects: Main Causes of Stress

There are many different things in life that can cause stress. Some of the main sources of stress include work, finances, relationships, parenting, and day-to-day inconveniences.

Mental Health in the Workplace Webinar

On May 19, 2022, Verywell Mind hosted a virtual Mental Health in the Workplace webinar, hosted by Amy Morin, LCSW. If you missed it, check out  this recap  to learn ways to foster supportive work environments and helpful strategies to improve your well-being on the job.

The Four Types of Stress

Not all types of stress are harmful or even negative. Some of the different types of stress that you might experience include:

• Acute stress : Acute stress is a very short-term type of stress that can be upsetting or traumatic ; this is the type of stress that is out of the ordinary, such as a car accident, assault, or natural disaster.
• Chronic stress : Chronic stress is what we most often encounter in day-to-day life and seems never-ending and inescapable, like the stress of a bad marriage or an extremely taxing job.
• Episodic acute stress : Episodic acute stress is acute stress that seems to run rampant and be a way of life, creating a life of ongoing distress; episodic stress can be recurring illness, ongoing domestic violence, child abuse , and living through conflict and war.
• Eustress : Eustress , on the other hand, is fun and exciting. It's known as a positive type of stress that can keep you energized. It's associated with surges of adrenaline, such as when you are skiing or racing to meet a deadline. 

Harmful Types of Stress:

The main harmful types of stress are acute stress, chronic stress, and episodic acute stress. Acute stress is usually brief, chronic stress is prolonged, and episodic acute stress is short-term but frequent. Positive stress, known as eustress, can be fun and exciting, but it can also take a toll if you don't keep your life in balance.

Stress can trigger the body’s response to a perceived threat or danger, known as the fight-or-flight response . During this reaction, certain hormones like adrenaline and cortisol are released. This speeds the heart rate, slows digestion, shunts blood flow to major muscle groups, and changes various other autonomic nervous functions, giving the body a burst of energy and strength.

Originally named for its ability to enable us to physically fight or run away when faced with danger, the fight-or-flight response is now activated in situations where neither response is appropriate—like in traffic or during a stressful day at work.

When the perceived threat is gone, systems are designed to return to normal function via the relaxation response . But in cases of chronic stress, the relaxation response doesn't occur often enough, and being in a near-constant state of fight-or-flight can cause damage to the body.

Stress can also lead to some unhealthy habits that have a negative impact on your health. For example, many people cope with stress by eating too much or by smoking. These unhealthy habits damage the body and create bigger problems in the long term.

Brace For Impact: How Stress Affects Your Health

Stress can have several effects on your health and well-being. It can make it more challenging to deal with life's daily hassles, affect your interpersonal relationships, and have detrimental effects on your health. The connection between your mind and body is apparent when you examine stress's impact on your life.

Feeling stressed over a relationship, money, or living situation can create physical health issues. The inverse is also true. Health problems, whether you're dealing with high blood pressure or diabetes , will also affect your stress level and mental health. When your brain experiences high degrees of stress , your body reacts accordingly.

Serious acute stress, like being involved in a natural disaster or getting into a verbal altercation, can trigger heart attacks, arrhythmias, and even sudden death. However, this happens mostly in individuals who already have heart disease.

Stress also takes an emotional toll. While some stress may produce feelings of mild anxiety or frustration, prolonged stress can also lead to burnout , anxiety disorders , and depression.

Chronic stress can have a serious impact on your health as well. If you experience chronic stress, your autonomic nervous system will be overactive, which is likely to damage your body.

Stress-Influenced Conditions

• Chronic Pain
• Inflammatory diseases
• Heart disease
• Hyperthyroidism
• Sexual dysfunction
• Skin problems
• Sleep disorders
• Tooth and gum disease

What Can I Do When I Have Too Much Stress?

There are some treatment options for acute and chronic stress, as well as a variety of stress management strategies you can implement on your own. Stress may be inevitable; however, whenever possible, prevention is the best strategy.

An Old Proverb by Benjamin Franklin

An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure

Treatment Options

Stress is not a distinct medical diagnosis and there is no single, specific treatment for it. Treatment for stress focuses on changing the situation, developing stress-coping skills , implementing relaxation techniques, and treating symptoms or conditions that may have been caused by chronic stress.

Some interventions that may be helpful include therapy, medication, and complementary and alternative medicine (CAM).

Psychotherapy

Some forms of therapy that may be particularly helpful in addressing symptoms of stress including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) . CBT focuses on helping people identify and change negative thinking patterns, while MBSR utilizes meditation and mindfulness to help reduce stress levels.

Medication may sometimes be prescribed to address some specific symptoms that are related to stress. Such medications may include sleep aids, antacids, antidepressants, and anti-anxiety medications.

Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Some complementary approaches that may also be helpful for reducing stress include acupuncture, aromatherapy, massage, yoga, and meditation .

Although stress is inevitable, it can be manageable. When you understand the toll it takes on you and the steps to combat stress, you can take charge of your health and reduce the impact stress has on your life.

Press Play for Advice On Managing Stress

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast featuring professor Elissa Epel, shares ways to manage stress. Click below to listen now.

Follow Now : Apple Podcasts / Spotify / Google Podcasts / Amazon Music

Here are a few things to get you started:

• Learn to recognize the signs of burnout. High levels of stress may place you at a high risk of burnout. Burnout can leave you feeling exhausted and apathetic about your job. When you start to feel symptoms of emotional exhaustion, it's a sign that you need to find a way to get a handle on your stress.
• Try to get regular exercise. Physical activity has a big impact on your brain and your body . Whether you enjoy a walk in the park, stretching, pilates, or you want to begin jogging, exercise reduces stress and improves many symptoms associated with mental illness.
• Take care of yourself. Incorporating regular self-care activities into your daily life is essential to stress management. Learn how to take care of your mind, body, and spirit and discover how to equip yourself to live your best life.
• Practice mindfulness in your life. Mindfulness isn't just something you practice for 10 minutes each day. It can also be a way of life. Discover how to live more mindfully throughout your day so you can become more awake and conscious throughout your life.

If you or a loved one are struggling with stress, contact the  Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helpline  at 1-800-662-4357 for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.

For more mental health resources, see our  National Helpline Database .

Stress is a part of life and comes in all shapes and sizes. There are things we can do to minimize or even prevent much of the stress in our lives. But some stress is unavoidable.

If you find you are overwhelmed by an acute stressor, or the daily grind, there are ways to cope and recover. Whether you try some stress management strategies on your own or seek professional help... it is important to keep stress levels in check to avoid the negative impact on your cognitive, emotional, and physical well being.

National Institute of Mental Health. I'm so stressed out! Fact sheet .

Goldstein DS. Adrenal responses to stress .  Cell Mol Neurobiol . 2010;30(8):1433–1440. doi:10.1007/s10571-010-9606-9

Stahl JE, Dossett ML, LaJoie AS, et al. Relaxation response and resiliency training and its effect on healthcare resource utilization . PLoS ONE . 2015;10(10). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0140212

Chi JS, Kloner RA. Stress and myocardial infarction .  Heart . 2003;89(5):475–476. doi:10.1136/heart.89.5.475

Salvagioni DAJ, Melanda FN, Mesas AE, González AD, Gabani FL, Andrade SM. Physical, psychological and occupational consequences of job burnout: A systematic review of prospective studies .  PLoS ONE . 2017;12(10). doi:10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0185781

Bitonte RA, DeSanto DJ II. Mandatory physical exercise for the prevention of mental illness in medical students .  Ment Illn . 2014;6(2):5549. doi:10.4081/mi.2014.5549

Ayala EE, Winseman JS, Johnsen RD, Mason HRC. U.S. medical students who engage in self-care report less stress and higher quality of life .  BMC Med Educ . 2018;18(1):189. doi:10.1186/s12909-018-1296-x

Richards KC, Campenni CE, Muse-Burke JL. Self-care and well-being in mental health professionals: The mediating effects of self-awareness and mindfulness .  J Ment Health Couns . 2010;32(3):247. doi:10.17744/mehc.32.3.0n31v88304423806.

American Psychological Association. Stress in America 2023 .

Krantz DS, Whittaker KS, Sheps DS.  Psychosocial risk factors for coronary heart disease: Pathophysiologic mechanisms .  In Heart and Mind: The Practice of Cardiac Psychology (2nd Ed.). American Psychological Association; 2011:91-113. doi:10.1037/13086-004

By Elizabeth Scott, PhD Elizabeth Scott, PhD is an author, workshop leader, educator, and award-winning blogger on stress management, positive psychology, relationships, and emotional wellbeing.

• Skip to main content
• Skip to secondary menu
• Skip to primary sidebar
• Skip to footer

A Plus Topper

Improve your Grades

Stress Management Essay | Essay on Stress Management for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Stress Management Essay:  Stress is a complex phenomenon that can be defined in several ways; however, put together; it is the wear and tear of everyday life. Stress management can be defined as a wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies to control a person’s stress level, especially chronic stress.

Effective methods and techniques of stress management help an individual break the hold that stress has on their lives. This, in turn, helps people in leading a healthier, happier, and more productive lifestyle.

You can also find more  Essay Writing  articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

Long and Short Essays on Stress Management for Students and Kids in English

We provide students with essay samples on a long essay of 500 words and a short essay of 150 words on the topic Stress Management for reference.

Long Essay on Stress Management 500 Words in English

Long Essay on Stress Management is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

The increasingly busy lives that people choose to live today cause a lot of stress on their minds. Stress is a mental tension that is caused by taxing, demanding, and burdensome circumstances. Stress affects one’s mental stress and mood and has adverse effects on their physical health.

When a person is highly stressed, a hormone known as cortisol is released into the bloodstream, suppressing the proper functioning of one’s digestive, reproductive, and immune systems. This is why it is essential to practice stress management to keep one’s mind and body healthier.

Stress management is making constant changes to one’s life if they are in a stressful situation by various techniques and methods. Stress management includes preventing stress by practicing self-care and relaxation; also managing one’s response to stressful situations when they occur.

Stress is not good for the body. Stress is a survival instinct or response when the body thinks that it is in danger. This is why one’s sympathetic nervous system kicks in, increasing the heart rate with which there is a burst of the energy hormone adrenaline, which helps in dealing with any situation. This is also known as a flight or fight response.

The problem starts when a person deals with constant stress and worry or unaware of ways to manage stressful situations. Stress management becomes extremely important in people’s lives for leading a quality life, having healthy relationships, and preventing any adverse effects on health. There are various stress management models, with each having distinctive explanations of mechanisms for dealing with or controlling stress. Much more research is needed for a proper understanding of which method operates and is effective in practice.

The first step of stress management is to identify the sources of stress in one’s life. While it is easier to address major stressors such as an unhealthy or toxic relationship, job changes, or the process of moving, locating the actual reason for chronic stress can be complicated.

Apart from causing mental and physical strain, stress can also cause tension and even illness – it can affect all areas of one’s life. Stress management serves as beneficial as it reduces heart diseases, digestive problems, blood pressure, and many more physical ailments. Stress management also helps in dealing with mental health issues such as anxiety or panic disorder.

There are various techniques in reducing stress in one’s life, from meditation to exercising and even journaling. Yoga is a popular physical form of stress management technique. A morning or evening jog and other forms of cardiovascular exercises help release the happy hormones – endorphins – into the system that helps prevent stress throughout the day.

Meditation is another form of mental technique which helps in dealing with stress. Apart from these, making changes in everyday habits such as maintain a proper sleep schedule, avoiding cigarettes, alcohol, and drugs, making sure that one’s diet consists of proper nutrition; spending time doing things that bring them joy goes a long way in letting go of the stress that one comes across every day.

Short Essay on Stress Management 150 Words in English

Short Essay on Stress Management is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

Stress is a complex phenomenon and is the body’s response – which serves as a survival instinct – to any danger. Stress is a state of mind reflecting certain biochemical reactions in a human body, which is projected by a sense of anxiety, panic, or depression.

Stress management becomes necessary as it helps an individual break the hold that stress has on one’s life. Stress can harm one’s mental and physical health, so managing stress helps one live a healthy life. Stress management helps achieve a balanced life’s ultimate goal, with proper time for work, family, relationships, fun, and relaxation. It also gives the resilience to work under pressure and face challenges head-on.

However, as not every individual is affected by the same things, similarly not the same things cause everyone’s stress. So, the stress management technique for every individual is different.

10 Lines on Stress Management in English

• If individuals live their lives at high-stress levels, they are putting their entire well-being at risk.
• Stress has several physical and mental symptoms.
• Many practical stress management methods are available, some being used by health professionals and some for self-help.
• Evaluation of the effectiveness of various stress management techniques can be difficult as only limited researches exist currently.
• Managing stress helps in improving lifestyle and helps in facing the problems of everyday life head-on.
• Exercising serves as a great way of relieving stress.
• Stress can cause adverse effects on the immune, digestive, and reproductive systems.
• Stress is associated with anxiety and depression.
• Stress is present in everyday life activities, and stress management helps use the proper techniques by which these activities can be handled well.
• Staying physically active serves a great purpose in managing stress.

FAQ’s on Stress Management Essay

Question 1. What are some ways of relieving stress?

Answer: Exercising, reducing caffeine intake, spending time with friends and family, journaling, yoga, and meditation can relieve stress.

Question 2. Why is stress management important?

Answer: Stress causes heart diseases, increased blood pressure, ulcers, decreased sexual drive, and impotence. Stress can also cause emotional eating and a lack of motivation. Stress management helps in leading a happier and healthier life.

Question 3. What are some psychological and emotional signs of stress?

Answer: Stress causes depression, anxiety, anger issues, irritability, restlessness, makes one feel unmotivated, overwhelmed and focused. It can also cause a lack of sleep or sleeping too much.

• Picture Dictionary
• English Speech
• English Slogans
• English Letter Writing
• English Essay Writing
• English Textbook Answers
• Types of Certificates
• ICSE Solutions
• Selina ICSE Solutions
• ML Aggarwal Solutions
• HSSLive Plus One
• HSSLive Plus Two
• Kerala SSLC
• Distance Education

• Essay Editor

Mental Health Essay

Introduction

Mental health, often overshadowed by its physical counterpart, is an intricate and essential aspect of human existence. It envelops our emotions, psychological state, and social well-being, shaping our thoughts, behaviors, and interactions. With the complexities of modern life—constant connectivity, societal pressures, personal expectations, and the frenzied pace of technological advancements—mental well-being has become increasingly paramount. Historically, conversations around this topic have been hushed, shrouded in stigma and misunderstanding. However, as the curtains of misconception slowly lift, we find ourselves in an era where discussions about mental health are not only welcomed but are also seen as vital. Recognizing and addressing the nuances of our mental state is not merely about managing disorders; it's about understanding the essence of who we are, how we process the world around us, and how we navigate the myriad challenges thrown our way. This essay aims to delve deep into the realm of mental health, shedding light on its importance, the potential consequences of neglect, and the spectrum of mental disorders that many face in silence.

Importance of Mental Health

Mental health plays a pivotal role in determining how individuals think, feel, and act. It influences our decision-making processes, stress management techniques, interpersonal relationships, and even our physical health. A well-tuned mental state boosts productivity, creativity, and the intrinsic sense of self-worth, laying the groundwork for a fulfilling life.

Negative Impact of Mental Health

Neglecting mental health, on the other hand, can lead to severe consequences. Reduced productivity, strained relationships, substance abuse, physical health issues like heart diseases, and even reduced life expectancy are just some of the repercussions of poor mental health. It not only affects the individual in question but also has a ripple effect on their community, workplace, and family.

Mental Disorders: Types and Prevalence

Mental disorders are varied and can range from anxiety and mood disorders like depression and bipolar disorder to more severe conditions such as schizophrenia.

• Depression: Characterized by persistent sadness, lack of interest in activities, and fatigue.
• Anxiety Disorders: Encompass conditions like generalized anxiety disorder, panic attacks, and specific phobias.
• Schizophrenia: A complex disorder affecting a person's ability to think, feel, and behave clearly.

The prevalence of these disorders has been on the rise, underscoring the need for comprehensive mental health initiatives and awareness campaigns.

Understanding Mental Health and Its Importance

Mental health is not merely the absence of disorders but encompasses emotional, psychological, and social well-being. Recognizing the signs of deteriorating mental health, like prolonged sadness, extreme mood fluctuations, or social withdrawal, is crucial. Understanding stems from awareness and education. Societal stigmas surrounding mental health have often deterred individuals from seeking help. Breaking these barriers, fostering open conversations, and ensuring access to mental health care are imperative steps.

Conclusion: Mental Health

Mental health, undeniably, is as significant as physical health, if not more. In an era where the stressors are myriad, from societal pressures to personal challenges, mental resilience and well-being are essential. Investing time and resources into mental health initiatives, and more importantly, nurturing a society that understands, respects, and prioritizes mental health is the need of the hour.

• World Leaders: Several influential personalities, from celebrities to sports stars, have openly discussed their mental health challenges, shedding light on the universality of these issues and the importance of addressing them.
• Workplaces: Progressive organizations are now incorporating mental health programs, recognizing the tangible benefits of a mentally healthy workforce, from increased productivity to enhanced creativity.
• Educational Institutions: Schools and colleges, witnessing the effects of stress and other mental health issues on students, are increasingly integrating counseling services and mental health education in their curriculum.

In weaving through the intricate tapestry of mental health, it becomes evident that it's an area that requires collective attention, understanding, and action.

  Short Essay about Mental Health

Mental health, an integral facet of human well-being, shapes our emotions, decisions, and daily interactions. Just as one would care for a sprained ankle or a fever, our minds too require attention and nurture. In today's bustling world, mental well-being is often put on the back burner, overshadowed by the immediate demands of life. Yet, its impact is pervasive, influencing our productivity, relationships, and overall quality of life.

Sadly, mental health issues have long been stigmatized, seen as a sign of weakness or dismissed as mere mood swings. However, they are as real and significant as any physical ailment. From anxiety to depression, these disorders have touched countless lives, often in silence due to societal taboos.

But change is on the horizon. As awareness grows, conversations are shifting from hushed whispers to open discussions, fostering understanding and support. Institutions, workplaces, and communities are increasingly acknowledging the importance of mental health, implementing programs, and offering resources.

In conclusion, mental health is not a peripheral concern but a central one, crucial to our holistic well-being. It's high time we prioritize it, eliminating stigma and fostering an environment where everyone feels supported in their mental health journey.

Frequently Asked Questions

• What is the primary focus of a mental health essay?

Answer: The primary focus of a mental health essay is to delve into the intricacies of mental well-being, its significance in our daily lives, the various challenges people face, and the broader societal implications. It aims to shed light on both the psychological and emotional aspects of mental health, often emphasizing the importance of understanding, empathy, and proactive care.

• How can writing an essay on mental health help raise awareness about its importance?

Answer: Writing an essay on mental health can effectively articulate the nuances and complexities of the topic, making it more accessible to a wider audience. By presenting facts, personal anecdotes, and research, the essay can demystify misconceptions, highlight the prevalence of mental health issues, and underscore the need for destigmatizing discussions around it. An impactful essay can ignite conversations, inspire action, and contribute to a more informed and empathetic society.

• What are some common topics covered in a mental health essay?

Answer: Common topics in a mental health essay might include the definition and importance of mental health, the connection between mental and physical well-being, various mental disorders and their symptoms, societal stigmas and misconceptions, the impact of modern life on mental health, and the significance of therapy and counseling. It may also delve into personal experiences, case studies, and the broader societal implications of neglecting mental health.

Related articles

Paraphrasing vs plagiarism: do they really differ.

Academic assignments require much knowledge and skill. One of the most important points is rendering and interpreting material one has ever studied. A person should avoid presenting word-for-word plagiarism but express his or her thoughts and ideas as much as possible. However, every fine research is certain to be based on the previous issues, data given, or concepts suggested. And here it's high time to differentiate plagiarism and paraphrasing, to realize its peculiarities and cases of usage. ...

How to Write a Dialogue in an Essay: Useful Tips

A correct usage of dialogues in essays may seem quite difficult at first sight. Still there are special issues, for instance, narrative or descriptive papers, where this literary technique will be a good helper in depicting anyone's character. How to add dialogues to the work? How to format them correctly? Let's discuss all relevant matters to master putting conversation episodes into academic essays. Essay Dialogue: Definition & Purpose A dialogue is a literary technique for presenting a con ...

Can Plagiarism Be Detected on PDF?

Plagiarism has been a challenge for a long time in writing. It's easy to find information online, which might make some people use it without saying where it came from. But plagiarism isn't just taking someone else's words. Sometimes, we might do it by accident or even use our own old work without mentioning it. When people plagiarize, they can get into serious trouble. They might lose others' trust or even face legal problems. Luckily, we now have tools to detect plagiarism. But what about PDF ...

What Is Self-Plagiarism & How To Avoid It

Have you ever thought about whether using your own work again could be seen as copying? It might seem strange, but self-plagiarism is a real issue in school and work writing. Let's look at what this means and learn how to avoid self-plagiarism so your work stays original and ethical. What is self-plagiarism? Self-plagiarism, also called auto-plagiarism or duplicate plagiarism, happens when a writer uses parts of their old work without saying where it came from. This isn't just about copying w ...

What is Citation and Why Should You Cite the Sources When Writing Content

When we write something for school, work, or just for fun, we often use ideas and facts from other places. This makes us ask: what is a citation in writing? Let's find out what this means and why it's really important when we write. What is Citation? Citation in research refers to the practice of telling your readers where you got your information, ideas, or exact words from. It's like showing them the path to the original information you used in your writing. When you cite something, you us ...

Top 10 Use Cases for AI Writers

Writing is changing a lot because of AI. But don't worry — AI won't take human writers' jobs. It's a tool that can make our work easier and help us write better. When we use AI along with our own skills, we can create good content faster and better. AI can help with many parts of writing, from coming up with ideas to fixing the final version. Let's look at the top 10 ways how to use AI for content creation and how it can make your writing better. What Is AI Content Writing? AI content writin ...

Plagiarism: 7 Types in Detail

Your professor says that it is necessary to avoid plagiarism when writing a research paper, essay, or any project based on the works of other people, so to say, any reference source. But what does plagiarism mean? What types of it exist? And how to formulate the material to get rid of potential bad consequences while rendering original texts? Today we try to answer these very questions. Plagiarism: Aspect in Brief Plagiarism is considered to be a serious breach, able to spoil your successful ...

How To Write Essays Faster Using AI?

Creating various topical texts is an obligatory assignment during studies. For a majority of students, it seems like a real headache. It is quite difficult to write a smooth and complex work, meeting all the professors' requirements. However, thanks to modern technologies there appeared a good way of getting a decent project – using AI to write essays. We'd like to acquaint you with Aithor, an effective tool of this kind, able to perform fine and elaborated texts, and, of course, inspiration, i ...

• Skip to main content

India’s Largest Career Transformation Portal

Stress Management Essay for Students in English [Easy Words*]

January 25, 2021 by Sandeep

Essay on Stress Management: The word ‘stress’ was first used by a medical researcher named Selye in 1984 to educate people about the complex reactions in the human body when under pressure. It is a psychological response and utilizes abnormal levels of energy.

Essay on Stress Management 500 Words in English

Below we have provided Stress Management Essay in English, suitable for class 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10.

Stress is a complex phenomenon; medical scientist Selye (1984) used the term to describe the body’s biological reaction mechanisms. Selye defined stress as the body’s non-specific reaction to all demands. Stress is an adaptive answer to a stimulus in which the person has excessive psychological needs. In other words, stress represents a sense of fear, discomfort and depression that expresses those biochemical reactors in the human body and results in certain external forces, or the internal forces, that cannot be fulfilled by the means available to the individual. The level of stress depends on the ambient intensity or working style of a person. The so-called “stressors” are those environmental activities, circumstances or stimuli which induce stress; such stressors can be physical or emotional.

What is Stress Management?

Stress management means taking care of your thoughts, feelings, schedule, environment and how you handle problems. It is all about managing stress. The end goal is a healthy life, with time for jobs, friends, rest and recreation, and the desire to keep up and tackle obstacles. It is a broad spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies to control individuals’ level of stress, particularly chronic stress, usually to improve their everyday working.

Types of Stress

Acute Stress: Acute stress addresses the stresses of the near future or the very recent past. This type of stress is often misunderstood as unfavourable. Although this is true in some situations, it is also good to have particular acute stress in life. Running is called acute stressors, like some other type of action. Acute stress is a short-term threat that, as a result, has little time to weaken it.

Chronic Stress: Unlike acute stress, chronic stress is unusual. It affects people and can be a significant health concern because it lasts for a long time. Chronic stress can lead to loss of memory, spatial damage and a diminished food drive.

Strategies for Managing Stress

If a difficult situation cannot be stopped, try to improve it. Find out what you should do to change it so that the question will not emerge in the future. This also involves adjusting the way one communicates and acts in daily life.

Adjust yourself because you cannot change the stressors. Through adjusting your perceptions or mood, you can adapt to difficult circumstances and recover your sense of control.

There are unavoidable causes of stress. Stressors such a loving’s passing, a significant disease or a global crisis cannot be avoided or changed. The best way to deal with stress in these cases is to accept things as they are. Acceptance may be challenging, but, in the longer term, it is easier than railing, you cannot change a situation.

You can reduce tension in your life by nurturing yourself, above and beyond a constructive outlook and mindset. If you make time for fun and rest days, you will be in a great position to cope with life stressors.

Through improving your physical fitness, you can increase your stress tolerance. Physical exercise plays a significant role in stress management and avoidance. Allow time, three days a week, for at least 30 minutes of exercise. It can help alleviate pent-up anxiety and stress from aerobic exercise.

Appointments at Mayo Clinic

• Stress management
• Stress basics
• Stress relief
• Relaxation techniques

Stress is a normal psychological and physical reaction to the demands of life. A small amount of stress can be good, motivating you to perform well. But many challenges daily, such as sitting in traffic, meeting deadlines and paying bills, can push you beyond your ability to cope.

Your brain comes hard-wired with an alarm system for your protection. When your brain perceives a threat, it signals your body to release a burst of hormones that increase your heart rate and raise your blood pressure. This "fight-or-flight" response fuels you to deal with the threat.

Once the threat is gone, your body is meant to return to a normal, relaxed state. Unfortunately, the nonstop complications of modern life and its demands and expectations mean that some people's alarm systems rarely shut off.

Stress management gives you a range of tools to reset and to recalibrate your alarm system. It can help your mind and body adapt (resilience). Without it, your body might always be on high alert. Over time, chronic stress can lead to serious health problems.

Don't wait until stress damages your health, relationships or quality of life. Start practicing stress management techniques today.

There is a problem with information submitted for this request. Review/update the information highlighted below and resubmit the form.

From Mayo Clinic to your inbox

Sign up for free and stay up to date on research advancements, health tips, current health topics, and expertise on managing health. Click here for an email preview.

Error Email field is required

Error Include a valid email address

To provide you with the most relevant and helpful information, and understand which information is beneficial, we may combine your email and website usage information with other information we have about you. If you are a Mayo Clinic patient, this could include protected health information. If we combine this information with your protected health information, we will treat all of that information as protected health information and will only use or disclose that information as set forth in our notice of privacy practices. You may opt-out of email communications at any time by clicking on the unsubscribe link in the e-mail.

Thank you for subscribing!

You'll soon start receiving the latest Mayo Clinic health information you requested in your inbox.

Sorry something went wrong with your subscription

Please, try again in a couple of minutes

• How stress affects your health. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/topics/stress/health. Accessed Dec. 8, 2021.
• Manage stress. MyHealthfinder. https://health.gov/myhealthfinder/topics/health-conditions/heart-health/manage-stress. Accessed Dec. 6, 2021.
• What is stress management? American Heart Association. https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-lifestyle/stress-management/what-is-stress-management. Accessed Dec. 7, 2021.
• Managing stress. National Alliance on Mental Illness. https://www.nami.org/Your-Journey/Individuals-with-Mental-Illness/Taking-Care-of-Your-Body/Managing-Stress. Accessed Dec. 8, 2021.
• Stress. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/stress. Accessed Dec. 6, 2021.
• AskMayoExpert. Stress management and resiliency (adult). Mayo Clinic; 2021.
• Stress and your health. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. https://www.womenshealth.gov/mental-health/good-mental-health/stress-and-your-health. Accessed Dec. 9, 2021.
• Seaward BL. Essentials of Managing Stress. 5th ed. Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2021.

Products and Services

• A Book: Live Younger Longer
• Newsletter: Mayo Clinic Health Letter — Digital Edition
• A Book: Mayo Clinic Guide to Home Remedies
• A Book: Mayo Clinic on High Blood Pressure
• A Book: Mayo Clinic Family Health Book
• A Book: Mayo Clinic Guide to Pain Relief
• A very happy brain
• Alternative cancer treatments: 11 options to consider
• Being assertive
• Bridge pose
• Caregiver stress
• Cat/cow pose
• Child's pose
• Stress and your health
• COVID-19 and your mental health
• Does stress make rheumatoid arthritis worse?
• Downward-facing dog
• Ease stress to reduce eczema symptoms
• Ease stress to reduce your psoriasis flares
• Forgiveness
• Headaches and stress
• Job burnout
• Learn to reduce stress through mindful living
• Manage stress to improve psoriatic arthritis symptoms
• Mayo Clinic Minute: Meditation is good medicine
• Mindfulness exercises
• Mountain pose
• New School Anxiety
• Positive thinking
• Seated spinal twist
• Standing forward bend
• Stress hair loss
• Stress and high blood pressure
• Stress relief from laughter
• Stress relievers
• Stress symptoms
• Support groups
• Tips for easing stress when you have Crohn's disease
• Guided meditation video

Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission.

• Opportunities

Mayo Clinic Press

Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic Press .

• Mayo Clinic on Incontinence - Mayo Clinic Press Mayo Clinic on Incontinence
• The Essential Diabetes Book - Mayo Clinic Press The Essential Diabetes Book
• Mayo Clinic on Hearing and Balance - Mayo Clinic Press Mayo Clinic on Hearing and Balance
• FREE Mayo Clinic Diet Assessment - Mayo Clinic Press FREE Mayo Clinic Diet Assessment
• Mayo Clinic Health Letter - FREE book - Mayo Clinic Press Mayo Clinic Health Letter - FREE book
• Healthy Lifestyle

5X Challenge

Thanks to generous benefactors, your gift today can have 5X the impact to advance AI innovation at Mayo Clinic.

Stress Management Essay

Introduction.

Stress at the workplace and school environment causes harm to individuals. Some of the major stressors include workplace uncertainties, technological advancements, office politics and the workloads experienced. With stress, productivity is also lowered, which negatively impacts the profit lines of organizations. Both employees and organizations need to have stress management plans to ensure stress is kept at an all-time low. In so doing, a healthy adjustment to stressors ensures both employee and organization well-being.

Comparison of major stressors

One major stress in the workplace environment is uncertainty about various things. Some of the uncertainties include frequent upheaval due to changes in the administrators. Changing managers and supervisors results in management stress that trickles down to the employees under them (Lipman 2019). In addition, frequent changes in routine also result in stress as employees cannot develop work plans that work for them. In the same way, the Covid 19 had a stressful impact on my stress levels at school. Some classes were online, and other vital ones were physical. When I contracted an illness that kept me from accessing the physical classes due to health protocols instituted, I was under a lot of stress and the overwhelming workload I would have to overcome on resumption. Technological advancements are also major stressors in the workplace environment (Lipman 2019). The new times require people to have software skills for work and school. At school, the online classes required that I learn how to use software I had never used before, such as Zoom. However, my adaptability and also knowledge on how to use technology helped keep the stress at low levels.

Preparation for workplace stressors

Preparation for the workplace requires ensuring they have a competitive edge with the frequent brushing up of their skills. Technological advancements easily lock people out of opportunities. Ensuring one brushes up on their skills and remains connected with the world changes ensures that one remains knowledgeable. I frequently brush up on my skills, and it’s easy to know of the frequent changes and ways to use technology while interacting with other students. I plan to enroll in classes that interest me even after I leave school so that I’m not locked out of new opportunities. The diversity of things one can do ensures that their skills remain relevant in a changing world. The technological knowledge I possess already gives me a competitive edge, especially against the generation Xers, but remaining so amongst generation Z will require intentional learning (Joseph 2019).

Additional stressors

Many stressors can occur at the workplace. One is proximity to the work environment. An employee considering an employment opportunity needs to know how accessible an area is or how they can change their circumstances to ensure they are easily accessible. The commute time adds to the workday and, if it’s too long, could be a reason for stress due to inadequate rest time (Nepal et al. 2021). Employees also need to consider the values and ethics of a company. With proper research, one can easily determine whether its values resound with their own. Work is made easier if the values of a company match yours. An employee also needs to consider the end goal of their career. A clear vision for the future helps one grab opportunities as they come, such as taking extra classes to move forward in their career. Being more prepared ensures that one gains opportunities more easily.

Stress preventive strategies

Stress preventive strategies are important for individuals and for organizations. Stressors such as job insecurity, workplace politics and accessibility to relevant tools are easily preventable. One needs to prepare for changes in the job future. Remaining competitive ensure that one’s job does not go obsolete. Employees should remain on their toes to ensure their skills remain relevant by seeking to self-improve frequently. In addition, organizations can help their employees remain relevant by organizing workshops and learning sessions that help improve various departments (Kohll 2019). Workplace politics cause upheaval and animosity within organizations. It is necessary to ensure that employers don’t pit their employees against each other. Employees should also make suggestions to ensure that the organizations remain competitive by informing them of changes required. Choosing managers based on their skills and people skills is important in creating a healthy working environment. Human resource departments are also important in organizations to maintain a healthy working environment. On the other hand, the employees need to prevent hostility by remaining respectful of others and speaking out against harassment. Lastly, organizations should ensure that workers access the tools they need to remain effective (Joseph 2019). Constant research on tools that can maximize production and efficiency should be done.

Stress management should remain a focus in the workplace and at school. Alleviating stress ensures that employees and organizations function optimally and lead more fulfilled lives.

Kohll, A. (2019, June 12).  Is your employee wellness program ready for Generation Z?  Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/alankohll/2019/06/12/is-your-employee-wellness-program-ready-for-generation-z/#6bcf6d545c7c

Lipman, V. (2019, January 10).  Workplace trend: Stress is on the rise . Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/victorlipman/2019/01/09/workplace-trend-stress-is-on-the-rise/#2a7049e86e1b

Joseph, S. V. (2019, April 28).  5 simple tips for managing work stress . Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/shelcyvjoseph/2019/04/28/5-simple-tips-for-managing-work-stress/#479139b6d125

Nepal, S., Martinez, G. J., Mirjafari, S., Mattingly, S., Swain, V. D., Striegel, A., … & Campbell, A. T. (2021). Assessing the Impact of Commuting on Workplace Performance Using Mobile Sensing.  IEEE Pervasive Computing ,  20 (4), 52-60.

Cite This Work

To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below:

Related Essays

The application and reflection on counseling techniques: enhancing proficiency and personal growth, social, economic, and health inequality in public health administration, knowledge, skills and values for practitioners in supporting children and young people, ec classroom assessment tool review, ethiopia research paper, the efficacy of terrorism: an analysis of max abrahm’s perspective, popular essay topics.

• American Dream
• Artificial Intelligence
• Black Lives Matter
• Bullying Essay
• Career Goals Essay
• Causes of the Civil War
• Child Abusing
• Civil Rights Movement
• Community Service
• Cultural Identity
• Cyber Bullying
• Death Penalty
• Depression Essay
• Domestic Violence
• Freedom of Speech
• Global Warming
• Gun Control
• Human Trafficking
• I Believe Essay
• Immigration
• Importance of Education
• Israel and Palestine Conflict
• Leadership Essay
• Legalizing Marijuanas
• Mental Health
• National Honor Society
• Police Brutality
• Pollution Essay
• Racism Essay
• Romeo and Juliet
• Same Sex Marriages
• Social Media
• The Great Gatsby
• The Yellow Wallpaper
• Time Management
• To Kill a Mockingbird
• Violent Video Games
• What Makes You Unique
• Why I Want to Be a Nurse
• Send us an e-mail

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Scientific Reports
• PMC11333707

A rank ordering and analysis of four cognitive-behavioral stress-management competencies suggests that proactive stress management is especially valuable

Robert epstein.

American Institute for Behavioral Research and Technology, Vista, CA 92084 USA

Jessica Aceret

Ciara giordani, vanessa r. zankich, lynette zhang, associated data.

Anonymized raw data employed in the present study will be made available at Zenodo.com upon acceptance of the manuscript. Anonymized raw data can also be requested by writing to [email protected]. Anonymization was required to comply with the requirement of the sponsoring institution’s Institutional Review Board that the identities of the participants be protected in accordance with HHS Federal Regulation 45 CFR 46.101.(b)(2).

The main objective of this study was to determine the relative value of four cognitive-behavioral competencies that have been shown in empirical studies to be associated with effective stress management. Based on a review of relevant psychological literature, we named the competencies as follows: Manages or Reduces Sources of Stress, Manages Thoughts, Plans and Prevents, and Practices Relaxation Techniques. We measured their relative value by examining data obtained from a diverse convenience sample of 18,895 English-speaking participants in 125 countries (65.0% from the U.S. and Canada) who completed a new inventory of stress-management competencies. We assessed their relative value by employing a concurrent study design, which also allowed us to assess the validity of the new instrument. Regression analyses were used to rank order the four competencies according to how well they predicted desirable outcomes. Both regression and factor analyses pointed to the importance of proactive stress-management practices over reactive methods, but we note that the correlational design of our study has no implications for the possible causal effects of these methods. Questionnaire scores were strongly associated with self-reported happiness and also significantly associated with personal success, professional success, and general level of stress. Data were collected between 2007 and 2022, but we found no effect for time. The study supports the value of stress-management training, and it also suggests that moderate levels of stress may not be as beneficial as previously thought.

Introduction

The main objectives of the present study were to (a) introduce and evaluate a new instrument—the Epstein Stress Management Inventory for individuals (ESMI-i)—for assessing four cognitive-behavioral competencies that have been shown in empirical studies to be associated with effective stress management, (b) analyze data from a large, international group of English-speaking people who completed the new questionnaire online, (c) compare the relative value of the four competencies, and (d) analyze the data from a demographic perspective. By using a competencies approach, we are providing both the public and practitioners with a practical tool for measuring and potentially improving practices associated with effective stress management.

The ESMI-i joins a large number of test instruments and tools that have been developed since the 1950s to help people deal with various kinds of mental health challenges. It is also fairly unique in some respects. For one thing, it was designed for the general population, rather than for a particular group, and it was designed to measure broad competency areas rather than skills that might be helpful mainly in specific contexts. Similar inventories have been designed, for example, to assist individuals who regularly face stress in their work environments 1 – 3 . Other inventories have been designed to measure people’s coping skills in response to specific stressors 4 , 5 .

The ESMI-i is also available online, non-commercial, and free of charge, maintained by a nonprofit organization. Validated instruments measuring the “level” of stress people feel, such as the Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale 6 and the Perceived Stress Scale 7 , are currently available online, and so are numerous non-validated tests of this sort, accessible at websites such as OkCupid.com. Validated inventories that assess “coping styles” also exist, such as the Multidimensional Coping Inventory 8 . These instruments differ from the ESMI-i in that they are designed to classify people, while we are careful to avoid labeling those who complete the ESMI-i; we will explore this matter later in more detail.

Other validated inventories measure cognitive-behavioral skills and overlap to some extent with the ESMI-i. However, most of these instruments were developed with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in mind and thus may not be ideal measures of stress-management competencies per se. In addition, many of these inventories, such as the Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Skills Questionnaire 9 , the Skills of Cognitive Therapy measure 10 , and the CBT Skills Checklist 11 , include items that sometimes conflate skills with reductions in symptoms of depression 12 .

Validated inventories that measure stress-management or coping skills exist, such as the Proactive Coping Inventory 13 , 14 , Chronic Pain Coping Inventory 15 – 19 , the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations 20 – 22 , the COPE Inventory 23 – 25 , the Coping with Stress Scale 26 , the Coping Intelligence Questionnaire 27 , the Dispositional Resilience Scale 28 , 29 , the Stress Mindset Scale 30 – 32 , and the Performance of Cognitive Therapy Strategies measure 33 . However, they are either not available online or, in some cases, they can only be administered by licensed professionals or trained observers 12 . Because many people are now relying on the internet as a major resource for self-evaluation 34 – 37 , we believe that it is important to make validated tests widely available online. Self-help books that teach similar stress-management techniques are available to members of the general public, such as Mind Over Mood 38 ; however, such books are not free, and they take much longer to read than it takes to complete an online inventory.

By stress, we are referring to internal, usually unpleasant physiological and psychological states that are often induced by perceived environmental threats or environmental demands, which are sometimes called “stressors” 39 – 43 . Actual environmental threats do not necessarily produce stress reactions, and the same stressor can cause different stress reactions in different people—or even no stress reaction at all 40 , 41 .

We are not concerned in the present paper with the definitional ambiguities in the terms “stress” and “stressor.” Rather, we are focusing on stress-management practices—thoughts and behaviors that reduce stress—and we are especially interested in practices of this sort that can be both measured and trained by coaches, therapists, or counselors. The instrument we developed focuses on four classes of such behaviors; we define each class of behaviors to be a stress-management competency. The term “coping skills” is sometimes used to describe practices of this sort 44 . For purposes of the present discussion, we will avoid using that term, as well as the related term “coping strategies,” 45 , because we view these terms as referring mainly to reactive practices. In the present study, we will be measuring both reactive and proactive competencies, and we will use our data to compare the relative value of each type.

We believe that it is important to identify and measure stress-management competencies—especially those that can be trained—because of their enormous practical value. Stress-management competencies not only reduce levels of reported stress but have also been associated with increased functioning and well-being, as well as with improvements in mental, emotional, and physical health 46 – 64 . Unmanaged stress is costly, both in personal and economic terms 60 , 65 – 70 . Fortunately, stress management can be trained, and benefits of such training have been demonstrated 46 , 71 – 77 . Levels of stress can also be measured 78 – 83 , and so can stress-management proficiency 17 , 18 , 21 , 24 , 27 , 28 , 30 , 84 – 87 .

The nature and value of a competencies approach

Many, if not most, test instruments used by psychologists are based on theories, and those theories are often about hypothetical constructs such as intelligence or personality traits. The methodology for developing and evaluating such instruments is quite advanced. Factor and item analyses are often employed, for example, to remove items that do not improve the statistical validity of the construct measures.

The ESMI-i is not a theory-based questionnaire, and it does not introduce or attempt to measure constructs. The ESMI-i is a competency test, developed in the spirit of a testing approach strongly advocated by David McClelland, notably in a seminal paper published in The American Psychologist in 1973 88 ; other experts have also been strong advocates of this approach over the years 89 , 90 . A competencies approach to understanding and improving human performance is widely used in multiple fields and arenas—by the military 91 , in healthcare 92 , in business 93 , 94 , in education 95 , and in other areas in which human performance is important 96 – 101 .

As McClelland and others have pointed out, a competencies approach to understanding human functioning has some practical advantages over more traditional psychological approaches. Before he and his colleagues applied this approach to the study of leadership, for example, both businesses and armies had long been searching for “natural born leaders,” and such people exist, of course 102 . But leadership, along with many other areas of human functioning—even intelligence 88 —can be broken down into a number of skill areas that not only can be observed and measured; they can often be trained. Those skill areas, such as the set of skills one needs to drive a car, are not hypothetical, and they are also not constructs. They are sets of behaviors, many of which are observable. Tests that measure traits or constructs often leave people with labels, such as the trait measures yielded by the ubiquitous Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, and labels can be both demoralizing 103 , 104 and self-fulfilling 105 – 108 . In contrast, competency scores simply tell people where they stand at the moment; they are often used in combination with training programs that employ questionnaires to measure post-training improvements.

Development of the ESMI-i questionnaire

The ESMI-i measures “competencies,” a term that is typically defined as “the knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviors that contribute to individual and organizational performance” 109 —specifically those competencies that are mainly cognitive or behavioral in nature and that might help people to reduce, eliminate, or avoid stress. Beginning in 2001, the first author of this paper, with the help of his students, set about searching the psychology literature to find peer-reviewed papers that identified skills, behavior, or knowledge that were associated with successful stress management, the goal being to use these papers to develop a test instrument that could measure the strength of such competencies. We were especially interested in competencies of the sort that therapists or counselors might be likely to teach—those, as opposed to stress-management techniques that might be taught by medical personnel, nutritionists, or other experts.

Over time, we developed a questionnaire that measured four relatively distinct cognitive-behavioral competencies: Manages or Reduces Sources of Stress, Manages Thoughts, Plans and Prevents, and Practices Relaxation Techniques. Table ​ Table1 1 shows the competencies, definitions, the scored items for each competency, and a list of relevant references. Below are examples of how studies published between 2001 and 2007 were employed to develop the four competency categories and to compose a total of 24 scored items. Table ​ Table1 1 also includes relevant references found after the questionnaire was posted online in May of 2007.

Four empirically-supported stress-management competencies.

When possible, we tried to create items that “pinpoint” specific behaviors. Items that pinpoint behavior are good predictors of actual behavior 94 , 110 – 112 . So instead of saying, “I’m great at making people laugh,” we say, “I often try to use humor to diffuse tension.” That wording tells us about behavior and also, to some extent, about the frequency of that behavior. We were not able to do this for every item, but we used pinpointing as a standard for item composition.

Competency 1: manages or reduces sources of stress

In a year-long study with 100 adult residents of the Alameda County area of California, Folkman and Lazarus 113 interviewed participants once every four weeks to determine what strategies they employed to help them cope with the stress they experienced as a result of activities of daily living. The researchers were guided by Richard Lazarus’ cognitive-phenomenological approach to analyzing psychological stress 114 . One of two types of coping strategies analyzed in the 1980 study was labeled “problem-focused” (p. 223), and it suggested, along with other studies (see below), that one robust category of stress management was managing sources of stress. In defining this strategy, the authors spoke of “management or alteration of the person-environment relationship that is the source of stress” (p. 223), “cognitive problem-solving efforts and behavioral strategies for altering or managing the source of the problem” (p. 224), and other actions that reduced or eliminated sources of stress.

We also used language from the Folkman and Lazarus 113 study to help us construct one of our questionnaire items. In elaborating on problem-focused coping strategies, the authors stated that these strategies “include seeking information, trying to get help, inhibiting action, and taking direct action” (p. 229). Item 2 on the ESMI-i is, “I’m comfortable seeking help from other people” (Table ​ (Table1 1 ).

Problem-focused coping strategies were also analyzed in a 2006 study with 67 families of young children with disabilities. Stoneman and Gavidia-Payne 115 found that marital harmony was higher when fathers in these families employed problem-focused strategies to overcome challenges, thus reducing sources of stress.

Competency 2: manages thoughts

Thought management—often taught by counselors and therapists as part of therapeutic treatment—can be a powerful means for reducing or eliminating stress. “Reframing,” a technique most often associated with Albert Ellis 116 and a main component of rational emotive behavior therapy 117 , is just one example of a thought-management technique. Others include cognitive restructuring 118 – 121 , cognitive reappraisal 47 , 54 , 64 , cognitive redefinition 26 , and cognitive defusion 122 – 124 . Most mindfulness techniques, such as acceptance and commitment therapy, incorporate methods for managing thoughts 125 . Cognitive-behavioral therapy, developed by Aaron Beck in the 1960s 126 , 127 , also emphasizes techniques aimed at reducing automatic thoughts and cognitive distortions 128 . Generally speaking, people have little control over the undesirable things that happen to them, but, in theory, they have—or could be trained to have—complete control over how they interpret such events; hence, the logic of using thoughts to manage stress.

Murphy 120 conducted a meta-analysis of 64 studies that examined ways in which people managed workplace stress. The most common methods used to manage stress in work settings were meditation, muscle relaxation, cognitive-behavioral skills, and biofeedback. Cognitive-behavioral techniques, which included “thought restructuring” and other methods, proved to be especially effective in reducing what the author called “psychologic” stress (as opposed to “physiologic” stress). The Murphy study proved to be especially helpful in generating possible items for inclusion in the ESMI-i. Items based in part or in full on content from the Murphy study include, “I often reinterpret events in order to lower my stress” (item 5), “Negative events can always be reinterpreted so that they seem more positive” (item 9), and “I regularly examine and try to correct any irrational beliefs I might have” (item 10).

A comprehensive literature review by Giga et al. 129 also proved helpful in developing our Manages Thoughts competency category (as well as the competency that follows—see below). Focusing again on the work environment, the authors found that thought restructuring, reframing, and similar techniques were helpful in managing stress. Language from the Giga et al. 129 study was helpful in developing items 5 and 9 (see above paragraph).

An experimental study by Keogh et al. 119 also helped us develop this competency category. 209 students in the UK were randomly assigned to either a cognitive-behaviorally oriented treatment group or a no-treatment control group. Stress reduction was significantly higher in the treatment group, with students being taught, among other things, to replace irrational beliefs (such as “I am bad at taking tests” [p. 342]) with more rational ones (such as “I can take tests, if I prepare appropriately” [p. 342]). This study helped us to develop items such as the reverse-scored item, “My thinking is as clear and as rational as it can possibly be” (item 11), as well as item 10 (noted above).

Competency 3: plans and prevents

Once again, the Giga et al. 129 literature review was helpful in developing this category. It spoke specifically about the value of “plan[ning] to prevent and manage stress,” and it helped us develop two items: “I have a clear picture of how I’d like my life to proceed” (item 15) and “I try to fight stress before it starts” (item 17).

McWilliams et al. 22 studied a group of 298 outpatients with major depressive disorder, having them complete multiple questionnaires, such as the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations 21 . They concluded that planning and scheduling, among other strategies, were associated with lower levels of psychological stress. Content from this article helped us compose two ESMI-i items: “I keep an up-to-date list of things I’m supposed to do” (item 7), and “I spend a few moments each morning planning my day” (item 22). In addition, the Folkman et al. study 130 , mentioned earlier, helped us compose item 18: “I try to avoid destructive ways of dealing with stress.”

Competency 4: practices relaxation techniques

The value of practicing various relaxation techniques in managing stress began to be established even before the concept of “biological stress” was introduced in the early 1900s and before Hans Selye’s breakthrough research in the 1930s on the relationship between the stress response and disease 131 . Edmund Jacobson’s classic book, Progressive Relaxation 132 —based on techniques he had been developing and studying since 1915—asserted that progressive muscle relaxation exercises had multiple benefits, including improvements in memory, attention, thinking, and emotions 133 .

Later sources have repeatedly confirmed the value that various relaxation techniques have in stress management. For example, Pawlow and Jones 134 conducted a controlled experiment on progressive muscle relaxation with 55 undergraduate students, concluding that the experimental group benefitted in multiple ways from the relaxation exercises. Among other benefits, the exercises “produced significantly reduced self ratings of perceived stress and state anxiety [and] significantly increased ratings of relaxation from immediately before to immediately after the training” (p. 381). In contrast, quiet sitting (practiced by the control group) produced no such benefits. The Pawlow and Jones 134 study helped us to compose the questionnaire item, “I regularly tense and relax my muscles as a way of fighting stress” (item 13).

Smith et al. 135 compared progressive muscle relaxation to yoga with 131 adults from South Australia in a randomized study, concluding that yoga (which included breathing exercises and postures) was as effective as muscle relaxation in producing positive outcomes, including reductions in stress and anxiety. This study helped us develop three ESMI-i items: “I frequently use special breathing techniques to help me relax” (item 1), “I regularly tense and relax my muscles as a way of fighting stress” (item 13), and the reverse-scored item, “Breathing is a very hard thing to control” (item 20).

Dummy items and internal consistency score (ICS)

As is common in competency questionnaires designed by the first author 96 , 98 , 99 , 101 , the ESMI-i includes one dummy item for each of the four competencies assessed. Each dummy item rephrases a corresponding scored item. The purpose of having these dummy pairs is to be able, at the end of each user session, to quickly compute how closely the answers within each pair match each other. The match is computed using a modified version of Cohen’s kappa coefficient, a standard measure of inter-observer agreement 136 (see Supplementary Text S1 to compare the two formulas). We call this calculation our “internal consistency score” (ICS). In theory, if the ICS is low, we can ask a user to retake the questionnaire. In the present study, no users were asked to retake the questionnaire based on a low ICS. Instead, we elected to examine this issue as part of the data cleaning process (see below).

Participants

Before data cleaning, our dataset included 21,398 people who had completed the ESMI-i between May 3, 2007, and June 1, 2022. If someone completed the questionnaire more than once on the same day, we preserved only the first instance in which more than half the questionnaire items were answered. We also removed all cases in which self-reported English fluency was below 6 (on a scale from 1 to 10, where 10 indicated the highest level of fluency). After cleaning, 18,895 participants remained in the dataset.

The self-reported demographic characteristics of the participants were as follows (for details, see Table ​ Table2): 2 ): Age ranged from 12 to 83 ( M  = 30.4 [ SD  = 14.1]). Because the ESMI-i has a Flesch–Kincaid reading level of 5.8, and because most 11-year-old children in the U.S. have completed the fifth grade, we received Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval for participants age 11 and over; however, our youngest participants (after cases were removed because of low self-reported fluency levels) were 12 ( n  = 19).

Demographic comparisons.

Significance tests and p values compare mean total scores.

After cleaning by English fluency and duplicate cases, we had no need to remove cases because of low ICSs. We made this determination based on the value of Cronbach’s alpha for groups of people with differing ICSs. The group of people with ICSs between 0.4 and 0.5 (or, more precisely, 0.4 < ICS ≤ 0.5) had an alpha of 0.71, and with each successive group of people with higher ICSs (0.5–0.6, 0.6–0.7, 0.7–0.8, 0.8–0.9, 0.9–1.0), alpha increased (range 0.71 to 0.88). Because alphas greater than 0.7 are normally considered acceptable in test development 137 – 139 , using this criterion, we could not justify removing cases based on low ICSs. A small number of people (40 in total, 0.21% of the total N ) had ICSs less than 0.4, but that was too few people for us to compute an alpha. Because we had no objective reason to eliminate these people from our study, we took the conservative course of action and let them remain (see Supplementary Table S1 and Supplementary Figure S1 for details).

Overall, 12,242 (64.8%) of our participants identified themselves as female, 6,565 (34.7%) as male, and 88 (0.5%) as other. Racial and ethnic background was as follows: 128 (0.7%) of our participants identified themselves as American Indian, 2,379 (12.6%) as Asian, 1,165 (6.2%) as Black, 1,107 (5.9%) as Hispanic, 13,097 (69.3%) as White, and 869 (4.6%) as Other; 150 individuals (0.8%) did not answer this question. Overall, 29.9% of the individuals in the sample identified themselves as non-White.

Regarding level of education completed: 2,115 (11.2%) reported not having a high school degree; 5,857 (31.0%) reported completing high school; 1,844 (9.8%) reported having an associates degree; 5,361 (28.4%) reported having completed college; 2,952 (15.6%) reported having a master’s degree; 644 (3.4%) reported having a doctoral degree; and 122 (0.6%) did not answer the question. Regarding sexual orientation: 16,713 (88.5%) identified themselves as straight; 558 (3.0%) as gay or lesbian; 1,211 (6.4%) as bisexual; 25 (0.1%) as other, and 388 (2.1%) did not answer this question. Regarding country of origin: 12,279 (65.0%) were from the United States and Canada; 5,712 (30.2%) were from 123 other countries; and 904 (4.8%) did not answer this question.

Study design

The present investigation utilized a “concurrent study design” that used criterion validity evidence, consistent with guidelines in the most recent edition of Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing 140 , prepared jointly by the American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association, and the National Council on Measurement in Education. Specifically, we sought to measure the strength of the relationships between our questionnaire scores and the scores on our self-reported criterion questions. This design is called “concurrent” because we obtained questionnaire scores and criterion measures at the same time, a strategy that avoids possible temporal confounds. Results from studies employing this design are considered especially robust when the pattern of relationships between questionnaire scores and criterion measures proves to be consistent across different demographic groups.

As noted above, the questionnaire employed in the study measured four cognitive-behavioral competencies. A total score was calculated, with higher scores indicating greater stress-management competence. Separate scores were also calculated for each of the competencies. We report all questionnaire scores as a percentage of possible maximum scores rather than as raw scores. We also calculated scores for each of the four criterion questions (see Procedure below).

Participants were first presented with brief instructions informing them, for example, that there are no right or wrong answers to the items on the questionnaire. They were then asked some basic demographic questions, following which they were asked four criterion questions regarding desirable outcomes that are sometimes associated with successful stress management, namely: How happy and fulfilled are you? How much success have you had in your personal life? How much success have you had in your professional life? How stressed do you generally feel? Answers were given on a 10-point Likert scale from Low to High (see Supplementary Figures S2-S4 for the demographic questions and the questionnaire items). After completing the 28-item questionnaire (24 items were scored), participants were given their overall questionnaire score as well as scores on the four subscales and detailed explanations about the nature of each competency (see Supplementary Fig. S5 for a screenshot of the results page). Primary access to the questionnaire was at the URL https://MyStressManagementSkills.com . Over time, links to the questionnaire appeared elsewhere on the internet, a process over which we had no control. We also had no control over the demographic characteristics of the participants (see Discussion).

Ethics statement

The federally registered Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the sponsoring institution (American Institute for Behavioral Research and Technology) approved this study with exempt status and a waiver of the requirement for informed consent under U.S. Department of Health and Human Services regulations (45 CFR 46.116(d), 45 CFR 46.117(c)(2), and 45 CFR 46.111) because (a) the anonymity of participants was preserved and (b) the risk to participants was minimal. The IRB is registered with the Office for Human Research Protections under number IRB00009303, and the Federalwide Assurance number for the IRB is FWA00021545.

Regressions and factor analysis

Linear regression was used to determine which competencies were most strongly associated with self-reported levels of happiness, personal success, professional success, and general level of stress. Notably, the Plans and Prevents competency proved to be the best predictor of all four criterion variables (Tables ​ (Tables3 3 and ​ and4). 4 ). Please note that by using the language of prediction, we do not mean to imply causation.

Regression results showing how well the most predictive competency predicted answers to the criterion questions.

Results are shown for one-component models in stepwise regressions, one for each of the four criterion questions.

*** p  < 0.001.

Regression results showing how well the four competencies predicted answers to the criterion questions.

Results are shown for multi-component models in stepwise multiple regressions, one for each of the four criterion questions.

* p  < 0.05, ** p  < 0.01, *** p  < 0.001.

An exploratory principal components factor analysis for the 24 scored items in the questionnaire yielded a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin sampling adequacy of 0.89, which is well above the recommended cutoff of 0.6, as well as a highly significant Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity ( p  < 0.001). The factor analysis yielded four components that overlap our original four competencies and that can reasonably be described as: (1) Plans Ahead, (2) Practices Relaxation Techniques, (3) Regulates and Manages Stressors, and (4) Recognizes Weaknesses (Table ​ (Table5). 5 ). The results of the factor analysis were not used to revise the original competencies or items, because these competencies are practical skillsets, not hypothetical constructs. We did not conduct a confirmatory factor analysis for the same reason.

Exploratory factor analysis for the 24 scored items. a

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.

Values less than 0.35 are omitted.

a Corrected for reverse-scored items.

Reliability and validity evidence

The questionnaire had moderate but acceptable internal-consistency reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.79; Guttman split-half = 0.70) 137 – 139 . Because the study was conducted over the internet and because we could not collect contact information for our participants (in order to preserve their anonymity), test–retest reliability could not be assessed. We also did not develop an alternate form of the questionnaire, so alternate-form reliability could not be estimated.

Internal consistency scores for the four competencies varied considerably: Manages or Reduces Sources of Stress: Cronbach’s alpha = 0.60; Guttman split-half = 0.64. Manages Thoughts: Cronbach’s alpha = 0.34; Guttman split-half = 0.37. Plans and Prevents: Cronbach’s alpha = 0.64; Guttman split-half = 0.68. Practices Relaxation Techniques: Cronbach’s alpha = 0.65; Guttman split-half = 0.61.

Regarding validity evidence, total scores were correlated with scores on our criterion questions, as we had predicted: Total scores were positively correlated with participants’ self-reported level of happiness (Spearman’s ρ  = 0.45, p  < 0.001), personal success ( ρ  = 0.35, p  < 0.001), and professional success ( ρ  = 0.32, p  < 0.001), and negatively correlated with participants’ general level of stress ( ρ  = -0.33, p  < 0.001). Because this was an internet-based study in which the anonymity of participants was protected, we could not assess validity by comparing scores on our questionnaire to scores on comparable questionnaires (see Discussion). (Because scores on the ESMI-i lie on an ordinal scale, nonparametric statistical tests such as Spearman’s ρ , the Mann–Whitney U , and the Kruskal–Wallis H are used throughout this study, except in our regression analyses. Nonparametric regressions are generally used only when extreme values might distort the results 141 ; outliers are unlikely with an instrument like the ESMI-i in which scores are constrained.).

Although not specifically predicted, the validity of the measuring instrument is also suggested by the fact that the mean total score for those who reported having had stress-management training was significantly higher than the mean total score for those who did not ( M Yes  = 58.8 [13.2], M No  = 52.6 [13.3], U  = 19,888,845, p  < 0.001, r  = 0.18). In addition, overall questionnaire scores were positively correlated with the number of hours of stress-management training participants reported having ( ρ  = 0.24, p  < 0.001).

Gender, race, and other demographic effects

The overall mean total score was 53.8 [13.5] and subscale means were as follows: Manages or Reduces Sources of Stress ( M  = 61.3 [18.4]), Manages Thoughts ( M  = 57.2 [14.7]), Plans and Prevents ( M  = 54.9 [19.7]), and Practices Relaxation Techniques ( M  = 41.9 [20.5]).

We found a significant but not necessarily substantial effect for education level ( M None  = 48.8 [13.1], M Highschool  = 52.3 [12.9], M Associates  = 54.9 [13.1], M Bachelors  = 55.1 [13.6], M Masters  = 57.1 [13.2], M Doctorate  = 56.3 [15.1], H  = 604.3, p  < 0.001, E 2 R  = 0.03), and scores were higher for participants who reported having been married ( M Yes  = 55.0 [13.6], M No  = 53.0 [13.3], U  = 37,980,528.5, p  < 0.001, r  = 0.07) and also, surprisingly, for participants who reported having been divorced ( M Yes  = 55.4 [14.0], M No  = 53.6 [13.4], U  = 20,128,336.5, p  < 0.001, r  = 0.05).

We found a significant but not necessarily substantial effect for gender ( M female  = 53.7 [13.3], M male  = 54.1 [13.7], M other  = 44.1 [15.4] , H  = 42.7, p  < 0.001, E 2 R  = 0.00) and no significant male/female difference ( U  = 39,631,749.5, p  = 0.12, r  = 0.01). Participants ages 18 and older scored significantly higher than minors ( M 12-17  = 49.3 [12.9], M 18-83  = 54.8 [13.4], U  = 19,539,532, p  < 0.001, r  = 0.15). (Note that because this is a large-n study, statistical significance is not necessarily a good indicator of the importance of mean differences. For this reason, we also have included two different measures of effect size: r , where we are comparing two means, and epsilon-squared, where we are comparing three or more means 142 . We also found a significant but not necessarily substantial effect for ethnicity, with respondents of Asian descent outscoring all other ethnicities ( M AmericanIndian  = 54.5 [14.8], M Asian  = 58.3 [13.4], M Black  = 54.6 [14.0], M Hispanic  = 53.0 [13.8], M White  = 54.0 [14.1], M Other  = 53.0 [13.2], H  = 330.1, p  < 0.001, E 2 R  = 0.02 ; Asian vs. non-Asian: M Asian  = 58.3 [13.4], M NonAsian  = 53.2 [13.4], U  = 15,133,970.5, p  < 0.001, r  = 0.13), a finding that is consistent with other research 143 – 145 .

We also found a significant but not necessarily substantial effect for sexual orientation, with self-labeled straights outscoring self-labeled gays, lesbians, and bisexuals ( M Bisexual  = 49.0 [14.0], M Gay/Lesbian  = 50.0 [14.2], M Straight  = 54.3 [13.3], M Other  = 52.2 [17.1], H  = 203.0, p  < 0.001, E 2 R  = 0.01; straight vs. non-straight: M Straight  = 54.3 [13.3], M NonStraight  = 49.4 [14.1], U  = 11,946,435, p  < 0.001, r  = 0.10). Participants outside the U.S. and Canada scored higher than participants from the U.S. and Canada ( M US/Canada  = 53.6 [13.2], M Other  = 54.5 [14.0], U  = 33,681,800, p  < 0.001, r  = 0.03), possibly because of the higher scores of Asian participants in the study. We did not have enough participants in individual countries outside the U.S. and Canada for us to conduct, with sufficient statistical power, a country-by-country analysis; a larger sample might allow us to conduct such an analysis in future years. Age proved to be a small but significant predictor of questionnaire scores ( ρ  = 0.12, p  < 0.001).

Apparent value of low stress

Our results suggest that high stress is associated with low levels of happiness, personal success, and professional success; that low stress is associated with high levels of these outcomes; and that the benefits sometimes associated with a moderate level of stress might not be as beneficial as previously thought (Figs.  1 and ​ and2; 2 ; see Discussion). Although the spikes toward the center of the curves in Fig.  1 could be interpreted as indicating possible benefits of moderate stress, when one looks closely at the happiness, personal success, and professional success ratings reported by people who experience different levels of stress in their lives, it seems evident that low stress is more consistently associated with desirable outcomes (Fig.  2 ).

Relationship between self-reported levels of stress and self-reported levels of happiness, personal success, and professional success. Although higher stress is generally associated with poorer outcomes (note the overall downward slopes of the curves), the upward spikes in the center of the graph are sometimes mistakenly interpreted to mean that moderate stress is beneficial. Vertical bars show 95% confidence intervals.

Histograms showing distributions of self-reported levels of happiness, personal success, and professional success, separated into three categories of level of stress. Although one can find high levels of happiness, personal success, and professional success in the bottom two rows of graphs, the patterns of scores are more nearly optimal in the top row, which shows data only for people reporting their overall level of stress as very low (1 on a scale from 1 to 10).

Year-by-year analysis

Because our data were collected over a period of more than 14 years, we asked whether any trends were evident in scores, as well as in demographic characteristics of the sample. Although statistically significant changes were evident in both scores and demographic characteristics over the course of the study (Table ​ (Table6), 6 ), we did not find a linear trend in the mean total scores ( p  = 0.813, r 2  = 0.005, β  = 0.07, t  = 0.24).

Differences in mean scores and changes in key demographic groups by year.

Only years in which 12 months of data were collected are shown ( n = 17,339). % Female is shown for gender because the majority of participants were female. % White is shown for Race/Ethnicity because the majority of participants were White.

a Mean total and competency scores were compared using the Kruskal–Wallis H . Mean ages were compared using a one-way ANOVA. Percentages for gender and race were compared using Pearson chi-square.

Discussion and limitations

The present study sheds light on various aspects of people’s ability to manage stress. One of its greatest limitations—that the data were collected over the internet—is also a strength. On the downside, internet sampling gives one no control over demographics, and all participants are self-selected. Our sample presumably consisted of people who were concerned about stress or how they managed it. This could mean, among other things, that our mean level of self-reported stress (6.5 out of 10) is higher than that of the general population and, perhaps, that the stress-management proficiency level we found ( M  = 53.8) is lower than normal. A 2013 report by the American Psychological Association 65 states that the average stress level for Americans is 4.9 out of 10, 1.6 points below the mean we found. We might also be attracting people with abnormally low levels of happiness or success.

On the upside, the internet allows researchers to look at a large, diverse, international sample, which almost certainly yields more valid findings than the proverbial pool of second-year college students 146 – 148 . There is also accumulating evidence that people are more honest when answering personal questions through anonymous internet surveys than perhaps through any other means 149 – 153 ; a recent study by Robertson et al. 154 suggests that anonymous internet surveys yield more valid responses than sixteen other common survey techniques. Surveys yield especially valid responses when people are completing them voluntarily and they know that the results will not be used by supervisors or other authority Figures. 155 , 156 . For these reasons, we conjecture that our participants were probably honest in their responding. We also have no a priori reason to believe that the relationships we have found among variables—for example, the negative correlation between total questionnaire scores and self-reported levels of stress ( ρ  = − 0.33, p  < 0.001)—are invalid.

We also have no reason to doubt the validity of some of the more distinctive demographic findings in the study, particularly where such findings are consistent with those of other research. Especially notable in this study is the relatively high mean score of participants identifying as Asian. Other studies looking more directly at this issue have also found that various Asian groups are better at managing stress than non-Asians, perhaps because of the collectivist nature of many Asian cultures 157 . Tweed et al. 145 found, for example, that East Asian Canadians reported using internal strategies to manage stressful situations more often than European Canadians did. In collectivist cultures, people tend to be more mutually supportive than in individualistic cultures 158 , 159 , and Asian cultures also tend to teach explicit techniques—yoga, meditation, tai chi, and so on—which have been shown to improve well-being and lower stress 71 , 160 , 161 . In many non-Asian cultures, well-being is often sought through self-destructive means (alcoholism, drug abuse, overeating) or, at best, left to chance. Similarly, our findings that self-reported straights outscored self-reported non-straights on the ESMI-i and that self-reported straights reported experiencing less stress than self-reported non-straights are consistent with the findings of other researchers 162 – 165 .

Our study found no significant difference between scores for males and scores for females. Researchers disagree about gender differences in both stress-management proficiency and perceived stress levels. Some studies suggest that women are more likely to utilize emotion-focused coping in response to stressors while men more often use problem-focused coping 166 . The 2013 report on stress published by the American Psychological Association stated that women report higher stress levels than men 65 . However, and consistent with our results, some studies have found that gender differences in coping styles are not apparent when confounding factors such as socioeconomic status and race are controlled for 167 .

The two largest demographic effects we found should be studied in further detail in future studies. Self-labeled straights outscored non-straights by 4.9 points ( r  = 0.10), and adults outscored minors (ages 12–17) by 5.5 points ( r  = 0.15). Considerable research has examined the emotional problems often experienced by non-straights (brought about, most likely, by entrenched heteronormativity in most cultures 168 – 170 ), but why straights should score higher on a test of stress-management competencies is unclear. The age difference seems less mysterious. Competencies take time to learn, after all 171 , but it would be interesting to look at this learning process in more detail, especially over the teen years.

A second notable limitation of the present study is that it is correlational in design. In follow-ups to this study, one could, by employing either between-subjects or within-subjects experimental designs, assess the possible causal impact of each of the four competencies we have examined in this report.

Perhaps the clearest and, in some sense, the most surprising finding in this study is that proactive stress-management methods appear to be more helpful than reactive ones. All four of our criterion variables were best predicted by the Plans and Prevents competency, of which all questionnaire items describe proactive methods of fighting stress—in other words, ways of trying to ensure that stressful situations never arise (Tables ​ (Tables3 3 and ​ and4). 4 ). A planning competency also emerged in our factor analysis (Table ​ (Table5). 5 ). Unfortunately, our respondents scored relatively poorly on Plans and Prevents ( M  = 54.9), which ranked third on actual competency scores. We note that our findings about proactive methods do not necessarily show that such methods are more beneficial than reactive ones; it might simply be the case that people with lower stress levels rely less on reactive coping strategies than on proactive ones. Again, questions of cause and effect can only be answered with experimental research.

Our study also yielded intriguing findings regarding the supposed value of moderate stress. Ever since the formation of the Yerkes-Dodson law in the early 1900s, researchers have suggested that moderate levels of stress (at least for stressors of certain types) are beneficial 172 – 176 . Our study suggests another possibility—namely, that the bulge that often appears in the center of performance or other curves where the stress level is moderate is a statistical anomaly. As we noted earlier, this seems evident when we examine the relationship between participants’ self-reported levels of stress and their self-reported levels of happiness, personal success, and professional success (Fig.  1 ), as well as when we look closely at the distributions of self-reported levels of happiness, personal success, and professional success when separated into low, medium, and high of levels of self-reported stress (Fig.  2 ).

The strong relationship ( ρ  = 0.45, p  < 0.001, ρ 2  = 0.20) we found between total questionnaire scores and self-reported happiness is also notable, suggesting the importance of stress management in having a happy life 177 (although, once again, we remind the reader that this is a correlational study). Unfortunately, our results suggest that people are generally poor at stress management; the mean percentage score on the questionnaire was 53.8%, with Practices Relaxation Skills having a mean score of only 41.9%. Our study confirms the need to educate and train people in how to manage stress, although, as noted above, our questionnaire scores might be lower than the average scores one would find in the general population. Fortunately, although the present study employed a concurrent design 140 , not an experimental one, our results are consistent with the view that stress-management training has value; as noted earlier, study participants who had had such training scored significantly higher than participants who had not, and questionnaire scores were positively correlated with the number of training hours reported.

We have already mentioned several ways in which our analysis was constrained because we collected our data online. These limitations are not trivial, because collecting data on the internet—especially when one is required to protect the anonymity of the participants—means that some of the standard tools used to validate new test instruments cannot be employed. Ideally, one would like to compare test scores to those obtained on previously validated tests. Again, ideally, one would like to be able to measure the stability of test scores by readministering the test to the same cohort after different periods of time have passed. One would also like to use multiple measures to validate the test, such as ratings by peers or clinicians. None of these methods is possible given our current design.

As noted above, future versions of the ESMI-i might include additional competency categories. People can mitigate stress using many tools, such as exercise or changes in diet; the present study focuses on cognitive-behavioral methods that might be taught by therapists and counselors. More detailed demographic analyses might also be conducted, especially with larger samples. The current online version of the ESMI-i (as of July 8, 2024) already includes additional gender and sexual orientation categories. The present study also assumes, implicitly, that stress management is the same in all cultures around the world, which is clearly not the case. Stressors themselves are culturally based 163 , 165 , 178 , 179 , and so are effective techniques of stress management 145 .

Supplementary Information

Acknowledgements.

We are grateful to Marco Buenaventura, Philip Cheung, Matea Djokic, Shannon Fox, Allison He, Paul McKinney, Krystie Mei, and Rachel Smith for assistance in various aspects of this research. Funding was provided by the American Institute for Behavioral Research and Technology, which also provided IRB approval (IRB registered with OHRP under number IRB00009303, Federalwide Assurance number FWA00021545). This report is based in part on papers presented at the 91st (2011), 94th (2014), and 101st (2021) annual meetings of the Western Psychological Association. Each successive report analyzed larger datasets. Brief summaries of these talks were posted on the first author’s website.

Author contributions

R.E. conceptualized the study, supervised all aspects of the research, and wrote the original draft. J.A., C.G., V.Z., and L.Z. assisted with statistical analysis and the literature review. V.Z. prepared Figs.  1 and ​ and2. 2 . All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Data availability

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-024-68328-4.

• DOI: 10.55621/idpro.101
• Corpus ID: 268473545

Introduction to Privileged Access Management

• Published in IDPro Body of Knowledge 15 March 2024
• Computer Science
• IDPro Body of Knowledge

Related Papers

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

Can smartphone applications and wearable technologies improve workplace well-being and help manage stress? A systematic review

• Published: 24 August 2024

Cite this article

• Margherita Herold   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9062-9846 1 , 2 ,
• Silvia Simbula 1 , 2 &
• Marcello Gallucci 1  

11 Accesses

1 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to identifying new approaches to improve workplace well-being and manage stress with the help of m-health solutions. The primary purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the current use of smartphone applications integrated with wearable technologies in stress management and the promotion of well-being in the workplace. A key terms literature search was performed using multiple electronic databases. The review process followed the international PRISMA statement guidelines. A quality assessment was conducted using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. A total of 25 eligible papers published between 2016 and 2023 were included. Interventions proposed were heterogeneous and primarily based on smartphone applications (72%). 84% of the interventions had background theories, with a high preference for Mindfulness. Interventions were reported as generally significant, and the combined use of smartphone applications and wearable technologies increased awareness at the individual and collective levels. In conclusion, the review demonstrates how the interventions developed through the synergy of technologies can effectively promote well-being and reduce stress in the workplace context, decreasing the stigma still related to mental health and increasing peer support strategies. This work opens the doors to several possibilities for future research. It could be interesting to indagate more in-depth the value of integration between technologies and, eventually, the integration with more traditional type of interventions, e.g., face-to-face activities, evaluating if this synergy can amplify and strengthen the results.

Protocol registration: The review protocol was registered with PROSPERO: CRD42023423126 (May 2nd, 2023).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

mHealth interventions to reduce stress in healthcare workers (fitcor): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

Monitoring and Reducing Workplace Stress with Smartphone Usage: A Systematic Literature Review

Effectiveness of Mobile-Based Mindfulness Interventions in Improving Mindfulness Skills and Psychological Outcomes for Adults: a Systematic Review and Meta-regression

Explore related subjects.

• Artificial Intelligence

Agyapong, V. I. O., Hrabok, M., Vuong, W., Gusnowski, A., Shalaby, R., Mrklas, K., & Greenshaw, A. J. (2020). Closing the psychological treatment gap during the COVID-19 pandemic with a supportive text messaging program: Protocol for implementation and evaluation. JMIR Research Protocols , 9 (6), e19292.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 50 (2), 179–211.

Article   Google Scholar  

Ajzen, I. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Frequently asked questions. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies , 2 (4), 314–324.

Asadzadeh, A., & Kalankesh, L. R. (2021). A scope of mobile health solutions in COVID-19 pandemics. Informatics in Medicine Unlocked , 23 , 100558.

Attaran, M. (2020). July). Digital technology enablers and their implications for supply chain management. Supply Chain Forum: An International Journal (Vol. 21, pp. 158–172). Taylor & Francis. 3.

Google Scholar  

Axelsen, J. L., Meline, J. S. J., Staiano, W., & Kirk, U. (2022). Mindfulness and music interventions in the workplace: Assessment of sustained attention and working memory using a crowdsourcing approach. BMC Psychology , 10 (1), 1–16.

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands-resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology , 22 (3), 309–328.

Bannai, A., & Tamakoshi, A. (2014). The association between long working hours and health: A systematic review of epidemiological evidence. Scandinavian Journal of work Environment & Health , 40 , 5–18.

Bartlett, L., Martin, A., Neil, A. L., Memish, K., Otahal, P., Kilpatrick, M., & Sanderson, K. (2019). A systematic review and meta-analysis of workplace mindfulness training randomized controlled trials. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology , 24 (1), 108.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Bartlett, L., Martin, A. J., Kilpatrick, M., Otahal, P., Sanderson, K., & Neil, A. L. (2022). Effects of a mindfulness app on employee stress in an Australian public sector workforce: Randomized controlled trial. JMIR mHealth and uHealth , 10 (2), e30272.

Bhardwaj, A., & Srivastava, A. (2008). Occupational health and psychological well-being of industrial employees. Industrial Psychiatry Journal , 17 (1), 28–32.

Bootsman, R., Markopoulos, P., Qi, Q., Wang, Q., & Timmermans, A. A. (2019). Wearable technology for posture monitoring at the workplace. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies , 132 , 99–111.

Borjalilu, S., Mazaheri, M. A., & Talebpour, A. (2019). Effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress management in the mental health of Iranian university students: A comparison of blended therapy, face-to-face sessions, and mHealth app (Aramgar). Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences , 13 (2), e84726.

Boutron, I., Page, M. J., Higgins, J. P., Altman, D. G., Lundh, A., Hróbjartsson, A., & Cochrane Bias Methods Group. (2019). Considering bias and conflicts of interest among the included studies. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions , 177–204.

Chen, J., Abbod, M., & Shieh, J. S. (2021). Pain and stress detection using wearable sensors and devices—. A Review Sensors , 21 (4), 1030.

Coelhoso, C. C., Tobo, P. R., Lacerda, S. S., Lima, A. H., Barrichello, C. R. C., AmaroJr, E., & Kozasa, E. H. (2019). A new mental health mobile app for well-being and stress reduction in working women: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research , 21 (11), e14269.

Cohen, C., Pignata, S., Bezak, E., Tie, M., & Childs, J. (2023). Workplace interventions to improve well-being and reduce burnout for nurses, physicians and allied healthcare professionals: A systematic review. British Medical Journal Open , 13 (6), e071203. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2022-071203

Colbert, A., Yee, N., & George, G. (2016). The digital workforce and the workplace of the future. Academy of Management Journal , 59 (3), 731–739.

Cook, R., Billings, D., Hersch, R., Back, A., & Hendrickson, A. (2007). A field test of a web-based workplace health promotion program to improve dietary practices, reduce stress, and increase physical activity: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research , 9 (2), e627.

Cooper, C. L., & Cartwright, S. (1997). An intervention strategy for workplace stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 43 (1), 7–16.

Cortes, G. M., & Salvatori, A. (2019). Delving into the demand side: Changes in workplace specialization and job polarization. Labour Economics , 57 , 164–176.

Cox, T., Griffiths, A., & Rial-Gonzalez, E. (2000). Work-related stress . Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

Crivelli, D., Fronda, G., Venturella, I., & Balconi, M. (2019). Stress and neurocognitive efficiency in managerial contexts: A study on technology-mediated mindfulness practice. International Journal of Workplace Health Management , 12 (2), 42–56.

Danna, K., & Griffin, R. W. (1999). Health and well-being in the workplace: A review and synthesis of the literature. Journal of Management , 25 (3), 357–384.

Das, K. V., Jones-Harrell, C., Fan, Y., Ramaswami, A., Orlove, B., & Botchwey, N. (2020). Understanding subjective well-being: Perspectives from psychology and public health. Public Health Reviews , 41 , 1–32.

De Korte, E. M., Wiezer, N., Janssen, J. H., Vink, P., & Kraaij, W. (2018). Evaluating an mHealth app for health and well-being at work: Mixed-method qualitative study. JMIR mHealth and uHealth , 6 (3), e6335.

Deen, M. J. (2015). Information and communications technologies for elderly ubiquitous healthcare in a smart home. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing , 19 , 573–599.

Delle Fave, A. (Ed.). (2006). Dimensions of well-being: research and intervention . FrancoAngeli.

Dembe, A. E., Erickson, J. B., Delbos, R. G., & Banks, S. M. (2005). The impact of overtime and long work hours on occupational injuries and illnesses: New evidence from the United States. Occupational and Environmental Medicine , 62 (9), 588–597.

Dementyev, A., Hodges, S., Taylor, S., & Smith, J. (2013, April). Power consumption analysis of Bluetooth Low Energy, ZigBee and ANT sensor nodes in a cyclic sleep scenario. In 2013 IEEE International Wireless Symposium (IWS) (pp. 1–4). IEEE.

Di Pasquale, V., De Simone, V., Radano, M., & Miranda, S. (2022). Wearable devices for health and safety in production systems: A literature review. IFAC-PapersOnLine , 55 (10), 341–346.

Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist , 55 (1), 34.

Diener, E. (Ed.). (2009). Assessing well-being: The collected works of Ed Diener (Vol. 39). Springer Science & Business Media.

Dunne, L., Walsh, P., Smyth, B., & Caulfield, B. (2007). A system for wearable monitoring of seated posture in computer users. In 4th International Workshop on Wearable and Implantable Body Sensor Networks (BSN 2007) March 26–28, 2007 RWTH Aachen University, Germany (pp. 203–207). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

Ebert, D. D., Kählke, F., Buntrock, C., Berking, M., Smit, F., Heber, E., & Lehr, D. (2018). A health economic outcome evaluation of an internet-based mobile-supported stress management intervention for employees. Scandinavian Journal of work Environment & Health , 171–182.

Economides, M., Bolton, H., Male, R., & Cavanagh, K. (2022). Feasibility and preliminary efficacy of web-based and mobile interventions for common mental health problems in working adults: Multi-arm randomized pilot trial. JMIR Formative Research , 6(3), e34032.

Engbers, L., & Sattelmair, J. (2008). Monitoring and evaluation of worksite health promotion progams: Current state of knowledge and implications for practice . World Health Organization (WHO).

European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. (EU-OSHA) (2022). OSH Pulse - Occupational safety and health in post-pandemic workplaces . https://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/osh-pulse-occupational-safety-and-health-post-pandemic-workplaces Accessed 10 April 2024.

Eysenbach, G. (2001). What is e-health? Journal of Medical Internet Research , 3 (2), e833.

Ferraro, V., & Ugur, S. (2011, June). Designing wearable technologies through a user centered approach. In Proceedings of the 2011 Conference on Designing Pleasurable Products and Interfaces (pp. 1–8).

Fiol-DeRoque, M. A., Serrano-Ripoll, M. J., Jiménez, R., Zamanillo-Campos, R., Yáñez-Juan, A. M., Bennasar-Veny, M., & Ricci-Cabello, I. (2021). A mobile phone–based intervention to reduce mental health problems in health care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic (PsyCovidApp): Randomized controlled trial. JMIR mHealth and uHealth , 9 (5), e27039.

Free, C., Phillips, G., Galli, L., Watson, L., Felix, L., Edwards, P., Patel, V., & Haines, A. (2013). The effectiveness of mobile-health technology-based health behaviour change or disease management interventions for health care consumers: A systematic review. PLoS Medicine , 10 (1), e1001362.

Frone, M. R. (2006). Prevalence and distribution of illicit drug use in the workforce and in the workplace: Findings and implications from a U.S. National survey. Journal of Applied Psychology , 91 (4), 856–869.

Giddens, L., Leidner, D., & Gonzalez, E. (2017). The role of fitbits in corporate wellness programs . Does step count matter?.

Glance, D. G., Ooi, E., Berman, Y. E., Glance, C. F., & Barrett, H. R. (2016, April). Impact of a digital activity tracker-based workplace activity program on health and well-being. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Digital Health Conference (pp. 37–41).

Guest, D. E. (2002). Perspectives on the study of work-life balance. Social Science Information , 41 (2), 255–279.

Haddaway, N. R., Page, M. J., Pritchard, C. C., & McGuinness, L. A. (2022). PRISMA2020: An R package and Shiny app for producing PRISMA 2020-compliant flow diagrams, with interactivity for optimized digital transparency and open synthesis. Campbell Systematic Reviews , 18 (2), e1230.

Hayes, S. C., Pankey, J., & Gregg, J. (2002). Acceptance and commitment therapy. Anxiety disorders: A practitioner’s guide to comparative treatments, 110–136.

Hedman, E., Andersson, G., Ljótsson, B., Andersson, E., Rück, C., Mörtberg, E., & Lindefors, N. (2011). Internet-based cognitive behavior therapy vs. cognitive behavioral group therapy for social anxiety disorder: A randomized controlled non-inferiority trial. PloS ONE , 6 (3), e18001.

Hong, Y. J., Kim, I. J., Ahn, S. C., & Kim, H. G. (2010). Mobile health monitoring system based on activity recognition using accelerometer. Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory , 18 (4), 446–455.

Hong, Q. N., Pluye, P., Fàbregues, S., Bartlett, G., Boardman, F., Cargo, M., & Vedel, I. (2018). Mixed methods appraisal tool (MMAT), version 2018. Registration of Copyright , 1148552(10).

Howarth, A., Quesada, J., Silva, J., Judycki, S., & Mills, P. R. (2018). The impact of digital health interventions on health-related outcomes in the workplace: A systematic review. Digital Health , 4 , 2055207618770861.

Huberty, J. L., Espel-Huynh, H. M., Neher, T. L., & Puzia, M. E. (2022). Testing the pragmatic effectiveness of a consumer-based Mindfulness Mobile App in the Workplace: Randomized Controlled Trial. JMIR mHealth and uHealth , 10(9), e38903.

Hwang, W. J., & Jo, H. H. (2019). Evaluation of the effectiveness of mobile app-based stress-management program: A randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 16 (21), 4270.

Hwang, H., Kim, S. M., Netterstrøm, B., & Han, D. H. (2022). The efficacy of a smartphone-based app on stress reduction: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research , 24 (2), e28703.

International Labour Organization (2016). Workplace stress: A collective challenge . Geneva.

Jamal, M. (1990). Relationship of job stress and type-A behavior to employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment, psychosomatic health problems, and turnover motivation. Human Relations , 43 , 727–738. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872679004300802

Jukic, T., Ihan, A., Strojnik, V., Stubljar, D., & Starc, A. (2020). The effect of active occupational stress management on psychosocial and physiological well-being: A pilot study. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making , 20 (1), 1–8.

Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: past, present, and future.  https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg016

Kabat-Zinn, J., & Hanh, T. N. (2009). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness . Delta.

Kampmeijer, R., Pavlova, M., Tambor, M., Golinowska, S., & Groot, W. (2016). The use of e-health and m-health tools in health promotion and primary prevention among older adults: A systematic literature review. BMC Health Services Research , 16 (5), 467–479.

Keng, S. L., Chin, J. W. E., Mammadova, M., & Teo, I. (2022). Effects of mobile app-based mindfulness practice on healthcare workers: A randomized active controlled trial. Mindfulness , 13 (11), 2691–2704.

Khakurel, J., Melkas, H., & Porras, J. (2018). Tapping into the wearable device revolution in the work environment: A systematic review. Information Technology & People , 31 (3), 791–818.

Kritzler, M., Bäckman, M., Tenfält, A., & Michahelles, F. (2015, November). Wearable technology as a solution for workplace safety. In Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Mobile and Ubiquitous Multimedia (pp. 213–217).

Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine , 16 (9), 606–613.

Kuziemsky, C. E., & O’Sullivan, T. L. (2015). A model for common ground development to support collaborative health communities. Social Science & Medicine , 128 , 231–238.

Larsen, L. H., Lauritzen, M. H., Sinkjaer, M., & Kjaer, T. W. (2021). A multi-component intervention to affect physical activity, sleep length and stress levels in office workers. Smart Health , 22 , 100219.

Leka, S., & Jain, A. (2010). Health Impact of Psychosocial hazards at Work: An overview . World Health Organization.

Liesa-Orús, M., Latorre-Cosculluela, C., Vázquez-Toledo, S., & Sierra-Sánchez, V. (2020). The technological challenge facing higher education professors: Perceptions of ICT tools for developing 21st century skills. Sustainability , 12 (13), 5339.

Lindeman, D. (2011). mHealth technologies: applications to benefit older adults. Oakland, CA: Center for Technology and Aging; http://www.techandaging.org/mHealth_Position_Paper_Discussion_Draft.pdf Accessed 10 July 2023.

Lipschitz, J. M., Pike, C. K., Hogan, T. P., et al. (2023). The Engagement Problem: A review of Engagement with Digital Mental Health Interventions and recommendations for a path Forward.  Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry , 10 , 119–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40501-023-00297-3

Liu, X., Vega, K., Maes, P., & Paradiso, J. A. (2016, February). Wearability factors for skin interfaces. In Proceedings of the 7th Augmented Human International Conference 2016 (pp. 1–8).

Loeppke, R. R., Hohn, T., Baase, C., Bunn, W. B., Burton, W. N., Eisenberg, B. S., Ennis, T., Fabius, R., Hawkins, R. J., Hudson, T. W., Hymel, P. A., Konicki, D., Larson, P., McLellan, R. K., Roberts, M. A., Usrey, C., Wallace, J. A., Yarborough, C. M., & Siuba, J. (2015). Integrating health and safety in the workplace: How closely aligning health and safety strategies can yield measurable benefits. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine/American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine , 57 (5), 585–597.

Lu, Y., Remond, J., Bunting, M., Ilies, R., Tripathi, N., & Narayanan, J. (2021). An app-based workplace mindfulness intervention, and its effects over time. Frontiers in Psychology , 12 , 615137.

Lundberg, U. (2005). Stress hormones in health and illness: The roles of work and gender. Psychoneuroendocrinology , 30 (10), 1017–1021.

Lupton, D. (2013). Digitized health promotion: personal responsibility for health in the web 2.0 era, Working Paper No. 5, Sydney Health & Society Group, Sydney.

Lupton, D. (2014). Self-tracking cultures: towards a sociology of personal informatics, OZCHI 2014: The 26th Australian Computer-Human Interaction Conference: Designing Futures, the Future of Design, pp. 1–10.

Lupton, D. (2015). Health Promotion in the Digital era: A critical commentary . Health Promotion International.

Majumder, S., Mondal, T., & Deen, M. (2017). Wearable Sensors for Remote Health Monitoring. Sensors , 17 (12), 130. MDPI AG.

Marcengo, A., & Rapp, A. (2014). Visualization of human behavior data: The quantified self. Innovative approaches of data visualization and visual analytics (pp. 236–265). IGI Global.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Matsumoto, A., Kamita, T., Tawaratsumida, Y., Nakamura, A., Fukuchimoto, H., Mitamura, Y., & Inoue, T. (2021). Combined use of virtual reality and a Chatbot reduces emotional stress more than using them separately. JUCS: Journal of Universal Computer Science , 27 (12), 1371–1389.

McEvoy, P. M., Watson, H., Watkins, E. R., & Nathan, P. (2013). The relationship between worry, rumination, and comorbidity: Evidence for repetitive negative thinking as a transdiagnostic construct. Journal of Affective Disorders , 151 (1), 313–320.

McEwen, B. S. (1998). Stress, adaptation, and disease: Allostasis and allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 840 (1), 33–44.

McFarlin, S. K., & Fals-Stewart, W. (2002). Workplace absenteeism and alcohol use: A sequential analysis. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors , 16 (1), 17–21.

Miller, G. (2012). The smartphone psychology manifesto. Perspectives on Psychological Science , 7 (3), 221–237.

Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & Group*, P. R. I. S. M. A., T (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine , 151 (4), 264–269.

Monfries, N., Sandhu, N., & Millar, K. (2023). A smartphone app to reduce burnout in the Emergency Department: A pilot randomized controlled trial. Workplace Health & Safety , 71 (4), 181–187.

Muaremi, A., Arnrich, B., & Tröster, G. (2013). Towards measuring stress with smartphones and wearable devices during workday and sleep. BioNanoScience , 3 , 172–183.

Munakata, T. (2006). SAT therapy . KANEKOSHOBO.

Mundt, J. C., Marks, I. M., Shear, M. K., & Greist, J. M. (2002). The work and Social Adjustment Scale: A simple measure of impairment in functioning. The British Journal of Psychiatry , 180 (5), 461–464.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (1999). Stress at Work. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/99-101/ Accessed 8 July 2024.

Nelis, D., Kotsou, I., Quoidbach, J., Hansenne, M., Weytens, F., Dupuis, P., & Mikolajczak, M. (2011). Increasing emotional competence improves psychological and physical well-being, social relationships, and employability. Emotion , 11 (2), 354.

Nemati, E., Deen, M. J., & Mondal, T. (2012). A wireless wearable ECG sensor for long-term applications. IEEE Communications Magazine , 50 (1), 36–43.

Ong, A. D., Bergeman, C. S., Bisconti, T. L., & Wallace, K. A. (2006). Psychological resilience, positive emotions, and successful adaptation to stress in later life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 91 (4), 730–749.

Ouzzani, M., Hammady, H., Fedorowicz, Z., & Elmagarmid, A. (2016). Rayyan—a web and mobile app for systematic reviews. Systematic Reviews , 5 , 1–10.

Paganin, G., & Simbula, S. (2020). Smartphone-based interventions for employees’ well-being promotion: A systematic review. Electronic Journal of Applied Statistical Analysis , 13 (3), 682–712.

Pantelopoulos, A., & Bourbakis, N. G. (2009). A survey on wearable sensor-based systems for health monitoring and prognosis. IEEE Transactions on Systems Man and Cybernetics Part C (Applications and Reviews) , 40 (1), 1–12.

Pascucci, P. (2021). Il Testo Unico sulla salute e Sicurezza Sul lavoro: Spunti di riflessione (a fronte dei cambiamenti in atto) e proposte di modifica. Bilancio E prospettive di una ricerca. Il Sistema Prevenzionistico E Le tutele assicurative alla prova della IV Rivoluzione industriale (Vol. 1, pp. 499–518). ADAPT University.

Patel, V., Chesmore, A., Legner, C. M., & Pandey, S. (2022). Trends in workplace wearable technologies and connected-worker solutions for next‐generation occupational safety, health, and productivity. Advanced Intelligent Systems , 4 (1), 2100099.

Peltzer, K., Shisana, O., Zuma, K., Van Wyk, B., & Zungu-Dirwayi, N. (2009). Job stress, job satisfaction and stress-related illnesses among South African educators. Stress and Health , 25 , 247–257.

Philippe, T. J., Sikder, N., Jackson, A., Koblanski, M. E., Liow, E., & Pilarinos, A. & Vasarhelyi K. (2022). Digital Health Interventions for Delivery of Mental Health Care: Systematic and comprehensive Meta-review. JMIR Mental Health , 9 (5):e35159. https://doi.org/10.2196/35159

Podsakoff, N. P., LePine, J. A., & LePine, M. A. (2007). Differential challenge stressor-hindrance stressor relationships with job attitudes, turnover intentions, turnover, and withdrawal behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology , 92 (2), 438.

Rich, R. M., Ogden, J., & Morison, L. (2021). A randomized controlled trial of an app-delivered mindfulness program among university employees: Effects on stress and work-related outcomes. International Journal of Workplace Health Management , 14 (2), 201–216.

Riper, H., Blankers, M., Hadiwijaya, H., Cunningham, J., Clarke, S., Wiers, R., & Cuijpers, P. (2014). Effectiveness of guided and unguided low-intensity internet interventions for adult alcohol misuse: A meta-analysis. PloS ONE , 9 (6), e99912.

Rowland, S. P., Fitzgerald, J. E., Holme, T., Powell, J., & McGregor, A. (2020). What is the clinical value of mHealth for patients? NPJ Digital Medicine , 3 (1), 4.

Rudics, E., Nagy, Á., Dombi, J., Hompoth, E. A., Szabó, Z., Horváth, R., & Szendi, I. (2023). Photoplethysmograph based biofeedback for stress reduction under real-life conditions in Healthcare Frontline. Applied Sciences , 13 (2), 835.

Sanatkar, S., Counson, I., Mackinnon, A., Bartholomew, A., Glozier, N., & Harvey, S. (2022). Preliminary Investigation of Shift, a Novel Smartphone App to Support Junior Doctors’ Mental Health and Well-being: Examination of Symptom Progression, Usability, and Acceptability After 1 Month of Use. Journal of Medical Internet Research , 24(9), e38497.

Sauter, S. L., Brightwell, W. S., Colligan, M. J., Hurrell, J. J., Katz, T. M., LeGrande, D. E., & Peters, R. H. (2002). The changing organization of work and the safety and health of working people. Cincinnati: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health .

Schaufeli, W. B. (2017). Applying the job demands-resources model. Organizational Dynamics , 2 (46), 120–132.

Schulte-Frankenfeld, P. M., & Trautwein, F. M. (2022). App‐based mindfulness meditation reduces perceived stress and improves self‐regulation in working university students: A randomized controlled trial. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being , 14 (4), 1151–1171.

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Seligman, M. E. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment . Simon and Schuster.

Seligman, M. E. (2002a). Positive psychology, positive prevention, and positive therapy. Handbook of positive psychology, 2 (2002), 3–12.

Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology , 13 (4), 333–335.

Seneviratne, S., Hu, Y., Nguyen, T., Lan, G., Khalifa, S., Thilakarathna, K., & Seneviratne, A. (2017). A survey of wearable devices and challenges. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials , 19 (4), 2573–2620.

Signore, F., Catalano, A., De Carlo, E., Madaro, A., & Ingusci, E. (2019). The role of employability in students during academic experience: A preliminary study through PLS-PM technique. Electronic Journal of Applied Statistical Analysis , 12 (4), 720–747.

Skoumpopoulou, D., Wong, A., Ng, P., & Lo, M. (2018). Factors that affect the acceptance of new technologies in the workplace: A cross case analysis between two universities. International Journal of Education and Development Using ICT , 14 (3), 209.

Smith, E. N., Santoro, E., Moraveji, N., Susi, M., & Crum, A. J. (2020). Integrating wearables in stress management interventions: Promising evidence from a randomized trial. International Journal of Stress Management , 27 (2), 172.

Sole, M., Musu, C., Boi, F., Giusto, D., & Popescu, V. (2013, July). Control system for workplace safety in a cargo terminal. In 2013 9th International Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing Conference (IWCMC) (pp. 1035–1039). IEEE.

Spagnolli, A., Guardigli, E., Orso, V., Varotto, A., & Gamberini, L. (2014). Measuring user acceptance of wearable symbiotic devices: validation study across application scenarios. In Symbiotic Interaction: Third International Workshop, Symbiotic 2014, Helsinki, Finland, October 30–31, 2014, Proceedings 3 (pp. 87–98). Springer International Publishing.

Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine , 166 (10), 1092–1097.

Steptoe, A., Deaton, A., & Stone, A. A. (2015). Subjective wellbeing, health, and ageing. The Lancet , 385 (9968), 640–648.

Stratton, E., Lampit, A., Choi, I., Calvo, R. A., Harvey, S. B., & Glozier, N. (2017). Effectiveness of eHealth interventions for reducing mental health conditions in employees: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS ONE , 12 (12), e0189904.

Suzuki, T., Tanaka, H., Minami, S., Yamada, H., & Miyata, T. (2013, March). Wearable wireless vital monitoring technology for smart health care. In 2013 7th International Symposium on Medical Information and Communication Technology (ISMICT) (pp. 1–4). IEEE.

Tang, C. S., Au, W., Schwarzer, R., & Schmitz, G. (2001). Mental Health outcomes of Job stress among Chinese teachers: Role of stress resource factors and burnout. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 22 (8), 887–901. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3649577

Taylor, H., Cavanagh, K., Field, A. P., & Strauss, C. (2022). Health Care Workers’ Need for Headspace: Findings From a Multisite Definitive Randomized Controlled Trial of an Unguided Digital Mindfulness-Based Self-help App to Reduce Healthcare Worker Stress. JMIR mHealth and uHealth , 10 (8), e31744.

Tindale, L. C., Chiu, D., Minielly, N., Hrincu, V., Talhouk, A., & Illes, J. (2022). Wearable biosensors in the Workplace: Perceptions and perspectives. Frontiers in Digital Health , 4 , 800367.

Van Aert, R. C., Wicherts, J. M., & Van Assen, M. A. (2019). Publication bias examined in meta-analyses from psychology and medicine: A meta-meta-analysis. PloS ONE , 14 (4), e0215052.

Van Tulder, M., Furlan, A., Bombardier, C., Bouter, L., & Editorial Board of the Cochrane Collaboration Back Review Group. (2003). Updated method guidelines for systematic reviews in the Cochrane Collaboration Back Review Group. Spine , 28 (12), 1290–1299.

Vonderlin, R., Biermann, M., Bohus, M., & Lyssenko, L. (2020). Mindfulness-based programs in the workplace: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Mindfulness , 11 , 1579–1598.

Wang, B., Liu, Y., Qian, J., & Parker, S. K. (2021). Achieving Effective Remote Working during the COVID-19 pandemic: A Work Design Perspective. Applied Psychology , 70 , 16–59.

Warr, P. (2007). Work, happiness, and unhappiness (1st ed.). Psychology.

Weber, S., Lorenz, C., & Hemmings, N. (2019). Improving stress and positive mental health at work via an app-based intervention: A large-scale multi-center randomized control trial. Frontiers in Psychology , 10 , 2745.

Wilson, C. J., Deane, F. P., Ciarrochi, J. V., & Rickwood, D. (2005). Measuring help seeking intentions: properties of the general help seeking questionnaire.

World Health Organization (WHO) (July 2024). Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean. (‎2002)‎. Occupational health: a manual for primary health care workers. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/116326 Accessed 10.

Wright, T. A., Cropanzano, R., & Bonett, D. G. (2007). The moderating role of employee positive well being on the relation between job satisfaction and job performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology , 12 (2), 93.

Xu, H., Eley, R., Kynoch, K., & Tuckett, A. (2022). Effects of mobile mindfulness on emergency department work stress: A randomized controlled trial. Emergency Medicine Australasia , 34 (2), 176–185.

Xue, Y. (2019). A review on intelligent wearables: Uses and risks. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies , 1 (4), 287–294.

Xue, M., Liang, R. H., Hu, J., Yu, B., & Feijs, L. (2022, April). Understanding How Group Workers Reflect on Organizational Stress with a Shared, Anonymous Heart Rate Variability Data Visualization. In CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems Extended Abstracts (pp. 1–7).

Yeh, Y. C., Lin, B. Y. J., Lin, W. H., et al. (2010). Job stress: Its relationship to hospital pharmacists’ insomnia and work outcomes. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine , 17 , 143–153.

Yoon, S. I., Lee, S. I., Suh, H. W., Chung, S. Y., & Kim, J. W. (2022). Effects of mobile mindfulness training on mental health of employees: A CONSORT-compliant pilot randomized controlled trial. Medicine , 101 (35), e30260.

You, C. W., Yuan, C. W., Bi, N., Hung, M. W., Huang, P. C., & Wang, H. C. (2021, May). Go gig or go home: enabling social sensing to share personal data with intimate partner for the health and well-being of long-hour workers. In Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1–16). Zenonos, A., Khan, A., Kalogridis, G., Vatsikas, S., Lewis, T., & Sooriyabandara, M. (2016, March). HealthyOffice: Mood recognition at work using smartphones and wearable sensors. In 2016 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communication Workshops (PerCom Workshops) (pp. 1–6). IEEE.

Download references

This systematic review was realized within the MUSA – Multilayered Urban Sustainability Action – project, funded by the European Union – NextGenerationEU, under the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) Mission 4 Component 2 Investment Line 1.5: Strengthening of research structures and creation of R&D “innovation ecosystems”, set up of “territorial leaders in R&D”.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza dell’Ateneo Nuovo, 1 - 20126, Milan, Italy

Margherita Herold, Silvia Simbula & Marcello Gallucci

Bicocca Center for Applied Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza dell’Ateneo Nuovo, 1 - 20126, Milan, Italy

Margherita Herold & Silvia Simbula

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Margherita Herold .

Ethics declarations

This Systematic Review has been realized within the MUSA – Multilayered Urban Sustainability Action – project, funded by the European Union – NextGenerationEU, under the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) Mission 4 Component 2 Investment Line 1.5: Strengthening of research structures and creation of R&D “innovation ecosystems”, set up of“territorial leaders in R&D”.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Herold, M., Simbula, S. & Gallucci, M. Can smartphone applications and wearable technologies improve workplace well-being and help manage stress? A systematic review. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06534-z

Download citation

Accepted : 06 August 2024

Published : 24 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06534-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Work-related stress
• Workers well-being
• Smartphone applications
• Wearable technologies
• Systematic review
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Stress — Stress Management: What Is Stress And How To Overcome It

Stress Management: What is Stress and How to Overcome It

• Categories: Stress Stress Management

About this sample

Words: 1862 |

10 min read

Published: Apr 11, 2019

Words: 1862 | Pages: 4 | 10 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, stress: what is it, source of stress, types of sress, signs and symptoms of stress overload, stress reliving techniques.

• Motivates, focuses energy
• Is short-term
• Is perceived as within our coping abilities
• Feels exciting
• Improves performance
• Causes panic or anxiety
• Can be short or long-term
• Feels unpleasant
• Decreases performance
• Can lead to mental and physical problems
• The death of a partner
• Filing for divorce
• Losing contact with loved ones
• The death of a family member
• Hospitalization (oneself or a family member)
• Injury or illness (oneself or a family member)
• Being abused or neglected
• Separation from a spouse or committed relationship partner
• Conflict in interpersonal relationships
• Bankruptcy/money problems
• Unemployment
• Sleep problems
• Children’s problems at school
• Legal problems
• Inadequate or substandard housing
• Excessive job demands
• Job insecurity
• Conflicts with team mates and supervisors
• Lack of training necessary to do a job
• Making presentations in front of colleagues or clients
• Unproductive and time-consuming meetings
• Commuting and travel schedules
• Getting promotion at job
• Getting/starting a new job
• Getting married or committed
• Having a child
• Going on a vacation
• Joining any classes of selected hobbies
• A furious or disturbed stress reaction: we may feel warmed, keyed-up, excessively enthusiastic, and unfit to sit still.
• A pulled back or discouraged stress reaction: we close down, space out, and appear almost no vitality or feeling.
• Both a tens and frozen stress reaction: we "freeze" under strain and feel like we can't do anything. We look incapacitated, yet under the surface we may feel to a great degree disturbed.
• Memory problems
• Inability or difficulty concentrating
• Poor judgment
• Seeing only the negative
• Anxious, racing, or ruminating thoughts
• Constant worrying
• Irritability or irascible
• Feeling overpowered
• Sense of dejection or detachment
• Depression or general despondency
• Aches and agonies, muscle pressure
• Diarrhea or clogging
• Nausea, dazedness, or butterflies in the stomach
• Chest agony or quick pulse
• Frequent colds
• Shallow breathing and perspiring
• Eating pretty much
• Sleeping excessively or too little
• Isolating yourself from others
• Procrastinating or ignoring obligations
• Using liquor, cigarettes, or medications to unwind
• Nervous propensities (nail eating, pacing)

Mindfulness

Deep breathing, support systems, good time management.

Cite this Essay

Let us write you an essay from scratch

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Verified writer

• Expert in: Nursing & Health

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

2 pages / 716 words

1 pages / 401 words

2 pages / 700 words

2 pages / 873 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Entering college is a significant milestone in one's life, marked by excitement, anticipation, and the promise of new beginnings. However, for many students, including myself, it can also be a time of heightened anxiety. In this [...]

Stress is a pervasive aspect of human existence, impacting individuals on physical, emotional, and behavioral levels. To effectively address stress, it is crucial to comprehend its origins and consequences while also considering [...]

Stress is an omnipresent phenomenon in modern life, affecting individuals across various demographics and occupational spheres. As a multifaceted construct, it encompasses a range of physiological, psychological, and emotional [...]

American Heart Association. (2018, April 4). Stress and Heart Health. American Heart Association. https://www.sleepeducation.org/sleep-topics/stress-and-sleep

At some point in our lives, most of us have found ourselves in situations where we feel like we are under too much pressure mentally. This kind of stress may come from literally any aspect of life, but it is mostly attributed to [...]

For many people, a low-grade amount of stress is a part of everyday life. So, they may not recognize that it has a negative impact on their overall health. Studies have shown that feeling stress or anxiety on a long-term basis [...]

Related Topics

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Where do you want us to send this sample?

By clicking “Continue”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy.

Be careful. This essay is not unique

This essay was donated by a student and is likely to have been used and submitted before

Download this Sample

Free samples may contain mistakes and not unique parts

Sorry, we could not paraphrase this essay. Our professional writers can rewrite it and get you a unique paper.

Please check your inbox.

We can write you a custom essay that will follow your exact instructions and meet the deadlines. Let's fix your grades together!

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free