buy
need
get
next/later
also/plus
whole
enough
Download a list of more formal/informal words
The price went up. The price rose/increased.
The client asked for a contract. The client requested a contract.
The problems have come back. The problems have returned.
We will cut down on spending. We will reduce spending.
I’m, you’re, can’t, don’t, wasn’t, it’s…
The shipment hasn’t arrived. The shipment has not arrived.
They’re manufactured in China. They are manufactured in China.
He’s the director of marketing. He is the director of marketing.
We’d like to inform you… We would like to inform you…
What about this? – The company’s employees
This is OK to use in formal English because it’s a possessive, NOT a contraction! It means “The employees of the company.”
With possessives, you can use either ‘s or “of the” – but try to avoid using “of the” multiple times in a single phrase:
the terms of the client’s contract NOT: the terms of the contract of the client
Idiom: The software is a piece of cake.
Slang: A million bucks in profit.
Text speak: Tks & we look 4ward 2 meeting u.
Also avoid shortened words:
The info was incomplete. The information was incomplete.
The results have arrived from the lab. The results have arrived from the laboratory.
fruits and veggies fruits and vegetables
1. phrasal verbs & contractions = ok.
Could you look over this report? look over = review and check for errors
She came up with a great idea. came up with = created, invented, thought of
I’m available on Friday morning. The directors weren’t happy.
This project is on the back burner. on the back burner = not a priority at the moment
We’re operating in the red. in the red = no money, negative cash flow
Semi-formal (inviting your boss): “Would you like to join me for lunch?” Informal (inviting your best friend): “Hey, wanna grab a bite to eat?”
Semi-formal: “Hello, how are you?” Informal: “Wassup?”
Semi-formal: “The conference was great!” Informal: “It was awesome!” “It was the bomb!”
Say “I’d like…” instead of “I want…”
When making requests, use “could you” and “please,” don’t just give commands: Say “Could you please call me later?” and not just “Call me later.”
Another part of polite English is making criticisms and negative comments in an indirect way:
You’re wrong. I’m afraid you’re mistaken.
I disagree. I’m of a different opinion. / I see it differently.
This is terrible work. This could be improved.
I don’t like it. I don’t really care for it. It’s not my cup of tea. I’d prefer…
1. shorter, simpler sentences – perfect grammar is not as important.
(So don’t be so nervous about mistakes when speaking!)
“Have you finished your work yet?” –> “Finished your work yet?”
“I’m really liking this book.” (“like” should technically not be in the -ING form here)
“But I don’t think so.”
Starting sentences with “but,” ending sentences with prepositions, using sentence fragments – these are all done in informal spoken English.
This is one reason that watching movies and TV shows in English is difficult… even if you have good vocabulary and grammar! You may not have learned the phrasal verbs, slang, and idioms in your textbook.
Phrasal verb: “I won’t put up with this!” put up with = tolerate
Idiom: “Could you give me a hand ?” give me a hand = help me
Slang: “I aced the test!” aced = got an excellent grade
The Phrasal Verbs in Conversation Course and the English Idioms Course can help you learn these expressions in context!
He’s gonna be angry. gonna = going to
I wanna learn how to ski. wanna = want to
Didja like the movie? didja = did you
We hafta leave now. hafta = have to
I bought apples n grapes. n = and
Business English Course – Focuses on formal and semi-formal English used in meetings, presentations, interviews, letters and e-mails, and vocabulary for jobs and careers.
Everyday English Speaking Course – Daily situations, socializing, phrases, expressions not found in textbooks, how native English speakers say things in real life.
Phrasal Verbs in Conversation – Teaches phrasal verbs in context, through dialogues, making it easier to learn and understand them. Quizzes and writing exercises help you put the phrasal verbs into practice immediately.
More espresso english lessons:, about the author.
Shayna Oliveira is the founder of Espresso English, where you can improve your English fast - even if you don’t have much time to study. Millions of students are learning English from her clear, friendly, and practical lessons! Shayna is a CELTA-certified teacher with 10+ years of experience helping English learners become more fluent in her English courses.
Learn the difference between formal and informal language and when to use them.
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Formal and informal language serve different purposes. The tone, the choice of words and the way the words are put together vary between the two styles. Formal language is less personal than informal language. It is used when writing for professional or academic purposes like university assignments. Formal language does not use colloquialisms, contractions or first person pronouns such as ‘I’ or ‘We’.
Informal language is more casual and spontaneous. It is used when communicating with friends or family either in writing or in conversation. It is used when writing personal emails, text messages and in some business correspondence. The tone of informal language is more personal than formal language.
Examples of formal and informal language are shown below:
Informal: The improvements canʼt be introduced due to funding restrictions.
Formal: Improvements cannot be introduced due to funding restrictions.
Informal: I donʼt believe that the results are accurate.
Formal: The results are not believed to be accurate.
Informal: The research project wonʼt continue next year.
Formal: The research project will not continue next year.
Informal: The balloon was blown up for the experiment.
Formal: The balloon was inflated for the experiment.
Informal: The patient got over his illness.
Formal: The patient recovered from his illness.
Informal: The results of the study were mixed up.
Formal: The results of the study were confused.
Informal: The mob was very rowdy during the protest against cuts to university funding.
Formal: The crowd was very rowdy during the protest against the cuts to university funding.
Informal: Lecturers still count on students to use correct grammar and punctuation in essays.
Formal: Lecturers expect students to use correct grammar and punctuation in essays.
Informal: It was raining cats and dogs.
Formal: It was raining very heavily.
Informal: I considered various research methods for the study.
Formal: Various research methods were considered for the study.
Informal: We believe the practice is unsustainable.
Formal: It is believed the practice is unsustainable.
Informal: During the interview, I asked students about their experiences.
Formal: During the interview, students were asked about their experiences.
TAFE Technical and Further Education
ANZAC Australian and New Zealand Army Corps
QANTAS Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services
UTS University of Technology Sydney
ISO International Standards Organisation
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
The first time an acronym or initialism is used in an essay, it is acceptable to write the name in full with the acronym or initialism in brackets after it. Every subsequent time it is used the acronym or initialism can be used on its own. Commonly known acronyms such as ANZAC and QANTAS do not need to be written in full. If an acronym or initialism needs to be made into a plural, add a small ‘s’ to it without an apostrophe.
Do not use the acronyms 'ATSI' or 'TSI' to refer to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. This must be written in full. Always capitalise the word 'Indigenous' when referring to Australia's Indigenous peoples.
UTS acknowledges the Gadigal people of the Eora Nation, the Boorooberongal people of the Dharug Nation, the Bidiagal people and the Gamaygal people, upon whose ancestral lands our university stands. We would also like to pay respect to the Elders both past and present, acknowledging them as the traditional custodians of knowledge for these lands.
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Published on February 6, 2016 by Sarah Vinz . Revised on September 11, 2023.
When you are writing a dissertation , thesis, or research paper, many words and phrases that are acceptable in conversations or informal writing are considered inappropriate in academic writing .
You should try to avoid expressions that are too informal, unsophisticated, vague, exaggerated, or subjective, as well as those that are generally unnecessary or incorrect.
Bear in mind, however, that these guidelines do not apply to text you are directly quoting from your sources (including interviews ).
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Too informal, too exaggerated, too subjective, generally incorrect, other interesting articles.
Academic writing is generally more formal than the writing we see in non-academic materials (including on websites). It is also more formal than the ways in which we normally speak. The following words and phrases are considered too informal for a dissertation or academic paper.
A bit | The interviews were difficult to schedule | The interviews were to schedule |
A lot of, a couple of | studies | studies |
Isn’t, can’t, doesn’t, would’ve (or any other ) | The sample | The sample |
Kind of, sort of | The findings were significant | The findings were |
Til, till | From 2008 2012 | From 2008 2012 |
You, your (i.e., the ) | can clearly see the results | can clearly see the results
|
Some words are acceptable in certain contexts, but become too informal when used at the beginning of a sentence. You can replace these with appropriate transition words or simply remove them from the sentence.
Plus | the participants were in agreement on the third question | , the participants were in agreement on the third question |
So | it can be concluded that the model needs further refinement | it can be concluded that the model needs further refinement |
And | the participants were all over the age of 30 | The participants were all over the age of 30 |
we asked all the participants to sign an agreement | , we asked all the participants to sign an agreement |
Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:
See an example
Using vague terms makes your writing imprecise and may cause people to interpret it in different ways. Always try to be as specific as possible.
Stuff | People are concerned about their | People are concerned about their |
Thing | The report presents many | The report presents many |
This topic has interested researchers for | This topic has interested researchers for |
Academic writing is usually unadorned and direct. Some adverbs of frequency (such as always and never ) and intensifiers (words that create emphasis, such as really ) are often too dramatic. They may also not be accurate – you’re making a significant claim when you say something is perfect or never happens.
These terms do sometimes add value, but try to use them sparingly.
Always, never | Researchers argue that | Researchers argue that |
Perfect | The solution to the problem | to the problem |
Really, so, super | This theory is important | This theory is |
Some words and phrases reveal your own bias. For instance, if you state that something will obviously happen, you are indicating that you think the occurrence is obvious – not stating a fact.
Expressing your opinion is appropriate in certain sections of a dissertation and in particular types of academic texts (such as personal statements and reflective or argumentative essays ). In most cases, though, take care when using words and phrases such as those below – try to let the facts speak for themselves, or emphasize your point with less biased language.
Beautiful, ugly, wonderful, horrible, great, boring | A review of the literature yielded many articles | A review of the literature yielded many articles |
Obviously, naturally, of course | The results indicate | The results indicate |
Discover proofreading & editing
Certain words and phrases are often used incorrectly, even by native speakers of a language. If you’re exposed to such mistakes often enough, you may start to assume they are correct – but it’s important that you don’t let them creep into your writing.
You should also bear in mind that some of these mistakes relate to things we all frequently mishear (for instance, we often think the speaker is saying would of instead of would have ).
Literally | The students did not understand | The students did not understand |
Would of, had of | The study considered | The study considered |
In general, you should also try to avoid using words and phrases that fall into the following categories:
Reflective reports and personal statements sometimes have a less formal tone. In these types of writing, you may not have to follow these guidelines as strictly. The preface or acknowledgements of a dissertation also often have a less formal and more personal voice than the rest of the document.
If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!
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Vinz, S. (2023, September 11). Words and Phrases to Avoid in Academic Writing. Scribbr. Retrieved June 26, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-writing/taboo-words/
Sarah's academic background includes a Master of Arts in English, a Master of International Affairs degree, and a Bachelor of Arts in Political Science. She loves the challenge of finding the perfect formulation or wording and derives much satisfaction from helping students take their academic writing up a notch.
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Formal language is a way of articulating your thoughts, ideas, views and beliefs in a professional sounding manner. Formal language is used to express ideas in the most articulate way possible and as such, does not use slang, colloquialisms, contractions, or jokes.
It is important to recognise that when you speak, or write, you change your writing style depending on who your intended audience is. We change the way we speak, depending on who we are speaking to. For instance, the way you speak to your friends may be completely different to how you address your teachers or your parents.
When writing VCE English and Literature essays, textual analysis and opinion pieces, formal language should be used. This is because it demonstrates your ideas in an articulate, thorough manner. It also shows that you are able to write in a way that demonstrates you have a firm grasp of the rules of English; including spelling, grammar and syntax.
A good exercise for learning how to write formally is to take a piece of informal writing and rewrite it in a formal writing manner. Let’s start with this exercise here, a short movie review:
“ Over the weekend my mates and I saw this awesome movie called Rear Window . It’s by some really famous director called Alfred Hitchcock and stars Grace Kelly, who became a real-life Princess. It’s about some guy who is stuck at home with a broken leg, who gets so bored he starts to spy on his neighbours using a telescope, when he notices one of them committing a murder, and then trying to cover it up! The movie is full of suspense, plot twists, and has a wild ending! I would definitely recommend it, I would give it a solid 8/10 score.”
What we have just read is an informal review of the 1954 Hitchcock movie Rear Window . How do we know it is informal?
“ This movie review will be analysing the 1954 Hitchcock thriller Rear Window . It stars James Stewart and the future Princess of Monaco, Grace Kelly, as the protagonists of the story, and Raymond Burr as the antagonist. The story is a gripping mystery in which Stewart stars as a homebound photographer recuperating from a broken leg, who finds a novel pastime in the form of spying on his neighbours. This hobby appears to be nothing but an amusing distraction until he notices one of his neighbours behaving in an extremely suspicious manner, and he begins to obsess about what goes on behind closed doors.
This sets the scene for a gripping tale of obsession, voyeurism, and the age-old question of how well we really know our neighbours. It has suspense, plot twists, and an ending that will take you by surprise. Lovers of old-fashioned mysteries should not give this one a miss, as it is a solid 8/10 entry in Hitchcock’s library.”
What did we just do?
We took the informal language review and retained the key formal ideas contained within it. That it is a review of the 1954 Hitchcock movie Rear Window, that is stars Grace Kelly, what the story is about, what the themes of it are, and what sort of score the reviewer would give it.
Then we removed the informal ideas within the review. Including that the reviewer saw it with their mates over the weekend. We also changed the informal language within the piece. Including the description of the protagonist as “some guy”, and that it’s by some “really famous director called Alfred Hitchcock”.
Lastly, we improved and expanded on some of the ideas contained within the informal review. Such as, who the other principal cast members of the piece were and we revised the language used to be more in-line with formal writing pieces. This includes amending “some guy” to “the protagonist”, as the word used to describe the leading character in the story. We also removed all informal references to the first person “I”, and amended them to more general comments about the merits of the film, and its genre.
In this short article, we have learned the key differences between formal and informal writing. Formal writing is used to express an idea as articulately as possible. While informal writing is simple ideas and thoughts expressed in word form. We looked at some possible strategies to alter an informal writing piece into a more formal style.
For a final exercise, we have a practice task for you. Please edit this informal review of Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet into a formal piece of writing.
“ In class today we discussed a play by William Shakespeare called Romeo and Juliet. It’s about these two families, the Montagues and the Capulets, who have had a long-standing feud. This feud has been going on for so long that all Montagues have sworn to hate all Capulets, and vice-versa. This is a huge problem for the two heroes of our story, Romeo and Juliet. When they fall in love, but realise that their family circumstances will prevent them from ever being together. This play has lots of action, a fair bit of romance, and a really sad ending, where they both die. Well, I guess it is kind of happy too, because at least they are together in death, and their families then vow to put an end to their silly dispute.
A lot of people say this play is about true love, but I say that’s ridiculous. It’s about not letting your raging hormones get the better of you, as the two only meet a few times, but suddenly decide they are destined for each other. Talk about placing physical attraction above everything else. All up, it’s a pretty good story, I would rate it a 7/10.”
While this review demonstrates an understanding of some of the central themes of Romeo and Juliet, it is written in an informal tone that is not suitable for essay and analytical writing. Please rewrite this review, while retaining its central ideas, into a piece of formal writing.
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We use formal language in situations that are serious or that involve people we don’t know well. Informal language is more commonly used in situations that are more relaxed and involve people we know well.
Formal language is more common when we write; informal language is more common when we speak. However, there are times where writing can be very informal, for example, when writing postcards or letters to friends, emails or text messages. There are also examples where spoken English can be very formal, for example, in a speech or a lecture. Most uses of English are neutral; that is, they are neither formal nor informal.
Formal language and informal language are associated with particular choices of grammar and vocabulary.
Contractions, relative clauses without a relative pronoun and ellipsis are more common in informal language.
. | informal: = contraction |
formal | |
informal: relative clause without the relative pronoun |
Formal | |
Informal: ellipsis (more likely to be written or texted than spoken) |
More formal vocabulary commonly involves longer words or words with origins in Latin and Greek. More informal vocabulary commonly involves shorter words, or words with origins in Anglo-Saxon. Most dictionaries indicate very informal and/or formal words.
formal | informal |
commence | start |
terminate | end |
endeavour | try |
We often choose to use certain modal verbs to be more formal and polite:
Can I suggest you try this new model? (neutral)
May I suggest you try this new model? (more formal)
Might I suggest you try this new model? (very formal)
Contractions
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For an author to tell his readers a story, picking the right word and phrases to include in his manuscript is pivotal. Similarly, using formal and professional words, sentences, and tone while writing your academic writing assignments is equally important.
To have an academic tone, express your ideas clearly, and make it easier for your readers to understand the concepts behind your arguments and points, a carefully segregated and strong word choice is ideal for success.
In this article, we’ll share a list of words you should use and ones you should avoid at all costs.
While it is necessary to make sense of your writing, it is also advised to identify what sounds best for your assignment and be able to communicate arguments, ideas, and opinions with your target audience, cohesively and concisely.
Let’s now understand the five categories of words and phrases that are appropriate and advisable to use in your formal academic writing assessments:
The most important and trickiest part of your academic writing is the introduction – the first portion of your essay that your readers will read, so it needs to have a catchy hook to grab the attention of your readers and summarise your topic and thesis statement in layman’s terms, all in one paragraph.
To not seem casual in your writing, as well as score high grades on your formal paper, the usage of appropriate words for your introduction paragraph is crucial. Here are some words you can consider:
The structure, clarity, and flow of your paper are very important. You would want your readers to understand each paragraph, connect the entire paper, and draw up an analysis without any difficulties.
Knowing how to write and add new information to your academic paper with smooth transitions from each paragraph to the other is a skill that is paramount amongst students who are crafting their formal assignments.
Most of the time, formal academic writing assignments have differences of opinions to prove an argument, so it's very important to show all sides of an opinion with relevant research and sources.
To show your knowledge of a particular subject, you have to demonstrate your ideas with facts, research and examples. Here are a few ways you can introduce compare and contrast arguments:
Every high-scored academic paper has to include examples. This makes your argument stronger, more plausible and can help simplify an explanation or bring clarity to an argument for your reader.
The term ‘for example’’ is the most commonly used phrase that is used to illustrate examples, but it's always good practice to avoid repeating the same words for a quality read.
Lastly, concluding words are pivotal for using in your academic paper to summarise all your arguments, points, and ideas. Each portion of this paragraph requires an appropriate term to clarify the meaning and purpose of the argument.
There are terms to introduce your conclusion, emphasize the relevant argument, and shed attention to important points. That’s why the final paragraph with your core argument that ties up your entire academic paper together should be explained through the following terms:
Apart from knowing which words to use, it’s also important to know the words you must avoid to submit a stellar paper.
Here are the seven categories of words and expressions you should avoid at all costs to gain higher scores on your writing assignments.
Every academic writing needs to be written in formal language with the usage of appropriate words. Informal language in your assignments would make your paper seem casual and immature. Usually, these forms of writing also need to be a lot more formal than our everyday speech.
The following words below are considered to be too informal to be included in your academic papers:
Using vague words and sentences should be best avoided. To get across clearly and precisely, use specific terms so that the presentation of the academic writing leaves no doubts in anybody’s mind.
Here are some vague words to avoid using in your essays, dissertations, or projects:
Oft-repeated and overused expressions can prove to be quite ineffectual in formal writing. Cliches rob an assignment or project of its original worth and erode its credibility.
Take a look at some of the frequently used and bland cliches that would only bring unoriginality to your paper:
Shortened forms of words and phrases should be abjured in writing academic papers. This then brings down the entire gravity and professionalism of your essay.
Imagine crafting a perfect academic assignment only to get a low grade due to unnecessary and easily avoidable abbreviations:
Try to use simple and layman's terms instead of resorting to peppering the assignment with complex words.
Using technical and complex terms will make it difficult for your readers to comprehend your ideas and content. This will, in turn result in you receiving negative feedback for your work.
Here are a few complex words for your reference:
Formal academic writing is direct and not ornamental. Hence, exaggerations are best avoided. They may also be lacking in accuracy which could make your assignment lose its authenticity – this then leads to lower grades.
Keep in mind to remove your focus from including exaggerated expressions in your formal writing, such as:
It's always advisable to use formal words in a conversational tone for your academic assignments. Slangs are best avoided in this aspect because using casual and colloquial expressions can bring down your writing scores drastically.
The following slang and colloquialisms should be best avoided to score a perfect grade on your formal academic assessments:
Now, as you start to pen your thoughts and ideas to paper for your formal academic paper, you not only know what words and sentences to avoid that’ll make your efforts go down the drain, but you also know the appropriate, formal, and academic words to use in your writing assessments for scoring high grades.
As word choice is important, writing a flawless academic paper using the list above as your reference will do wonders for your vocabulary, writing style, knowledge, and sentence structure.
If you need help with your academic essays, Writers Per Hour would be glad to help. Our expert writers know exactly the right words to use so you’re able to submit professionally-written papers that are sure to impress.
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Essay writing is a fundamental skill, a basic task, that is expected of those who choose to pursue their undergraduate and master’s degrees. It constitutes a key requirement for students to complete a given course credit. However, many students and early career researchers find themselves struggling with the challenge of organizing their thoughts into a coherent, engaging structure. This article is especially for those who see essay writing as a daunting task and face problems in presenting their work in an impactful way.
Read on as we delve into the basic elements of essay writing, outline key principles for organizing information, and cover some foundational features of writing essays.
Essays are written in a flowing and continuous pattern but with a structure of its own. An introduction, body and conclusion are integral to it. The key is to balance the amount and kind of information to be presented in each part. Various disciplines may have their own conventions or guidelines on the information to be provided in the introduction.
A clear articulation of the context and background of the study is important, as is the definition of key terms and an outline of specific models or theories used. Readers also need to know the significance of the study and its implications for further research. Most importantly, the thesis or the main proposition should be clearly presented.
The body of the essay is therefore organized into paragraphs that hold the main ideas and arguments and is presented and analyzed in a logical manner. Ideally, each paragraph of the body focuses on one main point or a distinct topic and must be supported by evidence and analysis. The concluding paragraph should bring back to the reader the key arguments, its significance and food for thought. It is best not to re-state all the points of the essay or introduce a new concept here.
In other words, certain general guidelines help structure the information in the essay. The information must flow logically with the context or the background information presented in the introductory part of the essay. The arguments are built organically where each paragraph in the body of the essay deals with a different point, yet closely linked to the para preceding and following it. Importantly, when writing essays, early career researchers must be careful in ensuring that each piece of information relates to the main thesis and is a building block to the arguments.
The structure of an essay can be determined by the kind of essay that is required.
Also known as the cause-and-effect approach, this is a straightforward way to structure an essay. In such essays, events are discussed sequentially, as they occurred from the earliest to the latest. A chronological structure is useful for discussing a series of events or processes such as historical analyses or narratives of events. The introduction should have the topic sentence. The body of the essay should follow a chorological progression with each para discussing a major aspect of that event with supporting evidence. It ends with a summarizing of the results of the events.
Where the essay focuses on a specific problem, the problem-methods-solutions structure can be used to organize the essay. This structure is ideal for essays that address complex issues. It starts with presenting the problem, the context, and thesis statement as introduction to the essay. The major part of the discussion which forms the body of the essay focuses on stating the problem and its significance, the author’s approach or methods adopted to address the problem along with its relevance, and accordingly proposing solution(s) to the identified problem. The concluding part offers a recap of the research problem, methods, and proposed solutions, emphasizing their significance and potential impact.
This structure of essay writing is ideally used when two or more key subjects require a comparison of ideas, theories, or phenomena. The three crucial elements, introduction, body, and conclusion, remain the same. The introduction presents the context and the thesis statement. The body of the essay seeks to focus on and highlight differences between the subjects, supported by evidence and analysis. The conclusion is used to summarize the key points of comparison and contrast, offering insights into the significance of the analysis.
Depending on how the subjects will be discussed, the body of the essay can be organized according to the block method or the alternating method. In the block method, one para discusses one subject and the next para the other subject. In the alternative method, both subjects are discussed in one para based on a particular topic or issue followed by the next para on another issue and so on.
An essay structure serves as a framework for presenting ideas coherently and logically. It comprises three crucial elements: an introduction that communicates the context, topic, and thesis statement; the body focusing on the main points and arguments supported with appropriate evidence followed by its analysis; and a conclusion that ties together the main points and its importance .
An essay structure well-defined essay structure enhances clarity, coherence, and readability, and is crucial for organizing ideas and arguments to effectively communicate key aspects of a chosen topic. It allows readers to better understand arguments presented and demonstrates the author’s ability to organize and present information systematically.
Yes, while expert recommend following an essay structure, early career researchers may choose how best to adapt standard essay structures to communicate and share their research in an impactful and engaging way. However, do keep in mind that deviating too far from established structures can hinder comprehension and weaken the overall effectiveness of the essay, By understanding the basic elements of essay writing and employing appropriate structures such as chronological, problem-methods-solutions, or compare and contrast, researchers can effectively organize their ideas and communicate their findings with clarity and precision.
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Powerful academic phrases to improve your essay writing .
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To be truly brilliant, an essay needs to utilise the right language. You could make a great point, but if it’s not intelligently articulated, you almost needn’t have bothered.
Developing the language skills to build an argument and to write persuasively is crucial if you’re to write outstanding essays every time. In this article, we’re going to equip you with the words and phrases you need to write a top-notch essay, along with examples of how to utilise them.
It’s by no means an exhaustive list, and there will often be other ways of using the words and phrases we describe that we won’t have room to include, but there should be more than enough below to help you make an instant improvement to your essay-writing skills.
If you’re interested in developing your language and persuasive skills, Oxford Royale offers summer courses at its Oxford Summer School , Cambridge Summer School , London Summer School , San Francisco Summer School and Yale Summer School . You can study courses to learn english , prepare for careers in law , medicine , business , engineering and leadership.
Let’s start by looking at language for general explanations of complex points.
Usage: “In order to” can be used to introduce an explanation for the purpose of an argument. Example: “In order to understand X, we need first to understand Y.”
Usage: Use “in other words” when you want to express something in a different way (more simply), to make it easier to understand, or to emphasise or expand on a point. Example: “Frogs are amphibians. In other words, they live on the land and in the water.”
Usage: This phrase is another way of saying “in other words”, and can be used in particularly complex points, when you feel that an alternative way of wording a problem may help the reader achieve a better understanding of its significance. Example: “Plants rely on photosynthesis. To put it another way, they will die without the sun.”
Usage: “That is” and “that is to say” can be used to add further detail to your explanation, or to be more precise. Example: “Whales are mammals. That is to say, they must breathe air.”
Usage: Use “to that end” or “to this end” in a similar way to “in order to” or “so”. Example: “Zoologists have long sought to understand how animals communicate with each other. To that end, a new study has been launched that looks at elephant sounds and their possible meanings.”
Students often make the mistake of using synonyms of “and” each time they want to add further information in support of a point they’re making, or to build an argument. Here are some cleverer ways of doing this.
Usage: Employ “moreover” at the start of a sentence to add extra information in support of a point you’re making. Example: “Moreover, the results of a recent piece of research provide compelling evidence in support of…”
Usage:This is also generally used at the start of a sentence, to add extra information. Example: “Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that…”
Usage: This is used in the same way as “moreover” and “furthermore”. Example: “What’s more, this isn’t the only evidence that supports this hypothesis.”
Usage: Use “likewise” when you want to talk about something that agrees with what you’ve just mentioned. Example: “Scholar A believes X. Likewise, Scholar B argues compellingly in favour of this point of view.”
Usage: Use “similarly” in the same way as “likewise”. Example: “Audiences at the time reacted with shock to Beethoven’s new work, because it was very different to what they were used to. Similarly, we have a tendency to react with surprise to the unfamiliar.”
Usage: Use the phrase “another key point to remember” or “another key fact to remember” to introduce additional facts without using the word “also”. Example: “As a Romantic, Blake was a proponent of a closer relationship between humans and nature. Another key point to remember is that Blake was writing during the Industrial Revolution, which had a major impact on the world around him.”
Usage: Use “as well as” instead of “also” or “and”. Example: “Scholar A argued that this was due to X, as well as Y.”
Usage: This wording is used to add an extra piece of information, often something that’s in some way more surprising or unexpected than the first piece of information. Example: “Not only did Edmund Hillary have the honour of being the first to reach the summit of Everest, but he was also appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire.”
Usage: Used when considering two or more arguments at a time. Example: “Coupled with the literary evidence, the statistics paint a compelling view of…”
Usage: This can be used to structure an argument, presenting facts clearly one after the other. Example: “There are many points in support of this view. Firstly, X. Secondly, Y. And thirdly, Z.
Usage: “Not to mention” and “to say nothing of” can be used to add extra information with a bit of emphasis. Example: “The war caused unprecedented suffering to millions of people, not to mention its impact on the country’s economy.”
When you’re developing an argument, you will often need to present contrasting or opposing opinions or evidence – “it could show this, but it could also show this”, or “X says this, but Y disagrees”. This section covers words you can use instead of the “but” in these examples, to make your writing sound more intelligent and interesting.
Usage: Use “however” to introduce a point that disagrees with what you’ve just said. Example: “Scholar A thinks this. However, Scholar B reached a different conclusion.”
Usage: Usage of this phrase includes introducing a contrasting interpretation of the same piece of evidence, a different piece of evidence that suggests something else, or an opposing opinion. Example: “The historical evidence appears to suggest a clear-cut situation. On the other hand, the archaeological evidence presents a somewhat less straightforward picture of what happened that day.”
Usage: Used in a similar manner to “on the other hand” or “but”. Example: “The historians are unanimous in telling us X, an agreement that suggests that this version of events must be an accurate account. Having said that, the archaeology tells a different story.”
Usage: Use “by contrast” or “in comparison” when you’re comparing and contrasting pieces of evidence. Example: “Scholar A’s opinion, then, is based on insufficient evidence. By contrast, Scholar B’s opinion seems more plausible.”
Usage: Use this to cast doubt on an assertion. Example: “Writer A asserts that this was the reason for what happened. Then again, it’s possible that he was being paid to say this.”
Usage: This is used in the same way as “then again”. Example: “The evidence ostensibly appears to point to this conclusion. That said, much of the evidence is unreliable at best.”
Usage: Use this when you want to introduce a contrasting idea. Example: “Much of scholarship has focused on this evidence. Yet not everyone agrees that this is the most important aspect of the situation.”
Sometimes, you may need to acknowledge a shortfalling in a piece of evidence, or add a proviso. Here are some ways of doing so.
Usage: Use “despite this” or “in spite of this” when you want to outline a point that stands regardless of a shortfalling in the evidence. Example: “The sample size was small, but the results were important despite this.”
Usage: Use this when you want your reader to consider a point in the knowledge of something else. Example: “We’ve seen that the methods used in the 19th century study did not always live up to the rigorous standards expected in scientific research today, which makes it difficult to draw definite conclusions. With this in mind, let’s look at a more recent study to see how the results compare.”
Usage: This means “on condition that”. You can also say “providing that” or just “providing” to mean the same thing. Example: “We may use this as evidence to support our argument, provided that we bear in mind the limitations of the methods used to obtain it.”
Usage: These phrases are used when something has shed light on something else. Example: “In light of the evidence from the 2013 study, we have a better understanding of…”
Usage: This is similar to “despite this”. Example: “The study had its limitations, but it was nonetheless groundbreaking for its day.”
Usage: This is the same as “nonetheless”. Example: “The study was flawed, but it was important nevertheless.”
Usage: This is another way of saying “nonetheless”. Example: “Notwithstanding the limitations of the methodology used, it was an important study in the development of how we view the workings of the human mind.”
Good essays always back up points with examples, but it’s going to get boring if you use the expression “for example” every time. Here are a couple of other ways of saying the same thing.
Example: “Some birds migrate to avoid harsher winter climates. Swallows, for instance, leave the UK in early winter and fly south…”
Example: “To give an illustration of what I mean, let’s look at the case of…”
When you want to demonstrate that a point is particularly important, there are several ways of highlighting it as such.
Usage: Used to introduce a point that is loaded with meaning that might not be immediately apparent. Example: “Significantly, Tacitus omits to tell us the kind of gossip prevalent in Suetonius’ accounts of the same period.”
Usage: This can be used to mean “significantly” (as above), and it can also be used interchangeably with “in particular” (the example below demonstrates the first of these ways of using it). Example: “Actual figures are notably absent from Scholar A’s analysis.”
Usage: Use “importantly” interchangeably with “significantly”. Example: “Importantly, Scholar A was being employed by X when he wrote this work, and was presumably therefore under pressure to portray the situation more favourably than he perhaps might otherwise have done.”
You’ve almost made it to the end of the essay, but your work isn’t over yet. You need to end by wrapping up everything you’ve talked about, showing that you’ve considered the arguments on both sides and reached the most likely conclusion. Here are some words and phrases to help you.
Usage: Typically used to introduce the concluding paragraph or sentence of an essay, summarising what you’ve discussed in a broad overview. Example: “In conclusion, the evidence points almost exclusively to Argument A.”
Usage: Used to signify what you believe to be the most significant point, and the main takeaway from the essay. Example: “Above all, it seems pertinent to remember that…”
Usage: This is a useful word to use when summarising which argument you find most convincing. Example: “Scholar A’s point – that Constanze Mozart was motivated by financial gain – seems to me to be the most persuasive argument for her actions following Mozart’s death.”
Usage: Use in the same way as “persuasive” above. Example: “The most compelling argument is presented by Scholar A.”
Usage: This means “taking everything into account”. Example: “All things considered, it seems reasonable to assume that…”
How many of these words and phrases will you get into your next essay? And are any of your favourite essay terms missing from our list? Let us know in the comments below, or get in touch here to find out more about courses that can help you with your essays.
At Oxford Royale Academy, we offer a number of summer school courses for young people who are keen to improve their essay writing skills. Click here to apply for one of our courses today, including law , business , medicine and engineering .
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Undergraduate courses.
Composition courses that offer many sections (ENGL 101, 201, 277 and 379) are not listed on this schedule unless they are tailored to specific thematic content or particularly appropriate for specific programs and majors.
Tuesday and Thursday, 11 a.m.-12:15 p.m.
Sharon Smith
ENGL 151 serves as an introduction to both the English major and the discipline of English studies. In this class, you will develop the thinking, reading, writing and research practices that define both the major and the discipline. Much of the semester will be devoted to honing your literary analysis skills, and we will study and discuss texts from several different genres—poetry, short fiction, the novel, drama and film—as well as some literary criticism. As we do so, we will explore the language of the discipline, and you will learn a variety of key literary terms and concepts. In addition, you will develop your skills as both a writer and researcher within the discipline of English.
In this section of English 201, students will use research and writing to learn more about problems that are important to them and articulate ways to address those problems. The course will focus specifically on issues related to the mind, the body and the relationship between them. The topics we will discuss during the course will include the correlation between social media and body image; the efficacy of sex education programs; the degree to which beliefs about race and gender influence school dress codes; and the unique mental and physical challenges faced by college students today. In this course, you will be learning about different approaches to argumentation, analyzing the arguments of others and constructing your own arguments. At the same time, you will be honing your skills as a researcher and developing your abilities as a persuasive and effective writer.
Monday/Wednesday/Friday 1-1:50 p.m.
Gwen Horsley
English 201 will help students develop the ability to think critically and analytically and to write effectively for other university courses and careers. This course will provide opportunities to develop analytical skills that will help students become critical readers and effective writers. Specifically, in this class, students will:
Students will improve their writing skills by reading essays and applying techniques they witness in others’ work and those learned in class. This class is also a course in logical and creative thought. Students will write about humankind’s place in the world and our influence on the land and animals, places that hold special meaning to them or have influenced their lives and stories of their own families and their places and passions in the world. Students will practice writing in an informed and persuasive manner, in language that engages and enlivens readers by using vivid verbs and avoiding unnecessary passives, nominalizations and expletive constructions.
Students will prepare writing assignments based on readings and discussions of essays included in "Literature and the Environment " and other sources. They may use "The St. Martin’s Handbook," as well as other sources, to review grammar, punctuation, mechanics and usage as needed.
Tuesday and Thursday 9:30-10:45 a.m.
Paul Baggett
For generations, environmentalists have relied on the power of prose to change the minds and habits of their contemporaries. In the wake of fires, floods, storms and droughts, environmental writing has gained a new sense of urgency, with authors joining activists in their efforts to educate the public about the grim realities of climate change. But do they make a difference? Have reports of present and future disasters so saturated our airwaves that we no longer hear them? How do writers make us care about the planet amidst all the noise? In this course, students will examine the various rhetorical strategies employed by some of today’s leading environmental writers and filmmakers. And while analyzing their different arguments, students also will strengthen their own strategies of argumentation as they research and develop essays that explore a range of environmental concerns.
S17 Tuesday and Thursday 12:30-1:45 p.m.
S18 Tuesday and Thursday 2-3:15 p.m.
Jodi Andrews
In this composition class, students will critically analyze essays about food, food systems and environments, food cultures, the intersections of personal choice, market forces and policy and the values underneath these forces. Students will learn to better read like writers, noting authors’ purpose, audience organizational moves, sentence-level punctuation and diction. We will read a variety of essays including research-intensive arguments and personal narratives which intersect with one of our most primal needs as humans: food consumption. Students will rhetorically analyze texts, conduct advanced research, reflect on the writing process and write essays utilizing intentional rhetorical strategies. Through doing this work, students will practice the writing moves valued in every discipline: argument, evidence, concision, engaging prose and the essential research skills for the 21st century.
Michael S. Nagy
English 221 is a survey of early British literature from its inception in the Old English period with works such as "Beowulf" and the “Battle of Maldon,” through the Middle Ages and the incomparable writings of Geoffrey Chaucer and the Gawain - poet, to the Renaissance and beyond. Students will explore the historical and cultural contexts in which all assigned reading materials were written, and they will bring that information to bear on class discussion. Likely themes that this class will cover include heroism, humor, honor, religion, heresy and moral relativity. Students will write one research paper in this class and sit for two formal exams: a midterm covering everything up to that point in the semester, and a comprehensive final. Probable texts include the following:
Monday, Wednesday and Friday noon-12:50 p.m.
April Myrick
A survey of the history of literature written for children and adolescents, and a consideration of the various types of juvenile literature. Text selection will focus on the themes of imagination and breaking boundaries.
Randi Anderson
In English 240 students will develop the skills to interpret and evaluate various genres of literature for juvenile readers. This particular section will focus on various works of literature at approximately the K-5 grade level. We will read a large range of works that fall into this category, as well as information on the history, development and genre of juvenile literature.
Readings for this course include classical works such as "Hatchet," "Little Women", "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" and "Brown Girl Dreaming," as well as newer works like "Storm in the Barn," "Anne Frank’s Diary: A Graphic Adaptation," "Lumberjanes," and a variety of picture books. These readings will be paired with chapters from "Reading Children’s Literature: A Critical Introduction " to help develop understanding of various genres, themes and concepts that are both related to juvenile literature and also present in our readings.
In addition to exposing students to various genres of writing (poetry, historical fiction, non-fiction, fantasy, picture books, graphic novels, etc.) this course will also allow students to engage in a discussion of larger themes present in these works such as censorship, race and gender. Students’ understanding of these works and concepts will be developed through readings, research, discussion posts, exams and writing assignments designed to get students to practice analyzing poetry, picture books, informational books and transitional/easy readers.
Tuesday and Thursday 12:30-1:45 p.m.
This course provides a broad, historical survey of American literature from the early colonial period to the Civil War. Ranging across historical periods and literary genres—including early accounts of contact and discovery, narratives of captivity and slavery, poetry of revolution, essays on gender equality and stories of industrial exploitation—this class examines how subjects such as colonialism, nationhood, religion, slavery, westward expansion, race, gender and democracy continue to influence how Americans see themselves and their society.
Required Texts
Steven Wingate
Students will explore the various forms of creative writing (fiction, nonfiction and poetry) not one at a time in a survey format—as if there were decisive walls of separation between then—but as intensely related genres that share much of their creative DNA. Through close reading and work on personal texts, students will address the decisions that writers in any genre must face on voice, rhetorical position, relationship to audience, etc. Students will produce and revise portfolios of original creative work developed from prompts and research. This course fulfills the same SGR #2 requirements ENGL 201; note that the course will involve a research project. Successful completion of ENGL 101 (including by test or dual credit) is a prerequisite.
Jodilyn Andrews
This course introduces students to the craft of writing, with readings and practice in at least two genres (including fiction, poetry and drama).
Amber Jensen, M.A., M.F.A.
This course explores creative writing as a way of encountering the world, research as a component of the creative writing process, elements of craft and their rhetorical effect and drafting, workshop and revision as integral parts of writing polished literary creative work. Student writers will engage in the research practices that inform the writing of literature and in the composing strategies and writing process writers use to create literary texts. Through their reading and writing of fiction, poetry and creative nonfiction, students will learn about craft elements, find examples of those craft elements in published works and apply these elements in their own creative work, developed through weekly writing activities, small group and large group workshop and conferences with the instructor. Work will be submitted, along with a learning reflection and revision plan in each genre and will then be revised and submitted as a final portfolio at the end of the semester to demonstrate continued growth in the creation of polished literary writing.
Tuesday 6-8:50 p.m.
Danielle Harms
Techniques, materials and resources for teaching English language and literature to middle and secondary school students. Required of students in the English education option.
Thursdays 3-6 p.m.
This course introduces students to contemporary works by authors from various Indigenous nations. Students examine these works to enhance their historical understanding of Indigenous peoples, discover the variety of literary forms used by those who identify as Indigenous writers, and consider the cultural and political significance of these varieties of expression. Topics and questions to be explored include:
Possible Texts
Tuesdays 2-4:50 p.m.
Jason McEntee
Do you have an appreciation for, and enjoy watching, movies? Do you want to study movies in a genre-oriented format (such as those we typically call the Western, the screwball comedy, the science fiction or the crime/gangster, to name a few)? Do you want to explore the different critical approaches for talking and writing about movies (such as auteur, feminist, genre or reception)?
In this class, you will examine movies through viewing and defining different genres while, at the same time, studying and utilizing different styles of film criticism. You will share your discoveries in both class discussions and short writings. The final project will be a formal written piece of film criticism based on our work throughout the semester. The course satisfies requirements and electives for all English majors and minors, including both the Film Studies and Professional Writing minors. (Note: Viewing of movies outside of class required and may require rental and/or streaming service fees.)
In this workshop-based creative writing course, students will develop original fiction based on strong attention to the fundamentals of literary storytelling: full-bodied characters, robust story lines, palpable environments and unique voices. We will pay particular attention to process awareness, to the integrity of the sentence, and to authors' commitments to their characters and the places in which their stories unfold. Some workshop experience is helpful, as student peer critique will be an important element of the class.
Wednesday 3-5:50 p.m.
With the publication of Horace Walpole’s "The Castle of Otranto " in 1764, the Gothic officially came into being. Dark tales of physical violence and psychological terror, the Gothic incorporates elements such as distressed heroes and heroines pursued by tyrannical villains; gloomy estates with dark corridors, secret passageways and mysterious chambers; haunting dreams, troubling prophecies and disturbing premonitions; abduction, imprisonment and murder; and a varied assortment of corpses, apparitions and “monsters.” In this course, we will trace the development of Gothic literature—and some film—from the eighteenth-century to the present time. As we do so, we will consider how the Gothic engages philosophical beliefs about the beautiful and sublime; shapes psychological understandings of human beings’ encounters with horror, terror, the fantastic and the uncanny; and intervenes in the social and historical contexts in which it was written. We’ll consider, for example, how the Gothic undermines ideals related to domesticity and marriage through representations of domestic abuse, toxicity and gaslighting. In addition, we’ll discuss Gothic texts that center the injustices of slavery and racism. As many Gothic texts suggest, the true horrors of human existence often have less to do with inexplicable supernatural phenomena than with the realities of the world in which we live.
Flexible Scheduling
Nathan Serfling
Since their beginnings in the 1920s and 30s, writing centers have come to serve numerous functions: as hubs for writing across the curriculum initiatives, sites to develop and deliver workshops and resource centers for faculty as well as students, among other functions. But the primary function of writing centers has necessarily and rightfully remained the tutoring of student writers. This course will immerse you in that function in two parts. During the first four weeks, you will explore writing center praxis—that is, the dialogic interplay of theory and practice related to writing center work. This part of the course will orient you to writing center history, key theoretical tenets and practical aspects of writing center tutoring. Once we have developed and practiced this foundation, you will begin work in the writing center as a tutor, responsible for assisting a wide variety of student clients with numerous writing tasks. Through this work, you will learn to actively engage with student clients in the revision of a text, respond to different student needs and abilities, work with a variety of writing tasks and rhetorical situations, and develop a richer sense of writing as a complex and negotiated social process.
Engl 572.s01: film criticism, engl 576.st1 fiction.
In this workshop-based creative writing course, students will develop original fiction based on strong attention to the fundamentals of literary storytelling: full-bodied characters, robust story lines, palpable environments and unique voices. We will pay particular attention to process awareness, to the integrity of the sentence and to authors' commitments to their characters and the places in which their stories unfold. Some workshop experience is helpful, as student peer critique will be an important element of the class.
Thursdays 1-3:50 p.m.
This course will provide you with a foundation in the pedagogies and theories (and their attendant histories) of writing instruction, a foundation that will prepare you to teach your own writing courses at SDSU and elsewhere. As you will discover through our course, though, writing instruction does not come with any prescribed set of “best” practices. Rather, writing pedagogies stem from and continue to evolve because of various and largely unsettled conversations about what constitutes effective writing and effective writing instruction. Part of becoming a practicing writing instructor, then, is studying these conversations to develop a sense of what “good writing” and “effective writing instruction” might mean for you in our particular program and how you might adapt that understanding to different programs and contexts.
As we read about, discuss and research writing instruction, we will address a variety of practical and theoretical topics. The practical focus will allow us to attend to topics relevant to your immediate classroom practices: designing a curriculum and various types of assignments, delivering the course content and assessing student work, among others. Our theoretical topics will begin to reveal the underpinnings of these various practical matters, including their historical, rhetorical, social and political contexts. In other words, we will investigate the praxis—the dialogic interaction of practice and theory—of writing pedagogy. As a result, this course aims to prepare you not only as a writing teacher but also as a nascent writing studies/writing pedagogy scholar.
At the end of this course, you should be able to engage effectively in the classroom practices described above and participate in academic conversations about writing pedagogy, both orally and in writing. Assessment of these outcomes will be based primarily on the various writing assignments you submit and to a smaller degree on your participation in class discussions and activities.
Thursdays 3–5:50 p.m.
Katherine Malone
This course explores the rise of the New Woman at the end of the nineteenth century. The label New Woman referred to independent women who rebelled against social conventions. Often depicted riding bicycles, smoking cigarettes and wearing masculine clothing, these early feminists challenged gender roles and sought broader opportunities for women’s employment and self-determination. We will read provocative fiction and nonfiction by New Women writers and their critics, including authors such as Sarah Grand, Mona Caird, George Egerton, Amy Levy, Ella Hepworth Dixon, Grant Allen and George Gissing. We will analyze these exciting texts through a range of critical lenses and within the historical context of imperialism, scientific and technological innovation, the growth of the periodical press and discourse about race, class and gender. In addition to writing an argumentative seminar paper, students will complete short research assignments and lead discussion.
In this course, we will explore the voices of female authors and characters in contemporary literature of war. Drawing from various literary theories, our readings and discussion will explore the contributions of these voices to the evolving literature of war through archetypal and feminist criticism. We will read a variety of short works (both theoretical and creative) and complete works such as (selections subject to change): "Eyes Right" by Tracy Crow, "Plenty of Time When We Get Home" by Kayla Williams, "You Know When the Men are Gone" by Siobhan Fallon, "Still, Come Home" by Katie Schultz and "The Fine Art of Camouflage" by Lauren Johnson.
Drawing on evidence from neurobiology, cognitive science, and corpus linguistics, researchers make the case that language is a tool for communication, not for thought.
by Jennifer Michalowski | June 19, 2024 June 26, 2024
Categories: Brain Imaging , Cognitive Neuroscience , Computational Neuroscience , Ev Fedorenko
Language is a defining feature of humanity, and for centuries, philosophers and scientists have contemplated its true purpose. We use language to share information and exchange ideas—but is it more than that? Do we use language not just to communicate, but to think?
In the June 19, 2024, issue of the journal Nature , McGovern Institute neuroscientist Evelina Fedorenko and colleagues argue that we do not. Language, they say, is primarily a tool for communication.
Fedorenko acknowledges that there is an intuitive link between language and thought. Many people experience an inner voice that seems to narrate their own thoughts. And it’s not unreasonable to expect that well-spoken, articulate individuals are also clear thinkers. But as compelling as these associations can be, they are not evidence that we actually use language to think.
“I think there are a few strands of intuition and confusions that have led people to believe very strongly that language is the medium of thought,” she says.
“But when they are pulled apart thread by thread, they don’t really hold up to empirical scrutiny.”
For centuries, language’s potential role in facilitating thinking was nearly impossible to evaluate scientifically. But neuroscientists and cognitive scientists now have tools that enable a more rigorous consideration of the idea. Evidence from both fields, which Fedorenko, MIT cognitive scientist and linguist Edward Gibson, and University of California Berkeley cognitive scientist Steven Piantadosi review in their Nature Perspective, supports the idea that language is a tool for communication, not for thought.
“What we’ve learned by using methods that actually tell us about the engagement of the linguistic processing mechanisms is that those mechanisms are not really engaged when we think,” Fedorenko says. Also, she adds, “you can take those mechanisms away, and it seems that thinking can go on just fine.”
Over the past 20 years, Fedorenko and other neuroscientists have advanced our understanding of what happens in the brain as it generates and understands language. Now, using functional MRI to find parts of the brain that are specifically engaged when someone reads or listens to sentences or passages, they can reliably identify an individual’s language-processing network. Then they can monitor those brain regions while the person performs other tasks, from solving a sudoku puzzle to reasoning about other people’s beliefs.
“Your language system is basically silent when you do all sorts of thinking.” – Ev Fedorenko
“Pretty much everything we’ve tested so far, we don’t see any evidence of the engagement of the language mechanisms,” Fedorenko says. “Your language system is basically silent when you do all sorts of thinking.”
That’s consistent with observations from people who have lost the ability to process language due to an injury or stroke. Severely affected patients can be completely unable to process words, yet this does not interfere with their ability to solve math problems, play chess, or plan for future events. “They can do all the things that they could do before their injury. They just can’t take those mental representations and convert them into a format which would allow them to talk about them with others,” Fedorenko says. “If language gives us the core representations that we use for reasoning, then…destroying the language system should lead to problems in thinking as well, and it really doesn’t.”
Conversely, intellectual impairments do not always associate with language impairment; people with intellectual disability disorders or neuropsychiatric disorders that limit their ability to think and reason do not necessarily have problems with basic linguistic functions. Just as language does not appear to be necessary for thought, Fedorenko and colleagues conclude that it is also not sufficient to produce clear thinking.
In addition to arguing that language is unlikely to be used for thinking, the scientists considered its suitability as a communication tool, drawing on findings from linguistic analyses. Analyses across dozens of diverse languages, both spoken and signed, have found recurring features that make them easy to produce and understand. “It turns out that pretty much any property you look at, you can find evidence that languages are optimized in a way that makes information transfer as efficient as possible,” Fedorenko says.
That’s not a new idea, but it has held up as linguists analyze larger corpora across more diverse sets of languages, which has become possible in recent years as the field has assembled corpora that are annotated for various linguistic features. Such studies find that across languages, sounds and words tend to be pieced together in ways that minimize effort for the language producer without muddling the message. For example, commonly used words tend to be short, while words whose meanings depend on one another tend to cluster close together in sentences. Likewise, linguists have noted features that help languages convey meaning despite potential “signal distortions,” whether due to attention lapses or ambient noise.
“All of these features seem to suggest that the forms of languages are optimized to make communication easier,” Fedorenko says, pointing out that such features would be irrelevant if language was primarily a tool for internal thought.
“Given that languages have all these properties, it’s likely that we use language for communication,” she says. She and her coauthors conclude that as a powerful tool for transmitting knowledge, language reflects the sophistication of human cognition—but does not give rise to it.
Paper: "Language is primarily a tool for communication rather than thought"
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Quick Summary of Formal and Informal Language. The main difference between formal and informal language in writing is that formal language is more rigid and less personal, whereas informal language is more easygoing and adaptive.; Deciding on using formal or informal language depends on what you're writing and who you're writing it for: ; Formal language is usually reserved for ...
👔 Formal Essay Definition . A formal essay is a well-structured piece of writing with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion. This type of essay often includes cited research, uses an academic tone, and is written in 3rd person. While writing a formal essay, it's necessary to back up your arguments with factual evidence.
Differences Between Informal and Formal Essays. When writing your extended essay you should use language that is formal and academic in tone. The chart below gives you some idea of the differences between informal and formal essays. See the box below for examples of the differences in tone in informal and formal essays written on identical topics.
Formal tone: A living organism's cell strives to maintain a mineral balance, keeping potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and other minerals in appropriate ratios inside and outside of the cell. Informal tone: Your body's cells work on keeping a balance between the minerals inside and outside of the cell. 3.
Whether you use formal or informal style in writing will depend on the assignment itself, its subject, purpose, and audience. Formal language is characterized by the use of standard English, more complex sentence structures, infrequent use of personal pronouns, and lack of colloquial or slang terms.. Informal language allows the use of nonstandard English forms, colloquial vocabulary and ...
6. Avoid Slang and Idioms. As stated before, it is best to use formal or semi-formal language while writing an academic essay. Since slang and idioms are considered informal language, they are best avoided altogether. Besides, they can confuse non-native English readers, making essays difficult to understand.
Formal language does not use colloquialisms, contractions or first-person pronouns such as "I" or "We.". Informal language is more casual and spontaneous. It is used when communicating with friends or family either in writing or in conversation. It is used when writing personal emails, text messages and in some business correspondence.
When you write an essay for a course you are taking, you are being asked not only to create a product (the essay) but, more importantly, to go through a process of thinking more deeply about a question or problem related to the course. By writing about a source or collection of sources, you will have the chance to wrestle with some of the
We break down some key elements of how to write for a formal and an informal audience, with examples of formal vs. informal writing along the way.
Formal writing style definition. Formal language, or formal writing style, is a broad term, used to characterize a composition with an impersonal, objective and precise use of language. This type of style is typical for research papers, essays, technical reports, scholarly materials, like books or articles, legal documents, and orations.
An essay is a short piece of non-fiction writing that dives into a particular subject matter. So what is a formal essay?A formal essay is an essay that uses more formality than other kinds of ...
Most assessments require you to write essays using formal language. In English writing, there are two main styles of writing - formal and informal. The primary purpose of formal language is to achieve sophistication and clarity. Although the difference between the two styles is relatively straightforward, we'll point out some common ...
Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and scholarly publications. You'll encounter it in journal articles and books on academic topics, and you'll be expected to write your essays, research papers, and dissertation in academic style. Academic writing follows the same writing process as other types of texts, but ...
In composition studies, a formal essay is a short, relatively impersonal composition in prose. Also known as an impersonal essay or a Baconian essay (after the writings of England's first major essayist, Francis Bacon ). In contrast to the familiar or personal essay, the formal essay is typically used for the discussion of ideas.
Formal - Textbooks, official reports, academic articles, essays, business letters, contracts, official speeches. Semi-formal - Day-to-day interaction with colleagues and teachers, popular magazines/books, interviews, when talking with someone in authority or whom you respect. Informal - Interacting with friends, speaking or chatting online.
Formal language is less personal than informal language. It is used when writing for professional or academic purposes like university assignments. Formal language does not use colloquialisms, contractions or first person pronouns such as 'I' or 'We'. Informal language is more casual and spontaneous. It is used when communicating with ...
The following words and phrases are considered too informal for a dissertation or academic paper. Taboo. Example. Alternative. A bit. The interviews were a bit difficult to schedule. The interviews were (difficult/somewhat difficult) to schedule. A lot of, a couple of. A lot of studies.
Formal language is used to express ideas in the most articulate way possible and as such, does not use slang, colloquialisms, contractions, or jokes. It is important to recognise that when you speak, or write, you change your writing style depending on who your intended audience is. We change the way we speak, depending on who we are speaking to.
Formal and informal language - English Grammar Today - a reference to written and spoken English grammar and usage - Cambridge Dictionary
To get across clearly and precisely, use specific terms so that the presentation of the academic writing leaves no doubts in anybody's mind. Here are some vague words to avoid using in your essays, dissertations, or projects: About; Around; Big, mall, short, tall; There; A long time, a while ago, at that time;
Essay structures. The structure of an essay can be determined by the kind of essay that is required. Chronological structure. Also known as the cause-and-effect approach, this is a straightforward way to structure an essay. In such essays, events are discussed sequentially, as they occurred from the earliest to the latest.
4. That is to say. Usage: "That is" and "that is to say" can be used to add further detail to your explanation, or to be more precise. Example: "Whales are mammals. That is to say, they must breathe air.". 5. To that end. Usage: Use "to that end" or "to this end" in a similar way to "in order to" or "so".
A formal essay is expected to follow a specific structure, though the structure depends on what type of formal essay the author is writing. The most common type of essay follows the five-paragraph ...
Students will practice writing in an informed and persuasive manner, in language that engages and enlivens readers by using vivid verbs and avoiding unnecessary passives, nominalizations and expletive constructions.Students will prepare writing assignments based on readings and discussions of essays included in "Literature and the Environment ...
Language, they say, is primarily a tool for communication. Fedorenko acknowledges that there is an intuitive link between language and thought. Many people experience an inner voice that seems to narrate their own thoughts. And it's not unreasonable to expect that well-spoken, articulate individuals are also clear thinkers. But as compelling ...