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Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial

In this Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial, you’ll learn all the basic to advanced concepts like pipelining, microprogrammed control, computer architecture, instruction design, and format.

Computer Organization and Architecture is used to design computer systems. Computer Architecture is considered to be those attributes of a system that are visible to the user like addressing techniques, instruction sets, and bits used for data, and have a direct impact on the logic execution of a program, It defines the system in an abstract manner, It deals with What does the system do.

Whereas, Computer Organization is the way in which a system has to structure and It is operational units and the interconnections between them that achieve the architectural specifications, It is the realization of the abstract model, and It deals with How to implement the system.

Table of Content

• Basic Computer Instructions :
• Instruction Design and Format :
• Computer Arithmetic :
• Microprogrammed Control :
• Memory Organization :
• Input and Output Systems :
• Pipelining :
• IEEE Number Statndards
• Miscellaneous :
• Quick Links :

To deepen your knowledge in Computer Organization and Architecture and prepare for exams like GATE, consider enrolling in the GATE CS Self-Paced course . This course offers detailed coverage of essential topics, helping you build a solid foundation in computer science and achieve your academic and career goals.

• Basic Computer Instructions
• A simple understanding of Computer
• Issues in Computer Design
• Computer System Level Hierarchy
• Computer Architecture and Computer Organization
• Timing diagram of MOV Instruction in Microprocessor
• Assembly language and High level language
• Addressing Modes
• Memory based Vs Register based addressing modes
• Von Neumann architecture
• Harvard Architecture
• Interaction of a Program with Hardware
• Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC)
• Instruction Set used in simplified instructional Computer (SIC)
• Instruction Set used in SIC/XE
• RISC and CISC
• RISC and CISC | Set 2
• Vector processor classification
• Essential Registers for Instruction Execution
• Single Accumulator based CPU organization
• Stack based CPU Organization
• General Register based CPU Organization
• Data Transfer instructions in AVR microcontroller
• Arithmetic instructions in AVR microcontroller
• Conditional Branch Instructions in AVR Microcontroller
• CALL Instructions and Stack in AVR Microcontroller
• Branch Instructions in AVR Microcontroller
• Logical Instructions in AVR Microcontroller
• Data Manipulation Instructions
• Machine Control Instruction
• Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW) Architecture

Instruction Design and Format

• Different Instruction Cycles
• Machine Instructions
• Instruction Formats (Zero, One, Two and Three Address Instruction)
• 2-address instruction and 1-address instructions
• 3-address instruction and 0-address instruction
• 3-address instruction and 2-address instructions
• Register content and Flag status after Instructions
• Debugging a machine level program
• Vector Instruction Format
• Vector instruction types
• Branch Prediction in Pentium
• Instruction Word Size
• >> Problem Solving on Instruction Format

Computer Arithmetic

• Computer Arithmetic | ALU and Data Path
• Computer Arithmetic | Set 1
• Computer Arithmetic | Set 2
• Difference between 1’s complement and 2’s complement
• Restoring Division Algorithm For Unsigned Integer
• Non-Restoring Division For Unsigned Integer
• Booth’s Algorithm
• Overflow in Arithmetic Addition
• How the negative numbers are stored in memory?
• Conventional Computing vs Quantum Computing

Quiz on Number Representation

Microprogrammed Control

• Micro-Operation
• Microarchitecture and Instruction Set Architecture
• Types of Program Control Instructions
• Difference between CALL and JUMP instructions
• Hardwired v/s Micro-programmed Control Unit
• Implementation of Micro Instructions Sequencer
• Performance of Computer
• Control Unit and design
• Horizontal micro-programmed Vs Vertical micro-programmed control unit
• Camparisons between Hardwired Vs Micro-programmed Control unit
• Computer Organization | Subprogram and its characteristics

Memory Organization

• Introduction to memory and memory units
• Memory Hierarchy Design and its Characteristics
• Difference between Byte Addressable Memory and Word Addressable Memory
• Difference between Simultaneous and Hierarchical Access Memory Organisations
• Register Allocation
• Cache Memory
• Cache Organization | Set 1 (Introduction)
• Multilevel Cache Organisation
• Locality and Cache friendly code
• Locality of Reference and Cache Operation
• Amdahl’s law and its proof
• Subroutine, Subroutine nesting and Stack memory
• What’s difference between CPU Cache and TLB?
• Different Types of RAM
• Types of computer memory (RAM and ROM)
• Secondary memory – Hard disk drive
• Introduction to solid-state drive (SSD)
• Read and Write operations in memory
• 2D and 2.5D Memory organization

Input and Output Systems

• Priority Interrupts | (S/W Polling and Daisy Chaining)
• I/O Interface (Interrupt and DMA Mode)
• Direct memory access with DMA controller 8257/8237
• Asynchronous input output synchronization
• Programmable peripheral interface 8255
• Interface 8255 with 8085 microprocessor for 1’s and 2’s complement of a number
• 8255 (programmable peripheral interface)
• Microcomputer system
• Working of 8085-based Single board microcomputer
• Interface 8254 PIT with 8085 microprocessor
• Synchronous Data Transfer
• Input-Output Processor
• MPU Communication
• Memory mapped I/O and Isolated I/O
• BUS Arbitration
• Instruction Level Parallelism
• Execution, Stages and Throughput
• Types and Stalling
• Dependencies and Data Hazard

IEEE Number Standards

• IEEE Standard 754 Floating Point Numbers

Miscellaneous

• Microprocessor
• Microprocessor | Externally Initiated Operations
• Bus organization of 8085 microprocessor
• Generations of computer
• Intel x86 evolution and main features
• Memory Banking
• Introduction to quantum computing
• Rethinking binary with Quantum computers
• Flynn’s taxonomy
• Clusters In Computer Organisation
• Parallel processing – systolic arrays
• 8259 PIC Microprocessor
• Block Diagram of 8259 Microprocessor
• Microprocessor | 8251 USART
• Evolution of Microprocessors
• Human – Computer interaction through the ages
• Computer Ports
• Introduction to Parallel Computing
• Hardware architecture (parallel computing)
• Computer Architecture | Multiprocessor and Multicomputer
• Timing diagram of INR M
• Program for Binary To Decimal Conversion
• Program for Decimal to Binary Conversion
• Program for decimal to octal conversion
• Program for octal to decimal conversion
• Program for hexadecimal to decimal

Quick Links

• ‘Quizzes’ on Computer Organization and Architecture !
• ‘Practice Problems’ on Computer Organization and Architecture !

Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial – FAQs

What is computer organization.

Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications of a computer. It involves the structural relations and the manner in which the components of the computer system are connected and work together.

What is computer architecture?

Computer architecture is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It encompasses the layout of the hardware, the design of the instruction set, and the techniques for data handling and processing. The objective is to outline a blueprint that ensures optimal performance and efficiency.

What is the difference between computer organization and architecture?

While computer architecture is concerned with the conceptual design and functional specification of a computer system, computer organization deals with the detailed operational implementation of the system. Essentially, architecture provides the macro-level blueprint, while organization focuses on the micro-level realization.

Why is understanding computer organization and architecture important?

Understanding computer organization and architecture is crucial for designing efficient computer systems, improving existing ones, and making informed decisions about hardware resources. It also helps in optimizing software to make full use of the underlying hardware and enhance overall system performance.

What are the key components of computer organization?

The key components of computer organization include the central processing unit (CPU), memory hierarchy (registers, cache, RAM, and secondary storage), input/output devices, and the interconnection system (buses and communication channels) that allows these components to interact effectively.

this Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial has covered the fundamental concepts essential for understanding how computer systems function. From the basic building blocks like registers and ALUs to complex concepts such as pipelining and memory hierarchies, you now have a solid foundation. This knowledge is crucial for anyone pursuing a career in computer science or related fields. Keep exploring and practicing these concepts to deepen your understanding and stay updated with the latest advancements in computer architecture. This tutorial is just the beginning of your journey into the fascinating world of computer systems.

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Handbook of Computer Architecture

• Living reference work
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• Latest edition
• Anupam Chattopadhyay   ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8818-6983 0

Sch of Computer Science & Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

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• Reviews exhaustively the basic to the most advanced topics in computer architecture
• Includes in-depth study of design methodologies and tools for computer architectures
• Covers diverse types of architectures, ranging from ASICs, FPGAs to Multicores

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Trends in Processor Architecture

• Application-Specific Processors

• Single Core Processors
• Multicore Processors
• Reconfigurable Architectures
• 3D Architectures
• Processor Design Flows
• Processor Programming Flows
• Security Verification
• Neuromorphic Computing
• Quantum Computing

Table of contents (34 entries)

The architecture.

• Avi Mendelson

Architectures for Multimedia Processing: A Cross-Layer Perspective

• Muhammad Shafique, Bharath Srinivas Prabakaran

Post-Quantum Cryptographic Accelerators

• Ayesha Khalid, Dur Shahwar Kundi

Architectures for Self-Powered Edge Intelligence

• Amit Ranjan Trivedi, Jaeha Kung, Jong Hwan Ko

Secure Processor Architectures

• Nikhilesh Singh, Vinod Ganesan, Chester Rebeiro

Fault Tolerant Architectures

• Siva Satyendra Sahoo, Anup Das, Akash Kumar

Architectures for Machine Learning

• Yongkui Yang, Chao Chen, Zheng Wang

Architecture Description Languages

• Anupam Chattopadhyay, Zheng Wang, Grant Martin

Accelerator Design with High-Level Synthesis

• Christian Pilato, Stephanie Soldavini

Processor Simulation and Characterization

• Grant Martin, Suhas Madhusudana, Greg Efland, Vadim Kustov

Methodologies for Design Space Exploration

• Andy D. Pimentel

FPGA-Specific Compilers

• Nitish Srivastava, Gai Liu, Yi-Hsiang Lai, Zhiru Zhang

Approximate Computing Architectures

• Muhammad Abdullah Hanif, Vojtech Mrazek, Muhammad Shafique

Parallel Programming Models

• Muhammad Nufail Farooqi, Mustafa Abduljabbar, Vicenç Beltran, Xavier Teruel, Roger Ferrer, Xavier Martorell et al.

Verification and Its Role in Design of Modern Computers

Bit-level model checking.

• Alexander Ivrii, Yakir Vizel

High-Level Formal Equivalence

• Theo Drane, M. V. Achutha Kiran Kumar

Verification of Arithmetic and Datapath Circuits with Symbolic Simulation

• Roope Kaivola, John O’Leary

Microprocessor Assurance and the Role of Theorem Proving

• Shilpi Goel, Sandip Ray

Versatile Binary-Level Concolic Testing

• Bo Chen, Fei Xie

Editors and Affiliations

Sch of computer science & engineering, nanyang technological university, singapore, singapore.

Anupam Chattopadhyay

About the editor

Sayak  Ray , Intel, San Jose, California, USA

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Handbook of Computer Architecture

Editors : Anupam Chattopadhyay

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6401-7

Publisher : Springer Singapore

eBook Packages : Springer Reference Engineering , Reference Module Computer Science and Engineering

eBook ISBN : 978-981-15-6401-7 Due: 19 December 2024

Number of Illustrations : 10 b/w illustrations, 10 illustrations in colour

Topics : Circuits and Systems , Processor Architectures , Electrical Engineering , Applications of Mathematics

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First, read the course syllabus. Then, enroll in the course by clicking "Enroll me". Click Unit 1 to read its introduction and learning outcomes. You will then see the learning materials and instructions on how to use them.

Unit 1: Introduction to Computer Technology

In this unit, we will discuss some of the advances in technology that led to the development of modern computers. We will begin our study with a look at the different components of a computer. We will then discuss the ways in which we measure hardware and software performance before discussing the importance of computing power and how it motivated the switch from a single-core to a multi-core processor.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 7 hours.

Unit 2: Instructions: Hardware Language

In order to understand computer architecture, you need to understand the components that comprise a computer and their interconnections. Sets of instructions, called programs, describe the computations that computers carry out. The instructions are strings of binary digits. When symbols are used for the binary strings, the instructions are called assembly language instructions. Components interpret the instructions and send signals to other components that cause the instruction to be carried out.

In this unit, you will build on your knowledge of programming from CS102: Introduction to Computer Science II  to learn how to program with an assembly language. You will use the instructions of a real processor, MIPS, to understand the basics of hardware language. We will also discuss the different classes of instructions typically found in computers and compare the MIPS instructions to those found in other popular processors made by Intel and ARM.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 9 hours.

Unit 3: Fundamentals of Digital Logic Design

We will begin this unit with an overview of digital components, identifying the building blocks of digital logic. We will build on that foundation by writing truth tables and learning about more complicated sequential digital systems with memory. This unit serves as background information for the processor design techniques we learn in later units.

Unit 4: Computer Arithmetic

In this unit, you will build upon your knowledge of computer instructions and digital logic design to discuss the role of computer arithmetic in hardware design. We will also discuss the designs of adders, multipliers, and dividers. You will learn that there are two types of arithmetic operations performed by computers: integer and floating point. Finally, we will discuss floating point details for carrying out operations with real numbers.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 5 hours.

Unit 5: Designing a Processor

In this unit, we will discuss various components of MIPS processor architecture and then take a subset of MIPS instructions to create a simplified processor in order to better understand the steps in processor design. This unit will ask you to apply the information you learned in units 2, 3, and 4 to create a simple processor architecture. We will also discuss a technique known as pipelining, which is used to improve processor performance. We will also identify the issues that limit the performance gains that can be achieved from it.

In previous units, you learned about how computer memory stores information, in particular how numbers are represented in a computer memory word (typically, 32 or 64 bits); hardware elements that perform logic functions; the use of these elements to design larger hardware components that perform arithmetic computations, in particular addition and multiplication; and the use of these larger components to design additional components that perform subtraction and division. You also looked at machine language and assembly language instructions that provide control to hardware components in carrying out computations. In this unit, you will learn about how the larger components are used in designing a computer system.

Unit 6: The Memory Hierarchy

In prior units, you have studied elementary hardware components like combinational circuits and sequential circuits, functional hardware components like adders, arithmetic logical units, and data buses, and computational components like processors.

This unit will address the memory hierarchy of a computer and will identify different types of memory and how they interact with one another. This unit will look into a memory type known as cache and will discuss how caches improve computer performance. This unit will then discuss the main memory, DRAM (or the Dynamic Random Access Memory), and the associated concept of virtual memory. You will take a look at the common framework for memory hierarchy. The unit concludes with a review of the design of a cache hierarchy for an industrial microprocessor.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 6 hours.

Unit 7: Storage and I/O

In this unit, we will discuss the input/output devices that enable communication between computers and the outside world in some form. The reliability of these devices is important; we will accordingly discuss the related issues of dependability, availability, and reliability. You will also take a look at non-volatile storage mediums, such as disk and flash memory, before learning about mechanisms used to connect the computer to input/output devices. This unit will conclude by discussing disk system performance measures.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.

Unit 8: Parallel Processing

This unit will address several advanced topics in computer architecture, focusing on the reasons for and the consequences of the recent switch from sequential processing to parallel processing by hardware producers. You will learn that parallel programming is not easy and that parallel processing imposes certain limitations in performance gains, as seen in the well-known Amdahl's law. You will also look into the concepts of shared memory multiprocessing and cluster processing as two common means of improving performance with parallelism. The unit will conclude with a look at some of the programming techniques used in the context of parallel machines.

Unit 9: Look Back and Look Ahead

This unit looks back at important concepts of computer architecture that were covered in this course and looks ahead at some additional topics of interest. Computer architecture is both a depth and breadth subject. It is an in depth subject that is of particular interest if you are interested in computer architecture for a professional researcher, designer, developer, tester, manager, manufacturer, etc. and you want to continue with additional study in advanced computer architecture. On the other hand, computer architecture is a rich source of ideas and understanding for other areas of computer science, giving you a broad and stronger foundation for the study of programming, computer languages, compilers, software architecture, domain specific computing (like scientific computing), and more.

In this unit, you will look back at some of the theoretical laws and analysis techniques that were introduced during the course. Looking ahead, you will be introduced to special purpose processors, application specific processing, high volume data storage, and network computing.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 1 hour.

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COA Tutorial

Computer organization and architecture.

The computer organization and architecture ( COA )  is one of the most important and comprehensive subject that includes many foundational concepts and knowledge used in the design of a computer system.

The COA also continues to be the most important part of the syllabus for computer science courses across all universities and also for various competitive examinations.  

This tutorial is specially designed for absolute beginners to study all the relevant topics related to computer organization and architecture .

Computer Organization and Architecture (COA) is a field of study that delves into the fundamental principles underlying the design, performance, and operation of computer systems.

It encompasses both the physical components of computers (organization) and the conceptual framework guiding their design and functionality (architecture). COA plays a crucial role in shaping the efficiency, performance, and capabilities of modern computing systems.

The COA important topics include all the fundamental concepts such as computer system functional units , processor micro architecture , program instructions, instruction formats , addressing modes , instruction pipelining, memory organization , instruction cycle , interrupts, instruction set architecture ( ISA ) and other important related topics.  

Let us first start with simple introduction to the computer architecture.  

COA Table Of Contents

• Introduction To COA .

What Is Computer Architecture ?

What is computer organization .

• Computer Architecture Block Diagram ?
• Computer System Functional Units.
• Computer Input Unit.
• Computer Output Unit.
• Central Processing Unit ( CPU ).
• Control Unit ( CU ).
• Arithmetic Logic Unit ( ALU ).
• Memory Unit ( MU ).
• CPU Registers.
• Computer Hardware.
• Computer Software.
• Application Software.
• System Software.
• Memory Organization.
• Instruction Cycle.
• Instruction Pipelining.
• Instruction Set Architecture ( ISA ).
• Instruction Format.
• Instruction Addressing Modes.
• Interrupts.
• Interrupt Types.
• Computer Bus System.
• Binary Number System.

In order to understand the term computer architecture , let us first discuss what is an architecture. The term architecture can be defined as an art and science of designing an object.

We generally relate the term architecture with the building because the building is one of the most common object in the human world. The architecture helps us to define the functional , physical and the performance  standards for any object.

Every object in the real world is based on some architecture. For example an architect will define the building in terms of building drawings and specifications for various building components.

Similarly , the system architecture defines various functional units of the computer system and how these units are interconnected and performance standards. It defines the system performance specifications and what system should achieve in terms of performance.

In simple words , the computer architecture is all about computer system design details expressed in terms of functional units and interconnection between these units.

The computer architecture helps us define the functional capabilities and the requirements for the computer system. The system architecture is a high level design specification that does not specify any specify details of the hardware components.

The computer architecture gives an abstracted view of the structure of various functional units and its behaviour.

In order to build a computer system , the first step is to design and develop the  system architecture. The next step in the system design process is to finalize the computer organization details.

Let us first understand the meaning of term organization in the context of computers. The term organization is defined as arranging , classifying things together logically to maximize the functional convenience.

The computer organization is based on the computer architecture. The computer organization implements the system architecture.

In simple words , the computer organization is all about organizing various system hardware components and how these components are interconnected.

The computer organization describe the details of the various hardware components related to the various functional units present in the system.

The computer organization deals with the arrangement of various system hardware components and the function performed by the components.

The computer organization defines the existence of various functional units and its components . It also defines the interaction between various functional component.

The computer organization defines the structure and behaviour of the digital computers. The main objective of the computer organization is to understand the various computer hardware components and the interaction between these components.

Difference Between Computer Architecture And Computer Organization

In general the terms “computer organization” and “computer architecture” are often used interchangeably. However, they can be distinguished by the following characteristics:

Computer Architecture

Computer architecture refers to the design and organization of computer systems, including their components and how they interact with each other. It encompasses both the hardware and software aspects of a computer system. Computer architecture defines the structure, functionality, and behavior ( Performance Standard ) of a computer system, enabling the execution of programs and the processing of data.

Computer architecture can be classified into different types. For example, von Neumann architecture , which is based on the concept of a stored-program computer, and more specialized architectures like Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) or Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC).

It also encompasses concepts like instruction pipelining, memory hierarchy, and multiprocessing, which further enhance system performance and functionality.

Computer architecture is concerned with the broader design principles and conceptual structure of a computer system. It encompassing both hardware and software aspects to achieve the desired level of system performance.

2. Level of Abstraction

It deals with a higher level of abstraction compared to computer organization. It focuses on the organization and behavior of the system in terms of system performance as seen by software developers and how it supports the execution of programs.

3. Instruction Set Design

Computer architecture defines the instruction set architecture (ISA), which specifies the set of instructions, addressing modes, and data types that a computer system supports.

4. Performance Evaluation

It involves evaluating and comparing different architectural designs based on performance metrics like execution time, throughput, and energy efficiency.

5. Examples

Examples of topics studied in computer architecture include instruction set design, pipelining, memory hierarchy, parallel processing, virtual memory, and overall system performance.

Computer Organization

Computer organization deals with the physical and implementation details of a computer system , focusing on the hardware components and their interconnections. On the other hand, computer architecture focuses on the conceptual design and structure of the system, considering both hardware and software aspects. It aims to optimize system performance and functionality.

Computer organization primarily concerns itself with the physical aspects of a computer system and how the hardware components are interconnected and operate together.

2. Level of Detail

It deals with the low-level details of a computer system, such as the design and organization of individual hardware components, circuits, and logic gates.

3. Implementation

Computer organization is concerned with the implementation details of a computer system architecture, including the design of registers, buses, memory systems, and Input and Output interfaces.

4. Performance Optimization

It aims to optimize the performance of the computer system by considering factors like clock speed, latency, bandwidth, and hardware-level optimizations.

Examples of topics studied in computer organization include CPU design, memory systems, cache hierarchies, bus protocols, and I/O subsystems.

Computer System Functional Units

In computer organization and architecture , the computer system can be classified into number of functional units. This classification is based on the specific function performed in the computer system.

The basic functional units ( operational Units ) of a computer system include following units.

• 1. Input Unit.
• 2. Central Processing Unit ( CPU ).
• 3. Control Unit ( CU ).
• 4. Arithmetic And Logic Unit ( ALU ).
• 5. Output Unit.

Computer System Input Unit

The main function of the input unit is to provide the data that will be operated by the CPU as per the program instructions.

The most commonly used input devices for any general purpose computer system include keyboard and mouse. However , computer can also accept the input from other input devices such as camera , scanner and mike.  

The computer system can accept the input from number of input devices such as keyboard , scanner , camera , mouse or any other input devices connected to the computer system.

Input Devices

Output Unit

Computer system output unit.

The main function of the output unit is to present the data to the user that is processed by the CPU as per the program instructions.

The most commonly used output devices for any general purpose computer system include display monitor , speaker and printer. However , computer can also send the output to other output devices such as projector, speaker and disk memory.  

The computer system can send the output to number of output devices such as display monitor , printer , projector , speaker or any other output devices connected to the computer system.

Output Devices

Micro-processor

Central processing unit ( cpu ).

The central processing unit ( CPU ) is said to be the brain of the computer system. It is the CPU that provides the processing power to the computer.

The CPU internally consist of three important units. These three units are control unit , Arithmetic And Logic Unit and memory unit. These three units together are referred as CPU.

The main function of the CPU is to execute the computer program. The CPU executes the program by fetching program instruction one by one from the main memory ( RAM ).

The control unit of the CPU decodes these instructions and performs the desired arithmetic and logical operations.

The CPU executes the program instruction by repetitively performing the instruction cycle . The Instruction cycle consist of four steps that include Fetch , Decode , Execute And Store.

What Is Central Processing Unit ?

Control Unit

Computer system control unit ( cu ).

The control unit ( CU ) is an important component of the central processing unit. The control unit of the CPU is responsible to control the working of all the hardware components connected to the system.

In other words , the main function of the control unit is to direct the various operations performed by the computer system. The control units transmit the control signals that directs the hardware components to perform specific operations.

The control unit  of the CPU is also responsible to decode the program instructions fetched from the memory. The CU decodes the program instruction as per the instruction format.

The CU after the decode operation directs the arithmetic and logic unit ( ALU ) of the CPU to perform the desired operation as per the Instruction Set Architecture ( ISA ) of the CPU.

What Is Control Unit ?

CPU Control Unit

How CPU Control Unit Works ?

Arithmetic and logic unit, computer system arithmetic and logic unit ( alu ).

The arithmetic logic unit ( ALU )  is the  mathematical brain of the computer placed inside the processor chip ( Central Processing Unit ).

The ALU essentially performs all the arithmetic and the logic operations performed by the CPU. It is the ALU that actually operates on the data.

The CPU initiates the program execution by fetching the program instructions from the main memory ( RAM ) . The control unit of the CPU decodes the instruction and directs the ALU to perform the desired operation on the data.

The ALU is an essential fundamental component of many digital computing circuits and also for all central processing unit CPU.

In order to operate on the data , the ALU perform three types of operations. The ALU operations include arithmetic , logical and shift operations.

What Is Arithmetic Logic Unit ( ALU ) ?

Memory Unit

Computer system memory unit ( mu ).

The main function of the memory unit is to store the data. The computer system memory unit consist of different types of memory.

The computer system memory can be grouped into two basic types that is primary and secondary memory.

The primary memory ( main memory RAM ) is called temporary or volatile memory. The secondary memory ( disk memory) is called permanent or non-volatile memory.

Different types of  memory used in a computer system are organized in a hierarchical order in order to optimize the system performance.

The CPU executes the program instructions at very high speed. Whereas the data transfer from the main memory RAM to the CPU is relatively slow.

And therefore , high speed cache memory is placed between the CPU and main memory RAM. The CPU stores the frequently used data into the cache memory that can be accessed at high speed as compared to the RAM.

The CPU also makes use of another very high speed memory called CPU registers built right inside the processor chip.

The processor micro-architecture consist of number of very high speed internal memory inside the CPU called registers .

The processor internally use different types of registers at different stages of the instruction cycle during the program execution.

Computer Memory Unit

CPU Registers

In processor micro architecture, the CPU registers are vary high speed memory placed inside the processor chip. In memory hierarchy , the register is the smallest in size but has the highest data access speed.

Depending upon the processor architecture , the CPU can have number of registers. The registers are used by the CPU during the execution of program instructions.

The registers plays an important role during the execution of instruction cycle performed by the CPU.

CPU Registers Example

Intel 8085 architecture registers.

The registers are high speed temporary memory area built into the processor chip. The registers are integral part of every processor internal memory unit.

The registers provide very high data access speed that is much faster than the cache memory. And therefore , the registers are used by the processor as temporary memory during the program execution.

What Are CPU Registers ?

Intel 8085 Registers

Computer Hardware

In computer architecture , the computer hardware are the physical components either connected inside the computer cabinet or connected externally.

The main function of the hardware components is execute the operation as directed by the CPU. The hardware system components can be electronic , electrical or mechanical components.

The computer hardware components can be electronic components such as motherboard , processor , display monitor , storage disk and main memory RAM.

The computer hardware components can also be electrical components such as power supply unit SMPS and electrical wires used to supply electric supply.

The hardware components also include mechanical parts such as computer cabinet where internal system components are assembled and interconnected.

The hardware components are driven by a system software called device driver . The operating system communicates with hardware through device driver.

What Is Computer Hardware ?

Computer Software

The computer software and hardware are two essential components of the computer system.

The software is designed to direct the computer to perform specific operations. Whereas , the computer hardware actually executes the program instructions to perform the desired operation.

A software is simply a computer program or a group of programs created for the purpose of providing a specific service. A software can be written in any programming language such as C language , Java , Python or any other language.

For example , we use MS word for creating documents , web browsers for browsing the internet , media players for watching video contents and so on.

In computer architecture , the computer system essentially make use of two types of software. The first type of software is called an application software and the second type is called a system software.

What Is Computer Software ?

Application Software

In computer architecture , the application software is designed and developed to allow the system user to perform various tasks on the  computer.

The application software provides an interface to the user to use the computer for various applications. The user can install various application software on computer as per the user requirements.

For example , we use accounting software to perform accounting work . Similarly , each application software has specific purpose to provide service to the user.

What Is Application Software ?

System Software

In computer architecture , the system software works as an interface between the operating system and the hardware components.

The operating system communicates with hardware component through a special software called a device driver . The computer system also needs other system software essential to perform some important functions.

The system software is used by the computer itself to communicate and control various hardware components connected to the computer.

The operating system is also a type of system software that is essential for every computer system . The operating system handles all the crucial functions and the system resources.

What Is System Software ?

Computer Memory Organization

The memory unit is another important functional unit present in the computer organization and architecture. The computer memory is a finite resource that is managed by the operating system ( OS ).

The computer memory is used to store the data and the program instructions. In computer system , the random access memory ( RAM )  is considered to be the primary memory ( main memory ).

The primary memory RAM is a temporary ( volatile ) memory and the  secondary disk memory is referred as permanent ( non-volatile ) memory.

In computer architecture , the memory is divided into large number of memory cells ( block ). The computer memory is linear and organized as series of group of bits ( 8 Bits = 1 Byte ) called byte .

A single block of memory consist of eight bits ( 8 Bits ) that is equal to one byte ( 1 Byte ). Each byte in the computer memory represents a unique memory location with unique memory address .

The computer memory is also organized as word addressable memory. In computer organization, the term word is defined as group bits ( 8 Bits , 16 Bits , 32 Bits ) that can be transferred simultaneously between the CPU and main memory RAM.

The word size in memory organization defined the number of bits that can be processed together in a single CPU operation.

Instruction Cycle

The main function of the central processing unit ( CPU ) is to execute the program. The computer program consist of number of instructions . These instructions direct the computer to perform the desired operations.

In order to execute the program , the operating system allocates the necessary resources. The operating system loads the program instructions along with associated data into the main memory RAM.

The CPU initiates the program execution by fetching the data and instructions from the main memory RAM. The CPU execution mechanism is called instruction cycle.

The instruction cycle is the basic operation of the CPU which essentially consist of  which essentially consist of sequence of three operations. These three operations include fetch , decode and execute .

The CPU repetitively performs the   instruction cycle to perform various operations as per the program instructions. The instruction cycle internally consist of another CPU operation called machine cycle .

The CPU operations and the instruction cycle is synchronized by the stream of clock signals. The clock signals are generated by the timing and control signal generator of the control unit .

CPU Instruction Cycle

Instruction Pipelining

Instruction Pipeline Architecture

The processor chip manufacturing companies have to constantly innovate the new technology and the microprocessor design in order to improve the processor performance.

In computer architecture, the instruction pipelining is a technique used that helps to utilize the processing power of the CPU. The instruction pipelining aims to significantly improve the CPU performance.

The computer program consist of multiple instructions. The CPU repetitively performs the instruction cycle to execute the program instructions.

The instruction cycle is executed in four stages or operations . These four operations are fetch , decode , execute and store. Each stage is designed to perform a certain part of the instruction  cycle  .

The instruction pipelining technique allows the processor to concurrently execute different stages of the instruction cycle for multiple instructions.

Instruction Non-Pipeline Architecture

The pipelined concurrent execution of the instructions allows  the processor to simultaneously initiate the execution of multiple instructions.

In simpler CPUs, the instruction cycle is executed sequentially.  The CPU executes each instruction one by one. Such sequential execution is referred as non-pipelined architecture.

However , In  most  modern  processors use the pipelining technology which allows the CPU to simultaneously execute more number of instructions.   

In instruction pipelined architecture , the next instruction processing  starts even  before  the  previous instruction  has finished. This  results into  improved  CPU  performance.

Instruction Set Architecture ( ISA )

In computer organization and architecture , the instruction set architecture ( ISA ) is defined as a set of binary commands supported by the processor chip.

Each processor chip design is based on the specific Instruction set architecture ( ISA ). The ISA merely defines the set of operations that must be supported by the CPU that implements a specific ISA.

The ISA does not specify the details of its implementation inside the processor chip. Rather , the ISA only specify the capability of the processor in terms of binary operations performed by the processor.

For example , you will find many processor that implement x86 ISA . However , each processor can have different ISA implementation despite being based on the same x86 architecture.

The instruction set architecture ( ISA ) also defines the maximum length of the program statement. And therefore , the implementation of the ISA, the statement length is restricted within maximum permissible limit.  

Similarly , the ISA also defines the instruction format for different types of instructions. The instruction format defines how the entire instruction is encoded within the specified instruction format.

The processor micro-architecture is referred to the actual implementation of the ISA into the processor chip. The micro-architecture defines the performance and the efficiency of the processor design.

Instruction Format

The CPU is responsible to execute the program. However, the CPU can decode and execute only machine instructions in the binary format.

And therefore , all computer programs written in any high level programming language must be first converted machine instruction .

During the program compilation stage, the compiler converts the high level program instructions into low level standard machine instructions in a specific format. This standard machine instruction format is defined as “ Instruction Format ”.

These machine instructions can be directly decoded and executed by the processor. The instruction format defines the pattern of bits that consist of three parts.

Each part of the instruction format directs the CPU while decoding the program instructions. The instruction format consist of addressing mode , operation code ( OPCODE ) and the data ( OPERAND ).

The addressing mode helps to decode location of the data , the OPCODE specify the operation to be performed and the OPERAND specify the integer data value.

What Is Instruction Format ?

Addressing Modes

Instruction Format Addressing Modes

In simple words , the addressing mode is the field ( single bit ) in the instruction format that directs the processor regarding how to locate the data that is to be operated by the CPU.

The addressing mode is represented by a single bit in the instruction format. It provides the information about the operand whether it contains either the data or address of the data.

In microprocessor architecture,  the instruction format is a standard machine instruction format that CPU can decode and execute.

Depending upon the instruction type , the pattern of bits in the machine instruction format consist of three parts.

The first part indicates the addressing mode , the second part OPCODE specifies the operation to be performed and the third part OPERAND either data or address of the data.

the addressing mode for the machine instruction specifies the rules for the CPU while operating on the OPERAND .

The addressing mode part of the machine instruction format  allows to specify whether the OPERAND value is a direct data Or It is an indirect referencing.

If the addressing mode specified is indirect  then the OPERAND contains a memory address that points to the actual data. However , If the addressing mode specified is direct   then the OPERAND contains the actual data .

The machine code instruction format can use different types of addressing mode depending upon the type of the instruction and the processor architecture.

Interrupts In COA

Hardware and software interrupts.

In computer architecture , the interrupts are defined as signals ( service call ) sent to the processor either by the hardware components or by the software to seek the processor response.

The interrupt signals generated by the hardware is called as hardware interrupt . Whereas, the interrupt signals generated by the program is called as software interrupt ( also called as traps ).

The interrupt events or signals are called interrupt because these events  prompts the processor to pause the normal execution of the CPU instruction cycle and respond to the interrupt signal.

The processor response to the interrupt signals depends upon the priority and the type of interrupt.

The processor responds to an interrupt by pausing the current process execution and an interrupt service routine ISR ( also called as an interrupt handler ) is executed by the processor.

After executing the ISR, the processor then resumes its previous process after the service routine (  interrupt handler )  is executed in response to an interrupt signal.    

What Are Interrupts ?

Computer Bus

Computer Bus Architecture

In computer system architecture , the computer buses are defined as the wired connections that connect the CPU and various hardware components.

The computer buses are group of wires running across the computer system. The computer buses transfer data , control signals and memory address.

In order to execute the program , the CPU needs to communicate with main memory RAM and other hardware components. The computer system makes use of three types of buses which include data bus , control bus and address bus .

The CPU continuously perform the memory read and write operations. The data transfer take place using the data bus. The CPU also transmits control signals through control bus .

Similarly , the CPU communicates with the memory controller and the main memory ram using the address bus. The address bus is used to transfer the memory address required for memory read and write operations.

Binary Number System

In simple words , the number system is a system of counting. There are many number systems exist in mathematics. We are all familiar with decimal number that we use in our everyday life.

However , the computer and other digital devices do not understand the decimal number system. Rather , the computers can understand and execute only machine instructions in binary .

In mathematics and digital electronics, a binary number is a number system that uses only two numbers ( either zero 0   OR  one 1 ) to represents any number.

A computer system is a digital device. The micro processor ( CPU )  inside the computer functions as a system’s brain. The processor internally consist of millions of tiny components called transistor .

These transistors can be programmed to function like a micro switch that can be switched on or off . And therefore , the processor can execute commands represented only two states ( on or off ).

These two states can be easily represented in the binary. The binary commands use only two digits that is 0 ( zero ) and 1 ( one ).

Why Computer Use Binary Number System ?

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Principal lecturers: Prof Simon Moore , Dr Robert Mullins , Dr Timothy Jones Taken by: MPhil ACS , Part III Code: R265 Hours: 16 (8 2-hour sessions) Class limit: max. 15 students Prerequisites: An undergraduate course in computer architecture. A good basic understanding of computer architecture will also suffice, e.g. provided by the Patterson and Hennessy book “The Hardware/Software Interface” and/or the early chapters of their book “Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach”.

This course aims to provide students with an introduction to a range of advanced topics in computer architecture. It will explore the current and future challenges facing the architects of modern computers. These will also be used to illustrate the many different influences and trade-offs involved in computer architecture.

On completion of this module students should:

• understand the challenges of designing and verifying modern microprocessors
• be familiar with recent research themes and emerging challenges
• appreciate the complex trade-offs at the heart of computer architecture

Each seminar will focus on a different topic:

• Trends in computer architecture
• State-of-the-art microprocessor design
• Memory system design
• Hardware reliability
• Specification, verification and test
• Hardware security (2)
• HW accelerators and accelerators for machine learning

Each two hour seminar will include three student presentations (15mins) questions (5mins) and a broader discussion of the topics (around 30mins). The last part of the seminar will include a short scene setting lecture (around 20mins) to introduce the following week's topic.

Students will be expected to read at least three papers per week and submit a written summary and review in advance of each seminar (except when presenting).

Students will be expected to give a number of 15 minute presentations.

Essays and presentations will be marked out of 10. After dropping the lowest mark, the remaining marks will be scaled to give a final score out of 100.

Weekly essays will be up to 1,500 words summarising the complete set of assigned papers, identifying common themes, discussing the broader context, and highlighting interesting issues, limitations or outstanding challenges.

Students will give at least one presentation during the course. They will not be required to submit an essay during the weeks they are presenting.

Each presentation will focus on a single paper from the reading list. Marks will be awarded for clarity and the communication of the paper's key ideas, an analysis of the work's strengths and weaknesses and the work’s relationship to related work and broader trends and constraints.

Recommended prerequisite reading

Patterson, D. A., Hennessy, J. L. (2017). Computer organization and design: The Hardware/software interface RISC-V edition Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-0-12-812275-4.

Hennessy, J. & Patterson, D. (2012). Computer architecture: a quantitative approach . Elsevier (5th ed.) ISBN 9780123838728. (the 3rd and 4th editions are also relevant)

• © 2020 Department of Computer Science and Technology, University of Cambridge Information provided by Prof Simon Moore

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Computer Architecture

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Computer Architecture has been at the heart of the Department's research since it was first created – work on mechanical calculators and analogue computers drove the Lab's founders, which led to the development of EDSAC , the world's first practical stored-program computer in 1949.

Nowadays, research on Computer Architecture considers traditional general-purpose CPUs, GPUs, and accelerators for areas like machine learning, artificial intelligence, scientific computing and data processing. We have strong links with security through the CHERI project, machine learning and artificial intelligence, and programming language research via compilers and binary modification tools.

Through collaboration, we undertake complete system designs from gates through to applications with everything in between: processors, accelerators, compilers, linkers, run-times, operating systems, applications and verification at many levels.

We collaborate widely with industry, both hardware companies designing their own architectures and software companies developing the applications, operating systems, libraries and tools that run on them.

The lowRISC project, which creates fully open-source hardware designs, was recently spun out from the Department and is currently stewarding the OpenTitan project – the first open source project to build a silicon root of trust. The Raspberry Pi Foundation , a UK-based charity focused on computing and digital making, was also conceived within the Department in 2008. The CHERI secure processor stack is available open-source for RISC-V and there is commercial evaluation under the UK Digital Security by Design initiative involving Arm, Microsoft, Google and many others.

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