how do video games increase problem solving skills

Video Games Play May Provide Learning, Health, Social Benefits, Review Finds

• Learning and Memory

Authors suggest balancing questions of harm with potential for positive impact

• The Benefits of Playing Video Games (PDF, 202KB)

WASHINGTON — Playing video games, including violent shooter games, may boost children’s learning, health and social skills, according to a review of research on the positive effects of video game play to be published by the American Psychological Association.

The study comes out as debate continues among psychologists and other health professionals regarding the effects of violent media on youth. An APA task force is conducting a comprehensive review of research on violence in video games and interactive media and will release its findings in 2014.  

“Important research has already been conducted for decades on the negative effects of gaming, including addiction, depression and aggression, and we are certainly not suggesting that this should be ignored,” said lead author Isabela Granic, PhD, of Radboud University Nijmegen in The Netherlands. “However, to understand the impact of video games on children’s and adolescents’ development, a more balanced perspective is needed.” 

The article will be published in APA’s flagship journal, American Psychologist .  

While one widely held view maintains playing video games is intellectually lazy, such play actually may strengthen a range of cognitive skills such as spatial navigation, reasoning, memory and perception, according to several studies reviewed in the article. This is particularly true for shooter video games that are often violent, the authors said. A 2013 meta-analysis found that playing shooter video games improved a player’s capacity to think about objects in three dimensions, just as well as academic courses to enhance these same skills, according to the study. “This has critical implications for education and career development, as previous research has established the power of spatial skills for achievement in science, technology, engineering and mathematics,” Granic said. This enhanced thinking was not found with playing other types of video games, such as puzzles or role-playing games.

Playing video games may also help children develop problem-solving skills, the authors said. The more adolescents reported playing strategic video games, such as role-playing games, the more they improved in problem solving and school grades the following year, according to a long-term study published in 2013. Children’s creativity was also enhanced by playing any kind of video game, including violent games, but not when the children used other forms of technology, such as a computer or cell phone, other research revealed.

Simple games that are easy to access and can be played quickly, such as “Angry Birds,” can improve players’ moods, promote relaxation and ward off anxiety, the study said. “If playing video games simply makes people happier, this seems to be a fundamental emotional benefit to consider,” said Granic. The authors also highlighted the possibility that video games are effective tools to learn resilience in the face of failure. By learning to cope with ongoing failures in games, the authors suggest that children build emotional resilience they can rely upon in their everyday lives.

Another stereotype the research challenges is the socially isolated gamer. More than 70 percent of gamers play with a friend and millions of people worldwide participate in massive virtual worlds through video games such as “Farmville” and “World of Warcraft,” the article noted. Multiplayer games become virtual social communities, where decisions need to be made quickly about whom to trust or reject and how to lead a group, the authors said. People who play video games, even if they are violent, that encourage cooperation are more likely to be helpful to others while gaming than those who play the same games competitively, a 2011 study found.

The article emphasized that educators are currently redesigning classroom experiences, integrating video games that can shift the way the next generation of teachers and students approach learning. Likewise, physicians have begun to use video games to motivate patients to improve their health, the authors said. In the video game “Re-Mission,” child cancer patients can control a tiny robot that shoots cancer cells, overcomes bacterial infections and manages nausea and other barriers to adhering to treatments. A 2008 international study in 34 medical centers found significantly greater adherence to treatment and cancer-related knowledge among children who played “Re-Mission” compared to children who played a different computer game. 

“It is this same kind of transformation, based on the foundational principle of play, that we suggest has the potential to transform the field of mental health,” Granic said. “This is especially true because engaging children and youth is one of the most challenging tasks clinicians face.”

The authors recommended that teams of psychologists, clinicians and game designers work together to develop approaches to mental health care that integrate video game playing with traditional therapy. 

Article: “The Benefits of Playing Video Games,” Isabela Granic, PhD, Adam Lobel, PhD, and Rutger C.M.E. Engels, PhD, Radboud University Nijmegen; Nijmegen, The Netherlands; American Psychologist , Vol. 69, No. 1. 

Isabela Granic can be contacted by email , cell: 011.31.6.19.50.00.99 or work: 011.31.24.361.2142

The American Psychological Association, in Washington, D.C., is the largest scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States. APA's membership includes more than 134,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. Through its divisions in 54 subfields of psychology and affiliations with 60 state, territorial and Canadian provincial associations, APA works to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people's lives.

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Neag School of Education

Well-designed video games can enhance problem-solving skills and make learning more effective.

• May 29, 2013
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The tragic December deaths of 20 first-graders and six school staff members in Sandy Hook, Connecticut, along with the Boston Marathon tragedy and other recent attacks, have brought the decades-old debate over the behavioral effects of video games back onto legislative floors throughout the nation. Citing the fact that gunman Adam Lanza, 20, played violent video games, members of the U.S. Congressional Gun Violence Prevention Task Force detailed their plans to address “our culture’s glorification of violence” through media, and commentary stemming from reports like Katie Couric’s May 2013 video game violence exposé has highlighted the need for greater clarification of how we should read and interpret video game research.

Clearly, it’s a complex and emotional issue further complicated by discussions that focus almost exclusively on the negative effects of gaming. The reality, however, is that there’s little research outlining whether or not violent video games beget actual violence: many existing studies, like one described in a recent edition of the UConn Today , focus on aggression without explicitly acknowledging the complex relationship between cognition, transfer, and real world behavior. This has led to two major problems, the combination of which throws a wrench in the socially and politically-charged rhetoric surrounding violence: 1) the dismissal of other, more influential factors common to violent criminals—biological predisposition to mental health issues, instability at home and/or work, lack of positive role models, having no one to confide in, access to weapons, and in-the-moment opportunity versus need; and 2) neglect for how learning in all types of games—violent or not—actually happens.

While the first problem may better fit sociologists and psychologists who have direct experience with individuals who commit violent crimes, the second is something that we as teachers, administrators, and researchers can tackle head on. There’s general consensus in the educational psychology community that the nature of environment-learner-content interactions is vital to our understanding of how people perceive and act. As a result, we can’t make broad assumptions about games as a vehicle for violent behavior without attending to how environment-learner-content interactions influence transfer—the way learning and action in one context affects learning and action in a related context.

It might help to think of transfer in terms of what we hope students will do with the information they learn in our classes. For example, you might teach geometric principles in your math class thinking that those techniques will help your students craft a birdhouse in shop. However, one of the most well-cited studies of the subject (Gick & Holyoak, 1980) showed that only one-fifth of college students were able to apply a particular problem solving strategy—using ‘divide-and-conquer’ to capture a castle—in another, almost identical context less than 24 hours after exposure to the first. Even with explicit direct instruction explaining how the same strategy could be used to solve both problems, fewer than 50% of students were able to make the connection. Though links between situations might seem self-evident to us as teachers, they usually aren’t as obvious to our students as we think they should be.

This gives us reason to believe that, regardless of subject, students—or in the case of video games, players—are rarely able to take something they’ve used in one context and independently apply it in a totally different one. Put another way, even if violent gaming raises general aggression, increased aggression doesn’t automatically translate to real world violent behavior . Gamers might use more curse words while playing Call of Duty , but they won’t learn to steal a car solely by playing Grand Theft Auto —there needs to be a mediating instructor who can provide well-guided bridging between the game and reality, especially for in-game activities that aren’t isomorphic with real world action (i.e., firing a gun).

This relationship between environment-learner-content interaction and transfer puts teachers in the unique position to capitalize on game engagement to promote reflection that positively shapes how students tackle real-world challenges. To some, this may seem like a shocking concept, but it’s definitely not a new one—roleplay as instruction, for example, was very popular among the ancient Greeks and, in many ways, served as the backbone for Plato’s renowned Allegory of the Cave . The same is true of Shakespeare’s works, 18th and 19th century opera, and many of the novels, movies, and other media that define our culture. More recently, NASA has applied game-like simulations to teach astronauts how to maneuver through space, medical schools have used them to teach robotic surgery, and the Federal Aviation Administration has employed them to test pilots.

To be clear, this is not a call for K12 educators to drop everything and immediately incorporate violent games like Doom or Mortal Kombat into their classrooms. Instead, it’s a call to consider how we can take advantage of game affordances (including those of violent games) to extend beyond predictable multiple-choice materials that leave students wishing they could pull out their smartphones. It’s a call for legislators to give greater consideration to the role of transfer before passing sweeping bans on violent video game play. It’s a call for all of us to use games as a vehicle to talk about racial, social, gender, and other inequities that are very much a part of the world we live in.

It’s a bold idea that can feel scary, but the potential benefits are beyond exciting. Research generated by people like Kurt Squire, Sasha Barab, and James Paul Gee suggests that interactive games can be used to teach children about history, increase vocabulary, challenge them to set and achieve goals, and enhance their ability to work in teams. They expose students to culturally diverse casts of characters in addition to providing instant feedback about goal-oriented progress. Most importantly, perhaps, they can be powerfully engaging, giving students a reason to pursue learning beyond the classroom.

To maintain a positive trajectory, teachers looking to make the most of the instructional affordances of video games should keep an eye out for games they feel comfortable playing alongside and discussing with their students, take advantage of opportunities to participate in university game-based learning research studies, and remain open to modifying their instructional approaches. Parents should connect with teachers for up-to-date research coming from organizations like Games+Learning+Society and have their children reflect on material they’ve been exposed to during play—for example, social and cultural stereotypes, gender roles, and ways of thinking presented in each game. Legislators should consult university researchers in both communications and educational psychology to get a wider perspective on how play and learning merge to generate behavior in the real world.

Our collective understanding of game-based learning is evolving at lightning speed, and we need to dispel false information that ignores how games actually affect player thinking and action. More work, involving teachers, administrators, researchers, designers, parents, and politicians, is needed. The next step is to enhance our collaboration by working to create multi-disciplinary games that incorporate not just academic content but educational practices that lead to broader critical thinking and problem solving. Though far from complete, our combined effort has the potential to move beyond the swamp of video game violence and excite kids about school before they say “game over.”

Stephen Slota is doctoral candidate in educational psychology at the University of Connecticut’s Neag School of Education as well as an unashamed gamer. An educational technology specialist and  former urban high school teacher, he has a bachelor’s in molecular and cellular biology and Master’s in curriculum and instruction. His research interests include the situated cognition underlying play, the effects of gaming on student achievement, and prosocial learning through massively multiplayer online role-playing games ( MMORPGs).

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Video games can change your brain for the better

"Video games are played by the overwhelming majority of our youth more than three hours every week, but the beneficial effects on decision-making abilities and the brain are not exactly known," says Mukesh Dhamala. "Our work provides some answers on that." (Credit: Getty Images )

You are free to share this article under the Attribution 4.0 International license.

Frequent players of video games show superior sensorimotor decision-making skills and enhanced activity in key regions of the brain as compared to non-players, according to a recent study.

The authors, who used functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) in the study, say the findings suggest that video games could be a useful tool for training in perceptual decision-making.

“Video games are played by the overwhelming majority of our youth more than three hours every week, but the beneficial effects on decision-making abilities and the brain are not exactly known,” says lead researcher Mukesh Dhamala, associate professor in Georgia State University’s physics and astronomy department and the university’s Neuroscience Institute.

“Our work provides some answers on that,” Dhamala says. “Video game playing can effectively be used for training—for example, decision-making efficiency training and therapeutic interventions —once the relevant brain networks are identified.”

Dhamala was the adviser for Tim Jordan, the lead author of the paper, who offered a personal example of how such research could inform the use of video games for training the brain.

Jordan, who received a PhD in physics and astronomy from Georgia State in 2021, had weak vision in one eye as a child. As part of a research study when he was about 5, he was asked to cover his good eye and play video games as a way to strengthen the vision in the weak one. Jordan credits video game training with helping him go from legally blind in one eye to building strong capacity for visual processing, allowing him to eventually play lacrosse and paintball. He is now a postdoctoral researcher at UCLA.

The new research project involved 47 college-age participants, with 28 categorized as regular video game players and 19 as non-players.

The subjects laid inside an FMRI machine with a mirror that allowed them to see a cue immediately followed by a display of moving dots. Participants were asked to press a button in their right or left hand to indicate the direction the dots were moving, or resist pressing either button if there was no directional movement.

The researchers found that video game players were faster and more accurate with their responses.

Analysis of the resulting brain scans found that the differences were correlated with enhanced activity in certain parts of the brain.

“These results indicate that video game playing potentially enhances several of the subprocesses for sensation, perception, and mapping to action to improve decision-making skills,” the authors write. “These findings begin to illuminate how video game playing alters the brain in order to improve task performance and their potential implications for increasing task-specific activity.”

The study also notes there was no trade-off between speed and accuracy of response—the video game players were better on both measures.

“This lack of speed-accuracy trade-off would indicate video game playing as a good candidate for cognitive training as it pertains to decision-making,” the authors write.

The paper appears in the journal Neuroimage: Reports .

Source: Georgia State University

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Global Report Reveals Positive Benefits of Video Gameplay

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• Press Releases

New report outlines the social, mental and emotional benefits of gameplay according to academic research and affirmed by a survey of nearly 13,000 active players across 12 countries.

WASHINGTON, Oct. 10, 2023 – The Entertainment Software Association (ESA), in partnership with video game trade associations in Australia, Canada, Europe and South Korea, today released the first-ever Power of Play report . The report highlights the findings from peer-reviewed academic research about the positive effects of gameplay, which are confirmed by a survey of 12,847 active (weekly) players (ages 16 and older) in 12 countries: Australia, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Poland, South Korea, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United States. The survey revealed that in addition to entertainment, video games provide players with a number of social and emotional benefits that are shared on a global level. 

Having fun is the top reason people play video games (69% of global players), but they also play for a variety of other reasons including to keep one’s mind sharp (36%) and because playing games offers the ability to explore new worlds and ideas (27%). Nearly a quarter of respondents (24%) globally say they play video games to manage and/or improve their mental health. In all 12 countries, 71% of respondents said playing video games helps them feel less stressed. In the U.S., 78% of respondents said the same, pointing out that video games also help them feel less anxious (68%) and less isolated/lonely by connecting them to others (53%). Of the countries surveyed, only Brazil had a greater number of respondents than the U.S. saying video games help them feel less stressed (87%) and less anxious (78%).

“The Power of Play report affirms globally what we already knew to be true in the United States: video games have the power to transcend entertainment,” said Stanley Pierre-Louis, President and CEO of the ESA. “The social and emotional benefits of video gameplay are felt by a global, diverse group of players that build communities and have the power to affect positive change in each other’s lives.” 

More than half (52%) of global players say video games helped them get through difficult times in their lives, with that number increasing to 59% for U.S. respondents. Players also agree that video games provide other mental health benefits: 

• About 75% of global players believe video games provide mental stimulation and stress relief. 
• Nearly two-thirds also find that video games provide them with a healthy outlet from everyday challenges (64%) and help them feel happier (63%). Players in Brazil (83%) and Poland (76%) were most likely to say games help them feel happier, with U.S. players at 71%.

Crossing geographic borders, video games also provide a platform for community building where otherwise not physically possible: 

• More than half of global respondents (51%) say they play games with other people online and 38% play with other people in person weekly, with 68% across all markets rating their experience of playing with others – both online and in person – as positive or extremely positive.
• More than two-thirds (67%) of global players agree video games introduce people to new friends and new relationships. This number was highest in Brazil (86%), lowest in Japan (47%) and close to the global average in the U.S. (71%). Nearly half (42%) of global players have met a good friend, spouse or significant other through video games.
• More than three-quarters (77%) of global players agree video games bring different types of people together and nearly two-thirds (60%) say video games create a feeling of community. 

People are not only skilled game players, but they also say they have gained valuable life skills applicable outside of the virtual world of video games: 

• Nearly three-quarters of global players (73%) agree video games can improve creativity (78% of U.S. respondents said the same).
• Across the world, 69% of players agree video games build problem-solving, cognitive and teamwork and collaboration skills, with 84% of U.S. players saying video games improve problem-solving skills. 
• Video games also promote adaptability and communications skills with 65% and 60% of global players agreeing, respectively. 

Other noteworthy results from the global Power of Play report include:

• On a weekly basis, people tend to play mostly by themselves (87% globally, 90% in the U.S.) but also make time to enjoy gameplay with others online (51% globally, 52% U.S.) and in-person (38% globally and in the U.S.). Players in Brazil (62%), Poland (46%) and South Korea (45%) are the most likely to play with others in person. 
• More than a quarter (28%) of global players say they never use in-game communication functions while just 8% say they always use them. 
• Of global players, 75% believe there is a video game for everyone.

Access the Power of Play report at www.theesa.com/power-of-play-2023

About the ESA

The Entertainment Software Association (ESA) serves as the voice and advocate for the U.S. video game industry. Its members are the innovators, creators, publishers and business leaders that are reimagining entertainment and transforming how we interact, learn, connect and play. The ESA works to expand and protect the dynamic marketplace for video games through innovative and engaging initiatives that showcase the positive impact of video games on people, culture and the economy. For more information, visit the  ESA’s website  or follow the ESA on Twitter  @theESA .

About the Power of Play Report Methodology 

AudienceNet conducted an interactive online survey of 12,847 respondents in 12 countries. In each country, respondents were recruited via a screening survey sent out in accordance with quota samples that were statistically and demographically representative of the respective 16 year+ online populations. The screening questions ensured that, in each country, there was a final sample of 1,000+ active gamers, all of whom played video games for at least an hour per week. All survey respondents were accessed through professionally accredited consumer research panels. AudienceNet is a fully accredited global consumer research company, currently conducting nationally representative research in 52 countries. As a Market Research Society (MRS) Company Partner, AudienceNet is bound by the MRS Code of Conduct, as well as GDPR in relation to the collection and handling of consumer research data.

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Monday, October 24, 2022

Video gaming may be associated with better cognitive performance in children

Additional research necessary to parse potential benefits and harms of video games on the developing brain.

On Monday, April 10, 2023, a Notice of Retraction and Replacement published for the article featured below . The key findings remain the same. The press release has been updated, in line with the retracted and replacement article, to clarify that attention problems, depression symptoms, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) scores were significantly higher among children who played three hours per day or more compared to children who had never played video games.

A study of nearly 2,000 children found that those who reported playing video games for three hours per day or more performed better on cognitive skills tests involving impulse control and working memory compared to children who had never played video games. Published today in JAMA Network Open , this study analyzed data from the ongoing  Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study , which is supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) and other entities of the National Institutes of Health.

“This study adds to our growing understanding of the associations between playing video games and brain development,” said NIDA Director Nora Volkow, M.D. “Numerous studies have linked video gaming to behavior and mental health problems. This study suggests that there may also be cognitive benefits associated with this popular pastime, which are worthy of further investigation.”

Although a number of studies have investigated the relationship between video gaming and cognitive behavior, the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the associations are not well understood. Only a handful of neuroimaging studies have addressed this topic, and the sample sizes for those studies have been small, with fewer than 80 participants.

To address this research gap, scientists at the University of Vermont, Burlington, analyzed data obtained when children entered the ABCD Study at ages 9 and 10 years old. The research team examined survey, cognitive, and brain imaging data from nearly 2,000 participants from within the bigger study cohort. They separated these children into two groups, those who reported playing no video games at all and those who reported playing video games for three hours per day or more. This threshold was selected as it exceeds the American Academy of Pediatrics screen time guidelines , which recommend that videogaming time be limited to one to two hours per day for older children. For each group, the investigators evaluated the children’s performance on two tasks that reflected their ability to control impulsive behavior and to memorize information, as well as the children’s brain activity while performing the tasks.

The researchers found that the children who reported playing video games for three or more hours per day were faster and more accurate on both cognitive tasks than those who never played. They also observed that the differences in cognitive function observed between the two groups was accompanied by differences in brain activity. Functional MRI brain imaging analyses found that children who played video games for three or more hours per day showed higher brain activity in regions of the brain associated with attention and memory than did those who never played. At the same time, those children who played at least three hours of videogames per day showed more brain activity in frontal brain regions that are associated with more cognitively demanding tasks and less brain activity in brain regions related to vision.  

The researchers think these patterns may stem from practicing tasks related to impulse control and memory while playing videogames, which can be cognitively demanding, and that these changes may lead to improved performance on related tasks. Furthermore, the comparatively low activity in visual areas among children who reported playing video games may reflect that this area of the brain may become more efficient at visual processing as a result of repeated practice through video games.

While prior studies have reported associations between video gaming and increases in violence and aggressive behavior, this study did not find that to be the case. Though children who reported playing video games for three or more hours per day scored higher on measures of attention problems, depression symptoms, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) compared to children who played no video games, the researchers found that these mental health and behavioral scores did not reach clinical significance in either group, meaning, they did not meet the thresholds for risk of problem behaviors or clinical symptoms. The authors note that these will be important measures to continue to track and understand as the children mature.

Further, the researchers stress that this cross-sectional study does not allow for cause-and-effect analyses, and that it could be that children who are good at these types of cognitive tasks may choose to play video games. The authors also emphasize that their findings do not mean that children should spend unlimited time on their computers, mobile phones, or TVs, and that the outcomes likely depend largely on the specific activities children engage in. For instance, they hypothesize that the specific genre of video games, such as action-adventure, puzzle solving, sports, or shooting games, may have different effects for neurocognitive development, and this level of specificity on the type of video game played was not assessed by the study.

“While we cannot say whether playing video games regularly caused superior neurocognitive performance, it is an encouraging finding, and one that we must continue to investigate in these children as they transition into adolescence and young adulthood,” said Bader Chaarani, Ph.D., assistant professor of psychiatry at the University of Vermont and the lead author on the study. “Many parents today are concerned about the effects of video games on their children’s health and development, and as these games continue to proliferate among young people, it is crucial that we better understand both the positive and negative impact that such games may have.”

Through the ABCD Study, researchers will be able to conduct similar analyses for the same children over time into early adulthood, to see if changes in video gaming behavior are linked to changes in cognitive skills, brain activity, behavior, and mental health. The longitudinal study design and comprehensive data set will also enable them to better account for various other factors in the children’s families and environment that may influence their cognitive and behavioral development, such as exercise, sleep quality, and other influences.

The ABCD Study, the largest of its kind in the United States, is tracking nearly 12,000 youth as they grow into young adults. Investigators regularly measure participants’ brain structure and activity using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and collect psychological, environmental, and cognitive information, as well as biological samples. The goal of the study is to understand the factors that influence brain, cognitive, and social-emotional development, to inform the development of interventions to enhance a young person’s life trajectory.

The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study and ABCD Study are registered service marks and trademarks, respectively, of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

About the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA): NIDA is a component of the National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIDA supports most of the world’s research on the health aspects of drug use and addiction. The Institute carries out a large variety of programs to inform policy, improve practice, and advance addiction science. For more information about NIDA and its programs, visit www.nida.nih.gov .

About the National Institutes of Health (NIH): NIH, the nation's medical research agency, includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit www.nih.gov .

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  B Chaarani, et al.  Association of video gaming with cognitive performance among children .  JAMA Open Network.  DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.35721 (2022).

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• Published: 03 February 2020

Commercial video games and cognitive functions: video game genres and modulating factors of cognitive enhancement

• Eunhye Choi 1 ,
• Suk-Ho Shin 2 ,
• Jeh-Kwang Ryu 3 ,
• Kyu-In Jung 1 ,
• Shin-Young Kim 1 &
• Min-Hyeon Park   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1731-1388 1  

Behavioral and Brain Functions volume  16 , Article number:  2 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Unlike the emphasis on negative results of video games such as the impulsive engagement in video games, cognitive training studies in individuals with cognitive deficits showed that characteristics of video game elements were helpful to train cognitive functions. Thus, this study aimed to have a more balanced view toward the video game playing by reviewing genres of commercial video games and the association of video games with cognitive functions and modulating factors. Literatures were searched with search terms (e.g. genres of video games, cognitive training) on database and Google scholar.

video games, of which purpose is players’ entertainment, were found to be positively associated with cognitive functions (e.g. attention, problem solving skills) despite some discrepancy between studies. However, the enhancement of cognitive functions through video gaming was limited to the task or performance requiring the same cognitive functions. Moreover, as several factors (e.g. age, gender) were identified to modulate cognitive enhancement, the individual difference in the association between video game playing and cognitive function was found.

Commercial video games are suggested to have the potential for cognitive function enhancement. As understanding the association between video gaming and cognitive function in a more balanced view is essential to evaluate the potential outcomes of commercial video games that more people reported to engage, this review contributes to provide more objective evidence for commercial video gaming.

Despite objective research findings which addressed both positive and negative sides of video game (VG) playing, the negativity of VG playing, such as the obsession with VG playing [ 1 ] and increased feeling and thoughts of aggression [ 2 ], has been more focused. The World Health Organization announced the inclusion of “gaming disorder” in the category of addictive behavior disorders in the 11th International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems [ 3 ]. However, violent VGs, which were reported to increase aggression [ 1 ], were found to be positively associated with visuo-spatial abilities without the influence on aggression [ 4 ]. It seemed because action video games (AVGs), which can include violent elements, do not always refer to violent VGs [ 5 ]. Consistent with the argument that VGs should be regarded as one type of learning [ 6 ], VGs were also found to enhance cognitive functions better than conventional methods of learning [ 7 ] by conveying information in a different way from traditional media [ 8 ]. Taken together, unlike the emphasis on the negativity on VG playing, VGs, which provide players with richer environment of cognitive, emotional and social experience, are suggested to enhance their cognitive functions [ 9 ] by simulating cognitive processes, which are activated in real world, in the process of completing VG tasks [ 10 ]. Thus, it is important to understand commercial VGs in a more balanced view. In order to deepen the understanding of commercial VGs, this study reviews genres of VGs, cognitive functions identified to be positively associated with VG playing, and factors for individual difference in the association between VGs and cognitive enhancement.

Literatures were searched on Google Scholar and database (e.g. PubMed, PsychInfo) without date restriction. All designs of studies, found through the search (e.g. cross-sectional studies, training studies and review papers), were included. Search terms for the first section, reviewing genres of VGs, were “genres of (video) games”. “Serious games” was additionally used search term to make the distinction between serious games and commercial VGs. In the second section discussing the association between VG playing and cognitive functions, search terms were “video game (playing)”, “cognitive function/training” and “the association between VG and cognitive function”. Searched literatures for commercial VGs were categorized as six different cognitive functions. As AVGs were found to be highly investigated among various genres of VGs in the search, more literatures for AVGs were included in the second section. Based on literatures for the second section and additionally searched literatures with search terms (e.g. “age and video game”), the last section discussed the factors that were considered as variables for the individual difference in the association of VGs with cognitive functions.

Genres of VGs

Cognitive trainings, having components of VGs (i.e. adapting the difficulty level based on the performance and instantly providing the feedback) [ 11 ], were found to be effective through the individualization of the training (see Table  1 ). Constant provision of feedback was helpful for self-monitoring of the progress in VGs [ 12 ] in that players were able to change their decisions based on the feedback [ 13 ]. VGs, which are suggested to have the potential to train cognitive functions, seem to be divided into two genres depending on the purpose of the development: serious games and commercial VGs. Serious games, which are developed for learning and changes of behavior in various areas such as business, education, healthcare and policies of the government [ 14 , 15 ], were found to be more effective learning methods compared to conventional methods of learning when people played multiple sessions in groups with supplementary instructions [ 16 ]. Unlike serious games, commercial VGs were designed for the entertainment of players [ 17 ]. Although it is not designed for learning, commercial VGs provide players with goal-driven environment that they face various challenges and conflicts [ 18 ]. Players were found to execute their cognitive skills in a more integrated way by playing commercial VGs [ 19 ]. Moreover, people are more motivated to play commercial VGs [ 20 ]. Taken together, the potential influence of commercial VGs on the enhancement of cognitive functions is suggested. Thus, this section focuses on the classification of commercial VGs.

Based on four literatures [ 17 , 22 , 23 , 24 ], five genres of VGs were identified (see Table  2 ). Firstly identified genre of commercial VGs is traditional games (TGs) such as puzzle, card and board VGs [ 23 ]. Secondly identified genre is simulation games (SGs) (i.e. sports or driving VGs [ 22 ], Sims building up towns or communities [ 24 ]). Thirdly identified genre is strategy video games (SVGs) referring to VG that players generally play in the global view by focusing on visual information [ 22 ] and planning the strategies [ 17 ]. As Table  2 shows, SVGs are sub-divided into real-time strategy (RTS) and turn-based strategy (FBS) depending on the way mental process occurs. In SVGs (e.g. Starcraft), expert play (i.e. the integration and contextualization of VG-world activities) is highly associated with the best possible outcomes of VGs [ 22 ]. Fourthly identified genre is action video games (AVGs) that are characterized by the existence of a static physical locator connecting gaze and actions of players in the game environment [ 22 ]. As shown in Table  2 , AVGs are divided into first-person shooters (FPS) and third-person games (TPG) depending on the perspective of the players in the game. The final genre identified in the literatures is fantasy games (FGs). They can be defined as VGs where players explore the game environment in relatively slow pace in order to solve problems [ 17 ] and that focus on the imagination by offering fantasy environment with rules to players [ 22 ]. Among described sub-genres of FGs in Table  2 , role-playing games (RPGs) are the starting point where the notion of VG community was formed [ 22 ]. Massive Multi-player Online RPGs (MMORPGs) are VGs where social and participatory aspects are emphasized by providing the VG itself as the social arena [ 22 ].

Although commercial VGs are classified as five genres in this review, the categorization of VGs seems to vary depending on the criteria for the classification (e.g. interaction type that players experience in VG environments) [ 17 ]. That is, same VGs can be classified as different genres depending on the aspect the researcher focused. For example, RPGs, which were categorized as ‘FGs’ based on characteristics of the VG environment [ 17 ], were categorized as ‘SVGs’ based on the way players performed in VGs [ 25 ]. Thus, more standardized categorizations of VGs are required by conducting further studies in order to more accurately investigate the association between VG playing and cognitive improvement. However, despite this limitation found in the genre classification, it is expected that different genres would be associated with different cognitive functions. It is because players face different designs of VG environments and show the different way of playing. Thus, the association of different VGs with cognitive function is reviewed in the next section.

Cognitive functions identified to be positively related to VG playing

Although cognitive functions are found to be trained through VG playing during relatively short period, enhanced type of cognitive functions depends on genres of VGs [ 20 ]. In this section, the association of different genres with cognitive functions is reviewed. The transfer effect of VGs (i.e. the extent to which cognitive improvement associated with VGs is transferred into untrained cognitive functions) is also discussed. Six cognitive functions are identified to be positively associated with VGs.

Firstly identified cognitive function is attention. Frequent VG players were better at sustaining attention [ 26 ], and players of working memory (WM) and reasoning casual VGs showed the improvement in divided attention [ 19 ]. Compared to other genres of VGs played with slow pace, AVGs were highly associated with improvement in selective attention [ 27 ] which refers to the allocation of attention to relevant information [ 28 ]. FPS players were found to efficiently allocate attention through the improvement in the top-down process of attention [ 29 ]. Although Leauge of Legends (LoL) top-ranking players were better at selective attention than players with lower level skills and less gaming experience, one hour of AVG session resulted in better selective attention in less skilled players [ 30 ]. Players of AVGs and adventure games also showed attenuated attentional blink [ 31 ], which refers to the failure to detect and process the target that was subsequently presented right after the previously processed target [ 32 ]. That is, the training of AVGs, but not other genres of VGs (e.g. TGs and SGs), improved the recovery from attentional blink [ 32 ]. Furthermore, the improvement in attention, found to be associated with VGs [ 33 , 34 ], accompany changes in brain regions. While dorsal fronto-parietal network, which is involved in top-down process of attention [ 35 ], was more activated with increased attentional demands in non-VG players or players of other genres (e.g. SVGs), AVG players barely recruited this network and showed reduced activation in visual motion sensitive area (MT/MST) of which activation results from moving distracters [ 34 ]. Changes in brain activation suggested that AVG players were better at filtering information and efficiently allocating attention to important information. Moreover, AVG experience was found to be positively associated with the plasticity of white matter network in regions (e.g. prefrontal cortex; PFC) [ 36 ] that involves in cognitive control (i.e. goal-directed neural process) [ 37 ]. Even older players showed increased activation in right dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC) [ 38 ]. Taken together, VG playing, especially AVG playing, is associated with the enhancement of visual attention that takes an important role in the efficient processing of information [ 39 ].

Based on the interaction between visual attention and WM [ 40 ], secondly identified cognitive function is WM that refers to the maintenance of presented visual stimuli [ 41 ]. When the association between casual WM reasoning games and cognitive function enhancement was investigated, the enhancement in WM was not found [ 19 ]. However, frequent VG playing was associated with the improvement in WM capacity [ 26 ]. The 20 h of training to play hidden-object and memory matrix VGs resulted in the improvement in spatial WM [ 32 ]. Although 20 h of AVG training did not enhance spatial WM [ 32 ], 30 h of AVG training during 1 month, compared to the training of SGs, resulted in the enhancement in visual WM [ 28 ]. Extensive experience of AVG playing was associated with better visual WM capacity [ 42 ]. FPS players showed more accurate and faster processing of relevant information with better WM capacity compared to non-players [ 43 ]. That is, AVG players showed more precise and detailed visual representation [ 44 ] and performed better in a change detection task than non-VG players [ 45 ]. When AVGs were played in long term, salience network, involved in the detection of visual stimuli (e.g. anterior cingulated cortex and anterior insula) and central executive network, involved in attentional control and WM such as DLPFC and posterior parietal cortex, were highly integrated [ 46 ]. AVG players showed improved WM capacity by efficiently allocating attention to important information [ 42 ]. These findings suggested that playing VGs, especially AVGs, is suggested to have the potential to enhance WM that is important for the learning of skills and the acquisition of knowledge [ 41 , 42 ]. However, as it is unclear whether the discrepancy between AVG training studies result from the different duration of trainings or different aspects of WM, further studies are required.

Thirdly identified cognitive function is visuo-spatial function referring to perception, recognition, and manipulation of visual stimuli (e.g. visuo-motor coordination, navigation skill) [ 27 ]. Enhanced spatial cognition was reported in players of Tetris [ 47 ], which can be classified as one of TGs, and playing TGs (i.e. logic/puzzle games) was associated with gray matter (GM) volume in bilateral entorhinal cortex [ 48 ] that is involved in navigation [ 49 ]. AVGs and SVGs were also found to be associated with the enhanced visuo-spatial function [ 50 ]. Ten hours of AVG training resulted in better navigation skills through the adoption of response strategy, which indirectly measure/indicate the volume of hippocampus and striatum [ 51 ]. Consistently, AVG players, who were trained to play SuperMario for 2 months, showed the improvement in the processing of spatial information and the coordination of visuo-motor function along with larger GM volume in brain regions (i.e. right hippocampus, right DLPFC and bilateral cerebellum) [ 52 ]. Moreover, increases in white matter connections between occipital and parietal areas were found in RTS players compared to non-video gamers [ 53 ]. Furthermore, adolescents with more experience of VG playing showed thicker cortex in left frontal eye-fields that engage in allocating visuo-spatial attention and integrating relevant visuo-motor information [ 54 ]. That is, playing VGs was found to be associated with neural plasticity in brain regions involved in navigation and visual attention (i.e. bilateral entorhinal cortex, hippocampal and occipital GM volume) [ 48 ]. Taken together, although the exact duration of VG training for the detection of structural changes in brain was not identified [ 54 ], VGs are suggested to be associated with the enhancement in visuo-spatial function.

Fourthly identified cognitive function is probabilistic learning that refers to the usage of declarative memory to resolve the uncertainty [ 55 ]. Fifty hours of AVG training in non-VG players increased the efficiency to use not only visually but also auditorily available information [ 56 ]. AVG players also showed higher activation in brain regions involved in visual imagery, semantic memory and cognitive control (e.g. hippocampus, precuneus, thalamus) compared to non-AVG players [ 55 ]. Higher activation in hippocampus in AVG players was related to more pronounced usage of declarative knowledge [ 55 ]. Moreover, the cortex of left DLPFC, involved in resolving the ambiguity by using the cues in the environments, was found to be thicker in adolescents reporting longer duration of VG playing, suggesting players became better at resolving the ambiguity efficiently through VG playing [ 54 ]. It can be concluded that VG playing could enhance the probabilistic learning through the efficient use of evidence presented in the environment of VG.

Fifthly identified cognitive function is problem solving skills. Problem solving skills were improved more through a puzzle VG compared to cognitive training game [ 57 ]. Adolescents, playing strategic VGs (i.e. SVGs, RPGs) more frequently during 4 years of high school period, also showed better skill to solve problems [ 25 ]. Playing strategic VGs, but not fast-paced VGs, was also found to be associated with better academic achievement in that improved problem solving skills mediated the positive association between playing SVGs and academic performance [ 25 ]. Moreover, playing commercial VGs enhanced graduate skills (e.g. problem solving skills, communication) in university students, suggesting the potential efficacy of VG-based learning [ 58 ]. However, gaming habits (e.g. frequency and time of video gaming, genres of VGs) was found to have no influence academic skills in high school students [ 59 ]. The inconsistency between findings seemed to be the different use of measurement for problem solving skills. While self-reports were used to measure problem solving skills in [ 25 ] and [ 58 ], the measurement of academic skills (e.g. mathematics, science) was used in [ 59 ]. Although the longitudinal design of [ 25 ] suggested the potential positive influence of strategic VGs on problem solving skill, further studies that investigate the extent to which problem solving skills can be enhanced through VG playing and examine changes in relevant brain regions should be conducted.

The last cognitive function that is identified to be positively associated with VG is second language (L2) learning in that not only serious games but also commercial VGs provide players with the opportunity for language practice and acquisition [ 60 ]. Among various genres, MMORPGs, which are full with the opportunity of interaction between players, and between players and the VG environment in target language [ 61 ], are suggested as the efficient method for speaking practice [ 62 ] and are reported to facilitate the learning of L2 [ 63 ]. Players engaging in frequent interaction in VG environments were found to show strengthened functional connectivity (FC) within brain regions involved in language processing (i.e. left anterior insular/frontal operculum and visual word form area) [ 63 ]. Moreover, the attentional bias toward information relevant to the task was identified as the possible mechanism for facilitated L2 learning in MMORPGs in that the activation in DLPFC, parahippocampal gyrus and thalamus was higher in players of MMORPGs in the response to VG-related cues compared to neutral cues [ 63 ]. That is, playing MMORPGs are suggested to support L2 learning.

Although not only AVG but also other genres were found to be associated with cognitive enhancement, the transfer effect of VG experience was limited to specific underlying cognitive demands that was trained through VG playing [ 19 , 20 , 32 ]. Among various VG genres, AVGs, which activated multiple cognitive functions (e.g. attention, WM, hand–eye coordination) by providing players with physically and mentally demanding environments [ 46 ], showed the most varied effect of transfer [ 32 ]. However, unlike the suggestion that AVGs seem to improve the skill to infer regularities of presented information in the environment instead of the improvement of specific skill [ 64 ], AVG playing was found to require various information processing skill at lower level such as visual perception, attention skills and change detection [ 20 ]. AVG players, who efficiently tracked multiple moving objects compared to players of other VGs, were better at tracking multiple static objects [ 32 ]. FPS experience was also associated with the improvement in WM capacity but not with the improved inhibitory control [ 43 ]. That is, AVG experience was associated with the activation of specific brain regions [ 65 ]. LoL playing experience was associated with the activation in the frontal lobe compared to the activity with lower working loads (e.g. movie watching, SG experience) [ 66 ]. Moreover, AVGs did not show the transfer to different modality (i.e. auditory detection) and only players of AVGs that require faster attentional switch showed faster recovery from attentional blink [ 67 ]. Furthermore, the improvement of complex verbal WM was found in not memory matrix VG but AVG and match-3 VG that require strategic planning [ 32 ]. These findings suggested that VG playing did not show far transfer (i.e. general improvement in cognitive function to learn new skills) [ 20 ], supporting the common demand hypothesis that the VG-associated cognitive enhancement showed near transfer [ 20 ].

Taken together, six cognitive functions were identified to be positively associated with VG playing despite some discrepancies between findings (see Table  3 ). Different genres of VGs was associated with different aspects of cognitive function [ 5 ]. While AVG training was associated with attentional improvement, the training of match-3 VG resulted in better spatial WM [ 32 ]. Although the weaker association between FPS experience and cognitive enhancement in the sample including players with less FPS experience [ 68 ] questioned the positive association between VG playing and cognitive function, the reduction of VG playing significantly decreased not only self-reported gaming skills but also brain activities [ 69 ]. That is, as certain amount of VG experience is required to show cognitive enhancement (Anguera et al. 2015), VG experience was suggested to have the potential to enhance cognitive function and to show near transfer effect. However, most reviewed research articles were cross-sectional and did not examine the persistency of cognitive enhancement associated with VG playing. Although one study [ 11 ] examined the persistency of VG-associated cognitive enhancement by following up 9 months, VGs used in this study was not commercial VGs. That is, the extent to which not only AVGs but also other genres of VGs showed the transfer and the extent to which cognitive enhancement through commercial VG playing was persistent have been less examined. Thus, more studies, investigating not only the extent of transfer but also the persistency of cognitive advantage associated with VG playing, should be conducted in order to deepen the understanding of transfer effect of VG experience.

• Modulating factors

The positive association between VG playing and cognitive function has been demonstrated. However, there is individual difference in the extent to which players show cognitive enhancement [ 70 ]. It is because some factors influence the plasticity and individual responses to the VG training [ 20 ]. Thus, this section reviews five factors that are identified to modulate the association between VG playing and cognitive enhancement through the review of searched literatures.

The first modulating factor is VG expertise. VG expertise influences cognitive processes that players adopted during VG play. While novice players are more likely to use top-down process where attentional resources were allocated through the strategic control of gaming behavior, VG experts are more likely to use bottom-up processes where attention is automatically allocated to psychologically salient gaming cues as a result of rich experience [ 63 ]. Players with better VG expertise also prioritized skills to strategize during LoL playing compared to lower-ranking players who prioritized action skills [ 65 ]. That is, VG expertise influenced the activation of different cognitive processes during VG play. Moreover, as VG expertise was found to be closely associated with the difference in the baseline speed of visual attention [ 33 ], it seemed to influence attentional benefits associated with VG playing.

Secondly identified modulating factor for the individual difference is age in that different media were used for longer time in younger children [ 71 ]. After peaking at the age of 13 or 14 years, the time of VG playing decreased with age [ 23 ]. Age-related difference in VG playing time suggests that the effect of video gaming potentially has more influence on cognitive function enhancement in younger adults than older adults [ 72 ]. Age also influences the engagement in VG training. As the specific population considered in designing AVGs is young adults [ 5 ], older adults reported lower engagement in AVG training compared to the training of other genres of VGs [ 73 ]. Moreover, age is closely related to cognitive functions and the performance of the task in that the functional connectivity of brain develops with age [ 74 ]. While substantial neuro-plasticity was found in younger children [ 5 ], age-related decline in cognitive control was found [ 75 ]. It was also found that the task performance of younger children with relatively slow and less precise attention process became better when their performance was supported by the provision of temporal cues for attentional responses [ 33 ].

As age is associated with cognitive function, thirdly identified factor is baseline cognitive function (e.g. reasoning skill, attentional skill). Baseline cognitive function influences the choice of VG engagement in that cognitive ability was better in players, who chose regular AVG playing, than in individuals who barely played VGs [ 5 ]. It also influences the extent to which cognitive function would be enhanced through VG playing. Children with more attentional deficits were found to gain greater attentional enhancement through the computerized training and to show persistent effect in 9 months [ 11 ]. Players with lower baseline reasoning skills were also found to gain more cognitive benefits, such as better divided attention and faster perception of stimuli [ 19 ]. However, consistent with the influence of baseline GM in striatum on the degree of skill acquisition in learners [ 76 ], young adults with higher level of baseline modularity in brain showed higher cognitive benefits after VG training where WM and reasoning function was involved [ 77 ]. It is plausible that the modulating role of baseline cognitive function depends on the aspect of cognitive function trained in VGs. Although further studies should be conducted to examine this idea, baseline cognitive function are suggested to modulate the cognitive benefit of VG playing by influencing the choice of VG genre and the extent of cognitive enhancement.

Cognitive function that was identified as one modulating factor was associated with gender in that males were better at inhibiting distracters and sustaining attention [ 26 ]. That is, fourthly identified factor is gender that influences gaming habits that were reported to be associated with the extent of enhancement and types of cognitive functions improved [ 26 ]. Although both female and male AVG players gained similar attentional advantage despite the asymmetric gender distribution in the frequency of gaming [ 33 ], gender influences gaming time and styles. While Huang et al. [ 26 ] found males more frequently engaged in VGs than females, Dindar [ 58 ] reported that females played VGs more frequently than males. Despite the discrepancy in the frequency of gaming between males and females, it was confirmed that the duration for VG play was longer in males than females [ 23 , 59 , 78 ] and that males preferred to play AVGs [ 26 ]. The increased playing time in males was associated with the genre of VGs (e.g. whether it is played by multi-players) [ 79 ]. Moreover, males chose computer as the gaming platform compared to females [ 26 ]. Although the difference in cognitive enhancement between gaming platforms (i.e. mobile and console) was not significant [ 26 ], the choice of gaming platform was found to be associated with the motivation (e.g. social interaction) for VG engagement. While males prefer to play VGs focusing on competition (e.g. AVGs or SGs), females like to play TGs [ 23 ]. Taken together, gender, which is associated with the engagement habits in VGs, indirectly modulates the association between VG playing and cognitive function enhancement.

Based on the gender difference in the choice of gaming platform, the last factor that is identified to modulate the association between VG playing and cognitive functions is motivation. Individuals with higher level of motivation engaged in trainings more voluntarily, performed better in trainings and showed improved WM than those with lower level of motivation [ 80 ]. Players, who were more motivated to communicate in VGs through the experience of social rewards (e.g. positive expressions) in gaming environments, also showed attentional bias to communication-relevant stimuli that was associated with promoted L2 learning [ 63 ]. Moreover, the existence of motivational factor during the VG playing appears to influence the functional changes of the brain associated with the training [ 81 ]. Players, who experienced more fun and relatively less frustration during VG playing with better performance, were more motivated to engage in VGs and showed more functional changes in the relevant brain regions [ 81 ]. However, when monetary reward was given for game playing, motivation was not found to significantly influence the effectiveness of VG training [ 19 ]. Taken together, although monetary reward minimized the role of motivation in gaming engagement, motivational factors were suggested to be considered in investigating the association of VG playing with behavioral and neural changes [ 63 ].

As five factors, identified to influence the individual difference in the association between VG playing and cognitive improvement, interact each other in the modulation of the association, it is difficult to conclude which factor exerts more influence on the individual difference in the association between playing of VGs and cognitive enhancement. Moreover, there are other factors that are not introduced in this section. For example, the personalities of players seem to influence the motivation for VG playing [ 9 ] and the expression of motivation during the VG play [ 82 ]. Personality traits can also influence learning effects in that introverted players can get more benefits of language learning from playing VGs where they simulate the practice more freely compared to the traditional learning [ 61 ]. Moreover, players showed the difference in the results of learning depending on their learning styles [ 24 ]. As the individual difference in VG gains seemed to be explained by not only the duration of VG paying but also the variation in learning trajectories [ 83 ], other factors excluded in this review should be considered and further studies, including all these factors, should be conducted in order to understand what modulates the association between VG playing and cognitive enhancement.

Conclusions

Unlike the emphasized negativity of VG playing, VGs are suggested to enhance cognitive functions. As VG playing has become one aspect of life in young people [ 84 ], it is important to understand the association between video gaming and cognitive function in a more balanced view toward VG playing. Thus, this paper discusses genres of commercial VGs, cognitive functions that are identified to be positively associated with VG playing and modulating factors. It is found that different genres of VGs are associated with different aspects of cognitive functions, that AVGs are identified as the VG genre resulting in most varied transfer, and that factors (e.g. age, gender) influence the association of VG playing with cognitive function. Moreover, despite the concern about the usage of VGs or computerized programs as the primary intervention for the improvement in brain function [ 19 ], VGs, demonstrating the association with structural changes in brain regions, have the potential to be used as an intervention program for patients showing decreased volume in brain regions such as hippocampus [ 36 , 52 ].

Although this review contributes to the understanding of commercial video gaming and its potential effect, the findings of the review should be interpreted by considering three identified research gaps. One identified research gap is the limited generalizability resulting from the absence of standardized definition for VG players. More studies have been conducted by focusing on AVGs compared to other genres of VGs and the criteria for the status of VG players were different between studies. While non-VG players were mostly defined as individual with less or no VG experience, non-AVG players were classified as non-VG players in some studies (e.g. [ 33 ], [ 34 ]). The different classification criteria seems to underestimate the potentially influence of other genres of VGs on cognitive functions and makes it difficult the comparison between studies difficult. The other identified gap is habits of VG playing were usually based on self-reports. As self-report measure is based on autobiographical memory, it could result in inaccurate report of their frequent behaviors [ 23 ]. In order to understand the link between VG playing and cognitive function, further studies, including more reliable measure for VG playing habits, should be conducted. Another identified gap is the scope of cognitive function that has been investigated in relation to VG playing. While more studies focused on attention, studies for higher cognitive functions have been less conducted. Although the enhancement in inhibition was not associated with frequent VG playing [ 26 ], cognitive control was positively associated with AVG experience [ 36 ]. The transfer into complex verbal WM in AVG and match-3 game training groups also suggested the potential of VG training in the enhancement of higher order executive processes [ 32 ]. As the change in some cognitive functions is slow [ 19 ], it is plausible that higher cognitive function requires more playing time for the change. In order to resolve the discrepancy between findings and to deepen the understanding of the association between VG and higher cognitive function, mores studies, investigating more various aspects of cognitive function, should be conducted. Therefore, more studies, considering these research gaps, should be conducted in future in order to deepen the understanding of the influence of VG playing on cognitive function.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Video game(s)

Traumatic brain injuries

Sensory processing dysfunction

Attention deficit/hyperactivity dysfunction

Typically developing children

Traditional games

Simulation games

Strategy video games

Action video games

Fantasy games

Role-playing games

Massive multi-player online RPGs

Real-time strategy

Turn-based strategy

First-person shooters

Third-person games

League of Legends

Working memory

Prefrontal cortex

Dorsolateral PFC

Gray matter

Second language

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It was supported by a grant from Game Science Forum in South Korea.

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EC, SS, SK and MP collected the data for the review. All authors contributed to literature reviews. EC and MP designed the structure of this review paper and contributed to writing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Choi, E., Shin, SH., Ryu, JK. et al. Commercial video games and cognitive functions: video game genres and modulating factors of cognitive enhancement. Behav Brain Funct 16 , 2 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-020-0165-z

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Received : 30 August 2019

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Published : 03 February 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-020-0165-z

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