redi's experiment observation

Redi experiment (1665)

3.1 Spontaneous Generation

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Explain the theory of spontaneous generation and why people once accepted it as an explanation for the existence of certain types of organisms
Explain how certain individuals (van Helmont, Redi, Needham, Spallanzani, and Pasteur) tried to prove or disprove spontaneous generation

Clinical Focus

Barbara is a 19-year-old college student living in the dormitory. In January, she came down with a sore throat, headache, mild fever, chills, and a violent but unproductive (i.e., no mucus) cough. To treat these symptoms, Barbara began taking an over-the-counter cold medication, which did not seem to work. In fact, over the next few days, while some of Barbara’s symptoms began to resolve, her cough and fever persisted, and she felt very tired and weak.

What types of respiratory disease may be responsible?

Jump to the next Clinical Focus box

Humans have been asking for millennia: Where does new life come from? Religion, philosophy, and science have all wrestled with this question. One of the oldest explanations was the theory of spontaneous generation, which can be traced back to the ancient Greeks and was widely accepted through the Middle Ages.

The Theory of Spontaneous Generation

The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC) was one of the earliest recorded scholars to articulate the theory of spontaneous generation , the notion that life can arise from nonliving matter. Aristotle proposed that life arose from nonliving material if the material contained pneuma (“spirit” or “breath”). As evidence, he noted several instances of the appearance of animals from environments previously devoid of such animals, such as the seemingly sudden appearance of fish in a new puddle of water. 1

This theory persisted into the 17th century, when scientists undertook additional experimentation to support or disprove it. By this time, the proponents of the theory cited how frogs simply seem to appear along the muddy banks of the Nile River in Egypt during the annual flooding. Others observed that mice simply appeared among grain stored in barns with thatched roofs. When the roof leaked and the grain molded, mice appeared. Jan Baptista van Helmont , a 17th century Flemish scientist, proposed that mice could arise from rags and wheat kernels left in an open container for 3 weeks. In reality, such habitats provided ideal food sources and shelter for mouse populations to flourish.

However, one of van Helmont’s contemporaries, Italian physician Francesco Redi (1626–1697), performed an experiment in 1668 that was one of the first to refute the idea that maggots (the larvae of flies) spontaneously generate on meat left out in the open air. He predicted that preventing flies from having direct contact with the meat would also prevent the appearance of maggots. Redi left meat in each of six containers ( Figure 3.2 ). Two were open to the air, two were covered with gauze, and two were tightly sealed. His hypothesis was supported when maggots developed in the uncovered jars, but no maggots appeared in either the gauze-covered or the tightly sealed jars. He concluded that maggots could only form when flies were allowed to lay eggs in the meat, and that the maggots were the offspring of flies, not the product of spontaneous generation.

In 1745, John Needham (1713–1781) published a report of his own experiments, in which he briefly boiled broth infused with plant or animal matter, hoping to kill all preexisting microbes. 2 He then sealed the flasks. After a few days, Needham observed that the broth had become cloudy and a single drop contained numerous microscopic creatures. He argued that the new microbes must have arisen spontaneously. In reality, however, he likely did not boil the broth enough to kill all preexisting microbes.

Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–1799) did not agree with Needham’s conclusions, however, and performed hundreds of carefully executed experiments using heated broth. 3 As in Needham’s experiment, broth in sealed jars and unsealed jars was infused with plant and animal matter. Spallanzani’s results contradicted the findings of Needham: Heated but sealed flasks remained clear, without any signs of spontaneous growth, unless the flasks were subsequently opened to the air. This suggested that microbes were introduced into these flasks from the air. In response to Spallanzani’s findings, Needham argued that life originates from a “life force” that was destroyed during Spallanzani’s extended boiling. Any subsequent sealing of the flasks then prevented new life force from entering and causing spontaneous generation ( Figure 3.3 ).

Check Your Understanding

Describe the theory of spontaneous generation and some of the arguments used to support it.
Explain how the experiments of Redi and Spallanzani challenged the theory of spontaneous generation.

Disproving Spontaneous Generation

The debate over spontaneous generation continued well into the 19th century, with scientists serving as proponents of both sides. To settle the debate, the Paris Academy of Sciences offered a prize for resolution of the problem. Louis Pasteur , a prominent French chemist who had been studying microbial fermentation and the causes of wine spoilage, accepted the challenge. In 1858, Pasteur filtered air through a gun-cotton filter and, upon microscopic examination of the cotton, found it full of microorganisms, suggesting that the exposure of a broth to air was not introducing a “life force” to the broth but rather airborne microorganisms.

Later, Pasteur made a series of flasks with long, twisted necks (“swan-neck” flasks), in which he boiled broth to sterilize it ( Figure 3.4 ). His design allowed air inside the flasks to be exchanged with air from the outside, but prevented the introduction of any airborne microorganisms, which would get caught in the twists and bends of the flasks’ necks. If a life force besides the airborne microorganisms were responsible for microbial growth within the sterilized flasks, it would have access to the broth, whereas the microorganisms would not. He correctly predicted that sterilized broth in his swan-neck flasks would remain sterile as long as the swan necks remained intact. However, should the necks be broken, microorganisms would be introduced, contaminating the flasks and allowing microbial growth within the broth.

Pasteur’s set of experiments irrefutably disproved the theory of spontaneous generation and earned him the prestigious Alhumbert Prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1862. In a subsequent lecture in 1864, Pasteur articulated “ Omne vivum ex vivo ” (“Life only comes from life”). In this lecture, Pasteur recounted his famous swan-neck flask experiment, stating that “…life is a germ and a germ is life. Never will the doctrine of spontaneous generation recover from the mortal blow of this simple experiment.” 4 To Pasteur’s credit, it never has.

How did Pasteur’s experimental design allow air, but not microbes, to enter, and why was this important?
What was the control group in Pasteur’s experiment and what did it show?
1 K. Zwier. “Aristotle on Spontaneous Generation.” http://www.sju.edu/int/academics/cas/resources/gppc/pdf/Karen%20R.%20Zwier.pdf
2 E. Capanna. “Lazzaro Spallanzani: At the Roots of Modern Biology.” Journal of Experimental Zoology 285 no. 3 (1999):178–196.
3 R. Mancini, M. Nigro, G. Ippolito. “Lazzaro Spallanzani and His Refutation of the Theory of Spontaneous Generation.” Le Infezioni in Medicina 15 no. 3 (2007):199–206.
4 R. Vallery-Radot. The Life of Pasteur , trans. R.L. Devonshire. New York: McClure, Phillips and Co, 1902, 1:142.

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Lessons and Courses on Microbiology

FRANCESCO REDI (1626-1697)

Francesco Redi, an Italian scientist was the first scientist to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that living organisms did not actually originate from non-living things. He developed a scientific experiment to test the spontaneous creation of maggots from fresh meats using two jars (one of the jars was left open while the other was closed).

Redi was famously known for his work on spontaneous generation or abiogenesis . He challenged the concept of abiogenesis by showing that maggots on decaying meat came from fly eggs deposited on the meat and not from the meat itself. Redi explained that flies land on exposed meat and lay their eggs which eventually hatch to produce maggots.

Redi performed series of experiments in the early 1670’s in which he covered jars of meat with fine lace that prevented the entry of flies into the jars. Because the meat was covered, no maggots were produced, and this led Francesco Redi to drop the notion of spontaneous generation.

Francesco Redisuccessfully challenged and refuted the theory of spontaneous generation through his work on maggot and flies, in which he showed that maggots on meat came from egg flies. Though his work was known, the ideaof spontaneous generation was not dropped as other scientist like John Needham continued from where he stopped to unravel the mystery behind it.

Barrett J.T (1998). Microbiology and Immunology Concepts. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven Publishers. USA.

Beck R.W (2000). A chronology of microbiology in historical context. Washington, D.C.: ASM Press.

Brooks G.F., Butel J.S and Morse S.A (2004). Medical Microbiology, 23 rd edition. McGraw Hill Publishers. USA. Pp. 248-260.

Chung K.T, Stevens Jr., S.E and Ferris D.H (1995). A chronology of events and pioneers of microbiology. SIM News , 45(1):3–13.

Slonczewski J.L, Foster J.W and Gillen K.M (2011). Microbiology: An Evolving Science. Second edition. W.W. Norton and Company, Inc, New York, USA.

Summers W.C (2000). History of microbiology. In Encyclopedia of microbiology, vol. 2, J. Lederberg, editor, 677–97. San Diego: Academic Press.

Talaro, Kathleen P (2005). Foundations in Microbiology. 5 th edition. McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., New York, USA.

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Ph.D., Biomedical Sciences, University of Tennessee at Knoxville
B.A., Physics and Mathematics, Hastings College

Francesco Redi was an Italian naturalist, physician, and poet. Besides Galileo, he was one of the most important scientists who challenged Aristotle 's traditional study of science. Redi gained fame for his controlled experiments. One set of experiments refuted the popular notion of spontaneous generation—a belief that living organisms could arise from nonliving matter. Redi has been called the "father of modern parasitology" and the "founder of experimental biology".

Birth : February 18, 1626, in Arezzo, Italy

Death : March 1, 1697, in Pisa Italy, buried in Arezzo

Nationality : Italian (Tuscan)

Education : University of Pisa in Italy

Published Work s: Francesco Redi on Vipers ( Osservazioni intorno alle vipere) , Experiments on the Generation of Insects ( Esperienze Intorno alla Generazione degli Insetti) , Bacchus in Tuscany ( Bacco in Toscana )

Major Scientific Contributions

Redi studied venomous snakes to dispel popular myths about them. He demonstrated that it is not true that vipers drink wine, that swallowing snake venom is toxic, or that venom is made in a snake's gallbladder. He found that venom was not poisonous unless it entered the bloodstream and that the progression of venom in the patient could be slowed if a ligature was applied. His work paved the foundation for the science of toxicology .

Flies and Spontaneous Generation

One of Redi's most famous experiments investigated spontaneous generation . At the time, scientists believed in the Aristotelian idea of abiogenesis , in which living organisms arose from non-living matter. People believed rotting meat spontaneously produced maggots over time. However, Redi read a book by William Harvey on generation in which Harvey speculated that insects, worms, and frogs might arise from eggs or seeds too tiny to be seen. Redi devised and performed the now-famous experiment in which six jars, half left in open air and half covered with fine gauze that permitted air circulation but kept out flies, were filled with either an unknown object, a dead fish, or raw veal. The fish and veal rotted in both groups, but maggots only formed in the jars open to air. No maggots developed in the jar with the unknown object.

He performed other experiments with maggots, including one where he placed dead flies or maggots in sealed jars with meat and observed living maggots did not appear. However, when he placed living flies were placed in a jar with meat, maggots did appear. Redi concluded maggots came from living flies, not from rotting meat or from dead flies or maggots.

The experiments with maggots and flies were important not only because they refuted spontaneous generation, but also because they used control groups , applying the scientific method to test a hypothesis.

Parasitology

Redi described and drew illustrations of over one hundred parasites, including ticks, nasal flies, and the sheep liver fluke. He drew a distinction between the earthworm and the roundworm , which were both considered to be helminths prior to his study. Francesco Redi performed chemotherapy experiments in parasitology, which were noteworthy because he used an experimental control. In 1837, Italian zoologist Filippo de Filippi named the larval stage of the parasitic fluke "redia" in honor of Redi.

Redi's poem "Bacchus in Tuscany" was published after his death. It is considered among the best literary works of the 17th century. Redi taught the Tuscan language, supported the writing of a Tuscan dictionary, was a member of literary societies, and published other works.

Redi was a contemporary of Galileo, who faced opposition from the Church. Although Redi's experiments ran contrary to the beliefs of the time, he did not have the same sort of problems. This may well have been because of the different personalities of the two scientists. While both were outspoken, Redi did not contradict the Church. For example, in reference to his work on spontaneous generation, Redi concluded omne vivum ex vivo ("All life comes from life").

It's interesting to note that despite his experiments, Redi believed spontaneous generation could occur, for instance, with intestinal worms and gall flies.

Altieri Biagi; Maria Luisa (1968). Lingua e cultura di Francesco Redi, medico . Florence: L. S. Olschki.

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1-6 spontaneous generation was an attractive theory to many people, but was ultimately disproven..

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Learning Objectives

After reading this section, students will be able to...

Explain why people believed in the concept of spontaneous generation, the creation of life from organic matter.
Describe the experiment by Francesco Redi disproved spontaneous generation that disproved spontaneous generation for macroorganisms.
Explain how did John Needham's experiment re-ignited the debate about spontaneous generation for microorganisms.
Describe the swan-neck flask experiment of Louis Pasteur and why this ended the debate about spontaneous generation.

Spontaneous generation hypothesizes that some vital force contained in or given to organic matter can create living organisms from inanimate objects. Spontaneous generation was a widely held belief throughout the middle ages and into the latter half of the 19 th century. Some people still believe in it today. The idea was attractive because it meshed nicely with the prevailing religious views of how God created the universe. There was a strong bias to legitimize the idea because this vital force was considered a strong proof of God's presence in the world. Proponents offered many recipes and experiments in proof. To create mice, mix dirty underwear and wheat grain in a bucket and leave it open outside. In 21 days or less, you would have mice. The real cause may seem obvious from a modern perspective, but to the supporters of this idea, the mice spontaneously arose from the wheat kernels.

Another often-used example was the generation of maggots from meat left in the open. Francesco Redi revealed the failing here in 1668 with a classic experiment. Redi suspected that flies landing on the meat laid eggs that eventually grew into maggots . To test this idea, he devised the experiment shown in Figure 1.11. Here he used three pieces of meat. Redi placed one piece of meat under a piece of paper. The flies could not lay eggs onto the meat, and no maggots developed. The second piece was left in the open air, resulting in maggots. In the final test, Redi overlayed the third piece of meat with cheesecloth. The flies could lay the eggs into the cheesecloth, and when he removed this, no maggots developed. However, if Redi placed the cheesecloth containing the eggs on a fresh piece of meat, maggots developed, showing it was the eggs that "caused" maggots and not spontaneous generation. Redi ended the debate about spontaneous generation for large organisms. However, spontaneous generation was so seductive a concept that even Redi believed it was possible in other circumstances.

Figure 1.11. The Redi experiment. . Using several pieces of meat, paper and cheesecloth, Francesco Redi produced compelling evidence against the theory of spontaneous generation. One of the strong points of this experiment was its simplicity, which allowed others to easily reproduce it for themselves. See the text for details of the experiment.

The concept and the debate were revived in 1745 by the experiments of John Needham. It was known at the time that heat was lethal to living organisms. Needham theorized that if he took chicken broth and heated it, all living things in it would die. After heating some broth, he let a flask cool and sit at a constant temperature. The development of a thick turbid solution of microorganisms in the flask was strong proof to Needham of the existence of spontaneous generation. Lazzaro Spallanzani later repeated the experiments of Needham, but removed air from the flask, suspecting that the air was providing a source of contamination. No growth occurred in Spallanzani's flasks, and he took this as evidence that Needham was wrong. Proponents of spontaneous generation discounted the experiment by asserting that the vital force needed air to work properly.

It was not until almost 100 years later that the great French chemist Louis Pasteur, pictured in Figure 1.12, put the debate to rest. He first showed that the air is full of microorganisms by passing air through gun cotton filters. The filter trapped tiny particles floating in the air. By dissolving the cotton with an ether/alcohol mixture, the particles were released and then settled to the bottom of the liquid. Inspection of this material revealed numerous microbes that resembled the types of bacteria often found in putrefying media. Pasteur realized that if these bacteria were present in the air, they would likely land on and contaminate any exposed material.

Figure 1.12. Louis Pasteur . The French microbiologist Louis Pasteur. Drawing by Tammi Henke

Pasteur then entered a contest sponsored by The French Academy of Sciences to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation. Similar to Spallanzani's experiments, Pasteur's experiment, pictured in Figure 1.13, used heat to kill the microbes but left the end of the flask open to the air. In a simple but brilliant modification, he heated the neck of the flask to melting and drew it out into a long S-shaped curve, preventing the dust particles and their load of microbes from ever reaching the flask. After prolonged incubation, the flasks remained free of life and ended the debate for most scientists.

Figure 1.13. The swan neck flask experiment . Pasteur filled a flask with medium, heated it to kill all life, and then drew out the neck of the flask into a long S shape. This prevented microorganisms in the air from easily entering the flask, yet allowed some air interchange. If the swan neck was broken, microbes readily entered the flask and grew

A final footnote on the topic was added when John Tyndall show ed the existence of heat-resistant spores in many materials. Boiling does not kill these spores, and their presence in chicken broth, as well as many other materials, explains the results of Needham's experiments.

While this debate may seem silly from a modern perspective, remember that the scientists of the time had little knowledge of microorganisms. Koch would not isolate microbes until 1881. The proponents of spontaneous generation were neither sloppy experimenters nor stupid. They did careful experiments and interpreted them with their own biases. Detractors of the theory of spontaneous generation were just as guilty of bias but in the opposite direction. It is somewhat surprising that Pasteur and Spallanzoni did not get growth in their cultures since the sterilization conditions they used would often not kill endospores . Luck certainly played a role. It is important to keep in mind that the discipline of science is performed by humans with all the fallibility and bias inherent in the species. Only the self-correcting nature of the practice reduces the impact of these biases on generally held theories. Spontaneous generation was a severe test of scientific experimentation because it was such a seductive and widely held belief. Yet, even spontaneous generation was overthrown when the weight of careful experimentation argued against it. Table 1.3 lists important events in the spontaneous generation debate.

Table 1.3 Events in spontaneous generation

Year	Event
1668	Francesco Redi attacks spontaneous generation and disproves it for large organisms
1745	John Needham adds chick broth to a flask and boils it, lets it cool and waits. Microbes grow and he proposes it as an example of spontaneous generation.
1768	Lazzaro Spallanzani repeats Needham's experiment, but removes all the air from the flask. No growth occurs.
1859	Louis Pasteur's swan-neck flasks show that spontaneous generation does not occur.
1870	Thomas H. Huxley gives his "Biogenesis and Abiogenesis" lecture. The speech offered powerful support for Pasteur's claim to have experimentally disproved spontaneous generation.
1877	John Tyndall publishes his method for fractional sterilization, showing the existence of heat-resistant bacterial spores.

Key Takeaways

For many centuries many people believed in the concept of spontaneous generation, the creation of life from organic matter.
Francesco Redi disproved spontaneous generation for large organisms by showing that maggots arose from meat only when flies laid eggs in the meat.
Spontaneous generation for small organisms again gained favor when John Needham showed that if a broth was boiled (presumed to kill all life) and then allowed to sit in the open air, it became cloudy.
Louis Pasteur ended the debate with his famous swan-neck flask experiment, which allowed air to contact the broth. Microbes present in the dust were not able to navigate the tortuous bends in the neck of the flask.

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Microbiology

Francesco Redi’s experiment

March 4, 2023 March 4, 2023
History of Microbiology , Microbiology

Francesco Redi was an Italian scientist who conducted a famous experiment in the 1660s. Francesco Redi’s experiment was important in helping to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation, which the belief that life could arise from non-living matter. that helped to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation and provide evidence for the theory of biogenesis.

Redi’s experiment was significant because it challenged the prevailing belief in spontaneous generation and provided evidence in support of the theory of biogenesis, which suggests that living organisms only arise from other living organisms. This experiment helped to pave the way for future experiments in microbiology and ultimately led to the development of the germ theory of disease.

The aim of Redi’s experiment was to test the hypothesis that “ maggots could spontaneously arise from decaying meat. “

Three wide-mouthed glass jars with lids : Redi used three glass jars to hold the meat, one of which was left open to the air, one covered with gauze, and one sealed completely.
Raw meat : Redi used a piece of raw meat, such as a chunk of beef, to test the theory of spontaneous generation.
Fine gauze or mesh : Redi covered one of the jars with a fine mesh to allow air to enter but prevent flies from laying their eggs on the meat.

Redi designed an experiment in which he used three jars. In the first jar, he placed a piece of meat without any covering. Then in the second jar, he placed a piece of meat covered with gauze, which would allow air to pass through but prevent flies from reaching the meat. In the third jar, he sealed the meat with a lid, preventing both air and flies from reaching the meat.

Redi observed the jars for several days, documenting any changes or developments that occurred in each jar. He recorded the presence of flies, maggots, and any other organisms that appeared in the jars.

The jar with uncovered meat developed maggots.
The jar with gauze-covered meat did not produce any maggots, Instead, fly eggs were found on the gauze.
The sealed jar, which prevented flies from accessing the meat, did not produce any maggots or other organisms.

Significance of Francesco Redi’s experiment

Francesco Redi’s experiment disproved spontaneous generation.
It laid the foundation for the germ theory of disease, encouraging scientific inquiry and the development of the scientific method.
It was a significant milestone in the history of science, leading to further advancements in biology and medicine.

Francesco redi experiment conclusion

Redi’s experiment showed maggots on decaying meat came from flies, not from the meat itself.
The experiment supported the theory of biogenesis: life comes from other life.
The experiment disproved spontaneous generation: life doesn’t come from non-living matter.

Francesco Redi: History and Significance

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Francesco Redi was an Italian scientist most famous for his experimental work that refuted the spontaneous generation theory. His experiment with meat in glass containers was one of the earliest controlled experiments.

Francesco Redi: History and Significance

Who is Francesco Redi?

Francesco Redi was a scientist born in Arezzo, Italy on February 18, 1626. He completed degrees in medicine and philosophy at the University of Pisa. After graduating, Redi moved to Florence to become the physician to the Grand Duke of Tuscany.

Redi was inspired by the work of William Harvey, who correctly described blood circulation around the body. It led him to develop his own experimental work. His most famous work was a paper entitled, Esperienze Intorno alla Generazione degl'Insetti (Experiments on the Generation of Insects) which he published in 1668. This work provided evidence against the spontaneous generation theory.

The spontaneous generation theory, which claims living things can form from non-living objects, had been put forward by Aristotle and had been widely accepted for centuries. People believed that maggots would just emerge from rotting meat. In the experiment Redi prepared three groups of jars, each with a pieces of meat inside them. One group of jars was covered with gauze, one group was left open, and one group was completely sealed.

In the group of jars that were left open, Redi found maggots on the meat. Redi noticed that in the jars that were completely sealed, there were no maggots. In the group of jars that were covered in gauze, he noticed that there were no maggots on the meat, but maggots did appear on top of the gauze. This experiment provided evidence which refuted the spontaneous generation theory. He showed that maggots came from eggs laid by flies. This experiment was important as it was one of the first controlled experiments in history. Modern day scientific experiments require controls to eliminate the impact of other variables on the results of the experiment.

Redi died on March 1, 1697 in Pisa.

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Francesco redi’s accomplishments.

Use of controlled experiments
Disproving the spontaneous generation theory
Discovery that snake venom is not produced in the gallbladder

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Francesco redi and spontaneous generation.

The theory of Spontaneous Generation proposed that life or living organisms could be “spontaneously generated” from non living matter. Similar to Louis Pasteur’s spontaneous generation experiment , the 17th century Italian scientist Franceso Redi conducted an experiment to refute the theory of Spontaneous Generation nearly 200 years earlier.

Controlled Experiment by Redi

Francesco Redi showed that maggots do not spontaneously arise from decaying meat. To prove this he designed a simple controlled experiment, now referred to as the “Redi Experiment.” The idea of a controlled experiment is that two tests are identical in every aspect, except for one factor. When carried out simultaneously, the hypothesis is that this differing factor (called the “manipulated variable”) is the cause of the different results in each experiment.

Redi’s Experiment Explained

2. After a short period of time Redi observed maggots (fly larvae) on the decaying meat of the open jar. There were no maggots on the meat in the covered jar.

3. Redi concluded that the flies laid eggs on the meat in the open jar which caused the maggots. Because the flies could not lay eggs on the meat in the covered jar, no maggots were produced. Redi therefore proved that decaying meat did not produce maggots.

Try it at Home

With a few simple items, you can try the same spontaneous generation experiment at home.

You’ll need:

Jars with Lids

Cheesecloth

Rubber Bands

Slice up an apple and put a few pieces in each of 3 jars.
Put a lid tightly on one jar.
Put some cheesecloth on top of another jar, securing it with a couple of rubber bands.
Leave the third jar uncovered.
Set the jars out in an open area for a couple of days.

You may notice no flies or maggots on the jar with the lid, some flies or maggots on top of the cheesecloth (not inside the jar), and even some maggots or flies inside the open jar.

What does this experiment prove? Did your results match Francesco Redi’s spontaneous generation experiment?

Spontaneous Generation: Redi’s Experiment with Learning Objectives

The Laws of Life: Louis Pasteur

Chocolate Wrapper - Pasteur Disproves Spontaneous Generation

The Spontaneous Generation Dispute

A 16th century depiction of spontaneous generation of honey bees from a dead ox.

Bastian and Pasteur on Spontaneous Generation

Originally published in The American Naturalist, Vol. 10, No. 12, Dec. 1876, pp. 730-734 by …

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The Scientific Method

Redi's Experiment

Francesco Redi's experiment

Step 1: his question, step 2: his hypothesis, step 3: his controlled experiment, step 4: the analyzing and recording of his results, step 5: his conclusion.

Interaction between River Water and Groundwater in the Lower Reaches of the Tom River, Tomsk Oblast, Russian Federation

Published: 31 January 2023
Volume 49 , pages S113–S122, ( 2022 )

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O. N. Vladimirova 1 &
O. G. Savichev 1

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Relationships between the amount and chemistry of atmospheric water, river water, and groundwater are analyzed in the catchments of six small tributaries of the Tom River near Tomsk City (Russian Federation, West Siberia, Ob R. basin) using data of long-term hydrogeological and hydrological observations (from the 1970s to 2019). A decrease in the rate of water exchange was shown to cause an increase in the interaction time in the water–rock system and, accordingly, in the total concentration of dissolved salts in groundwater. For the first time for the lower reaches of the Tom R., it was shown that the intensity of interaction between river water, subsoil water, and artesian water can be evaluated with the use of the coefficient of variation Cv ( Y m ) of the monthly runoff depth values of small rivers—the greater the value of Cv ( Y m ), the greater the closeness of deep aquifers and groundwater TDS. The processes of rock leaching and dissolution were found to dominate in areas with considerable replenishment of water reserves in the warm season of the year (on the right side of the Tom R. catchment), while the input of substances from outside, e.g., with precipitation, dominates in the area were groundwater resources are mostly replenished during snow melting.

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This study was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, project no. 18-55-80015, the RSCF, no. 23-27-00039 and under the Program of increasing the competitive advantage of the Tomsk Polytechnic University.

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Translated by G. Krichevets

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Vladimirova, O.N., Savichev, O.G. Interaction between River Water and Groundwater in the Lower Reaches of the Tom River, Tomsk Oblast, Russian Federation. Water Resour 49 (Suppl 2), S113–S122 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1134/S0097807822080139

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Received : 21 September 2020

Revised : 19 January 2021

Accepted : 28 May 2021

Published : 31 January 2023

Issue Date : December 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1134/S0097807822080139

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water balance
geochemical balance
river water and groundwater
Altai-Sayan hydrogeological folded area
West Siberian artesian basin
Tom River tributaries
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