special education history lessons

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2 The History of Special Education

Aligned Standards

CEC Initial Preparation

6.1 6.2 6.5

DEC Preparation

It is important to have a historical knowledge of public education in the United States to understand the evolution of special education, especially since the federal law for special education was passed in 1975, while education existed in the United States since the late 1700s. There are philosophical and social foundational underpinnings that contribute to the creation of a special education law. The resources below provide opportunities to consider and discuss these underpinnings.

The 9 minute video, Celebrating 45 Years of IDEA,  provides a brief historical overview of special education .

A series of 6 vimeos titled, School: The Story of American Public Education, by Brian Schoonover discuss the development of American Education from 1770-1950. This series provides an understanding of the historical, philosophical, and sociological foundations underlying the role, development, and organization of public education in the United States. As the videos are viewed, be alert for any discussion of students with disabilities. These vimeos are each 10 minutes in length and were produced by Films for the Humanities and Science. Use The Story of American Public Education Discussion Questions [PDF] to facilitate discussion as the vimeos are watched.

School: The Story of American Public Education (Part 1 of 6)

School: The Story of American Public Education (Part 2 of 6)

School: The Story of American Public Education (Part 3 of 6)

School: The Story of American Public Education (Part 4 of 6)

School: The Story of American Public Education (Part 5 of 6)

School: The Story of American Public Education (Part 6 of 6)

Prior to the passage of Public Law 94-142 The Education of All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) [1] [PDF] in 1975, many individuals with disabilities were barred from public schools, and were cared for through state institutions but were not educated. In the 1950s, attention was given to individuals with disabilities, primarily due to strong advocacy of family-based associations.  Changes began to occur through  governmental legislation and litigation. A few seminal court cases that ultimately contributed to the federal special education law (EHA) included:

• Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954 that ruled separate schools were not equal
• Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens (PARC) vs. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania In 1971, PARC (currently referred to as the ARC of Pennsylvania), initiated a lawsuit with the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. PARC, a non-profit organization, represented 13 families of individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID). At the time, Pennsylvania had the authority to deny a free education to individuals with intellectual disabilities. The case was settled in 1972 by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. As a result, Pennsylvania consented to provide a free public education for individuals with mental retardation (now referred to as intellectual disabilities). This was the first major legislation to provide equality to individuals with disabilities.
• Mills vs. Board of Education of the District of Columbia This was a civil action suit in 1972 on behalf of seven school-aged individuals who were excluded from DC Public Schools and labeled as behavior problems, mentally retarded, or emotionally disturbed. The ruling was that individuals with disabilities could not be denied a free public education due to lack of funding.

There was also federal legislation beginning in 1959 that led a focus on supporting and educating individuals with disabilities and ensuring there was trained personnel to do so. A History of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act created by the U.S. Department of Education provides a brief summary of legislation and litigation that supports individuals with disabilities. Additional legislation and litigation are identified in the subsequent chapters related to specific special education law principles.

Forty-five years of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act was celebrated in 2020 and several resources were created that included:

• Fast Facts of IDEA
• Stories from advocates, professionals, and families

In the United States, laws can be reauthorized that includes a process of updating the law. The EHA  was reauthorized or amended multiple times. The list below identifies a few key updates to the law:

• In 1986, Public Law 99-457 [PDF]  reauthorized EHA to expand the age range of individuals with disabilities who could receive special education services if found eligible. The age range now included birth to three year old children with services to the family. This is when Early Intervention and the use of IFSP was mandated.
• In 1990, Public Law 102-119 reauthorized  EHA and added two categories of disabilities: traumatic brain injury and autism; and required development of a transition plan to support individuals with disabilities transition from school upon graduation or aging-out of special education services at age 21. Since this was also the year the Americans with Disabilities Act was passed, the title of the law was changed to use person-first language and is now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
• improved outcomes for individuals with disabilities,
• access to the general curriculum as appropriate and determined by the IEP team,
• use of the “developmental delay” label for children through age 9 years,
• specific language around discipline and not denying special education services,
• transition planning for families of toddlers with disabilities who are about to enter preschool, and
• mediation as a process to resolves disputes between families and schools rather than automatically engaging in a due process hearing.
• In 2004, Public Law 108-445 [PDF] reauthorized the  EHA and focused on greater accountability and improved outcomes to better align with the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), and raised standards for those teaching individuals with disabilities.

It is important to note two civil rights legislation that also support individuals with disabilities.  The Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 504 and the  Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) both protect the rights of individuals with disabilities. Section 504 prevented discrimination against individuals with disabilities in any programs that received federal funds, and ADA extended that protection from discrimination including state and local government programs, services, and public schools regardless if they received federal funds.

Use this History of Special Education Activity Worksheet with answers [DOC] as a group activity, homework, or discussion/review tool.

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• currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) ↵

Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975

Individualized Family Service Plan

Introduction to Special Education Resource Repository Copyright © 2023 by Serra De Arment; Ann S. Maydosz; Kat Alves; Kim Sopko; Christan Grygas Coogle; Cassandra Willis; Roberta A. Gentry; and C.J. Butler is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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The history of special education: lessons from the past, implications for the future.

Lucinda S. Spaulding , Liberty University Follow Deanna L. Keith Dr. , Liberty University Follow

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Presented at the Annual National Conference of the Teacher Education Division (TED) of the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) in St. Louis, MO.

We identify three eras in the history of special education: Early Reform (1800 – 1870), Stagnation and Regression (1870-1950), and Contemporary Reform (1950 – present). Next we examine parallels between eras and consider implications for people with disabilities today, highlighting the importance of the systematic study of historical perspectives in preparation programs for special educators.

Recommended Citation

Spaulding, Lucinda S. and Keith, Deanna L. Dr., "The History of Special Education: Lessons from the Past, Implications for the Future" (2010). Faculty Publications and Presentations . 158. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/educ_fac_pubs/158

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Inclusive Education: Lessons From History

Exclusion by Race: Separate but Unequal

Exclusion by gender: the fight for coeducation, next steps for inclusive educators, valuing the difference, meeting students where they are, the inclusive school.

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The stigmatization of disability resulted in the social and economic marginalization of generations of Americans with disabilities, and like many other oppressed minorities, left people with disabilities in a severe state of impoverishment for centuries. In the 1800s, people with disabilities were considered meager, tragic, pitiful individuals unfit and unable to contribute to society, except to serve as ridiculed objects of entertainment in circuses and exhibitions.

The civil rights struggle threatened to hoist African Americans up and out of [the] social "place" that whites had created for them. White Southerners would find blacks in their schools and neighborhoods, their restaurants, and polling places. … Many whites denounced the "Civil Wrongs Bill," holding that such federal laws imperiled their own rights. They clung to the notion that rights were finite, and that as blacks gained freedom, whites must suffer a loss of their own liberties. On the precarious seesaw of Southern race relations, whites thought they would plummet if blacks ascended. (p. 62)

Whose rules provide the center of gravity for considering what counts as appropriate behavior? Why are those who don't understand or follow those rules viewed as being in deficit, or having a disorder ? Do folks on the spectrum have a dis order? Or do they simply follow their own order? (p. 1716)

Autism is both a disability and a difference. We need to find ways of alleviating the disability while respecting and valuing the difference. (p. 367)

Anti-Defamation League. (2005). A brief history of the disability rights movement. Retrieved from http://archive.adl.org/education/curriculum_connections/fall_2005/fall_2005_lesson5_history.html

Duncan, A. (2015). Forty years of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Esteves, K., & Rao, S. (2008). The evolution of special education: Retracing legal milestones in American history . Alexandria, VA: National Association of Elementary School Principals.

Forman-Brunell, M. (Ed.). (2001). Girlhood in America: An encyclopedia in two volumes . Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Marable, M., & Mullings, L. (Eds.). (2003). Let nobody turn us around: Voices of resistance, reform, and renewal. New York: Rowman &amp; Littlefield.

Smagorinsky, P. (2011). Confessions of a mad professor: An autoethnographic consideration of neuroatypicality, extranormativity, and education. Teachers College Record, 113 (8), 1701–1732.

Snyder, T. D., de Brey, C., & Dillow, S. A. (2016). Digest of Education Statistics 2014 (NCES 2016-006). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Sokol, J. (2008). White Southerners' reactions to the civil rights movement. In Free at last: The U.S. Civil Rights Movement (pp. 62–64). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of International Information Programs.

Solomon, A. (2013). Far from the tree: Parents, children, and the search for identity. New York: Scribner.

West, J. (2000). Back to school on civil rights: Advancing the federal commitment to leave no child behind . Washington, DC: National Council on Disability.

Williams, M. (2011, December 27). Colorblind ideology is a form of racism. Psychology Today . Retrieved from www.psychologytoday.com/blog/culturally-speaking/201112/colorblind-ideology-is-form-racism

• 1 Reproducible fact and tip sheets can be found in my book, Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Inclusive Classroom: How to Reach and Teach Students with ASD (Scholastic, 2nd edition, 2016).

Barbara Boroson provides professional development and consultative services nationwide to school districts and parents facilitating successful inclusion and bolstering efforts to support students on the autism spectrum. She has worked in the field of autism education for more than 25 years in clinical, administrative, and advisory capacities.

Boroson speaks frequently at conferences of the International Literacy Association, National School Boards Association, National Association of Elementary School Principals, National Association for the Education of Young Children, and ASCD, among others, as well as at many colleges and graduate schools. She is the author of Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Inclusive Classroom: How to Reach and Teach Students with ASD  (Scholastic, 2016).

ASCD is a community dedicated to educators' professional growth and well-being.

Let us help you put your vision into action., related articles.

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A Brief History of Special Education: Milestones in the First 50 Years (Part I of II)

Most people would consider the struggle for disability rights and inclusion to have begun in the early 1970’s with the PARC Consent Decree and the passage of P.L. 94-142, The Education for Handicapped Children Act. However, the disability rights movement and the creation of special education laws owe a debt of gratitude to Thurgood Marshall who argued in 1954 before the United States Supreme Court in the Brown vs. The Board of Topeka, Kansas.

BY Linda Shandrick Lengyel, Ph.D. and Ernst VanBergeijk, Ph.D., M.S.W. | June 2021 | Category: 50th Anniversary Issue

In this landmark decision, the Supreme Court knocked down the “separate but equal” doctrine, which was the foundation of school segregation based upon race. Disability rights advocates used this premise to argue that disabled students were being excluded from education or were served separately in substandard conditions. Estimates were that over 7 million students with disabilities were excluded from public education.

Beyond dismissing the doctrine of “separate but equal” another impact of Brown vs. The Board of Topeka decision was that social movements began turning to the courts for remedy. The Brown case was on the behalf of a “class” of people, having widespread impact for students based on race. In the early 70s there were two seminal class action court cases where states were challenged for not providing an education to students who were disabled, arguing that students with disabilities had the same rights as students without disabilities, and that because of the Brown case, all non-disabled students had the right to an education. The PARC (Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens) v. the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ended in a settlement agreement in 1972. The PARC Consent Decree stated that the state of Pennsylvania had to provide a free public education for all students with intellectual disabilities and included procedure protections. Similarly, the Mills v. Board of Education was against the District of Columbia in 1972. The Mills case extended the right to education to all students with disabilities in the District of Columbia, including students who were being denied an education due to expulsion and suspension as disciplinary measures (Yell et al., 2011).

Across the country other class action lawsuits were happening based on the need for change in the educational systems. As this was occurring, the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and specifically Section 504 of the Act, became the first piece of federal legislation that made it illegal for public institutions which received federal funds to discriminate against individuals on the basis of disability. Initially, the law was used to provide physical access to buildings for those individuals with mobility issues. The struggle to obtain those rights is beautifully captured in therecently-Oscar nominated documentary film, Crip Camp. Those same advocates pushed to have the rights of individuals with disabilities expanded to include private entities with the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Although initially aimed at protecting the rights of individuals with physical disabilities and providing physical access, the protections were expanded beyond physical access and physical disabilities.

Shortly after the Vocational Rehabilitation Act was passed, federal legislation was passed that mandated and protected the rights of all children with disabilities to have a free public education. The PARC and Mills cases provided the blueprint for Public Law 94-142: The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (EHA). It is commonly reported that there are six major principles of the EHA (now called IDEA), however, what is included in the list varies; here we are reporting seven major principles that are all still a part of today’s law:

• All students have a right to a free and public education, known as F.A.P.E.
• All students have a right to be educated in the Least Restrictive Environment, L.R.E.
• All students have a right to an Individual Education Program
• Non-discriminatory assessment and evaluation
• Parent involvement
• Due process procedural safeguards
• Zero-reject

Once legislation has passed, implementation begins which leads to defining the terms and standards of the legislation. As new laws are implemented, the courts, through litigation, are used to provide guidance in following the mandates. Some court decisions have limited reach, while others cross geographic regions, all dependent on how high in the system the case is heard. Federal laws then become “reauthorized”, with changes based, in part, on the findings of the courts. Naturally, after the EHA was passed, there were key court cases that further defined the mandates. In 1982 the Hendrick Hudson Dist. Bd. Of Ed. V. Rowley was the first EHA case heard by the Supreme Court. Amy Rowley, a deaf student, and her parents requested a sign-language interpreter for Amy but were denied. The lower court established that each child should be given the supports needed to reach their fullest potential. However, the Supreme Court overruled, stating that that an appropriate education was provided if the IEP was “reasonably calculated to confer educational benefit” (Yell et al., 2011). Because Amy was doing well academically, she was denied an interpreter. Because the term “educationally benefit” did not specify a standard for adequate educational benefit, future cases applied different standards in deciding whether the provision of FAPE was provided based on educational benefit (Yell & Bateman, 2020).

In 1984, there was another key court case focused on related services in relation to the provision of FAPE. Irving Independent School District v. Tatro stated that health care services that can be provided by a nurse or other trained professional must be provided to the student as a related service if they are necessary to enable the student to receive FAPE; medical services required to be delivered by a physician were not consider a related service. Amber Tatro was an eight-year-old with spina bifida who required clean intermittent catheterization (CIC) during the school day. The school district considered this a medical service and therefore they were not required to include the use of a CIC in her IEP. One of the compelling arguments that this was a related service and not a medical service was that Ambers family members were, after a short training, qualified to perform the procedure, and it was anticipated that Amber herself would soon be able to perform the procedure.

In 1986, there was a reauthorization of the EHA; the significance of this reauthorization is that it expanded who was covered to include early intervention services beginning at birth through the age of two years old; previously, the EHA covered young children beginning at the age of three. Additionally, it was established that children receiving those services were required to have an Individualized Family Service Plan, a provision that expanded the requirement of an IEP to include services for the family. Also of importance, in that same year, congress passed The Handicapped Children’s Protection Act that authorized courts to award attorney’s fees and other expenses that parents or guardians incurred because of pursuing administrative or civil actions under the EHA act of 1975, strengthening the provision of due process procedural safeguards (Florian & West, 1989).

There were several notable court cases that occurred before the next reauthorization in 1990. In 1988 the Honig v. Doe case addressed the expulsion of students with behavioral challenges. The resulting ruling was that schools could not expel a student because of a behavior related to their disability and that suspensions that were over 10 consecutive days in length were considered a change of placement, requiring the IEP team to reconvene. Expulsion or a suspension that lasted longer than 10 days without a change of placement would be considered a denial of FAPE. This case also established that the student would stay in the current placement (stay-put provision) during any administrative or judicial hearings and procedures (Yell et al., 2011).

In 1989, in Timothy W. v. Rochester, a court found that a student was wrongly being denied FAPE because the school district considered him too disabled to receive benefit from an education. The ruling in this court reaffirmed the notion that all students had a right to FAPE, regardless of the severity of their disability, supporting the zero reject provision of EHA (Baumgart & Giangreco, 1996). Another case of significance provided direct guidance to the LRE mandate by implementing a two-pronged test to determine if a student could be moved to a more restrictive environment. In Daniel RR v. State Board of Education (1989), the court applied a two-pronged test, recognizing the difficulty in determining what the least restrictive environment is for the student to receive an appropriate education (FAPE). In this case, the fundament question was when it is okay to remove a student from an inclusive classroom to a self-contained classroom. The court ascertained that the IEP team must first determine if, with the use of supplemental aids and services, the child can receive an appropriate education in the general education classroom (Marx et al., 2014; Yell & Drasgow, 1999). Significant to this test is the consideration of non-academic benefit. Previously in Rowley it was established that academic benefit was a determination in the appropriateness of an IEP; this case highlighted also the non-academic benefits, such as social benefit. Another consideration was the impact on the education of the non-disabled students in the classroom, giving the school district the leeway to remove a student if they are considered disruptive to the education of other students. The second prong of the test focused on other opportunities to be with non-disabled peers. If the student could not be satisfactorily educated in the academic classroom beside their non-disabled peers, the school must still consider including the student to the maximum extent possible. This case made clear that the intent of the EHA was for students with disabilities to be educated as much as possible alongside their non-disabled peers, and that education included non-academic classroom opportunities as well as lunch and recess (Martin et al., 1996; Marx et al., 2014; Yell & Drasgow, 1999). 

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

There were several major changes to the EHA in the reauthorization of 1990; one of those was the name of the law itself. In 1990, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act was renamed to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), emphasizing a change to “people-first” language as well as using the word disabilities in place of handicapped. Also significant was the mandate a transition plan be provided to all students with an IEP beginning at the age of 16. Additionally, this reauthorization added two distinct categories of disabilities to be covered under the law: Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) and autism. Assistive technology, for the first time, was a part of the law, adding both assistive technology devices and services (Yell et al., 2011).

After the 1990 reauthorization, there were two more court cases that applied “tests” or a process to determine placement in the least restrictive environment. It was an exciting time for advocates of inclusive education because these cases were occurring at the same time in circuit courts on the East and West coasts. Although in Daniel RR a “test” was established, it did not need to be applied in courts across the country, which is why it is important to understand how courts impact legislation. When there are multiple cases across different geographic regions that have similar findings, it is not unusual to see the impact of those findings in the legislation. Courts have not been consistent in their rulings for inclusive education, thus utility of using these pronged tests. The Oberti v. Board of Education of the Borough of Clementon School District (1993) introduced a three-prong test of LRE. The court determined these factors were relevant in considering the least restrictive environment for an appropriate education:

• whether the school made “reasonable effort” in including the student in the general education classroom;
• comparison of the educational benefits of being included in the general education classroom with supplemental aids and services to the benefits of being educated in the special education classroom; and,
• the impact of the inclusion of the student on their non-disabled peers (Bradley & Wintermann, 2014; Martin et al., 1996; Marx et al., 2014).

The findings of the court were that the school district had not made reasonable effort to include Rafael, a kindergarten student, in part because they had not applied the same strategies and techniques while he was in the general education classroom that were deemed successful in the special education classroom. This further supported the findings of the Daniel RR case where it must be first determined that with the use of supplemental aids and services the student will not receive educational benefit before removing the student from the classroom.

While the Oberti case was happening on the East coast, on the West coast the Sacramento City School District v. Rachel H. case was occurring. When Rachel Holland was in kindergarten, her parents requested that she be placed in the general education classroom full time; the district contended that Rachel would be best educated in the special education classroom for academic subjects and could be in the general education classroom for non-academic times, requiring Rachel to move back and forth between the classrooms. Similar to the Oberti and Daniel RR cases, there was a pronged test; this court applied four considerations. The courts considered both the academic and nonacademic benefits, the effects on inclusion on non-disabled students and the teacher; and in the cost of including Rachel (Bradley & Wintermann, 2014; Martin et al., 1996; Marx et al., 2014). The courts found that Rachel would derive more benefit both academically and non-academically in the general education classroom without distracting the other students with the assistance of a part-time aide. Furthermore, the court found that the cost of including Rachel was overestimated by the district and that although it could be a consideration, costs were not a factor that would prohibit Rachel from being included. In both the Oberti and Holland cases, the court placed the burden of proof on the School Districts, which was seen as a significant win by educational advocates. The outcomes of these cases were celebrated by advocates of inclusion across the country.

The reauthorization in 1997 had many significant implications, and not surprisingly strengthened the focus on inclusive education, although the terms inclusive or inclusion are not in the law itself.  Several of the changes were directly designed to improve the inclusive opportunities given to students with disabilities through the provision of the IEP (Wolfe & Harriott, 1998). The composition of the IEP team was addressed by adding the stipulation that at least one general education teacher be involved if the student is expected to be in the general education environment. Added to the existing statement of present levels was the requirement of a statement describing how the student’s disability affects his or her involvement and progress in the general education curriculum. Also added was the requirement to justify the extent to which the student will not participate in general education classes and curriculum. The inclusion of all students in state accountability measures were required, even students with “the most significant cognitive disabilities” (Ryndak et al., 2014). This reauthorization made even clearer the preference for inclusive education and involvement in the general education curriculum.

Another area that had a significant focus was that of behavior supports and discipline (Wolfe & Harriott, 1998). There was a focus on providing behavioral supports and a functional behavioral assessment. Before disciplinary action can be taken, or within 10 days, the team must also conduct a manifestation determination to understand whether the behavior that the student is being disciplined for was a manifestation of their disability, and part of the hearing was a review of what assessments and supports were being provided. Transition services was again addressed in this reauthorization lowering the age requirement for a transition statement from 16 to 14 years old. Details of the transition statement were expanded to include that the IEP should be related to the student’s specific course of study, and transition services were defined. When the student reaches the age of 16, those services must be identified, as well as the providers of those services, including interagency responsibilities and linkages.

The next reauthorization of 2004 did not have as many significant changes as the previous one. Although the name was officially changed to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEIA), IDEA is still the acronym most used. The changes of this reauthorization are characterized by the alignment with No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), focusing on accountability (Turnbull, 2005). The requirement that special educators be highly qualified was added to IDEIA, along with the provision of evidenced-based practices, both following the lead of NCLB.

One of the little-known outcomes of the re-authorization of IDEA in 2004 occurred during the public commentary period before IDEA. The U.S. Department of Education was responding to advocates’ calls to include language that explicitly allowed school districts to pay for transition services, including community-based and college-based transition programs. The U.S. DOE responded by stating that IEP teams have always had the ability to pay for community-based or college-based transition programs under Part B of IDEA. In fact, the exact language can be found in 34 CFR Parts 300 and 301 Assistance to States for the Education of Children with Disabilities and Preschool Grants for Children with Disabilities: Final Rule, on page 46,668.

The Schaffer vs. Weast U.S. Supreme Court decision in 2005 dealt a blow to special education advocates and families. Prior to this decision, when there was a dispute between a family and a school district, the burden of proof was laid upon the school district to demonstrate that the student’s Individual Education Plan (IEP) met the student’s goals. If the school district lost the case, they were responsible for the legal fees of the family. The Weast decision reversed the burden of proof, meaning it was incumbent upon to the families to prove the IEP was insufficient and not meeting the student’s goals. School districts which usually have attorneys on retainer, if not on staff, went from losing the majority of disputes to winning more disputes, especially if families were not represented by legal counsel.  

*A Brief History of Special Education: Milestones in the First 50 Years (Part II) will focus on special education and the transition aged years. It will be published in EP Magazine’s July 2021 issue. 

ABOUT THE AUTHORS:

Linda Shandrick Lengyel, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor at Lesley University in Cambridge MA. Linda is in the Special Education Teacher Preparation program at the Graduate School of Education, preparing teachers to include students with disabilities in inclusive settings. She is also in the Threshold Program, teaching students advocacy and self-determination skills. Her career focus has been inclusive education, transition services, and advocacy.

Ernst VanBergeijk, Ph.D., M.S.W. is a Professor at Lesley University in Cambridge, MA and is the Director of the Threshold Program which is a post-secondary transition program for students with a variety of disabilities. www.lesley.edu/threshold. He also oversees the Lesley University Threshold Alumni Center which provides life-long support for graduates of the Threshold Program. Beginning Summer 2022, the Threshold Program will be offering a six-week summer program focusing upon the acquisition of preemployment, independent living and social skills.

References 

20 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Parts, 676, 677, and 678. Department of Labor. Employment and Training Administration.

34 CFR Parts 300 and 301 Assistance to States for the Education of Children With Disabilities and Preschool Grants for Children With Disabilities; Final Rule

34 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Parts 361 and 463. Department of Education. Workforce Innovation and Opportunity, Joint Rule for Unified and Combined State Plans, Performance Accountability, the One-Stop System Joint Provisions; Final Rule 

34 CFR Parts 361, 363, and 397 RIN 1820-AB70 [Docket ID ED-2015-OSERS-OOO1] State Vocational Rehabilitation Services program; State Supported Employment Services program; Limitations on Use of Subminimum Wage https://s3.amazonaws.com/public-inspection.federalregister.gov/2015-05538.pdf

Baumgart, D., & Giangreco, M. (1996). Key lessons learned about inclusion. In D. Lehr & F. Brown (Eds.), Persons who challenge the system: Persons with profound disabilities (pp. 79-97). Brookes Publishing.

Board of Education v. Rowley, 458 U.S. 176 (1982).

Bradley, L. & Winterman, K. G. (2014). Overview of the history and legal perspectives of Special Education. In K. G. Wintermann & C. E. Rosas (Eds.). The IEP checklist: Your guide to creating meaningful and compliant IEPs. Brookes Publishing.

Brown v. Board of Education, 47 U.S. 483 (1954).

Daniel RR v. State Board of Education, 874 F. 2d 1036 (5th Cir. 1989).

Dracut v. Bureau of Special Education Appeals, 737 F. Supp. 2d 35 (D. Mass. 2010).

Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, 20 U.S.C. § 1401 et seq.

Florian, L. D. & West, J. (1989). Congress affirms the rights of children with handicaps. Teaching Exceptional Children, 21(3), 4-7.

Higher Education Opportunities Act of 2008. (P.L. 110 -315).

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990, 20 U.S.C. § 1401 et seq.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1997). U.S.C. 20. Part A & Part B.  §1400, §1401, §1412, §1414, and §1415.

Lehr, D. (2020). Placement of students with severe disabilities who have complex health care needs in general education classes. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 45(1), 39-44.

Martin, E.W., Martin, R. & Terman, D.L. (1996). The legislative and litigation history of special education. Special Education for Children with Disabilities, 6(1), 25-39.

Marx, T. A., Hart., L., Nelson, L., Love J., Baxter, C. M., Gartin, B., & Whitby, P. J. S. (2014). Guiding IEP teams on meeting the least restrictive mandate. Intervention in School and Clinic, 50(1), 45-50.

Oberti v. Board of Education of Borough of Clementon School District, 995 F.2d 1204 (3rd Cir. 1993).

Ryndak, D. L., Taub, D., Jorgensen, C. M., Gonsier-Gerdin, J., Arndt, K., Sauer, J., Ruppar, A. L., Morningstar, M. E., & Allcock, H. (2014). Policy and the impact on placement, involvement, and progress in general education: Critical issues that require rectification. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 39(1), 65-74.

The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) (H.R. 803).

Timothy W. v. Rochester, New Hampshire, School District, 875 f.2d 954 (1st Cir. 1989).

Turnbull, H. R. (2005). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Reauthorization: Accountability and personal responsibility. Remedial and Special Education, 26(6), 320-326.

Turnbull, H. R., Shogren, K. A., & Turnbull, A. P. (2011). Evolution of the parent movement: Past, present, and future. In J.M. Kauffman & D.P. Hallahan (Eds.), Handbook of special education (pp. 639–653). Routledge.

Yell, M. L., & Drasgow, E. (1999). A legal analysis of inclusion. Preventing School Failure, 43(3), 118-123.

Yell, M. L., Katsiyannis, A., & Bradley, M. R. (2011). The Individual with Disabilities Education Act: The evolution of special education law. In J. M. Kauffman & D. P. Hallahan (Eds.), Handbook of Special Education (pp. 61-76). Routledge. 

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History of Special Education: Volume 21

Table of contents

History of special education, advances in special education, copyright page, list of contributors.

Individuals with exceptionalities have been present in society for thousands of years, especially those with sensory and physical characteristics. However, the way society has reacted to individuals with exceptionalities has changed dramatically. The change has been positive, as society initially viewed such individuals as burdens, worthless, demons and buffoons, then exhibited more protective and humanitarian attitudes related to their welfare and finally to the present day in which individuals with exceptionalities are considered part of an inclusive society where all citizens have value and merit and can make meaningful contributions. This journey has not been easy for individuals with exceptionalities, their families or those who have educated them; however, it has been colourful, innovative and intriguing.

Chapter 1 Historical and philosophical changes in the education of students with exceptionalities

The history of special education has been influenced by changing societal and philosophical beliefs about the extent to which individuals with disabilities should be feared, segregated, categorized, and educated. Prior to the 1700s, individuals with exceptionalities were largely ignored or subjected to inhumane treatment, ridicule, isolation, and at times put to death ( D'Antonio, 2004 ; Winzer, 1993, 1998). However, the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ushered in rational philosophical beliefs about human dignity, which led to changes in the treatment and societal perceptions of individuals with exceptionalities ( Winzer, 1998 ). These changes also were supported by efforts of pioneering special educators and advocates who began to experiment with various individually designed approaches to educating individuals with exceptionalities and to disseminate their work to others ( Winzer, 1993 ).

Chapter 2 History of legal and legislative acts concerned with special education

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. ( Declaration of Independence, 1776 )

Chapter 3 History of early childhood special education

Early in the 20th century, many began to voice growing concern over such issues as infant mortality, childhood diseases, and child labor ( Anastasiow & Nucci, 1994 ). At this time, physicians, child advocates, and the general public began to speak out about social concerns regarding children, including those living in orphanages and those with mental illness or intellectual disabilities. These concerns came about at a time when psychologists studying young children began to accept that a child's intelligence was impacted by both genetic and environmental factors ( Hunt, 1961 ). Prior to this point, experts believed a child's IQ was set at birth with little that could be done to influence it over time. Although we were beginning to better understand the importance of environmental influences on young children, at this point, most children with disabilities such as intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, and epilepsy were institutionalized rather than treated. On the other hand, children who were deaf or blind were more likely to be treated, but were typically sent away to “schools” and were segregated from their families and peers while receiving treatment and education.

Chapter 4 History of learning disabilities

In other words, LD can affect the way in which a person takes in, remembers, understands, and expresses information. Typically, a person with LD is of average intelligence, based on his/her intelligence quotient (IQ); however his/her academic performance is different from how they should be able to perform. People with LD are intelligent and have abilities to learn despite difficulties in processing information; however, they require specialized interventions in home, school, community, and workplace settings, appropriate to their individual strengths and needs, including but not limited to (a) specific skill instruction, (b) the development of compensatory strategies, (c) the development of self-advocacy skills, and (d) appropriate accommodation. Typically, a student with mild LD, who is identified and provided learning-disabilities instruction, can enhance his/her academic achievement, however, a student with undetected LD can struggle with low grades, low self-esteem, a loss of interest in higher education, and later reduced employment opportunities as an adult ( Burkhardt, Obiakor, & Rotatori, 2004 ).

Chapter 5 History of intellectual disabilities

This chapter traces the history of intellectual disabilities by exploring significant historical periods and personalities who impacted the disability field and specifically the area of intellectual disability. Like other documented histories, the purpose of this chapter is to instruct and inform readers about the historical underpinnings of the labels, practices, and programs related to intellectual disability that are in effect today. While this chapter is not intended to be prescriptive in how the information presented here is to be interpreted, we are acutely aware that historical accounts are often interpreted based upon contemporary ideologies, knowledge, and practices. As such, as a historical account, this chapter is no exception. Current belief and practices about intellectual disabilities indeed influence the choices that, we as the chapter authors, made about the relative importance of the events that we select to highlight in this chapter. Nonetheless, this account reflects the events and personalities who, in our estimation, transformed and/or advanced the field of intellectual disability. We open with a brief prologue of the representations of the intellectual disability in popular culture and its potential impact on perceptions of persons with intellectual disability.

Chapter 6 The history of speech and language impairments

Writings about language and speech impairments (SLI) have been present for many centuries ( Smith, 2004 ). Unfortunately, early historical accounts tended to reflect negatively upon individuals with SLI. For example, Van Riper and Erickson (1996) related that during the Roman times, an individual who stuttered was placed into a cage for entertainment purposes. According to these authors, citizens passing would throw coins into the person's cage to get him to talk. During the late 1800s, the profession of speech-language pathology began as an avocation of certain professionals, notably doctors, educators, and elocutionists (public speakers), who were interested in helping others improve their speech. American doctors studied under the auspices of European doctors who treated people with communication disorders. The two most common disorders that were treated then were dysfluency (stuttering) and speech sound errors (articulation) ( Duchan, 2002 ). Treatment was available for the above disorders, however, the programs were not in public schools and the results of intervention were mixed ( Smith, 2004 ).

Chapter 7 History of emotional and behavioral disorders

All societies carry out sorting and classificatory actions, the way they view deviance changes over time for a variety of reasons that are sometimes unrelated to the behavior or its consequences ( Moynihan, 1993 ). Also, some behaviors that were considered to be illnesses or crimes at one time have been redefined in ways that remove them from the medical, psychological, or legal professions' guidelines for interpreting them as deviant behaviors. Homosexuality is one example of such a reclassification ( Bowker & Star, 1999 ).

Chapter 8 History of deafness and hearing impairments

Deafness and hearing impairments have a very interesting and ancient history. The term hearing impairments is used here to refer to any dysfunction of the hearing organ, regardless of the etiology, degree of hearing loss, and service provision implications. The history of hearing impairments can be traced back to centuries before Christ (BC). For instance, around 1000 BC a Hebrew law provided those with deafness and hearing impairments limited rights to own property and marry. Nonetheless, although this law protected people with hearing impairments from being cursed and maltreated by others, it did not grant them full participation in rituals of the temple ( ASLInfo, 2010 ). People with hearing impairments were considered to be “subnormal” by great philosophers of that time. For instance, between 427 and 347 BC, Plato's philosophy of innate intelligence was the vogue. It claimed that all intelligence was present at birth. Therefore, all people were born with ideas and languages in their minds and required only time to demonstrate their outward sign of intelligence through speech. People with hearing impairments could not speak and were therefore considered incapable of rational thoughts and ideas. Indeed in 355 BC Aristotle was reported to have claimed that those who were born deaf would become stupid and incapable of reason. According to him, people with hearing impairments could not be educated because without the ability to hear, people could not learn. Greek which was spoken in his society was considered the perfect language and all people who did not speak Greek including people with deafness were considered Barbarians ( ASLInfo, 2010 ).

Chapter 9 History of visual impairments

Defined functionally, having low vision can mean the inability to read newsprint even with best correction (when wearing conventional eyeglasses or contact lenses) ( Maino, 1993 ). Other functional definitions of low vision refer to a loss of vision that may be severe enough to hinder an individual's ability to complete daily activities such as reading, cooking, or walking outside safely, while still retaining some degree of useable vision. Low vision is decreased visual performance that prevents performance to full capacity compared with a typically sighted person of the same age and gender. It may be a consequence of reduced acuity, abnormal visual field, reduced contrast sensitivity, or other ocular dysfunction ( Faye, 1984 ). This definition includes people who are legally blind and those who have a more significant amount of remaining vision.

Chapter 10 History of autism spectrum disorders

Child psychiatrist Leo Kanner (pronounced “Konner;” Feinstein, 2010, p. 19 ) published a ground-breaking paper in 1943 that introduced the world to the present-day concept of autism ( Fombonne, 2003 ; Goldstein & Ozonoff, 2009 ; Roth, 2010 ). Prior to Kanner, however, several physicians described the condition of autism without identifying it as such. A textbook published in 1809, titled Observations on Madness and Melancholy , contained a description of a boy whose symptoms fit the modern definition of autism ( Feinstein, 2010 ; Vaillant, 1962 ). The book's author, Dr. John Haslam, wrote about a 5-year-old male who was admitted to the Bethlem Asylum in 1799 with a medical history that included a case of measles when he was 1 year old. The boy's mother claimed that at age 2 years, her son became harder to control. She also indicated that he did not begin to walk until he was 2½ years of age and did not talk until he was 4 years old. Once hospitalized, the boy cried only briefly upon separation from his mother and was “constantly in action” ( Vaillant, 1962, p. 376 ), suggesting that he was hyperactive. Hyperactivity is a characteristic commonly found in children with ASDs ( APA, 2000 ; Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 2009 ). Although this child watched other boys at play in the hospital, he never joined them and played intently with toy soldiers by himself. The boy could not learn to read and always referred to himself in the third person ( Vaillant, 1962 ). Grammatical errors in speech can be observed among individuals with ASDs ( Roth, 2010 ; Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 2009 ).

Chapter 11 The history of physical and health impairments

Throughout the ages, caring for an individual with a significant physical disability and/or health impairment has been extremely difficult or perhaps even impossible. Conditions for survival were often hard, requiring all able-bodied family members working from dawn until dark to scratch out even a minimal standard of living. Consequently, little time and resources were available for the care of a loved one with a disability. Safford and Safford's sobering volume ( 1996 ) emphasizes that children have always been vulnerable to neglect and children with disabilities were particularly subject to abuse. To illustrate this, children with disabilities were particularly subject to infanticide, abandonment, slavery, sterilization or placed in orphanages, where maiming sometimes occurred to increase the individuals' potential for street corner begging.

Chapter 12 The history of giftedness and talent development

Societal interest in individuals with high aptitudes, gifts, talents, and extraordinary abilities dates back thousands of years, perhaps as early as 3000 BC. For example, “as early as Biblical times, prophets and learned men were extolled for their wisdom and leadership. Plato likewise accorded positions of supremacy to certain individuals based on their superior endowment of intelligence. Even in the Dark and Middle Ages, generally considered inhibitory of talent and innovation, some members of society were ennobled for their intellectual and religious acumen” ( Kaufmann, Castellanos, & Rotatori, 1986, p. 232 ). Some societies identified children with promise and potential and provided them with special education ( Freeman, 1979 ). This was the case with the Emperor Charlemagne who in 800 AD requested that the state provide and pay for such education for children from the common masses ( Schwenn, 1985 ).

Chapter 13 History of Traumatic Brain Injury

While traumatic brain injury (TBI) became a special education category within the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990 , societies have dealt with TBI far back in history. According to Granacher (2007) , there have been writings about the examination of skulls from battlefields in which a hole was drilled into the skull using a trepanning tool apparently to provide some physical relief for the injured soldier. Interestingly, Levin, Benton, and Grossman (1982) stated that this tool continued to be part of Medieval and Renaissance surgeons' practice. At that time, the surgeons believed that trepanation was a vital procedure to improve the brain pulsations and hence the overall well-being of the person with a TBI; however, the medical effectiveness of this procedure did not materialize and it was replaced by brain surgery in the 20th century ( Levin et al., 1982 ).

Chapter 14 History of bilingual special education

Over the course of several decades, the field of bilingual special education has found much support in the reform movement that has become known as multicultural education. Born out of the 1960s civil rights movement ( Mclaren & Muñoz, 2000 ), multicultural education “is a field in education that is dedicated to equal opportunity for all students. Even groups who appear to be monocultural are diverse in regards to class, gender, and language” ( Ooka Pang, 2005, p. 213 ). Multicultural education “assumes that race, ethnicity, culture, and social class are salient parts of U.S. society. It also assumes that ethnic and cultural diversity enriches the nation and increases the ways in which its citizens can perceive and solve personal and public problems” ( Banks, 2002, p. 1 ). Thus, multicultural education supports the call for bilingual special education in teacher preparation and in schools. For special educators, in particular, understanding the link between exceptionalities and cultural diversity is fundamental to their professional role ( Hallahan et al., 2009 ). In the context of a multilingual and multicultural country, such as the United States, bilingual special education is no doubt the best way to ensure that a subgroup of our population (i.e., bilingual exceptional children) has real opportunities to succeed. A major concern for any educator, but especially for bilingual special educators who value and seek to implement multicultural education, is to ensure that bilingual exceptional learners are not placed at a disadvantage because of their linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Here the term culture encompasses all the various aspects (subcultures) that contribute to define an individual. These are race, ethnicity, language, exceptionality, sexual orientation, gender, religion, socioeconomic background, and age.

Chapter 15 Historical and contemporary contexts, challenges, and prospects in the education of students with exceptionalities

It is common knowledge that people like to associate with those who behave, look, speak, and act like themselves. Anyone who does not fall in that norm is traditionally perceived, treated, and educated differently ( James, 1958 ; Obiakor, 2008, 2009). Clearly, students with exceptionalities have been discriminated against, ostracized, labeled, and called demeaning names (e.g., stupid, imbecile, and little dummies). Today, it has become increasingly clear that differences are a part of life. Advocates of students with exceptionalities have pressed for ways to positively respond to their needs in quantifiable ways ( Obiakor, Harris, & Beachum, in press ). In the United States, it is impossible to divorce the education of these students from the Civil Rights Movement and the subsequent events that followed. To a great extent, the education of these students has been historically influenced by social developments and court decisions in the 1950s and 1960s. For example, the landmark Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) case was a civil rights case that declared separate education as unequal education and unconstitutional ( Obiakor, 2009 ). This was significant because it had the goal of ending racial segregation in schools. Logically, this opened doors of advocacy for students with exceptionalities. The ruling of this case became a catalyst that prompted parents and professionals to lobby for equitable education for their students.

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• The History of Special Education: From Isolation to Integration

In this Book

• Margret A. Winzer
• Published by: Gallaudet University Press
• View Citation

Table of Contents

• Frontmatter
• List of Tables
• List of Boxes
• Part 1: Lessons of a Dark Past
• Introduction
• Chapter 1. Disability and Society before the Eighteenth Century: Dread and Despair
• Chapter 2. Education and Enlightenment: New Views and New Methods
• Part 2: Into the Light of a More Modern World
• Chapter 3. The Rise of Institutions, Asylums, and Public Charities
• Chapter 4. Education for Exceptional Students in North America after 1850
• pp. 121-144
• Chapter 5. Physicians, Pedagogues, and Pupils: Defining the Institutionalized Population
• pp. 145-169
• Chapter 6. More Than Three R s: Life in Nineteenth-Century Institutions
• pp. 170-224
• Chapter 7. Teaching Exceptional Students in the Nineteenth Century
• pp. 225-248
• Part 3: Into the New Century
• pp. 251-253
• Chapter 8. Measures and Mismeasures: The IQ Myth
• pp. 254-278
• Chapter 9. The “Threat of the Feebleminded”
• pp. 279-312
• Chapter 10. From Isolation to Segregation: The Emergence of Special Classes
• pp. 313-336
• Chapter 11. New Categories, New Labels
• pp. 337-360
• Part 4: Segregation to Integration
• pp. 363-365
• Chapter 12. Approaching Integration
• pp. 366-385
• Bibliography
• pp. 386-440
• pp. 441-463

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Special Education: History, Resources, Advice

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Special education resources and strategies for teaching students with disabilities.

Teachers and parents of students with disabilities understand the importance of providing an adequate and individualized education for every student to ensure academic success. This understanding is the product of continued efforts in education, as well as through teacher training. 

Nevertheless, when it comes to best serving students with disabilities, teacher training historically has sometimes proven to be inadequate , and many school districts suffer from a lack of resources to improve matters. As a result, teachers may struggle when it comes to learning and incorporating best practices for teaching students with special needs. 

However, there are a number of special education resources and strategies that can prove to be invaluable for doing so. This guide will provide an overview of special education and provide information about resources to provide each learner with an environment that is conducive to success.

What is special education?

The term “special education” refers to individualized programs, curricula, and instruction designed to address the needs of students with disabilities. The intent of special education is to enable individuals with special needs to reach their fullest potential. Teachers must participate in a relevant special ed curriculum in order to teach these students. While all teaching programs should cover the importance of accommodation and inclusion, it is possible to earn a bachelor’s degree in Special Education , or even attain dual licensure in Elementary Education and Special Education . Educators who want to focus on serving special education students can become highly qualified by seeking higher education through a Master’s of Science in Special Education (which covers grades K-12).

The exact nature of special education has evolved over time, with origins that can be traced back to 1954. In the court ruling of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka , it was ruled that segregation violated equal educational opportunity. While this decision was based on the injustice of racial segregation, it established a broad understanding that all people deserve equal access to an adequate public education.

Throughout the subsequent years, rights and funding for special education improved dramatically :

1966: An amendment to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act provided federal funds for public education for students with disabilities. 

1973: The Rehabilitation Act made it clear that people with disabilities could not be denied benefits from any program receiving federal funds. 

1975: The Education for All Handicapped Children Act was signed into law. Today, this is known as the IDEA act — read more on this below.

1982: The court ruling for Board of Education of Hendrick Hudson Central School District v. Rowley stated that students who qualify for special education programs must be provided with individualized instruction to meet their specific needs.

1997: Amendments were made to IDEA to ensure the availability of meaningful, measurable programs for students with special needs. It also improved parents’ involvement in the development of their child’s individualized education program (IEP).

2004: The No Child Left Behind Act improved the quality of special education programs at the state level by requiring statewide assessments and highly qualified, specially trained professionals to teach students with disabilities. While this act had some controversial provisions, it was replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act in 2015, rectifying many of them.

Today, in accordance with our growing understanding of the needs of students with disabilities, the Office for Civil Rights (OCR) enforces the rights of IDEA-eligible students. Among other duties, the OCR is responsible for ensuring that public education institutions follow laws prohibiting discrimination against students with special needs. 

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandates that students with disabilities are provided with a free, adequate, and individualized education. The act states:

“Disability is a natural part of the human experience and in no way diminishes the right of individuals to participate in or contribute to society. Improving educational results for children with disabilities is an essential element of our national policy of ensuring equality of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self-sufficiency for individuals with disabilities.”

In order to remain consistent with these ideals, IDEA is based on six pillars :

The development of individualized education programs: In collaboration with parents, teachers must develop IEPs for each learner with special needs to determine the best accommodations and approaches to instruction in order to maximize each student’s ability to meet their full potential. This can be a time-consuming process, but there are many ways to streamline the creation of IEP goals .

A free and appropriate public education: Using federal and state funding, schools must provide a curriculum with appropriate grade-level standards and which follows each student’s IEP. 

Providing a least-restrictive environment: Students with disabilities must be integrated, to the fullest extent which is appropriate, into classrooms with peers who are nondisabled. They must also be provided with adequate accommodations, such as service personnel or assistive technology. 

Appropriate evaluation: Students must only be provided with special education services after an appropriate evaluation is performed. This should minimize the number of misidentifications.

Parent and teacher involvement: Parents and teachers should both play an active role in the education of learners with disabilities. For any decision made in regards to the child’s education, parents and teachers should be able to guide — and, when necessary, challenge — decisions that may impact the student. Parent-teacher conflict management skills are an essential component of this process.

Procedural safeguards: IDEA has safeguards in place to protect the rights of students with disabilities, as well as their families. This includes parent participation, access to educational records, due process, civil action, and mediation.

In an effort to meet the standards set by these pillars, school districts around the nation have experienced a surge in demand for highly qualified special education teachers . Only with adequately trained personnel can a school adequately provide for students with special needs.

Special education guidelines.

As noted above, there must be an appropriate evaluation to determine if students qualify for special education services. There are 13 disability categories under IDEA , and these include:

Deaf-blindness

Emotional disturbance

Hearing impairment

Intellectual disability

Multiple disabilities

Orthopedic impairment

Other health impairment

Specific learning disability

Speech or language impairment

Traumatic brain injury

Visual impairment including blindness

If a student’s disabilities are found to fall into one or more of these categories, they are eligible to receive special education services. 

Special education terms.

Thus far in this guide, you may have encountered some unfamiliar terms. Special needs teachers and administrators commonly use certain terms that may be new to those who do not have a background in the field. Below, you’ll find a list of definitions for the most common special education-specific terms :

Accommodations: Changes that enable a student with special needs to fully participate and meaningfully engage in academic activities. The nature of an accommodation will depend on the specific needs of the student. For example, a student who has difficulty focusing during lectures might be seated closer to the teacher.

Modifications: Changes to what a student with disabilities is expected to learn. Examples of modifications are a study guide and a corresponding test that encompasses different materials than what other students are given.

Mainstreaming: This term describes the practice of integrating students with special needs into general education classrooms. Students with disabilities will often participate in these classes for part of the school day, then spend the remainder in a special education classroom.

General education classroom: Also known as a “mainstream classroom” or an “inclusive classroom,” a general education classroom may include both nondisabled and disabled students. Research has shown that, when students with disabilities are included in general education classrooms, they can make tremendous strides in personal and social development.

Self-contained classroom: Also known as a “special education classroom,” this is designed specifically to help students with disabilities with specialized support. Because only students with disabilities attend these classes, they are generally smaller than mainstream classrooms.

Individual education program (IEP): As outlined by IDEA, this is a written document that outlines a student’s required accommodations/modifications and goals. This is created in collaboration with educational professionals and the parents of the child.

Behavior intervention plan (BIP): An individualized plan with strategies and support designed to address specific problem behavior. This includes positive behavioral interventions, accommodations, or modifications. Teachers of such students must be familiar with best practices and behavioral management involving extreme behaviors in order to give every student an opportunity to succeed.

Cumulative file: A student’s cumulative file is a set of records including evaluations and information regarding their special needs and placement. Parents have the right to access their child’s cumulative file at any time. This is consistent with the IDEA pillars of parent involvement and including procedural safeguards.

Differential standards for graduation: High school graduation requirements already differ from state to state, but this term refers specifically to the modified standards for graduating that may be used for students with special needs.

Resources by student condition.

There are many resources available for teachers, parents, and students. These include special education lesson plans, disciplinary plans, tutors, support groups, applications, training materials, and more that can make teaching and learning easier to serve students with a wide variety of disabilities. 

ADD/ADHD Resources

Child Mind Institute - ADHD : This page provides valuable information, Q&As, and guides for teachers and parents of children with ADD and ADHD.

Understood - Classroom Accommodations for ADHD : Educators and parents exploring potential classroom accommodations for students with ADHD should check out this guide for a comprehensive list of suggestions.

Asperger/Autism Resources

Organization for Autism Research - An Educator’s Guide to Asperger Syndrome : This extensive guide can help educators understand the unique ways in which Asperger syndrome can impact learners, how to promote a positive learning environment, and how to best cooperate with parents and pupils to develop an IEP that best suits each student with the condition.

National Association of Elementary School Principals - Autism Resources : This resource page provides links to tools and research for principals, and it also provides general links to organizations that can help teachers and parents.

Developmental and Learning Disability Resources

Learning Disabilities Association of America - Support and Resources for Educators : An extensive collection of articles and guides on a wide variety of learning disabilities can be found on this page. In addition, there are some useful educator resources related to learning disabilities listed here.

LD Resources Foundation - Self Advocacy Links & Resources : Those looking to advocate on behalf of students with learning disabilities can learn more about helpful organizations to aid them on these links and resources page. Individuals who want to take this advocacy to the next level can consult a career guide to become a special education teacher and strive to make a significant difference.

Special Education Resources for Parents

CHADD - ADHD and School Toolkit for Parents : This toolkit provides data, aids, and strategies for parents to help children with ADHD succeed at school.

Asperger/Autism Network - Programs and Services : Families and friends of students with Asperger syndrome can refer to this page to locate essential sources of information, coaching, college support, training, and support groups.

Center for Parent Information & Resources: Learning Disabilities : Parents can learn more about the basics of learning disabilities, including how to recognize the signs of a potential learning disability, at this information and resource guide. They may also learn more about getting their child evaluated for special education services and what to do if the school refuses to do so.

School Services for Children with Special Needs — Know Your Rights : If you’d like to dive deeper into your rights as a parent and your role in your child’s education check out this guide by the AACAP American Academic of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 

Other Special Education Resources

National PTA - Special Education Toolkit : Find additional resources related to special education here. It provides links to tools and key organizations that may provide further assistance.

Physical Disabilities — Implications for Learning : This guide discusses the implications that having a physical disability can have on a child’s education, then provides a list of common accommodations educators can use to create a positive and accessible learning environment.

Technology in special education.

Technology has become more accessible within education over the past couple of decades, and it has grown to play an essential role in education for many teachers, parents, and students. This also holds true in special education. Special education technology can improve learning by helping students engage with the material in new and interesting ways. Further, teachers can more easily adapt to the needs of individual students with educational technology. 

There are many types of technology in special education that have proven to be invaluable:

Assistive listening devices: Students with difficulties hearing or concentrating can benefit from the use of an assistive listening device. These are designed to make it easier for students to listen during class by amplifying sound.

Examples: FM systems and sound field systems use wireless transmitters to broadcast and amplify the teacher’s voice. Whether an instructor must assist an individual student with special needs in an inclusive classroom or to amplify their voice in a classroom with poor acoustics, this technology can help dramatically. 

Text-to-speech tools: Students with disabilities that impact their ability to read, such as visual impairments or dyslexia, can struggle in general education classrooms without the help of text-to-speech tools. By using assistive technology for reading , educators can improve classroom performance for these individuals.

Examples: There are many text-to-speech tools for educators available for both desktops and mobile devices. Using free applications and browser plug-ins, students with vision or reading impairments can save and hear educational content in an audio format.

Switch devices: Mobility impairments can make it hard for students with disabilities to engage with lessons in the same way as their peers. Switch devices allow these learners to engage with content with alternative input devices. There are switch devices designed to allow users to touch, blink, kick, or push and pull to interact with educational content and software. 

Examples: Sip-and-puff (SNP) systems allow students with mobility impairments to interact with computers and mobile devices by sipping or puffing on a controller, effectively replacing a mouse or keyboard.

Proofreading technology: Students with disabilities that may impact their mobility, language comprehension, or ability to type can benefit from assistive proofreading technology. This is designed to either automatically fix common errors or to make grammatical suggestions.

Examples: Basic proofreading software can help learners write more efficiently, while more sophisticated solutions can identify student problem areas, then make advanced recommendations. This data can also help teachers determine where a student may require further instruction.

Assistive technology for math: There are a wide range of devices and software options to help students with conditions that impact their ability to complete calculations. From basic arithmetic to calculus and beyond, there are assistive technologies for most subjects in math.

Examples: Calculators can help students solve simple and complex math problems. Some are designed with large buttons, which can help students with mobility or visual impairments. More advanced tools, like equation-solving software, can make suggestions to help students without directly giving them answers. Some even offer games that make teaching math easy and fun .

Augmented and virtual reality: Learners with disabilities who experience struggles focusing on projects or “tuning out” distractions can be aided through augmented or virtual reality software. The former can highlight key elements of a project and provide additional information or guidance, while the latter can provide a virtual environment in which external distractions can be reduced.

Examples: Examples of augmented and virtual reality applications for assistive learning include AR flashcards, AR-enabled worksheets, VR educational simulations, and VR collaboration software. Each of these can improve student engagement by drawing student interest and eliminating distractions.

"I don't want my child in special education."

When a student’s academic performance begins to suffer, it’s natural for parents, teachers, and the student in question to begin exploring options. However, when a child is identified as being eligible for special education services, parents or teachers may resist accepting them due to certain stigmas. The key to overcome this — and offer the best possible educational experience for a child with disabilities — is to bring any concerns to the table. As established above, parents and teachers are both responsible for developing a plan that best serves the learner.

It’s important to have a discussion about the child’s options. Special education services can play an integral role in helping a child achieve their full potential, but not all students with disabilities require them. In some instances, they may not be eligible to receive special education services if they do not meet IDEA’s definition of a child with a disability (see IDEA’s 13 categories of disabilities above). 

If a child falls into either of these groups, there are a number of alternatives to special education that parents and teachers should consider. These include additional tutoring, homeschooling, or an alternative school. Each of these can incur some costs, but they can help you give a child with disabilities the individualized instruction they may need to achieve their full potential.

If you’re interested in a career in special education, WGU could be the perfect fit for you. Our Special Education degree programs help prepare you for the things you need to know and do inside the classroom. Our goal at WGU is to help prepare you for an exciting and impactful future career, and when it comes to education, we understand how important it is. We want you to be a great teacher so the students you work with can learn in the best situation possible. Get started with WGU today, and get on the path to a rewarding future.

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Some Michigan Special Education History: A Lesson for All States

January 22, 2015 By Nancy Bailey 8 Comments

By Marcie Lipsitt

Michigan once had a proud heritage of believing in the educational rights of our students with disabilities.

But what has transpired over the past 39 years is not worthy of our history books or a wondrous fairy tale of children’s dreams come true. For Michigan’s 200,000 students with an Individualized Education Programs (IEP), it has been a long, treacherous, and disappointing road to what we call a “Free Appropriate Pubic Education.”

One shining moment in this dark and disillusioning history took place on December 11, 2014, but this is just one victory in a sea of losses, and Michigan parents, along with local, state and federal, special education, disability and civil rights organizations, must prepare themselves for what’s to come in 2015 and ahead.

Here is the map to Michigan’s 39 years and unraveling of special education.

•P.L. 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children’s Act passed in 1975 and was signed into law by President Gerald Ford, and now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA, 1997 and 2004).

•Michigan Public Act 451, 1976, the Michigan Mandatory Special Education Act passed and was signed into law by Governor William G. Milliken, and creating the Michigan Administrative Rules for Special Education (“MARSE”). A law permitting children with disabilities to attend school between the ages of three to twenty-six.

•The Headlee Amendment passed in 1978, amending the MI Constitution to require that any state mandated activity would be funded by the state. This created the infamous “Durant lawsuits” and an ongoing battle between school districts and the MI Legislature over special education funding.

•Term Limits passed in 1992, amending the MI Constitution and removing the institutional knowledge so critical to legislators; along with a Legislature with legislators in office long enough to pass thoughtful laws.

•In 1996 Governor John Engler purposefully created Executive Orders that stripped the State Board of Education of virtually all of its elected authority over public education. This gave 100% of non-elected power to our State Superintendent (first Arthur Ellis, then Tom Watkins and now Mike Flanagan). Special education rules have eroded under all three individuals.

•In 2001 the Michigan Department of Education (MDE) proposed revisions to our MARSE to align them with the reauthorization of the IDEA 1997. The revised MARSE promulgated in 2002 did irreparable harm to the IEP. Former State Superintendent Tom Watkins promulgated the WORST rule in our state’s history, infamously known as R 340.1832e. This rule has allowed Michigan’s 57 Intermediate School Districts (ISD) to create 57 sets of rules. Both class size and teacher caseloads have exploded. There is now much inequity and inequality on the backs of students with disabilities, teachers and clinicians, who have had to deal with severe budget cuts. The end, to the beginning of special education in Michigan, began in earnest in 2002.

•On May 14, 2010 the MDE unleashed its “Criteria to Determine the Existence of a Specific Learning Disability.” the Department created an arbitrary “9th percentile” that a student must have on a norm-referenced achievement test (like Woodcock-Johnson) or curriculum based assessment to even be considered for eligibility. Michigan’s special education population and especially those with learning disabilities are dropping like educational-flies.

•In January 2009, President Obama signed the American Recovery Reinvestment Act (ARRA) that included an unprecedented 12.1 billion for IDEA funding. The MDE released a memo which resulted in giving EVERY school district the permission to shift up to 50% of this one-time Federal increase to their General Fund. Michigan’s special education programs and services have not been appropriately funded, and both student outcomes and teachers’ working conditions have suffered.

•In March 2011, the MDE proposed a Rule to create a Cross Categorical Teacher. A Rule that would have permitted a teacher to earn four endorsements, in 30 hours, for the price of one. Nothing short of a Blue Light, bargain-basement special. The MDE eventually withdrew this proposed revision following a blast of outrage led by my guest columns, emails and calls that exposed this direct hit to the credibility of special education teachers.

More recently, the MDE’s proposed revisions to the Michigan Administrative Rules for Special Education released for public comment on February 13, 2014, proposed reducing state Rules to the federal minimum. Below is just a sample of their proposed revisions:

•Removing accountability from special education timelines by requiring parents to sign the consent to special education programs and services prior to an IEP team meeting, following an evaluation.

•Exiting students from special education as soon as they earn the credits for a high school diploma;

•Requiring a paraprofessional to have only a high school diploma;

•Authorizing school districts to determine annually the special education staffing based upon the number of students with IEPs. An example, Speech caseloads capped by our Rules at 60 could have and would have increased.

• Removing short term objectives for students taking our State’s standardized general education assessment, and leaving only “goals” that are too often not measurable.

•Eliminating “Multidisciplinary Evaluation Teams” and replacing them with watered-down versions of so-called experts;

•Adding a physician’s assistant to the eligibility for an Other Health Impairment, Physical Impairment, Traumatic Brain Injury, and Hearing-Vision Impairment. MI Rules have required a licensed physician to be a member of these evaluation teams. Heaven forbid the MDE had suggested a revision to permit a PhD psychologist, but no, their mission was to save money, and at the expense of necessary evaluations by “experts.”

•Requiring a student with Autism to fail to make eye-to-eye gaze in order to qualify for special education. The Autism Society of Michigan did not send out an action alert for the first two weeks of the public comment period. Just an example of the MDE’s exemplary job of brainwashing special education administrators, teachers, Parent Advisory Committees and local special needs organizations into believing that the proposed revisions were nothing substantive, and that I was a misguided Chicken Little.

I invested almost one entire year into sounding the alarms, and stopping these proposed revisions. A parent reached out to me during the public comment period and then created a petition that we posted all over Facebook, listservs, emails, websites and Twitter. This petition drew 10,000 signatures!

In an unprecedented show of support, the National Center for Learning Disabilities, Council of Parent Attorneys and Advocates, Advocacy Institute, Diane Ravitch and Eclectablog, issued national action alerts on Michigan’s Rule revisions. I filed a formal complaint with the United States Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (“OCR”) pursuant to my belief that the MDE’s website for the proposed Rule revisions was in violation of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 2008.

The OCR let me know that in fact issues of noncompliance have been identified. I, along with the MDE, are waiting for their final report and corrective actions. One year, of sleepless nights, and an engine running on fear and determination, I lived on phones, emails and texts with state legislative offices, disability stakeholders, parents, teachers, clinicians, the news media, social media and anyone who would listen, and in my quest to sound the alarm that special education was under the attack of all attacks.

My hypothesis was simple.

If Michigan eliminated our state-imposed special education rules, other states’ would fall like dominoes. I could not let that happen. Not without waging a war on the MDE and anyone working to deny children with disabilities an education, and hope for a future of independence, and access to the American Dream. Michigan had become a “national” issue. If we could stop the MDE’s proposed revisions, we could use this effort as an example to stop other states’ attacks on special education. Michigan is still a national issue, but there are other states and other children with ineffective IEPs and eroding special education programs and services waiting for our attention.

Still, thankfully and through months of effort, the Chairs of our Michigan Joint Committee for Administrative Rules (“JCAR”) held a hearing on December 11th and, in effect, shut down the Rules package and urged the MDE to withdraw them. Parents, children with special needs, and some brave and caring teachers filled two rooms at our Capitol and spilled into the halls. Senator John Pappageorge, Chair of the JCAR, said that in his fourteen years in the MI Senate he had never seen such an outpouring of support for children, and against the proposed revisions to our Rules.

Michigan’s Lt. Governor Brian Calley, the father of a child with Autism, testified against the proposed Rules. “Rules for children with disabilities are different than other Rules and must be protected,” he said. And so, the MDE’s deplorable package of proposed revisions to the Michigan Administrative Rules for Special Education were not approved. Senator Pappageorge urged MDE administrators to withdraw the package, and Lt. Governor Calley said that he looked forward to working with the Department and parents over the next year.

For one bright and shining day, a day of renewal of spirit and hope, we had prevailed and our children had won.

And what has the MDE done since December 11, 2014? They have whined like three-year olds and threatened to take action against our Lt. Governor for testifying at the JCAR hearing.

What happened to the Michigan Department of Education? What happens to people when they become highly paid and powerful administrators? Do they forget why they went into teaching? Do they forget that children are their greatest obligation and opportunity? Do they forget that public education is every child’s greatest civil right and the legs upon which our Nation and States stand upon?

I believe the answer begins with the problems caused by former Governor Engler’s Executive Orders and the transparency that has been shrouded in opaqueness and secrecy these past 19 years.

The MDE and our State Superintendent answer to no one, not even to our State Board of Education. There are no checks and balances. There is no moral compass. There is almost no communication.

MI school districts and ISDs violate our Michigan Administration Rules for Special Education (MARSE) and the IDEA, and the MDE looks the other way. Our largest ISD, the Wayne Regional Education Service Agency (RESA), preemptively implemented the proposed revision to eliminate short term objectives from students’ IEPs, back in September. The Rules never passed but the Wayne RESA did not care. They seemed to think that they could remove accountability from students’ IEPs and no parent would be the wiser.

I was alerted to this in October and blew the whistle loudly. I filed a systemic complaint and I am awaiting the MDE’s final report. Thousands of students’ IEPs are out of compliance, and yet there are few signs that the MDE or Wayne RESA are working to right these wrongs.

I will say with a mix of sadness and humor that while I fight for the rights of our State’s students with IEPs primarily as a volunteer, there are special education administrators being paid to violate the Rules! I am a self-anointed IEP sleuth and “Sheriff” and only because the kids deserve someone to fight for their rights to an education. I do not choose to do this alone, and work every day to engage parents, teachers and disability stakeholders. I wonder every day what it will take for parents to again pick up the gauntlet and fight for State Rules and a Federal Law that is not even a half-century old.

To all who read this blog, special education is dying. The small victories come at the expense of more devastating defeats. The outcomes for students with IEPs are egregious. In Michigan, fewer than 51-% of students with IEPs earned a diploma last year. Look deeper at the diplomas earned and you will see that too many are meaningless and not worthy of the paper they are printed on. We cannot allow this educational abuse to continue. Every child matters and the majority can, and want to become productive taxpayers.

Sheer tenaciousness, perseverance and an unwillingness to admit defeat, thwarted the MDE’s proposed revisions. Can this be done in other states? The question isn’t can it be done. The answer is, it must be done. We must take on every State that proposes to destroy our children’s educational rights. We must take on each State as a Nation. We must take on the looming reauthorization of the IDEA as 50 States “united.”

The battles waged by parents of children with special needs in the 50’s, 60’s and 70’s cannot be forgotten. We must carry them with us. We must use them for strength. We must find our courage and resolve, and fight for America’s “special” children as we did in Michigan. The alternative is unthinkable.

I like to believe that we all want to fight for our children and their right to a free appropriate public education. I live by Dr. Martin Luther King’s “Our lives begin to end, the day we become silent about things that matter…” and Carol Bellamy’s “You need to get up in the morning and say, “Boy, I’m going to—in my own stupid way—save the world today.”

And I say every day, “As an ‘I’ I make a difference, but as a ‘We’ we are unstoppable.”

Marcie Lipsitt is an activist for students with disabilities in the State of Michigan. Visit her website the Marcie Lipsitt Education Advocate at http://marcielipsitt.com/ . 

January 22, 2015 at 7:30 am

Hi Marcie, Are you aware that Arne Duncan stopped regulating compliance with IEP/s in 2011? In May of 2013 he shut down by defunding EVERY state compliance office in the country. The last thing he wants is a well regulated SPED system & every state Commissioner of ed knows it. Up until 2011 public schools were subject to both monitoring & compliance by the state & feds. State monitors reviewed numbers of kids in SPED, eligibility, -mostly keeping track of the numbers of kids & services being delivered so that tax dollars could be distributed according to the amount of services a kiddo received. Compliance officers were looking for indications of rights violations.. Rights violations could be anything from failure to deliver a related services to placement decisions. Every school had a compliance officer visit every 2 or 3 yrs (I can’t recall) Enforcing compliance was one of the major reasons parents & schools have been able to guarantee services for our students. The director of OSEP announced in 2011 that their primary focus would be monitoring from DC. That means all they want is raw data & they’ll monitor progress by test scores. SPED is facing death by 1000 cuts. I am so thoroughly disgusted with Duncan’s DoEd. The fall-out of his poison policy decisions is happening in every state. Parents and teachers need a 21st century revolution or we are headed back to the days prior to 1975 for our students. Discrimination is already happening in charter schools.

January 22, 2015 at 3:30 pm

Hi Joan- Thank you for your post and spot on analysis. Yes, I am all too aware of Arne Duncan’s devastating influence and policy actions. I wrote a letter to the Washington Times in Decembet 2008 that was published and focused on President-Elect Obsma’s poor decision in nominating Arne Dumcan.

January 22, 2015 at 8:52 am

Prior to PL94-142 there was the ‘Mills Case’ – class action law suit in Washington DC. My husband, also a life-long professional educator in SpEd, was assigned as Special Master to the DC courts under Judge Waddie. Two solid years of heart wrenching hearings, reviewing evidence of harm to children, many who were scared into adulthood. Those were the dark ages before our kids were viewed as humans, treated as humans and had rights, along with responsibilities for us as a Nation. I remember vividly when parents were told to keep their kids home. Out of sight, out of mind. Many of us fought endlessly to improve conditions, educational opportunities, followed the letter and spirit of the law…only to be ‘pissed on’ by a near-do-well…Arne Duncan & Co. President Obama appeared to be a shining star, until we were blinded and kicked to the curb. I will never forgive him and his administration for what he did to our children, ALL CHILDREN, in two terms. We may not recover for years, if ever. I wish I had a more positive outlook, but the Billionaires and their thousands of bottom feeders have their knees on our necks. #WeCan’tBreathe!

January 22, 2015 at 3:32 pm

I feel your pain and anger. Every day I wonder what it’s going to take for parents to fight.

January 22, 2015 at 9:49 am

Should have added warning to keep tissues nearby and/or a punching bag. Thanks, Joan and H.A. Hurley. Mills and PARC should never be forgotten!

January 22, 2015 at 9:53 am

Marcie and Nancy, may I copy the intro onto my blog, Exceptional Delaware, and then provide a link for the rest to the rest of this article? My readers need to see this!!! Excellent article. How does this even happen?

January 22, 2015 at 11:46 am

Absolutely, Kevin! Marcie and I both say yes! It will be an honor to have it on Exceptional Delaware!

July 23, 2018 at 10:12 am

Actually, Michigan’s state law was passed in 1972 and preceded the original federal legislation. As a retired special education teacher and a Michigan ISD Superintendent who has opposed many of the rules changes, I have watched with dismay as Michigan’s special education rules and regulations continued to be decimated. Even certain testing accommodations related to a child’s disability have been restricted. Michigan’s educational performance has considerably declined over the past decade. Obviously, for students with disabilities, this decline has been especially devastating. Thank you for your reflections and continued advocacy Ms. Lipsitt.

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3 Tips for Planning US History Curriculum for Special Education & ELL Students

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• curriculum , differentiation , ELL , engagement , history , social studies , special education , us history

Are you teaching US history to special education students and English language learners? Let’s talk about how to best support these students in your class! Here are 3 tips for designing US history curriculum for special education students and English Language Learners (ELLs). 

Planning American History Curriculum for Special Education and ELL Students

First tip- use guided note packets with your students:

• On your teacher presentation, bold the words that you want students to write. I recommend only bolding 3-6 words per slide .
• Don’t make your slides very text heavy. Only include the necessary information. I use bullet points and a lot of images.
• In the student note packets, put all the text from the slides and leave blank lines where you want students to write the bolded words. 

Second tip- scaffold all assignments and projects :

• Give short and specific written directions to students. I also recommend going over the directions orally.
• You don’t have to give all of the directions at once. You can give them one step at a time.
• I prefer to give my students a checklist so that they know the steps to take and can check off the steps as they go. 

Third tip- give students choice with differentiation

• You can differentiate assignments and projects by level and assign them to students based on best fit.
• But sometimes you should let students choose between different options so that they can choose what most interests them.
• Incorporating student choice empowers students and can increase engagement. 

Save Your Planning Time With My US History Curriculum for Special Education and ELL students

It is a lot of work to create US History curriculum that is designed for special education and ELL students. Let me do the work for you! I’ve created US history curriculum with guided note packets, teacher presentations, scaffolded and differentiated assignments and projects, assessments, and more! I spent countless hours creating my curriculum, but you don’t have to! Save your planning time with my US history curriculum for special education students and English Language Learners. 

Take a look at what’s included in one of the units of this curriculum in this YouTube video. 

Help all learners access grade level content with this differentiated curriculum!  This history curriculum is editable, digital, and printable.

This American history curriculum provides everything you need to make sure  all students thrive in your classroom from scaffolded teacher presentations, differentiated activities, history guided notes, and so much more! Engaging American History  map activities  are also included.

Plus, it’s been adapted to better support English language learners, students receiving special education services, and any student that needs extra help— so everyone is included in your learning environment!

Which students is this curriculum made for?  All middle and high school students!  It is adapted to  better support English language learners, students receiving special education services , and students that need extra support.

Not everyone learns the same way  – that’s why this differentiated US History Curriculum was designed to support all learners. Whether you use it digitally or print it out, our structured curriculum will ensure all grade level content is accessible to every student in your class!

What does each unit include?  All units have a teacher presentation (digital and editable), student note packet (digital, printable, and editable), completed student note packet, at least one activity and one project, and an assessment (digital, printable, and editable)!

So don’t wait! Redefine your American history lessons today by exploring this customizable full year US history curriculum for special education and ELL students.

Do you need support with Geography Curriculum?

Check out this post I wrote about creating World Geography Curriculum for Special Education and ELL students.

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The History Of Special Education

Teaching those with learning disabilities , especially children, can be time-consuming, heartbreaking and try your patience unlike anything else. If you’re doing all of this within the educational system we have in the United States, you also know what it’s like to experience frustration, constant budget cuts and increasing class sizes.

Even though special education programs and classes are part of the educational system’s natural lexicon, this wasn’t always the case. It has taken a lot of hard work, sweat and plenty of tears to even get to the fragile state of special education we have today, but the stress on an already-collapsing school system might just be what sends the whole thing over the edge. Let’s take a look at how special education got its humble start in America, and where it might be going from here.

Brown V. Board of Education

Before this landmark case went to trial in 1954, segregation was the way of the world with separate schools, restaurants and buses for colored people. Even though slavery had been abolished less than a century before, the stigma for people of color was that they were of lesser intelligence than white folk and therefore needed to be separated. It was a sad time in the world, and the end of segregation wouldn’t have come as quickly if it weren’t for Brown v. Board of Education.

In this trial, it was ruled that Kansas state laws which separated schools by color were unconstitutional and that all children had the right to learn equally without prejudice. This ruling swiftly and effectively ended public school segregation, but it was still several more years before the ruling was accepted throughout the United States as part and parcel of our educational system.

Because this ruling helped people who were seen as “different” gain an edge in life, it paved a whole new path for those that wanted equality in other aspects of life, too, like children with special needs and the need for special education programs within America’s schools. It wasn’t long until the first laws were passed that allowed special education programs to be instituted within the school system that would help those with learning disabilities.

The Education for All Handicapped Children Act

Parents had been forming specialized support groups for children with special needs as early as 1933, and after Brown v. Board of Education was ruled as being in favor of minorities, the first glimmer of hope started to awaken for those with learning disabilities and special needs.

In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA) law was passed that recognized the need for special education services for those who were diagnosed with learning disabilities. Even though widespread rules and regulations for public schooling had been imposed in America since 1918, children with learning disabilities and the need for special education were wholeheartedly excluded from being able to take part in a free education. Their choices? Stay home and be taught or be sent away to an institution that might have been better equipped to handle the special needs of these children. Neither one of those options was suitable for a growing child’s mind, and after the Civil Rights Movement took segregation within the school systems public, the voice for equality for all children started to rise and gain momentum.

Originally known as Public Law 94-142, EAHCA called for a widespread reform of the educational system that would now include the means to teach those with a wide range of learning disabilities like physical disabilities, speech, mental issues, behavioral problems and more, giving them a “ free appropriate public education (FAPE) .” The law also required schools to provide such education in the least restrictive environment possible for these children, which meant special education classrooms, teachers, tutoring and training for a new way of life.

The law was reauthorized in 1990 and again in 1997 and eventually changed to the more suitably named Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). With the invention of the law, millions of children that were previously denied access to quality education were now folded into the fray and welcomed to learn despite their learning disabilities or other special needs. What started with small, individualized classes for the challenged eventually morphed into children with special needs spending more and more time in a regular classroom setting ( Inclusion Classroom ). IDEA opened up a whole world of possibilities and allowed even the most disabled of children the chance to get an education on par with their peers.

Special Education in America Today

With the population expanding rapidly in some areas of the country, classroom sizes are becoming an overpopulation issue that needs to be addressed. Constant budget cuts, teacher strikes and the stress of teaching growing classrooms is putting unnecessary strain on a system that might not be able to handle much more.

While special education is a definite must-have for children with special needs, the state of technology in our country affords a broader range of educational opportunities than ever before. Online education has exploded in popularity, and children with special needs can greatly benefit from a one-on-one customized lesson plan that works with their individual challenges instead of grouping them with a generalized school curriculum.

Special Education Resource recognizes this niche market for special education and wants to provide both students and educators with the best learning experience possible. Gone are the days of struggling to connect with industry professionals that can properly educate your child and feeling alone while doing so. Supplemental learning through special education tutoring can now be done from the comfort of your own home and in an environment that helps your child with special needs feel loved and cherished as they continue down an educational path to success.

An increased number of parents across the US have begun to take advantage of the programs and resources available with special education tutoring . Special education tutors take the curriculum your child with special needs is currently receiving in their traditional classroom and molds it to fit their unique learning style. Special Education Resource is here to help you every step of the way, from kindergarten to graduation and everything in between.

A label doesn’t have to define a child; it simply proves that all children learn differently.

Luke Dalien

One comment.

Thanks for also talking about the laws that were passed in order to make special education more accessible to those who need it. I’m planning to help out my neighbor look for a remote special education program because he has a daughter that has autism spectrum disorder. Since she spends a lot of her time on the computer, it would be best to also arrange her education around that.

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Lesson Plans For Special Education

Why does it seem like when we are looking for lesson plans for special education , there is a whole lot of reinventing the wheel going on? That’s because THERE IS. As Special Educators, we are constantly looking for lessons that we can differentiate, adapt, or modify, to reach all the various levels and needs of students in our classrooms. It shouldn’t still be this difficult after all this time, to find lesson plans for special education that are usable, practical, & relevant. If you’re looking for activities and lesson plans for special education, (which of course you are, since you’re here) keep reading!! Below, I break down an easier way to lesson plan, give you lesson plan ideas, and list out lots of sites & resources that are great for special education classrooms. Let’s get to it!

When it comes to lesson planning for special education , it’s a great idea to have a general plan for each class period. Every class period should follow some kind of routine. This makes planning a lot easier, no matter what topic you’re teaching that day.

A rough breakdown could look something like this:

Warm up activity

• Depending on what class you teach, this could be a few simple math problems, a puzzle, a matching activity, or a simple vocational task the student can complete This gets the student in the mindset for learning and also gives you a few minutes to get yourself prepared.

Instruction

• I love using power points for my whole class instruction. Most students are more interested and will engage/participate more when I use power points or project stories, activities, etc., on the smart board.  Each day I find something to project (story, instructional power point). For our lower functioning learners, or learners with shorter attention spans, their attention is held by the screen and pictures (not too cluttery!). It works even better if you can find something interactive.

Group Activity/ Guided Learning

• Doing a group activity to help review the materials taught is helpful. You can do a hands on activity, a game, or even something simple like answering comprehension questions together as a class.

Independent Work

• Give your students an activity to work on that they can complete as independently as possible. Again if you can’t think of something, you could give students the same comprehension questions you just went over as a class to see how they do on their own.
• This can also be things like writing prompts, picture prompts, matching activities, sequencing, sorting, word search, crossword puzzle, file folder activity etc.

Wrap up/Closing

• Review as a class what was covered today.
• Have students do an ‘exit ticket’ of 1, 2, or 3 things they learned today, something they want to learn more about, what did they like or dislike about today etc.
• Most of our students are always looking forward to the end of class/activities so they can have break time. Sometimes it’s also hard to plan exactly to the end of the period, so a little buffer time for students to calm down and give their brains a break is well deserved.
• Students could get on the computer, their phones (if being appropriate), puzzles, play games, etc.

This is a general template for a teaching period. You can change as you see fit to meet the needs of your students. Sometimes your students may need more breaks, try to fit these into your scheduling if possible, so you can maximize instruction time.

Looking for a more detailed description of how to write lesson plans for special education? Are you looking for a template for special education lesson plans? Here’s a rundown of how to plan/write lesson plans for special education regardless of the topic.

When it comes to specific lesson planning, you can follow this template and guide. This will give you more detail on how to plan for specific units or lessons. Depending on the level of students you teach, this may be helpful, so check it out!

Sometimes we don’t even know where to start when are given a new class to teach. Looking at a list of lesson plans for special education can trigger our minds to where we want the direction of our class to go. We just need a starting point. Next, choose a unit to focus on. After you have a unit, you can break it down into smaller lessons and set lesson objectives. Then you can plan specific instruction, small group or independent activities, and more.

Are you looking for supplemental activities/sites that you can use as part of extending your lesson plans for special education ?

Here are some great websites (some free and some paid) that have great resources to use in your classrooms today.

Reading A-Z

Raz-Kids.com

Tarheelreader.org

Storylineonline.com

Specialedlessonplans.com

Superteacherworksheets.com

Scholastic.com

K5learning.com

Edhelper.com

AttainmentCompany.com

Math-drills.com

Mathplayground.com

Life Skills:

News2you.n2y.com

SpecialEdLessonPlans.com

Science/History:

BrainPop.com

Science A-Z

How Stuff Works

Nat Geo Kids

Time for Kids

Speechbuddy.com

Thespeechbubbleslp.com

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• Russia Information Centre - Zvenigorod, Russia

Zvenigorod , city, Moscow oblast (region), western European Russia . It is located on the Moscow River 33 miles (53 km) west of Moscow .

Archaeological excavations (1943–45 and 1954–57) have revealed the existence of settlement there from the 12th and 13th centuries. The first written mention of Zvenigorod appeared in the 1339 will of Ivan I , prince of Muscovy and Vladimir. From the 14th through the 16th century, Zvenigorod served as a defense post on the western approaches to Moscow, from Lithuania and Poland , along the Smolensk-Moscow road. The Gorodok (Citadel), an earth fortification rising about 150 feet (46 metres) above the Moscow River , was built during this period. In 1398 the ruling prince, Yuri Zvenigorodsky, founded the Savvino Storozhevskiy Monastery at the confluence of the Storozhka and Moscow rivers, 0.6 mile (1 km) from Zvenigorod. Peter I (the Great), his brother Ivan V , and his sister Sophia found refuge in the monastery during the 1682 rebellion of the streltsy , the Russian military corps established in the mid-16th century that formed the bulk of the Russian army. The natural environment of hills and forests made the countryside around Zvenigorod a favourite retreat for such famous Russians as the political thinker Aleksandr Herzen (1812–70), the playwright Anton Chekhov (1860–1904), the short-story writer and novelist Maxim Gorky (1868–1936), and the composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–93).

Today the city’s economic activities include the manufacture of furniture, school and office supplies, toys, sporting equipment, and clothing. Zvenigorod has a technical training school specializing in finance. A fine example of early Moscow architecture in the Gorodok is the Uspenskiy Sobor (Assumption Cathedral) dating from the 14th century. It has a single dome, a rectangular floor plan, and frescoes by the Russian painter Andrey Rublyov (1360/70–c. 1430), founder of the Moscow school of painting. Within the nearby Savvino Storozhevskiy Monastery stands the Rozhdestvensky Sobor (Nativity of the Virgin Cathedral; 1405), with an interior of 15th-, 16th-, and 17th-century paintings, and a small palace built for Tsar Alexis Mikhaylovich in 1652–54. The structures of the former monastery now house medical clinics, a sanatorium, and the Zvenigorod Historical Museum, as well as the Museum of Local Lore . Pop. (2010) 16,395; (2014 est.) 18,183.

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