argumentative essay about male and female education

How our education system undermines gender equity

Subscribe to the brown center on education policy newsletter, and why culture change—not policy—may be the solution, joseph cimpian jc joseph cimpian associate professor of economics and education policy - new york university.

April 23, 2018

There are well-documented achievement and opportunity gaps by income and race/ethnicity. K-12 accountability policies often have a stated goal of reducing or eliminating those gaps, though with questionable effectiveness . Those same accountability policies require reporting academic proficiency by gender, but there are no explicit goals of reducing gender gaps and no “hard accountability” sanctions tied to gender-subgroup performance. We could ask, “Should gender be included more strongly in accountability policies?”

In this post, I’ll explain why I don’t think accountability policy interventions would produce real gender equity in the current system—a system that largely relies on existing state standardized tests of math and English language arts to gauge equity. I’ll argue that although much of the recent research on gender equity from kindergarten through postgraduate education uses math or STEM parity as a measure of equity, the overall picture related to gender equity is of an education system that devalues young women’s contributions and underestimates young women’s intellectual abilities more broadly.

In a sense, math and STEM outcomes simply afford insights into a deeper, more systemic problem. In order to improve access and equity across gender lines from kindergarten through the workforce, we need considerably more social-questioning and self-assessment of biases about women’s abilities.

As soon as girls enter school, they are underestimated

For over a decade now, I have studied gender achievement with my colleague Sarah Lubienski, a professor of math education at Indiana University-Bloomington. In a series of studies using data from both the 1998-99 and 2010-11 kindergarten cohorts of the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, we found that no average gender gap in math test scores existed when boys and girls entered kindergarten, but a gap of nearly 0.25 standard deviations developed in favor of the boys by around second or third grade.

For comparison purposes, the growth of the black-white math test score gap was virtually identical to the growth in the gender gap. Unlike levels and growth in race-based gaps, though, which have been largely attributed to a combination of differences in the schools attended by black and white students and to socio-economic differences, boys and girls for the most part attend the same schools and come from families of similar socio-economic status. This suggests that something may be occurring within schools that contributes to an advantage for boys in math.

Exploring deeper, we found that the beliefs that teachers have about student ability might contribute significantly to the gap. When faced with a boy and a girl of the same race and socio-economic status who performed equally well on math tests and whom the teacher rated equally well in behaving and engaging with school, the teacher rated the boy as more mathematically able —an alarming pattern that replicated in a separate data set collected over a decade later .

Another way of thinking of this is that in order for a girl to be rated as mathematically capable as her male classmate, she not only needed to perform as well as him on a psychometrically rigorous external test, but also be seen as working harder than him. Subsequent matching and instrumental variables analyses suggested that teachers’ underrating of girls from kindergarten through third grade accounts for about half of the gender achievement gap growth in math. In other words, if teachers didn’t think their female students were less capable, the gender gap in math might be substantially smaller.

An interaction that Sarah and I had with a teacher drove home the importance and real-world relevance of these results. About five years ago, while Sarah and I were faculty at the University of Illinois, we gathered a small group of elementary teachers together to help us think through these findings and how we could intervene on the notion that girls were innately less capable than boys. One of the teachers pulled a stack of papers out of her tote bag, and spreading them on the conference table, said, “Now, I don’t even understand why you’re looking at girls’ math achievement. These are my students’ standardized test scores, and there are absolutely no gender differences. See, the girls can do just as well as the boys if they work hard enough.” Then, without anyone reacting, it was as if a light bulb went on. She gasped and continued, “Oh my gosh, I just did exactly what you said teachers are doing,” which is attributing girls’ success in math to hard work while attributing boys’ success to innate ability. She concluded, “I see now why you’re studying this.”

Although this teacher did ultimately recognize her gender-based attribution, there are (at least) three important points worth noting. First, her default assumption was that girls needed to work harder in order to achieve comparably to boys in math, and this reflects an all-too-common pattern among elementary school teachers, across at least the past couple decades and in other cultural contexts . Second, it is not obvious how to get teachers to change that default assumption. Third, the evidence that she brought to the table was state standardized test scores, and these types of tests can reveal different (often null or smaller) gender achievement gaps than other measures.

On this last point, state standardized tests consistently show small or no differences between boys and girls in math achievement, which contrasts with somewhat larger gaps on NAEP and PISA , as well as with gaps at the top of the distribution on the ECLS , SAT Mathematics assessment, and the American Mathematics Competition . The reasons for these discrepancies are not entirely clear, but what is clear is that there is no reason to expect that “hardening” the role of gender in accountability policies that use existing state tests and current benchmarks will change the current state of gender gaps. Policymakers might consider implementing test measures similar to those where gaps have been noted and placing more emphasis on gains throughout the achievement distribution. However, I doubt that a more nuanced policy for assessing math gains would address the underlying problem of the year-after-year underestimation of girls’ abilities and various signals and beliefs that buttress boys’ confidence and devalue girls, all of which cumulatively contributes to any measured gaps.

More obstacles await women in higher education and beyond

Looking beyond K-12 education, there is mounting evidence at the college and postgraduate levels that cultural differences between academic disciplines may be driving women away from STEM fields, as well as away from some non-STEM fields (e.g., criminal justice, philosophy, and economics). In fact, although research and policy discussions often dichotomize academic fields and occupations as “STEM” and “non-STEM,” the emerging research on gender discrimination in higher education finds that the factors that drive women away from some fields cut across the STEM/non-STEM divide. Thus, while gender representation disparities between STEM and non-STEM fields may help draw attention to gender representation more broadly, reifying the STEM/non-STEM distinction and focusing on math may be counterproductive to understanding the underlying reasons for gender representation gaps across academic disciplines.

In a recent study , my colleagues and I examined how perceptions on college majors relate to who is entering those majors. We found that the dominant factor predicting the gender of college-major entrants is the degree of perceived discrimination against women. To reach this conclusion, we used two sources of data. First, we created and administered surveys to gather perceptions on how much math is required for a major, how much science is required, how creative a field is, how lucrative careers are in a field, how helpful the field is to society, and how difficult it is for a woman to succeed in the field. After creating factor scales on each of the six dimensions for each major, we mapped those ratings onto the second data source, the Education Longitudinal Study, which contains several prior achievement, demographic, and attitudinal measures on which we matched young men and women attending four-year colleges.

Among this nationally representative sample, we found that the degree to which a field was perceived to be math- or science-intensive had very little relation to student gender. However, fields that were perceived to discriminate against women were strongly predictive of the gender of the students in the field, whether or not we accounted for the other five traits of the college majors. In short, women are less likely to enter fields where they expect to encounter discrimination.

And what happens if a woman perseveres in obtaining a college degree in a field where she encounters discrimination and underestimation and wants to pursue a postgraduate degree in that field, and maybe eventually work in academia? The literature suggests additional obstacles await her. These obstacles may take the form of those in the field thinking she’s not brilliant like her male peers in graduate school, having her looks discussed on online job boards when she’s job-hunting, performing more service work if she becomes university faculty, and getting less credit for co-authored publications in some disciplines when she goes up for tenure.

Each of the examples here and throughout this post reflects a similar problem—education systems (and society) unjustifiably and systematically view women as less intellectually capable.

Societal changes are necessary

My argument that policy probably isn’t the solution is not intended to undercut the importance of affirmative action and grievance policies that have helped many individuals take appropriate legal recourse. Rather, I am arguing that those policies are certainly not enough, and that the typical K-12 policy mechanisms will likely have no real effect in improving equity for girls.

The obstacles that women face are largely societal and cultural. They act against women from the time they enter kindergarten—instilling in very young girls a belief they are less innately talented than their male peers—and persist into their work lives. Educational institutions—with undoubtedly many well-intentioned educators—are themselves complicit in reinforcing the hurdles. In order to dismantle these barriers, we likely need educators at all levels of education to examine their own biases and stereotypes.

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Gender differences in students’ argumentative essay writing, peer review performance and uptake in online learning environments

• Research Line Online Learning and Instruction (part of ERA program)
• Department of Online Learning and Instruction

Research output : Contribution to journal › Article › Academic › peer-review

• Argumentative essay writing
• higher education
• online learning
• peer review performance
• peer review uptake

Access to Document

• 10.1080/10494820.2022.2034887 Licence: CC BY-NC-ND

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• Online Learning Environment Keyphrases 100%
• Argumentative Essay Writing Keyphrases 100%
• Peer Review Keyphrases 100%
• Gender Differences Keyphrases 100%
• Online Arts and Humanities 100%
• Learning Environment Arts and Humanities 100%
• Essay writing Arts and Humanities 100%
• Online Learning Psychology 100%

T1 - Gender differences in students’ argumentative essay writing, peer review performance and uptake in online learning environments

AU - Noroozi, Omid

AU - Banihashem, Seyyed Kazem

AU - Kerman, Nafiseh Taghizadeh

AU - Khaneh, Marzieh Parvaneh Akhteh

AU - Babayi, Maryam

AU - Ashrafi, Hadis

AU - Biemans, Harm J.A.

N2 - This study adopted a pre-test–post-test design to explore gender differences in argumentative essay writing and peer review performance and uptake within a higher education context. To do this,as part of a bigger project, 101 students were asked to individually write an argumentative essay, engage in peer review activities and revise their original essay based on the received reviews from peers.The findings showed that female students perform better than male students in argumentative essay writing in terms of taking a position on the topic. Gender differences were also found in peer review performance, where females provided better justifications for identified problems in peer review, more constructive reviews and higher quality peer review than males. The findings also revealed that although there was no gender difference in overall peer review uptake, females uptake of peer review resulted in improvement of their arguments against the position in the revised essay. These findings suggest that gender plays a significant role in argumentative essay writing, peer review performance and uptake of the received reviews from peers.Recommendations for future research along with how to deal with these gender differences in educational practice in online settings are provided based on the findings.

AB - This study adopted a pre-test–post-test design to explore gender differences in argumentative essay writing and peer review performance and uptake within a higher education context. To do this,as part of a bigger project, 101 students were asked to individually write an argumentative essay, engage in peer review activities and revise their original essay based on the received reviews from peers.The findings showed that female students perform better than male students in argumentative essay writing in terms of taking a position on the topic. Gender differences were also found in peer review performance, where females provided better justifications for identified problems in peer review, more constructive reviews and higher quality peer review than males. The findings also revealed that although there was no gender difference in overall peer review uptake, females uptake of peer review resulted in improvement of their arguments against the position in the revised essay. These findings suggest that gender plays a significant role in argumentative essay writing, peer review performance and uptake of the received reviews from peers.Recommendations for future research along with how to deal with these gender differences in educational practice in online settings are provided based on the findings.

KW - Argumentative essay writing

KW - gender

KW - higher education

KW - online learning

KW - peer review performance

KW - peer review uptake

U2 - 10.1080/10494820.2022.2034887

DO - 10.1080/10494820.2022.2034887

M3 - Article

SN - 1049-4820

JO - Interactive LearnIng Environments

JF - Interactive LearnIng Environments

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Male Education is Better than Female Education Debate

Henry Divine Leave a comment

Table of Contents

Male Education vs. Female Education

Our argument on this post borders around the concept of “male education” versus “female education”. And I need to explain the concept before we begin to delve into the real debates.

The very idea of male education and female education suggests that there is a difference in how education has been, or is being provided to boys and girls.

These differences have their roots in cultural norms, society expectations and historical inequalities.

Very sadly, in some societies, male education still receive more resources and attention compared to female education. Parents encourage their boys to pursue fields such as science, mathematics, technology and so on; but they direct their girls towards domestic skills and the subjects they perceive as feminine. Where this is obtainable in a society, it’s obvious that they are still grappling with gender inequality, roles and expectations

But is male education better than female education by any means? That’s the essence of this article —to foster a conversation in this regard so that people will know the truth.

Read Also: Interesting Debate Topics for Primary and Secondary Schools

Now, let’s start getting in on our subject matter. Throughout this conversation, you must bear in mind that education empowers individuals to attain their full potential and contribute to society, regardless of their gender. So perceiving male education as better than female education is both inaccurate and harmful.

In the following section, you will see the reason why some people still believe that male education is better than female education.

10 Reasons Why Male Education is Better than Female Education

The following are some of the reasons why some people perceive male education as better than female education:

1. Economic Factors

For some economic reasons, many people believe that educating males is a better investment than educating females. They believe that investing in male education would yield higher returns economically because men are more likely to enter high-paying professions or leadership roles.

More so, in many societies, men are considered the breadwinners and providers for their families. They are expected to provide for their family, put a roof over their heads, put food on the table. So early enough when they are still boys, their parents want to educate and prepare them to secure an excellent job to provide for the family.

This is like a follow-up of the economic factors. If a family is poor and seriously constrained in terms of resources, they may have to make the choice between educating their male children or educating their females. For very obvious reasons, they will prioritize educating their male children since they are more likely to get employed and start contributing financially to the household.

3. Traditional Gender Roles

In many societies especially those domiciled in the African continent, traditional gender roles are strongly ingrained.

In such societies, people believe that men are more suited for certain types of education and careers. So many of them undervalue the education of females or simply prioritize male education over female education.

4. Uphold Family Pride

Most people, especially Africans, believe that a family is not complete without a male child. They see male children as the family’s source of pride because they are the ones who would carry the family heritage from generation to generation. Such people are willing and eager to educate their male children.

On the contrary, they accord little or no value to the female children whose education they see as a waste of money, time, and resources.

5. Gender Roles and Responsibilities

Gender roles and responsibilities is the reason why some people believe that male education is better than female education. In societies where this is ingrained, women are expected to play more domestic and feminine roles, especially in the family. While the men, as breadwinners and providers, need to be educated for high-paying professions. So they have a natural preference for educating boys over girls.

6. Societal Status

Many societies are still patriarchal. In such societies, some people believe that educating males is essential for upholding the status and power of men within the family and society. Because of this belief, they prioritize male education over female education.

7. Males are Better Suited for Education

Whether this is an assumption or a misconception, there are people who believe it. They believe that males are inherently more intellectually capable than females. That’s why they prioritize male education over female education.

8. Better Achievers

In the traditional African context, male and female children are perceived differently. Africans see male children as stronger and more capable of achieving feats in life. Because of this, parents think it wise to rather educate the male children to sharpen and prepare them to take on challenges and actualize their full potentials.

9. Ignorance or Misinformation

In some cases, people believe that male education is better than female education simply because they don’t understand the importance of gender equality in education. They lack the accurate knowledge about the benefits of educating both genders equally, that’s why they have biased attitudes towards male education.

10. Religious Misinterpretations

Because of poor understanding of some religious texts or doctrines, people justify the exclusion of girls from education. Interpreting religious texts with patriarchal biases often lead to female subordination and restriction of their access to educational opportunities.

Read Also: 10 Reasons Why a Female Child is Important in the Family

A Sample Argumentative Essay on Male Education is Better than Female Education

Below is a sample argumentative essay that encourages equal opportunities in education and dispels the myth of male superiority:

In some places, people believe that educating boys is more important than educating girls. However, this belief is unfair and untrue. Both boys and girls deserve the same chances to learn and grow. In the next few paragraphs, you will see why saying that male education is better than female education is wrong.

Firstly, everyone has the same ability to learn, regardless of whether they are a boy or a girl. Saying that boys are better at learning is just not true. Girls are just as smart and capable as boys. So, it is not fair to deny girls the chance to go to school and learn.

Secondly, when the society treats the education of boys as more important, it keeps girls from reaching their full potential. Girls have dreams and aspirations just like boys. But when they are denied access to educational opportunities, those dreams cannot come true. We need to give girls the same opportunities as boys so they can become doctors, engineers, or whatever they want to be.

Furthermore, educating girls is good for everyone, not just the girls themselves. When girls go to school, they can learn about their health and how to take care of themselves. They can also learn skills that help them get good jobs and support their families. When girls are educated, it helps the whole community become stronger and healthier.

Read Also: Male Child is More Important than a Female Child Debate

Saying that male education is better than female education is unfair and untrue. Everyone deserves the chance to learn and grow, regardless of their gender. We need to give girls the same opportunities as boys so they can reach their full potential and make the world a better place for everyone.

If you got value from this post, you can help us to spread it. Share with friends on Social Media . Just scroll down to see the Facebook and Twitter and WhatsApp buttons. Thank you so much!

Read Also: Female Education is Better than Male Education Debate

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Guest Essay

The Gender Gap Is Taking Us to Unexpected Places

By Thomas B. Edsall

Mr. Edsall contributes a weekly column from Washington, D.C., on politics, demographics and inequality.

In one of the most revealing studies in recent years, a 2016 survey of 137,456 full-time, first-year students at 184 colleges and universities in the United States, the U.C.L.A. Higher Education Research Institute found “the largest-ever gender gap in terms of political leanings: 41.1 percent of women, an all-time high, identified themselves as liberal or far left, compared to 28.9 percent of men.”

The institute has conducted freshmen surveys every year since 1966. In the early days, until 1980, men were consistently more liberal than women. In the early and mid-1980s, the share of liberals among male and female students was roughly equal, but since 1987, women have been more liberal than men in the first year of college.

While liberal and left identification among female students reached a high in 2016, male students remained far below their 1971 high, which was 44 percent.

Along parallel lines, a Knight Foundation survey in 2017 of 3,014 college students asked: “If you had to choose, which do you think is more important, a diverse and inclusive society or protecting free speech rights.”

Male students preferred protecting free speech over an inclusive and diverse society by a decisive 61 to 39. Female students took the opposite position, favoring an inclusive, diverse society over free speech by 64 to 35.

Majorities of both male and female college students in the Knight survey support the view that the First Amendment should not be used to protect hate speech, but the men were more equivocal, at 56 to 43, than women, at 71 to 29.

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10 June 1994 Doc. 7101

1403-8/6/94-1-E

on gender equality in education

(Rapporteur: Mrs ROBERT, Switzerland

Liberal, Democratic and Reformers Group)

      Equality of women and men is a fundamental human right, an essential element of democracy and an imperative of social justice. However, in present-day societies inequalities between women and men persist de jure and de facto , in the educational field as in the political, economic, social, cultural and any other fields.

      In the educational field, both sexes still continue to focus on traditional gender roles which strongly steer and reduce their choices of education, occupation and life concepts, thus reinforcing the male norms in society, the unequal power relationship of the sexes, the sex-segregation of the labour market, the sex-specific allocation of family responsibilities, the violence against girls and women.

      Male concepts of gender and ethnic inequality and male acts of violence suggest that the equalisation process in numerous countries of Europe is stagnating or even in danger of reversing.

      Bearing in mind that the principles of "parity" and pluralist democracy should be respected as the basis of individual identity and integrity and human rights and that human resources will be the most important factor in future structural change and development, the report suggests an integration of both the gender dimension and the cross-cultural dimension in education as norms actively promoted with a gender-sensitive approach.

      Gender and cross-cultural equality in education should be recognised as aims not easily achieved. A series of measures are proposed in the fields of education, legislation, information, research and international co-operation.

I. Draft recommendation

1.       The Assembly reaffirms its commitment to the promotion of equality between women and men for the purpose of developing fundamental human rights reflected in the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, the European Social Charter and the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women.

2.       It acknowledges the considerable action by the Council of Europe on gender equality, inter alia the work of the Council for Cultural Co-operation, of the Standing Conference of European Ministers of Education (11th session in 1979 and 14th session in 1985) and of the Steering Committee for Equality between Women and Men on participation of women in public and political life as well as on sex stereotyping in the mass media and the Declaration on Policies for Combating Violence against Women in a Democratic Europe adopted by the 3rd European Ministerial Conference on equality between women and men.

3.       The Assembly reasserts the importance of gender equality in education and considers it a matter of concern that:

i.       co-education has led to more equality but also seems to favour hidden forms of discrimination of girls and women;

ii.       traditional gender roles in education still strongly steer and reduce the choices of both sexes as regards education, occupation and lifestyles, thus reinforcing the male norms in society, the unequal power relationship of the sexes, sex-segregation of the labour market and the sex-specific allocation of family responsibilities;

iii.       in numerous countries there is sexual harassment and male violence, racism and xenophobia, in education and society, afflicting especially girls and women.

4.       The Assembly believes that gender equality, as a fundamental human right and an essential element of a "parity" and pluralist democracy, should be guaranteed by the educational systems of all states party to the European Cultural Convention.

5.       Girls and boys, women and men should have de jure and de facto freedom of access to and freedom of choice in education including initial and further education, vocational training and adult education. Education should help them to develop their full potential, to preserve their personal integrity, to aim at economic independence and to participate fully in society and in political life.

6.       The Assembly believes in the need to present girls and boys with positive role models of women of the past and present as a valid educational concept for removing stereotypes. Women as principals and decision-makers within a gender-balanced educational workforce can also be considered as important role-models.

7.       It recognises the impact that childbearing and motherhood have on women's activities and considers the knowledge of it as a valid educational concept for girls and boys as well as the sharing of responsibilities for children and household work.

8.       The Assembly believes that gender equality in education can only be achieved by meeting the needs of employed women, especially those working in the educational fields, by counteracting the existing discriminations. The educational authorities of the member states should do all they can to achieve fixed and regular school timetables and provide mothers, in particular those working in the educational fields, with support such as child-oriented timetabling and provisions for child care.

9.       Gender equality in education must be part of an overall strategy for a more egalitarian and democratic society, considering that:

i.       all educational issues are related to society and shape society, especially the society of tomorrow;

ii.       girls and women have specific educational needs, especially with regard to their lifestyles, health situation and experience of discrimination, harassment and violence;

iii.       it is necessary to improve and change the image and position of women in education and society;

iv.       women of the past and present have contributed eminently to European culture and society and it is necessary to incorporate into education the knowledge the feminists have gathered on their contribution.

10.       The Assembly acknowledges the significant contribution of the women's movement and feminist researchers and activists to human rights and gender equality in the educational field as well as in the political, social, cultural and economic fields and appreciates the expertise gathered in analysing and counteracting sexism and racism.

11.       It believes that democracy can only be taught in schools in a democratic setting with respect for the cultural plurality in Europe and for the equality and dignity of the individual girl or boy, woman or man:

i.       where gender equality as a norm is actively promoted;

ii.       where gender differences are accepted and the different viewpoints and experience of women and men are appreciated in a gender sensitive way;

iii.       where there is awareness and acceptance of the ethnic and cultural differences of girls and boys, women and men and their different viewpoints and experiences.

12.       The Assembly, therefore, recommends that the Committee of Ministers ask the competent authorities of member states to promote education in human rights with a gender sensitive approach and to take measures to accelerate de jure and de facto equality in education, promoting actively equal rights, equal chances, equal treatment in a gender sensitive way to girls and boys, women and men, being students or belonging to the workforce in education, and in particular to:

i.       guarantee freedom of access and freedom of choice in education for girls and boys, women and men, including initial and further education, vocational training and adult education;

ii.       condemn and eradicate physical and verbal sexual harassment and violence;

iii.       promote equal opportunities for women and especially mothers in the work place;

iv.       promote equal participation of women in the decision-making processes;

v.       continue efforts to improve research sensitive to gender and cultural origin;

vi.       improve public awareness of the impacts of and obstacles to gender equality in school.

13.       It is important that the Committee of Ministers urges the educational authorities of member states to do all they can to provide a proper basis for a gender sensitive approach in education in all areas within their control, and especially through:

i.       revision of curricula, syllabi, textbooks and teaching material, inter alia by integrating gender sensitive expertise on girls and women's everyday life, life concepts, health demands and child-minding and the care of elderly and sick people;

ii.       reinforcement of non-discriminatory language in school;

iii.       revision of teaching methods aiming at non-sexist teaching;

iv.       improvement of educational interactions aiming at equality and non-violence;

v.       improvement of choices of segregation especially in mathematics, science and technology as a way of providing girls with career education and giving them more confidence and boys more gender awareness;

vi.       revision of female stereotypes and role models for girls, aiming at improving their self-images and providing them with positive role models;

vii.       revision of history teaching so as to present the importance of women for European history and culture, to propose them as positive role models for girls and boys and to explain the reasons for inequalities;

viii.       revision of male stereotypes and role models for boys, counteracting concepts of inequality and violence and aiming at positive non-aggressive and family-oriented role models;

ix.       revision of health education, considering the needs of girls and women;

x.       revision and broadening of sexual and family planning education;

xi.       revision and broadening of parenthood education;

xii.       revision of media education aiming at non-sexist, non-racist and non-violent teaching, counter-acting verbal and visual violence against girls and women;

xiii.       improvement of gender balance of teaching and administrative staff and school management;

xiv.       improvement of communications between schools and parents especially for migrant girls, for whom school is the most important social point of reference and sometimes the only context in which their parents allow them to enter into social relationships;

xv.       improvement of guidance and counselling, including the training of vocational advisors, of girls and boys, especially migrant girls;

xvi.       revision of initial and in-service teacher training, preparing teachers for teaching in a gender sensitive way in an egalitarian and pluralist democracy;

xvii.       improvement of support services for working parents and especially mothers such as child-oriented time-scheduling and child-care.

14.       The Assembly further recommends that the Committee of Ministers:

i.       place special emphasis on activities in the field of monitoring and provide in due course information on gender equality in education within the area of the European Cultural Convention;

ii.       initiate or intensify gender sensitive research;

iii.       expand international consultation and exchange of experiences with regard to legislation, educational programmes, studies or debates on topical problems;

iv.       encourage participation of feminist and migrant researchers and expand the incorporation of feminist expertise;

v.       expand the participation of women's organisations;

vi.       initiate exchange programmes for teachers, students and researchers, and for possibilities of training and research;

vii.       instruct the newly established European Commission against Racism and Intolerance to consider the equality dimension in its work;

viii.       re-establish the former joint working party of the Steering Committee for Equality between Women and Men and the Council for Cultural Co-operation to study the effects of co-education and to organise subsequently an international policy-making conference.

II. Explanatory memorandum

by Mrs ROBERT

Introduction

1.        The achievement of equality between girls and boys, women and men, of all cultural and ethnic origins, is crucial to the very functioning of democracy, its development and the realisation of human rights. Education plays a very basic role in this work. Formal equality as a norm which is actively promoted has therefore to be considered as one of the essentials of equality in education in general and gender and cross-cultural equality in particular.

2.        The denial of education to girls and women contributed to the construction of their inequality (Spender/Sarah 1988). Equality of sexes in education has therefore to be understood as a cultural process of historic dimensions. Education was and is a means for women to achieve equality and knowledge, a means to vocational development, a way to economic independence. To combine marriage and outside employment was historically a new concept in the lives of European women that has replaced the previous centrality of marital and motherhood roles.

3.        Education cannot be held responsible solely for the reproduction of sexual, cultural and ethnic divisions in society. But the field of education is a major socialising agent.

4.        The international women's movement and feminist research have analysed women's way to gender equality in education, the positive impacts and the still existing obstacles, the open discrimination and the hidden sexism. Feminist research has shown that theories of socialisation cannot be equally applied to men and women, that there is a need to study the development of girls and women in their own right, from a different perspective, as equal, but with different concepts, different needs, different competences etc. The same applies to health and sexuality and the question of the personal integrity and dignity of girls and women.

5.        The sexual division in society, the unequal power relationship of the sexes, the sex-segregated labour market, the sex-specific allocation of the responsibilites for children and household, sexual harrassment and violence against girls and women obviously discriminate against girls and women.

6.        Research on gender inequality (OECD 1993a:75) has shown that inequality in a less obvious way is created by complicated processes involving a complex set of conditions which only in a metaphorical sense can be considered to discriminate against girls and women. These conditions are created by the male norms in society and thus in education. The lack of knowledge, awareness and acceptance of the reality of girls and women, their different needs and competences, leads to sex stereotyping and other hidden forms of discrimination (sexist curricula and syllabi, textbooks, teaching materials, sexist language and interactions, sex-stereotyped guidance and counselling), to gender imbalance in school employment, management, inspectorates, insufficient consideration of women's working conditions and health situation in the field of education and their need of improved compatibility between work and family responsibilities (OECD 1993b:9).

7.        Girls and boys, women and men, of different cultural and ethnic origin who belong to ethnic minorities or are migrants or refugees, on the other hand, are disadvantaged in education because of their cultural and ethnic background; migrant girls in a double way, as girls and as immigrants. Teachers mostly lack the knowledge of how to overcome in a cross-cultural way sexist and ethnic discrimination and harrassment and how to support girls and especially migrant girls from Islamic countries in choosing their education or occupation.

8.        Co-education has led to more equality but also to gender and cross-cultural inequality through hidden forms of discrimination, even if equality as a norm is actively promoted (OECD 1993a). Inequality is not a problem of formal equality alone and it is not a problem for girls and women alone. It concerns both sexes in gender-specific ways. Both sexes still continue to focus on traditional gender roles and concepts, girls and women towards traditional domestic role expectations, boys and men towards traditional career and work expectations, leaving out of consideration the promotion of career opportunities for women, the sharing of family responsibilities and the development of non-aggressive concepts of masculinity.

9.        Boys generally seem to have difficulties with the various norms and concepts of masculinity. Male sex-stereotyping in school stresses boys and reinforces male-orientated concepts of inequality, specifically with regard to gender and to the cultural and ethnic background of girls and boys. In this situation boys tend towards troublesome and violent behaviour which can have a negative impact on co-educational teaching and on equality activities in school.

10.        The re-emergence of a male sub-culture with a readiness to use violence especially in the context of extremist right-wing activities shows a renewed occurence of sexual harrassment and male violence, racism and xenophobia, endangering the egalisation process so far achieved in education and society.

11.        The emergence of virtual violence against girls and women in the mass-media, software etc. further endangers the egalisation process.

12.        Reviews of the effectiveness of legislation and other measures undertaken to promote equality actively (Swedish Ministry of Education and Science 1993) show that the abandoning of formal obstacles blocking equal opportunities do not make enough difference to eliminate traditional role patterns. A report of OECD experts on Women, Work and Health (1993 a) suggests with regard to equality at work in consideration of the health problems of women that policies ought to analyse whether equality as a norm is promoted or not and, moreover, whether gender differences are accepted in a gender-sensitive way or not.

13.        The re-emerging of racism and xenophobia suggests that equality policies in education need an integration of both the gender and the cross-cultural dimensions as norms actively promoted in a gender-sensitive way.

Action taken by the Council of Europe

14.        Education and equality of opportunity for girls and women was the main theme of the Standing Conference of European Ministers of Education in 1979, which adopted a statement on education and equality of opportunity for girls and women. In 1985, the Committee of Ministers of member states adopted a recommendation on teaching and learning about human rights in schools. In 1988 the Committee of Ministers adopted a declaration on equality of women and men.

15.       The Council for Cultural Co-operation has considered sex stereotyping and gender equality in its projects on primary education and the fourteen to nineteen age-group and examined the specific situation of migrant women and girls in its project on the education and cultural development of migrants.

16.       The Steering Committee for Equality between Women and Men has studied the participation of women in political life and sex stereotyping in the mass media.

17.       The ministers of states of the Council of Europe participating in the 3rd European Ministerial Conference on equality between women and men in 1993 have adopted a declaration on policies for combating violence against women in a democratic Europe.

The gender dimension in education

18.        Gender equality means the equality of girls and boys, women and men on a basis of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, cultural, civil or any other field according to Article 1 of the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women, defining "the term 'discrimination against women' shall mean any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field".

19.        Equality of the sexes in education therefore is a question of

      —eq       uality of opportunities, equality of access to all educational institutions, freedom of choice and opportunity for both sexes. This applies to girls and boys with regard to equality of access to instruction; it applies to women and men with regard to equality at the work place, equality in opportunities with regard to career chances etc.;—

      —eq       uality of persons, who can equally develop in interactions and communications self-respect, self-image, self-concepts, attitudes, orientations and assertiveness in ways non-stereotyped by gender;—

      —eq       uality of perspectives, meaning the awareness and acceptance of differing experiences, norms and perceptions of the sexes resulting in different perspectives in their own right;—

      —eq       uality of knowledge. An immense expertise, specifically by the women's movement and feminist and cross-cultural research, has been gathered in the educational field as in the political, social, cultural, economic and any other fields, nationally and internationally, analysing male norms in society, the unequal power relationship of the sexes, sexual harrassment and violence against women and its implications on the personal integrity and health of girls and women; the traditional gender roles in education and how they steer and reduce the choices of both sexes of education, of occupation and life concepts, how they reinforce the sex-segregation of the labour market, the sex-specific allocation of family responsibilities, how they disadvantage and discriminate girls and women in obvious and less obvious ways, how co-education has not only led to more equality but also to less obvious forms of discrimination. This expertise has to be integrated into policy making, together with the feminist and cross-cultural expertise on important women in the European past and present and their significant contributions to European culture and society.Th

The cross-cultural dimension in education

20.        Cross-cultural equality means the application of the human rights principles in "parity" and pluralist democracy to girls and boys, women and men of different cultural and ethnic origin who belong to ethnic minorities or are migrants or refugees in ways of mutual awareness and acceptance.

21.        Needed is a change in perspective, a cross-cultural approach that makes communicating and learning in the educational field in a cross-cultural way possible. Teachers in school have not sufficient knowledge of the original cultures of migrant girls and boys, for instance Muslim culture and the history of Islam, yet view and speak about them in stereotypes, which makes it impossible for them to give support especially to migrant girls to relate to their own background and to come to terms with living in two or more cultures.

22.       Historical and social events in their home countries are rarely mentioned in class. School may be the only social context in which parents allow their migrant daughters to enter into social relationships. Migrant girls are often looking to school for an escape from the restrictions placed on them at home. If this opportunity is then limited because teachers lack the information and awareness of the special situation of migrant girls, this increases their difficult situation and alienation and deprives them of necessary means of coping with their balancing between the often conflicting demands of their families and their schools. Lack of guidance in choosing education and a profession and lack of communication between schools and parents add to these difficulties.

A new approach to equality of gender: active promotion and gender sensitivity

23.        In their report on women, work and health (1993: 71 ff) OECD experts suggest with regard to equality at work in consideration of the health problems of women that policies ought to be evaluated against a norm to see whether equality as a norm is promoted or not. As a second dimension of evaluation they suggest analysis of whether there is a gender sensitive or a gender insensitive approach. Thus they have a concept with the following four possibilities:

      a.        The gender insensitive approach means that gender differences are not accepted and equality as a norm is not actively promoted. Inequality is not explained by gender and male norms but by other resources. Their connection with gender is overlooked.

      b.        The gender stereotyping approach means that gender differences are accepted or even exaggerated but equality as a norm is not actively promoted. Implications are that women are the "weaker" sex etc. Male norms are explicit and generalised as "human" and obvious discriminations of girls and women are considered "normal" or "natural" because of the "nature of women".

      c.        The gender neutral (or gender blind) approach means that formal equality as a norm is actively promoted but gender differences are not taken into consideration or are neutralised. This is the approach embedded in the Nordic and North American gender equality ideology. Equality is seen as sameness of the sexes, without differences of the sexes. Therefore gender differences are not accepted. The aim is to neutralise them. This approach includes the aspect of hidden discrimination; in spite of formal equality, since the male norms in education and society are not questioned but still generalised.

      d.        The gender sensitive approach means that gender differences are accepted and equality as a norm is actively promoted. Hidden discriminations are taken into consideration and male norms are questioned. Individual and collective differences and the different viewpoints of women and men are appreciated. Equality is not seen as sameness of the sexes, because of the different realities of the sexes, the different life concepts, gender specific perception and experience of girls and women and boys and men etc.

24.        The OECD experts consider the gender sensitive approach as the new approach to gender issues in the modern working world. "With a gender sensitive approach, standard for weight lifting, exposure to chemicals and temperature limits should be derived by testing in all relevant test situations. For example, today calculations of permitted exposure may presume that all workers have the same time available from recovery from muscle strain. Women's paid and unpaid work must be considered in time for recovery." (OECD 1993a:72). It is suggested here that this OECD concept be applied to equality policies in education.

Democracy and education

25.        Democracy and human rights can only be taught in schools with a democratic setting. This means a gender balanced and cross-cultural setting with respect for the cultural plurality in Europe and for the dignity of the individual girl or boy, woman or man, where differences of gender, culture and ethnic origin are mutually accepted and ethnic and cultural differences of girls and boys, women and men and their different viewpoints and experiences are mutually appreciated.

Co-education

26.        Formal equality in education has not been sufficient to achieve factual equality. Evidence suggests hidden forms of discrimination in co-education, resulting from male norms in education, an unequal power relationship of sexes in education, sex-segregation of work in the educational field, sex-stereotyping reinforcing the sex-specific allocation of family responsibilities, sexist use of language, sexual harrassment and violence against girls and women.

27.        There is a large demand for teaching on the basis of non-sexist and non-racist teaching methods; for the improvement of educational interactions aiming at equality and non-violence; for revisions of female and male stereotyping, with the aim of pattern breaking, making mathematics and science subjects more attractive to girls and counteracting concepts of inequality and physical violence of boys, aiming at positive non-aggressive and family-oriented role models for boys.

28.        There is a demand for non-sexist, non-racist and non-violent media education, counter-acting the effects of simulating reality and especially counteracting the effects of non-physical but virtual violence against girls and women.

29.        Girls and boys are in need of pattern-breaking knowledge, especially of positive role models of women to improve their self-images and self-concepts, for instance women of the European past and present with significant contributions to society, especially in culture and politics, science and technology; women who are successful professionals of today, especially with non-traditional careers; women who are successful as principals and decision-makers, if possible within a gender balanced educational work force etc. These women can support girls to relate to their own gender in many positive ways. Thus girls can gain more self-esteem, can show more intellectual curiosity and assertiveness, can broaden or change their choice of education and occupation.

30.        Girls and boys are in need of pattern-breaking knowledge in a gender sensitive way, of women's reality, their everyday life, their life concepts, their basic contributions to society such as family work, child-minding and care of elderly and sick people etc. They need to be informed about the impact childbearing and motherhood have on women and their social security, their activities, their health situation, their economic situation; about the impact parenthood has on men and on their marital relations. They need to be informed about sexuality and family planning.

31.        International evidence shows that there is a need for broader choices of segregation for girls; especially in mathematics, technology and computer knowledge; for projects, workshops, out-of-school courses in technology and engineering provided for girls; for guidance and counselling specifically for girls which helps them to identify and then make non-traditional curricular and occupational choices.

Country cases

32.        Subsequently to a forum discussion on gender equality in education, which took place in Strasbourg on 21 September 1993, a questionnaire was sent to all member countries of the European Cultural Convention. Thirteen countries replied. In all of these states co-education is the norm of education, besides some schools or classes for girls or boys only.

33.        The number of years of compulsory school attendance ranges from five to ten years. In all countries parents do not have to pay school fees at primary and secondary education level. In some countries they have either to pay textbooks and teaching material or to pay fees for them. State-financed education grants are available in most countries; with a tendency for them to be given to more boys than girls. In most of these countries access to secondary and higher secondary education depends on examinations and/or teachers' decisions (without examinations) and/or parents/students decision (free choice). In about half of the countries, guidance to encourage girls in pursuing their education is not considered to be necessary. The same applies to measures to establish guidance for girls. With the exception of one country vocational guidance is available for both sexes in school.

34.        The sex-distribution of students varies in these countries very much as follows:

Primary education: girls from 48% to 51%; boys from 49% to 52%.

Secondary education: girls from 38% to 51%; boys from 49% to 62%.

Higher secondary education: girls from 36% to 65%; boys from 35% to 61%.

      There is a tendency of an increase of girls within higher secondary education, probably because more boys than girls change at this time to vocational education.

35.        The sex-distribution of teachers also varies very much:

Primary education: women from 43% to 84%; men from 16% to 57%.

Secondary education: women from 60% to 82%; men from 18% to 40%.

Higher secondary education: women from 40% to 60%: men from 40% to 60%.

      In most countries there was no data available concerning the sex-distribution of the administrative staff in school. The same applies to the sex distribution of department heads.

      The school heads or principals show the following variations according to the data in the questionnaire:

Primary education: women from 28% to 82%; men from 18% to 82%.

Secondary education: women from 26% to 42%; men from 59% to 76%.

Higher secondary education: women from 6% to 35%; men from 65% to 94%.

      These figures show that gender balancing will be a point of discussion for many years to come. The same applies to the sex distribution of school inspectorates. The variation is as follows: women from 4% to 75%; men from 25% to 96% in the different countries.

      There are countries nearly without or with few women school inspectors and others with few men school inspectors. But in most countries women are the minority, either as principals or as school inspectors.

36.       In most countries there is a curriculum on technology in primary schools available for both sexes. The variations at secondary and higher secondary level, however, suggest that girls in some countries are denied equal access to technology education:

Secondary education: girls from 5% to equal; boys from 50% to 95%.

Higher secondary education: girls from 7% to equal; boys from 50% to 93%.

37.        A curriculum on women in the history and culture of the countries questioned is the exception, mostly there is none or it is optional. The same applies to the question of a curriculum on women's everyday work and life. It is obvious that there is a lack of awareness of the pattern-breaking quality of curricula of this kind.

38.       Some countries state that information about the cultures of origin of migrant girls and boys is included in teaching materials and teacher presentation. Accordingly gender approach and multicultural approach seem to be understood rather formally.

39.        While male violence is considered a problem only in some countries, media education is in most countries considered to be necessary, but mostly not because of violence and xenophobia.

40.        With the exception of one country sex education is provided, mostly starting at primary education. The same applies to family planning education. Most countries provide parenthood education. There are three countries where girls cannot complete school in case of pregnancy. They have only external educational possibilities such as evening courses.

41.        There are only two countries where parents are explicitly not considered responsible for their children's success in school. The same applies to school homework. In nearly all countries parents insist on fixed and regular school time schedules in primary and secondary education. Nearly all countries state that there is a debate about caring for children of school age.

Women's organisations

42.        In some countries women's organisations have explicit demands on school. They focus on three targets:

      —th       e promotion of co-education, sex education, non-sexist professional guidance and encouragement for girls into studying science and new technologies, elimination of sexism, pornography and violence in school;—

      —al       l-day schooling, school-age child care, hot meals in school etc.—

      —im       provement of leave of absence, part time arrangements, family tailored working hours.Le

Legislation and measures taken by member states

43.        If legislation exists in member states designed to improve gender equality this is either in the constitutional or in an education act. A few member states consider more years of compulsory schooling to be necessary to improve formal equality. Special measures introduced differ greatly. Some countries have an equality plan, an equal rights committee, monitoring installed, have curricula, textbooks, educational material reviewed, have information and teaching material distributed, have teachers trained in service, have action programmes initiated, do research work. Some have monitoring, mostly national.

Experience of member states

44.       Fields of importance in public debate in the various member states are as follows:

45.       Member states declare that their legislation has resulted in more awareness (of teachers, publishers, public), in eliminating sexism from textbooks and educational material, in an increase of girls attendance.

46.       As obstacles are considered sexist violence, that attitudes change very slowly, that there is a lack of awareness and knowledge, that vocational aspirations are gender specific and that the range of occupations for girls and women is restricted, that there is a need for more teacher training.

47.        Member states consider as effective instruments to improve gender equality:

      —le       gislation: national legislation and institutional monitoring; co-education and length of compulsory schooling, introduction of equality as a cross-section theme, curriculum revision, gender balancing, improvements in the field of occupations;—

      —aw       areness and knowledge: training of teachers, staff and specialists; research; production of teaching material reviewed, media education; revision of male stereotypes and role models for boys.—

      —lo       cal school initiatives.Re

48.        Gender-sensitive and cross-cultural research in regional, national and transnational research programmes should be initiated or intensified into

      —in       ternal work of schools (gender-specific interactions and gender-specific perception; self-concepts, assertiveness and attitudes of girls and boys; sex role patterns, sex-segregation, gender sensitive and cross-cultural pedagogical strategies and gender sensitive and cross-cultural expertise on girls' and women's reality and important women of history as a factor of pattern-breaking in school; factors which favour boys and men, factors which favour girls and women, factors which favour innovation);—

      —em       pirical studies inside the classroom, inside school;—

      —ef       fects of gender biased curricula and expertise and revision work (curricula, syllabi, textbooks and teaching material); —

      —po       ssible links between masculinity and violence (male stereotyping, male identity problems and inequality and violence in education; sexual harrassment and violence against girls and women in school);—

      —le       gislation and measures that had a real impact;—

      —pr       ojects for training teaching and counselling; for implementation of feminist and cross-cultural expertise on girls' and women's reality; for implementation of school policy programmes to reduce gender and ethnic discrimination; for establishing working groups of teachers, students, administrators, researchers etc. networking on local, regional, national and international level.In

International co-operation

49.        Most member states express a need for transnational consultation and exchange of national and regional experience with legislation, programmes, research, materials etc. They suggest to promote research and they define various targets of studies and policy-making. One proposal is to organise an international meeting of experts on the effects of co-education and afterwards a policy-making conference. Exchange programmes for teachers, students, researchers are suggested to provide more awareness and more knowledge on gender and cross-cultural equality.

50.        Improvement of gender and cross-cultural equality in education needs to be based on the feminist and cross-cultural expertise of feminist and migrant researchers and their participation in the exercise of the political, scientific and pedagogical instruments such as national monitoring, intensified national and international research, national and transnational exchange, consultation and multiplication, local, regional, national and transnational gender-sensitive and cross-cultural policy-making etc. This must be firmly incorporated in growing European co-operation.

Bibliography

OECD 1993a: Women, Work and Health: Synthesis Report of a Panel of Experts, Paris 1993

OECD 1993b: Report on the Helsinki Conference on Women and Structural Change: A Mirror on the Future, OECD, Paris 1993

Spender, Dale/Sarah, Elizabeth, (eds) 1988: Learning to Lose. Sexism and Education. Revised Edition with a new introduction by Pat Mahony, The Womenís Press Limited, London 1988

Swedish Ministry of Education and Science/Ms. Arenbro, Ewa, 1993: Gender Equality and Education in Sweden. Compulsory school, Upper secondary school, Adult education, Stockholm 1933

      Reporting committee: Committee on Culture and Education.

      Budgetary implications for the Assembly: none.

      Reference to the committee: Doc. 6648 and Reference No. 1801 of 30 September 1992.

      Draft recommendation: adopted unanimously by the committee on 1 June 1994.

      Members of the committee: Mrs Fischer (Chairman) , Sir Russell Johnston, Mr  de Puig (Vice-Chairmen) , MM. Alegre, Arnalds, Bauer , Berg, Berti, Bonnici, Bratinka, Decagny, Deniau (Alternate: Baumel) , Mrs Err, Mr Ferrari , Mrs Fleeetwood MM. Galanos, Baroness Gould of Potternewton , Mrs Gül, Mrs Guourova, Mrs Hawlicek , Mr  Hint , Mrs  Hjelm-Wallen , Baroness Hooper, MM. Ivanov, Karas , Kouck, Lopez Henares, Malachowski, Mangakis, Maruflu , Mesoraca (Alternate: Caldoro) , Mocioi , Monfils, Muehlemann, Müller , Pahtas, Paunescu , Mrs  Robert , Mr  Roseta , Mrs Ryynänen , MM. Schmidt, Schreiner, Seeuws , Siwiec, Školć, Soell , Stefanopoulos, Ms Szelenyi , MM. Tatarella (Alternate: Visibelli) , Tummers , Upton, Vajda, Verbeek, Vogt, Zingeris .

      N.B.       The names of those who took part in the vote are in italics .

      Secretaries to the committee: MM. Grayson and Ary.

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Exploring Gender Identity, Argumentation and Rhetorical Appeals Uses within EFL Students' Writing

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Abbas Zare-ee

JEELS (Journal of English Education and Linguistics Studies)

While considered elusive and abstract, authorial voice is paramount in English writing. Unfortunately, many of Indonesian EFL learners found it is highly challeging to show their voice in their writing. The importance of voice is even exaggerated in argumentative writing, since this kind of writing needs obvious stance of the writer. This study investigates the authorial voice students made in their argumentative writing. The purpose of this study is to gain the picture of students " writing ability especially in authorial voice to map the road in guiding the next writing classes. The object of the study is the argumentative writing made by English department students at one Indonesian State College of Islamic Studies in their writing III course. Using Hyland " s interactional model of voice (2008) the data analysis results the authorial presence in the essays is in position 2 at 0 – 4 scale which means the reader feels somehow weak presence of the authorial voice in the essay. This result confirms the findings of some previous studies that EFL learners especially from " interdependent " cultural background tend to find this authorial voice difficult in writing English essay.

International Education Studies

latifa El Mortaji

Research on gender and writing strategies in English as a foreign language (EFL) is scarce. This study investigates whether Moroccan male and female undergraduates use similar or different writing strategies when composing essays in the narrative and expository genres. Using think-aloud as a main research tool, a questionnaire, and retrospective interviews, the researcher collected data pertaining to male and female students’ strategy use and cognitive processes while writing in EFL. The analysis of 64 think-aloud protocols revealed Moroccan undergraduates’ use of a variety of writing strategies in terms of type and frequency. Both main types and subtypes of writing strategies emerged. Two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed that each gender group used some writing strategies more frequently than the other group; however, this difference in frequency of use was not statistically significant. In addition, the interaction of gender, writing strategy use, and discours...

Abdelrahman A B D A L L A Salih

Students at the tertiary level need arguments because they are expected to use analytical and critical thinking skills. The present study is situated in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context in an Omani University and reports the experience of (N=46) undergraduate EFL writers in argumentative essays and persuasive posters. Using rhetorical strategies, and drawing on the principles of persuasive writing, the participants prepared posters and essays on two separate topics. Data were collected from the 46 participants' responses to a semi-structured online survey questionnaire. Analysis of the data obtained indicates that the participants preferred designing posters to writing persuasive essays while reporting varieties of rhetorical difficulties in building an argument for persuasion. The participants also perceived establishing evidence and facts as the most challenging element in persuasive writing and arousing the audience's feelings and emotions as the most challenging rhetorical appeal in posters. Some pedagogical implications were reported as well.

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• Writing Tips

50 Argumentative Essay Topics for Students

4-minute read

• 11th June 2022

The goal of an argumentative essay is to persuade the reader to understand and support your position on an issue by presenting your reasoning along with supporting evidence. It’s important to find the right balance between giving your opinions and presenting established research.

These essays discuss issues around a range of topics, including science, technology, politics, and healthcare. Whether you’re a teacher looking for essay topics for your students or a student tasked with developing an idea of your own, we’ve compiled a list of 50 argumentative essay topics to help you get started!

●  Does texting hinder interpersonal communication skills?

●  Should there be laws against using devices while driving?

●  Do violent video games teach or encourage people to behave violently?

●  Should social media sites be allowed to collect users’ data?

●  Should parents limit how long their children spend in front of screens?

●  Is AI helping or hurting society?

●  Should cyber-bullying carry legal consequences?

●  Should Supreme Court justices be elected?

●  Is war always a political decision?

●  Should people join a political party?

●  Is capitalism ethical?

●  Is the electoral college an effective system?

●  Should prisoners be allowed to vote?

●  Should the death penalty be legal?

●  Are governments around the world doing enough to combat global warming?

●  Is healthcare a fundamental human right?

●  Should vaccinations be mandated for children?

●  Are there any circumstances under which physician-assisted suicides should be legal?

●  Should parents be able to choose specific genetic modifications of their future children?

●  Should abortion be legal?

●  Is it ethical to perform medical experiments on animals?

●  Should patients who lead unhealthy lifestyles be denied organ transplants?

●  Should doctors be able to provide medical care to children against their parents’ wishes?

Mental Healthcare

●  What causes the stigma around mental health?

●  Discuss the link between insufficient access to mental health services and the high suicide rates among veterans.

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●  Should cannabis be used as a treatment for patients with mental disorders?

●  Is there a link between social media use and mental disorders?

●  Discuss the effect of physical activity on mental health.

●  Should sports be segregated by gender?

●  Should male and female athletes be given the same pay and opportunities?

●  Are professional athletes overpaid?

●  Should college athletes be paid?

●  Should sports betting be legal?

●  Should online access to art such as music be free?

●  Should graffiti be considered art or vandalism?

●  Are there any circumstances under which books should be banned?

●  Should schools be required to offer art courses?

●  Is art necessary to society?

●  Should schools require uniforms?

●  Should reciting the Pledge of Allegiance be required in schools?

●  Do standardized tests effectively measure intelligence?

●  Should high school students take a gap year before pursuing higher education?

●  Should higher education be free?

●  Is there too much pressure on high school students to attend college?

●  Are children better off in two-parent households?

●  Should LGBTQ+ partners be allowed to adopt?

●  Should single people be able to adopt children as easily as couples?

●  Is it okay for parents to physically discipline their children?

●  Does helicopter parenting help or hurt children?

●  Should parents monitor their children’s Internet use?

Proofreading & Editing

An argument could also be made for the importance of proofreading your essay ! The reader can focus more on your message when your writing is clear, concise, and error-free, and they won’t question whether you’re knowledgeable on the issues you’re presenting. Once you have a draft ready, you can submit a free trial document to start working with our expert editors!

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Key data on girls and women’s right to education

This page presents several graphics analyzing the data generated from  HerAtlas , UNESCO’s interactive tool monitoring girls and women’s right to education worldwide . The graphics are updated regularly to reflect the latest data from the tool. 

Unless specified otherwise, data source is HerAtlas .

Right to education, pregnant and parenting girls

According to our monitoring tool, worldwide, 2% of countries restrict the right to education of married, pregnant and parenting girls and women in their legal framework. These countries are located in three different regions. The restrictions could either prohibit them from attending school or sitting an exam, limiting them to attend adult or evening classes, or separating them from their peers and isolating them for fear that they would ‘influence’ other students.

Data demonstrates that secondary school-aged girls are substantially more likely to be out of school when the legal right to education of pregnant and parenting girls is restricted, especially at the upper secondary level. It also follows the general trend, as there are more adolescent out-of-school at the upper secondary level.

62% of countries do not have a legislation that explicitly protect girls’ right to education in case of pregnancy but 33% do have such provisions, which are sometimes very detailed and protective. Latin America and the Caribbean is the region with the most countries that protect explicitly their right to education, followed by Europe and North America and then Africa.

While in 2019, 8 countries were restricting the right to education of pregnant, parenting and married girls in their legislation, four countries in the African region have put an end to such ban, therefore leaving only four countries with an explicit ban. 

The following graphics represent the data of indicator 12 of Her Atlas. According to the methodology of HerAtlas , the legislation is considered as explicitly protecting the right to education of pregnant and parenting girls only if there is a provision mentioning expressly pregnancy, parenting and education. Guaranteeing the right to education without discrimination is not considered as an explicit protection for this indicator.

Right to education, child marriage and gender-based violence in schools

According to the Joint CEDAW General Recommendation / CRC General Comment , capable child below the age of 18 may be allowed to get married provided that the child is at least 16 years old and that such decisions are made by a judge based on legitimate exceptional grounds defined by law and on the evidence of maturity.

Worldwide, 17% of countries still allow marriage before the age 18 years old for girls. 44% allow it from 18 years old, but with exceptions before that age. In such cases, exceptions can for example require a parental consent only, or a judicial one but with a minimum age below 16, and an absolute minimum age is not always set. 34% of countries do set a minimum age of marriage at 18 for girls, with no exception or judicial exceptions only with an absolute minimum age set at 16 years old.

At the regional level, Europe and North America is the region with the fewest number of countries that allow marriage before 18 years old for girls and with the highest number of countries setting 18 as the minimum age without exceptions, or only judicial ones with an absolute minimum age set at 16.

Globally, the percentage of child marriage is higher in countries where education is neither compulsory nor free. The percentage of women aged 20 to 24 who were first married or in union before their 18 is more than halved in countries where education is compulsory for nine years or more and fee for 12 years or more in comparison to countries where education is neither compulsory nor free.

Regarding legal protection against gender-based violence and corporal punishment within education establishments, 14% of countries provide for a wide protection (protecting from corporal punishment and physical, psychological and sexual violence), 54% with a partial protection, and 29% do not provide protection, among those, some authorizes the use of corporal punishment in schools. At the regional level, Latin America and the Caribbean is the region with the most countries providing a wide protection, but also with the most countries that do not provide for protection.

Right to education, compulsory, and free education

Worldwide, 16% of countries still do not guarantee the right to education in their Constitution or laws. Among the 84% of countries that legally protect the right to education, 58% explicitly guarantee it without discrimination based on sex and/or gender.

At the regional level, it is in Asia Pacific that the highest percentage of countries not guaranteeing the right to education can be found, while it is in the Arab region that there is the highest percentage of countries legally protecting the right to education without discrimination. Finally, both the Arab region and the Latin America & Caribbean region have the highest percentage of countries explicitly guaranteeing the right to education without discrimination based on sex and/or gender.

Regarding compulsory and free pre-primary education, worldwide, 27% of countries guarantee it in their legislation while 19% legally guarantee free or compulsory pre-primary education. At the regional level, it is in the Latin America & Caribbean region that there is the highest percentage of countries legally guaranteeing compulsory and free pre-primary education, followed by the Europe & North America region.

At the global level, 31% of countries legally guarantee compulsory primary and secondary education for at least nine years and free education for at least 12 years, while 5% of countries do not guarantee neither compulsory nor free primary and secondary education. The others either guarantee compulsory or free primary and secondary education, or they do guarantee both, but the duration of compulsory education is less than nine years, or the duration of free education is less than 12 years. At the regional level, it is in the Europe & North American region that there is the highest percentage of countries legally guaranteeing compulsory and free primary and secondary education, for a duration of respectively at least nine and 12 years.

Out of school and enrolment rate compared to the legal protection of free and compulsory education

When pre-primary education is neither legally compulsory nor free, the out-of-school rate of girls of primary school age is higher than the out-of-school rate of boys of the same age. On the contrary, when pre-primary education is legally compulsory and free, the out-of-school rate of girls of primary school age is lower than the out-of-school rate of boys of primary school age. For both boys and girls, the out-of-school rate of children of primary school age is lower when pre-primary education is legally compulsory and free.

Similarly, the out-of-school rate for children, adolescents and youth of primary, lower secondary and upper secondary school age is divided by three when primary and secondary education is compulsory for at least nine years and free for at least twelve years, compared to the out-of-school rate when education is neither compulsory nor free. While the out-of-school rate of girls is higher than the one of boys when education is neither compulsory nor free, the out-of-school rate of boys is higher than the out-of-school rate of girls when education is compulsory for at least 9 years and free for at least 12 years.

Finally, the gross enrolment ratio (GER) for tertiary education is multiplied by 6 when primary and secondary education is compulsory for 9 years and free for 12 years, compared to the tertiary education GER when primary and secondary education is neither compulsory nor free. The GER of boys in tertiary education is the same than the GER of girls when primary and secondary education is neither compulsory nor free, but the GER of boys is lower than the GER of girls when primary and secondary education is compulsory for 9 years and free for 12 years.

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