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Byzantine art

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• Art in Context - Byzantine Art – Traversing the Byzantine Empire Art Period
• World History Encyclopedia - Byzantine Art
• Khan Academy - A beginner's guide to Byzantine Art
• National Gallery of Art, Washington - Byzantine Art and Painting in Italy during the 1200s and 1300s

Byzantine art , architecture , paintings , and other visual arts produced in the Middle Ages in the Byzantine Empire (centred at Constantinople) and in various areas that came under its influence. The pictorial and architectural styles that characterized Byzantine art, first codified in the 6th century, persisted with remarkable homogeneity within the empire until its final dissolution with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453.

A brief treatment of Byzantine art follows. For a treatment of Byzantine architecture , see Western architecture: The Christian East . For a treatment of Byzantine painting , see Western painting: Eastern Christian .

Byzantine art is almost entirely concerned with religious expression and, more specifically, with the impersonal translation of carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms. Its forms of architecture and painting grew out of these concerns and remained uniform and anonymous, perfected within a rigid tradition rather than varied according to personal whim. The result was a sophistication of style and a spirituality of expression rarely paralleled in Western art.

The earliest Byzantine architecture , though determined by the longitudinal basilica church plan developed in Italy, favoured the extensive use of large domes and vaults. Circular domes, however, were not structurally or visually suited to a longitudinal arrangement of the walls that supported them; thus, by the 10th century, a radial plan, consisting of four equal vaulted arms proceeding from a dome over their crossing, had been adopted in most areas. This central, radial plan was well suited to the hierarchical view of the universe emphasized by the Eastern church. This view was made explicit in the iconographic scheme of church art, set forth in the frescoes, or, more often, mosaics , that covered the interiors of domes, walls, and vaults of churches in a complete fusion of architectural and pictorial expression. At the top of the central dome was the figure of Christ Pantocrator (ruler of the universe). Below him, usually around the base of the dome, were angels and archangels and, on the walls, figures of the saints. The Virgin Mary was often pictured high in a half-dome covering one of the four radial arms. The lowest realm was that of the congregation . The whole church thus formed a microcosm of the universe. The iconographic scheme also reflected liturgy: narrative scenes from the lives of Christ and the Virgin, instead of being placed in chronological order along the walls, as in Western churches, were chosen for their significance as occasions for feast days and ranged around the church according to their theological significance.

The style in which these mosaics and frescoes were executed reflected their function as static, symbolic images of the divine and the Absolute. The mature Byzantine style, evolved through the stylization and standardization of late Classical forms of Early Christian art , was based on the dynamic of lines and flat areas of colour rather than form. Individual features were suppressed in favour of a standard facial type, figures were flattened, and draperies were reduced to patterns of swirling lines. The total effect was one of disembodiment, the three-dimensional representation of an individual human figure replaced by a spiritual presence the force of which depended upon vigour of line and brilliance of colour. The Byzantine image was at once more remote and more immediate than the naturalistic Classical one. The effect of immediacy was increased by the severely frontal pose and the Byzantine facial type, with its huge eyes and penetrating gaze, and by the characteristic use of a gold background which, in pictures of isolated figures, made the image appear to be suspended somewhere between the wall and the viewer.

Little sculpture was produced in the Byzantine Empire. The most frequent use of sculpture was in small relief carvings in ivory , used for book covers, reliquary boxes, and similar objects. Other miniature arts, embroidery, goldwork, and enamel work, flourished in the sophisticated and wealthy society of Constantinople. Manuscript illumination , though it could not approach the impressive effects of monumental painting and mosaic , was important in spreading Byzantine style and iconography through Europe.

Aside from its own achievements, the importance of Byzantine art to the religious art of Europe cannot be overestimated. Byzantine forms were spread by trade and conquest to Italy and Sicily, where they persisted in modified form through the 12th century and became formative influences on Italian Renaissance art . By means of the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms spread to eastern European centres, particularly Russia , where they remained intact, though again with local modification, through the 17th century.

Byzantine Art

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Byzantine Art (4th - 15th century CE) is generally characterised by a move away from the naturalism of the Classical tradition towards the more abstract and universal, there is a definite preference for two-dimensional representations, and those artworks which contain a religious message predominate. However, by the 12th century CE Byzantine art has become much more expressive and imaginative, and although many subjects are endlessly recycled, there are differences in details throughout the period. Whilst it is true that the vast majority of surviving artworks are religious in subject, this may be a result of selection in subsequent centuries as there are abundant references to secular art in Byzantine sources and pagan subjects with classical iconography continued to be produced well into the 10th century CE and beyond. Using bright stones, gold mosaics, lively wall paintings, intricately carved ivory, and precious metals in general, Byzantine artists beautified everything from buildings to books, and their greatest and most lasting legacy is undoubtedly the icons which continue to decorate Christian churches around the world.

As Byzantium was the eastern branch of the Roman Empire in its earliest phase, it is not surprising that a strong Roman , or more precisely, Classical influence predominates Byzantine output. The Roman tradition of collecting, appreciating, and privately displaying antique art also continued amongst the wealthier classes of Byzantium. Byzantine art is at once both unchanging and evolutionary, themes such as the Classical traditions and conventional religious scenes were reworked for century after century, but at the same time, a closer examination of individual works reveals the details of an ever-changing approach to art. As with modern cinema that regularly remakes a familiar story with the same settings and the same characters, Byzantine artists worked within the limits of the practical end function of their work to make choices on how best to present a subject, what to add and omit from those new influences which came along, and, by the end of the period, to personalize their work as never before.

It is perhaps important to remember that the Byzantine Empire was much more Greek than Roman in many aspects and Hellenistic art continued to be influential, especially the idea of naturalism. At the same time, the geographical extent of the empire also had its implications for art. In Alexandria the more rigid (and for some, less elegant) Coptic style took off from the 6th century CE, replacing the predominant Hellenistic style. Half-tone colours were avoided and brighter ones were favoured while figures are squatter and less realistic. Another area of artistic influence was Antioch where the 'orientalizing' style was adopted, that is the assimilation of motifs from Persian and central Asian art such as ribbons, the Tree of Life, ram's heads, and double-winged creatures, as well as the full frontal portraits which appear in the art of Syria . In turn, the art of these great cities would influence that produced in Constantinople , which became the focal point of an art industry that spread its works, methods, and ideas throughout the Empire.

The Byzantine Empire was continuously expanding and shrinking over the centuries, and this geography influenced art as new ideas became more readily accessible over time. Ideas and art objects were continuously spread between cultures through the medium of royal gifts to fellow rulers, diplomatic embassies, religious missions, and souvenir-buying wealthy travellers, not to mention the movement of artists themselves. From the early 13th century CE, for example, Byzantium was influenced by much greater contact with western Europe , just as it had been when the Byzantines were more present in Italy during the 9th century CE. The influence went in the other direction, too, of course, so that Byzantine artistic ideas spread, notably outwards from such outposts as Sicily and Crete from where Byzantine iconography would go on to influence Italian Renaissance art . So, too, in the north-east, Byzantine art influenced such places as Armenia , Georgia, and Russia. Finally, Byzantine art is still very much alive as a strong tradition within Orthodox art.

In the Byzantine Empire, there was little or no distinction between artist and craftsperson, both created beautiful objects for a specific purpose, whether it be a box to keep a precious belonging or an icon to stir feelings of piety and reverence. Some job titles we know are zographos and historiographos (painter), maistor (master) and ktistes (creator). In addition, many artists, notably those who created illustrated manuscripts, were priests or monks. There is no evidence that artists were not women , although it is likely they specialised in textiles and printed silks. Sculptors, ivory workers, and enamelists were specialists who had acquired years of training, but in other art forms, it was common for the same artist to produce manuscripts, icons, mosaics, and wall paintings.

It was rare for an artist to sign their work prior to the 13th century CE, and this may reflect a lack of social status for the artist, or that works were created by teams of artists, or that such personalization of the artwork was considered to detract from its purpose, especially in religious art. Artists were supported by patrons who commissioned their work, notably the emperors and monasteries but also many private individuals, including women, especially widows.

Frescos & Paintings

Byzantine Christian art had the triple purpose of beautifying a building, instructing the illiterate on matters vital for the welfare of their soul, and encouraging the faithful that they were on the correct path to salvation. For this reason, the interiors of Byzantine churches were covered with paintings and mosaics. The large Christian basilica building, with its high ceilings and long side walls, provided an ideal medium to send visual messages to the congregation, but even the most humble shrines were often decorated with an abundance of frescoes. The subjects were necessarily limited - those key events and figures of the Bible - and even their positioning became conventional. A depiction of Jesus Christ usually occupied the central dome, the barrel of the dome had the prophets, the evangelists appear on the joins between vault and dome, in the sanctuary is the Virgin and child, and the walls have scenes from the New Testament and the lives of the saints.

Besides walls and domes, small painted wooden panels were another popular medium, especially in the late-Empire period. Literary sources describe small portable portrait paintings which were commissioned by a wide range of people from bishops to actresses. Paintings for manuscripts were also a valued outlet for painting skills, and these cover both religious subjects and historical events such as coronations and famous battles.

Fine examples of the more expressive and humanistic style prevalent from the 12th century CE are the 1164 CE wall paintings in Nerezi, Macedonia. Showing scenes from the cross, they capture the despair of the protagonists. From the 13th century CE, individuals are painted with personality and there is more attention to detail. The Hagia Sophia in Trabzon ( Trebizond ) has whole galleries of such paintings, dated to c. 1260 CE, where the subjects seem to have been inspired by real-life models. There is also a more daring use of colour for effect. A good example is the use of blues in The Transfiguration, a manuscript painting in the theological works of John VI Cantacuzenus, produced 1370-1375 CE and now in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris . On a larger scale, this combination of bold colours and fine details is best seen in the wall paintings of the various Byzantine churches of Mistra in Greece .

Icons - representations of holy figures - were created for veneration by Byzantine Christians from the 3rd century CE. They are most often seen in mosaics, wall paintings, and as small artworks made from wood, metal , gemstones, enamel, or ivory. The most common form was small painted wooden panels which could be carried or hung on walls. Such panels were made using the encaustic technique where coloured pigments were mixed with wax and burned into the wood as an inlay.

The subject in icons is typically portrayed full frontal, with either the full figure shown or the head and shoulders only. They stare directly at the viewer as they are designed to facilitate communication with the divine. Figures often have a nimbus or halo around them to emphasise their holiness. More rarely, icons are composed of a narrative scene. The artistic approach to icons was remarkably stable over the centuries, but this should not perhaps be surprising as their very subjects were meant to present a timeless quality and instil a reverence on generation after generation of worshippers - the people and fashions might change but the message did not.

Some of the oldest surviving Byzantine icons are to be found in the Monastery of Saint Catherine on Mount Sinai . Dating to the 6th century CE and saved from the wave of iconoclasm which spread through the Byzantine Empire during the 8th and 9th century CE, the finest show Christ Pantokrator and the Virgin and Child. The Pantokrator image - where Christ is in the classic full frontal pose and is holding a Gospel book in his left hand and performing a blessing with his right - was probably donated by Justinian I (r. 527-565 CE) to mark the monastery's foundation.

By the 12th century CE, painters were producing much more intimate portraits with more expression and individuality. The icon known as the Virgin of Vladimir, now in the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow, was painted in Constantinople c. 1125 CE and is an excellent example of this new style with its tender representation of the child pressing his cheek against his mother.

The majority of surviving wall and ceiling mosaics depict religious subjects and are to be found in many Byzantine churches. One of their characteristics is the use of gold tiles to create a shimmering background to the figures of Christ, the Virgin Mary and saints. As with icons and paintings, the portraiture follows certain conventions such as a full frontal view, halo, and general lack of suggested movement. The Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (Istanbul) contains the most celebrated examples of such mosaics while one of the most unusually striking portraits in the medium is that of Jesus Christ in the dome of Daphni in Greece. Produced around 1100 CE, it shows Christ with a rather fierce expression which is in contrast to the usual expressionless representation.

The mosaics of the Great Palace of Constantinople , which date to the 6th century CE, are an interesting mix of scenes from daily life (especially hunting) with pagan gods and mythical creatures, highlighting, once again, that pagan themes were not wholly replaced by Christian ones in Byzantine art. Another secular subject for mosaic artists was emperors and their consorts, although these are often portrayed in their role as head of the Eastern Church. Some of the most celebrated mosaics are those in the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, which date to the 540s CE. Two glittering panels show Emperor Justinian I and his consort Empress Theodora with their respective entourages.

Byzantine mosaic artists were so famous for their work that the Arab Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE) employed them to decorate the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Great Mosque of Damascus. Finally, just as in painting, in the 13th and 14th century CE, the subjects in mosaics become more natural, expressive and individualised. Excellent examples of this style can be seen in the mosaics of the Church of the Saviour, Chora, Constantinople.

Realistic portrait sculpture was a characteristic of later Roman art , and the trend continues in early Byzantium. The Hippodrome of Constantinople was known to have bronze and marble sculptures of emperors and popular charioteers, for example. Ivory was used for figure sculpture, too, although only a single free-standing example survives, the Virgin and Child, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Marble and limestone sarcophagi were another outlet for the sculptor's craft. After the 6th century CE, though, three-dimensional portraits are rare, even for emperors, and sculpture reached nowhere near the popularity it had in antiquity.

Byzantine artists were accomplished metalsmiths, while enamelling was another area of high technical expertise. A superb example of the use of both skills combined is the c. 1070 CE chalice in the Treasury of Saint Mark's, Venice. Made with a semi-precious stone body and gold stem, the cup is decorated with enamel plaques. Cloisonné enamels (objects with multiple metal-bordered compartments filled with vitreous enamel) were extremely popular, a technique probably acquired from Italy in the 9th century CE. Silver plates stamped with Christian images were produced in large numbers and used as a domestic dinner service. A final use of metals is coinage , which was a medium for imperial portraiture and, from the 8th century CE, images of Jesus Christ.

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Bibles were made with beautifully written text in gold and silver ink on pages dyed with Tyrian purple and beautifully illustrated. One of the best surviving examples of an illustrated manuscript is the Homilies of Saint Gregory of Nazianzus , produced 867-886 CE and now in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Books, in general, were often given exquisite covers using gold, silver, semi-precious stones, and enamels. Reliquaries - containers for holy relics - were another avenue for the decorative arts.

Portable objects were very often decorated with Christian images, and these include such everyday items as jewellery boxes, ivories, jewellery pieces, and pilgrim tokens. Objects made from ivory such as panels and boxes were a particular speciality of Alexandria. Panels were used to decorate almost anything but especially furniture. One of the most celebrated examples is the throne of Maximian, Archbishop of Ravenna (545-553 CE), which is covered in ivory panels showing scenes from the lives of Joseph, Jesus Christ and the Evangelists. Textiles - of wool, linen, cotton, and silk - was another medium for artistic expression, where designs were woven into the fabric or printed by dipping the cloth in dyes with some parts of the cloth covered in a resistor to create the design.

Finally, Byzantine pottery has largely escaped public notice, but potters were accomplished in such techniques as polychrome (coloured scenes painted on a white background and then given a transparent glaze) - a technique passed on to Italy in the 9th century CE. Designs were sometimes incised and given coloured glazes, as in the 13th-14th century CE fine plate showing two doves, now in the Collection David Talbot Rice at the University of Edinburgh. Common shapes included plates, dishes, bowls, and single-handled cups. Tiles were often painted with representations of holy figures and emperors, sometimes several tiles making up a composite image.

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Bibliography

• Arnott Hamilton, J. Byzantine Architecture & Decoration. Batsford, London, 1956.
• Bagnall, R. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
• Cormack, R. Byzantine Art. Oxford University Press, 2018.
• Herrin, J. Byzantium. Princeton University Press, 2009.
• Mango, C. The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford University Press, 2002.
• Shepard, J. The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c.500-1492. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
• Talbot Rice, D. Art Of The Byzantine Era -. Frederick A. Praeger, 1963.

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Byzantine Art and Architecture

Summary of Byzantine Art and Architecture

Existing for over a thousand years, the Byzantine Empire cultivated diverse and sumptuous arts to engage the viewers' senses and transport them to a more spiritual plane as well as to emphasize the divine rights of the emperor. Spanning the time between antiquity and the Middle Ages, Byzantine art encompassed an array of regional styles and influences and developed long-lasting Christian iconography that is familiar to practitioners today. Because of its longevity and geographical scope, Byzantine art does not necessarily proceed in a linear progression of stylistic innovations. Its origins in the Roman Empire meant that even in the face of unclassical tendencies that favored hierarchical compositions and symbolic meanings there were periods of revival that emphasized more naturalistic renderings that foregrounded storytelling. Within this milieu, distinctive styles of mosaics and icon paintings developed, and innovations in frescos, illuminated manuscripts, and small-scale sculptures and enamel work would have lasting influence not just in Eastern realms such as Turkey and Russia but also in Europe and even in contemporary religious painting.

Key Ideas & Accomplishments

• In further developing Christian iconography that began during Roman times, images became powerful means to spread and deepen the Christian faith. Many of the now-standard iconographic types, such as Christ Pantocrator and the Virgin and Child enthroned, were created and evolved during the Byzantine era. This new-found power of images, however, was not without controversy and sparked a heated and, at times, violent debate over the place of images in the church.
• Byzantine emperors used art and architecture to signal their strength and importance. Often, depictions of the emperor were less naturalistic and instead used compositional clues such as size, placement, and color to underscore his importance. Additionally, the emperor was often visually associated with Christ, making it clear that his power was divinely ordained and, thus, secure.
• Beginning with the basilica and central plans used by the Romans, Byzantine architects and designers made huge engineering innovations in erecting domes and vaults. The use of pendentives and squinches allowed for smoother transitions between square bases and circular, or octagonal, domes.
• The architectural surfaces of Byzantine churches were covered in mosaics and frescoes, creating opulent and magnificent interiors that glittered in the candle and lamp light. In building such elaborate and seemingly miraculous structures, the goal was to create the sense of a heavenly realm here on earth, a goal that later Gothic architecture fully embraced.

Key Artists

Artworks and Artists of Byzantine Art and Architecture

The Hagia Sophia

Artist: Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles

In Istanbul, the Hagia Sophia's most prominent and celebrated feature is its large dome, soaring above the city, while its square brick edifice and two massive towers, create an impression of fortress-like solidity. The interior is equally renowned for its light-filled space that creates a heavenly atmosphere. As the Emperor Justinian's biographer Procopius wrote at the time, "Yet [the dome] seems not to rest upon solid masonry, but to cover the space with its golden dome suspended from Heaven." The dome is the largest in the world, made possible by the architects' pioneering use of pendentives; the corners of the dome's square base curve up into the dome and redistribute its weight. The architects also inserted forty windows around the base of the dome, lightening the weight of it and illuminating the interior. They gilded the frames of the windows so that the stone refracts and reflects the light, making it appear that the dome is floating. When the church was completed, Justinian supposedly exclaimed, "Solomon, I have outdone thee!" In 532 Justinian I appointed Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles to rebuild the church. The previous church had been destroyed in rioting against Justinian's government, and its consecration was meant to mark the restoration of his central authority. At the same time, as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, the church also symbolized the spiritual authority of the Orthodox church. The structure of the interior also communicated social hierarchies, as the ground floor and upper gallery were segregated according to gender and social class with the gallery reserved for the emperor and other notables. Similarly, the entrance to the nave of the church contained nine doorways with the Imperial Door, reserved for the emperor, in the center. In effect, the church was a concrete schemata of the religious, political, and social organization of the empire - an earthly but heavenly city. In 1453 following the Turkish conquest, the building became a mosque, and the four minarets, each over 200 feet tall, were added. Interior mosaics were painted over in gold and replaced with large medallions inscribed with calligraphy. Nonetheless the building's original design was much admired, as shown by the Ottoman historian Tursun Beg who wrote in the 15th century, "What a dome, that vies in rank with the nine spheres of heaven! In this work a perfect master has displayed the whole of the architectural science." The church became a model for Ottoman architecture, as seen in the Sultan Ahmed Mosque (1609-1616), popularly known as the Blue Mosque. Today the Hagia Sophia is a national museum, in order to remove it from the religious controversies that are still associated with the site today.

Brick, mortar, stone, marble - Istanbul, Turkey

Barberini Diptych

This ivory relief was originally a diptych, hinged to another panel that was subsequently lost. Two smaller panels - the right one also lost - frame the central depiction of an energetic emperor, likely Justinian, on horseback. As the muscular and dynamic horse rears on its hind legs, the emperor looks forward as he grasps the shaft of a lance in his right hand and with his left grasps the horse's reins. Around him, three smaller figures symbolize his power and dominance. The winged figure of Victory on the upper right stands on a globe inscribed with a cross, holding a palm branch, another symbol of victory, in her left hand while her right hand crowns the emperor. A defeated barbarian stands on the left behind the horse, and a partially nude woman, who holds a cornucopia in her lap and reaches out to grasp the emperor's foot with her right hand, symbolizes the earth. In the upper panel, two heraldic angels hold a central medallion depicting Christ holding a cross and flanked by symbols of the sun, moon, and stars. In the left panel, a soldier, holding a statuette of Victory, turns toward the emperor. The lower panel depicts two Western barbarians on the left and two Eastern barbarians on the right, all bringing tribute, including ivory tusks, lions, tigers and elephants, to another winged Victory figure at the center who gestures toward the emperor above. Every element reiterates imperial authority and is innovatively depicted with energetic compression; the figures seem to surge within the frame. The model for this small portable work was the famous equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, but rather than the stoic strength of that work, this depiction makes the emperor "brim with the same energy as his charging stead," as the Jansons wrote. The Early Byzantine era pioneered ivory reliefs, which had a long-lasting influence upon Western art. They were much prized by the European elite, and this particular piece is now named after Cardinal Barberini, a noted 17 th -century art patron and collector. Created during the reign of the Emperor Justinian, the work also exemplified the Early Byzantine style, which still drew upon classical influences, as the figure of the emperor and his horse, the lance, and the winged victory are carved in such high relief that they seem fully three dimensional. The surrounding panels are carved in shallower relief, visually emphasizing the emperor as the source of energy and power. The message of the work was also innovative as it combined the military victory of the emperor with the victory of Christianity, employing two angels carrying an image of Christ rather than the Roman era's use of a pair of winged Victories. As art historian Ernst Kitzinger wrote, "Christ makes his appearance in heaven at the moment in which the emperor stages his triumphal adventus on earth. It is a graphic depiction of the harmony between heavenly and earthly rule."

Ivory - Musée du Louvre Museum, Paris, France

Emperor Justinian Mosaic

This famous mosaic depicts the Emperor Justinian I, haloed, wearing a crown and an imperial purple robe and holding a large golden bowl for the bread of the Eucharist. Carrying a gold cross, Bishop Maximianus of Ravenna, whose name is inscribed above, stands on the emperor's left along with three other clergy, one holding a incense censor and the other a gilded Gospel. On the emperor's right stand two men in white robes with a purple stripe, identifying them as members of the imperial administration, as well as a group of soldiers, gathered behind a single shield decorated with a cross. Placed in the center, the Emperor is thus depicted as the central authority between the power of the church and the power of the government and military. The distinctive style of this mosaic defined Early Byzantine art. The naturalistic treatments of classical Greek and Roman art were abandoned in favor of a hierarchal style that, rather than drawing the viewer's eye into a convincing image of reality, presented figures with direct gazes that were meant to spiritually engage the viewer. This was one of two mosaics flanking the altar; the second depicts the Empress Theodora, similarly accompanied, and in both scenes the figures are shown as if they were bringing the gifts of the Eucharist to the altar that occupies the physical space between the mosaics. All of the figures are posed frontally in a distinctive figurative style, with tall thin bodies, tiny feet pointed forward, oval faces and huge eyes, and without any suggestion of movement. As the art historians H.W. Janson and Anthony F. Janson wrote, "The dimensions of time and earthly space have given way to an eternal present in the golden setting of Heaven. Hence the solemn, frontal images seem to belong to a celestial rather than a secular court. This union of political and spiritual authority reflects the 'divine kingship' of the Byzantine emperor."

Mosaic - San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy

Christ Pantocrator

This wooden panel, painted in encaustic, or colored wax, depicts Christ in a frontal view, his head framed by a halo which contains the shape of the cross. He raises his right hand in a gesture of blessing and holds a Gospel book, gilded with a jewel-inlay cross, in his left. The folds of his purple tunic and himation, a Greek garment, are modeled with darker and lighter shades of color. His figure, nearly life-size and filling the pictorial frame, combined with his calm and direct gaze, give the work a sense of immediacy that seems to impel him toward the viewer. The dark lines of his hairline, eyebrows, and eyes draw attention to his luminous face, while subtle white highlights, contrasting with deeper shadows, enliven his expression. Behind him, spatial depth is conveyed by the architectural framework and a low horizon line. This image is the earliest surviving depiction of the Christ Pantocrator, meaning the "all-powerful," and set the precedent for the popular iconographic type that spread through Byzantium and eventually into Europe. It was painted in Constantinople and sent by Justinian I as a gift to honor the founding of the monastery located near Mount Sinai, the sacred site associated with the prophet Moses and the Ten Commandments. Due to its isolation and its distance from Constantinople, the monastery evaded the widespread destruction of art during the Iconoclastic Controversy and, therefore, is noted for its exceptional Early Byzantine artworks.

Encaustic on wood - Saint Catherine's Monastery, Sinai, Egypt

Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George

This image depicts the Virgin seated in a golden throne, holding the Christ Child on her lap as if presenting him to the viewer. Dressed in white and holding a gold cross in his right hand, the haloed Saint Theodore, revered as a warrior saint and a martyr in the Orthodox church, stands to the Virgin's right, while Saint George in red, also haloed and holding a cross, flanks her left. All four figures are depicted in colorful, fine robes and face forward, stern and motionless, with prominent eyes confronting the viewer. The hierarchical composition elevates the Virgin slightly, and the gold edging of her chair sets her distinctly apart. With right knees bent as if to step forward, the saints reflect the influence of classical Roman art and convey the presence of a more human and material world in contrast to the Virgin's heavenly throne. Behind the figures, two haloed angels turn their heads in profile to gaze toward the hand of God, from which a triangular beam of light streams down, illuminating the Virgin's halo. The composition presents a complex interplay between the physical materiality of the saints and Mary and the near transparency of the angels and the divine, thus directing the viewer's meditation and prayer to the incarnation of God in Christ through Mary. This icon is one of the earliest surviving examples of the Theotokos, or Mother of God, image that dominated Byzantine art and influenced Western art, particularly in the Gothic era's cult of the Virgin. It is also one of the earliest depictions of Saint Theodore and Saint George, who became revered saints not only in the Byzantine Empire but also in the West. The 4 th century Theodore became the patron saint of Venice until the 9 th century, and Saint George, believed to be a Roman soldier who was martyred for refusing to recant his faith, became the legendary dragon slayer of the medieval period, the patron saint of England, and the inspiration for countless art works.

Encaustic on wood - St. Catherine's Monastery, Sinai, Egypt

David Composing the Psalms

This illuminated page from the Paris Psalter depicts the Biblical King David, seated on a boulder in the center, as he plays a harp in a pastoral landscape. Portrayed as a young shepherd, he is surrounded by his flock that appears charmed by his music. A woman, wearing classical Greco-Roman robes and symbolizing Melody, sits beside David, while in the upper right, another female figure represents the Greek goddess Echo. In the lower right, a man representing the city of Bethlehem rests on the ground. While seemingly a biblical scene, the work evokes classical images of the story of Orpheus, a poet whose song had the power to charm both the forces of nature and the Greek gods. Its overall effect of a idyllic pastoral and its more realistic figurative treatment was a radical revival of classical aesthetics for the era. Psalters were popular reproductions of the Bible's Book of Psalms , many of which were believed to be authored by King David. This particular work was unique for its large size, its high quality, and full-page illustrations, suggesting that it was made for an aristocratic patron. Containing 449 folios, or pages, and fourteen full-page illuminations, including eight scenes from King David's life, this work exemplified the Macedonian Renaissance with its realistic representations, depictions of landscape with plants and animals, and classical allusions.

Illuminated manuscript - Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, France

Anastasis (Harrowing of Hell)

This fresco depicts the Anastasis, or harrowing of Hell, an image frequently depicted in the Late Byzantine era that drew upon the Christian tradition that on Holy Saturday, between his crucifixion and his resurrection, Christ rescued Adam and Eve from hell. Here, Christ, dressed in white and surrounded by a luminous mandorla , or full body halo, energetically grasps Adam's and Eve's wrists as he pulls them from their tombs on either side of him. The dynamic and dramatic image was located in the funerary chapel of the monastery church in Chora, where a cycle of other paintings portrayed religious scenes of Christ's redemption of human sin and mortality. Their vividly colored robes flowing about them, the three central figures move with a dynamic and swift smoothness that is further emphasized by the contrast with the stillness of King David and John the Baptist depicted on the left and various martyrs and saints on the right. The dark background above and below, where Satan, along with the locks and keys of Hell, is depicted as trampled beneath Christ's feet, further emphasizes Christ's dynamic movement and heavenly brilliance. The landscape, with its planes of gold and lack of detail, conveys that the figures inhabitate a spiritual space, an unchanging eternity that only Christ can alter. The work is, as art historians H.W. Janson and Anthony F. Janson wrote, "a magnificently expressive image of divine triumph. Such dynamism had been unknown in the earlier Byzantine tradition. This style, which was related to slightly earlier developments in manuscript painting, was indeed revolutionary." The change in style was the outcome of humanism's influence (manifested later and powerfully in Rennaissance Humanism ) that had begun in the Middle Byzantine period. Theodore Metochites, a poet and scholar who was Emperor Andronicus II's prime minster, restored the church and commissioned the paintings to reflect religious narrative and "the growing Byzantine fascination with storytelling."

Fresco - Church of the Holy Savior of Chora/Kariye Museum, Istanbul, Turkey

Holy Trinity Icon

Artist: Andrei Rublev

This, the most famous of all Russian icons, depicts three angels seated around a table upon which sits a chalice containing the head of a sacrificed calf. The arrangement of the winged figures, the graceful lines, and the clothing they wear create a visual circle, symbolizing their unity. Both the angel in the middle and the one on the right lift their hands in gestures of blessing over the cup as they look toward the angel on the left. With this circular composition, Rublev conveys a sense of still contemplation. The work ostensibly depicts the Biblical account of the visitation of three angels to the prophet Abraham, who sacrificed a calf to feed and honor his visitors, but more than an illustration of the story, the icon is a visual expression of the concept of the Trinity, the belief that God is one but in three persons - the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In the background, above the central angel, a single tree alludes to the Oak of Mamre where the visitation took place, but it also refers to the Tree of Life in the Garden of Eden and the cross upon which Christ was crucified, thus connecting the central angel with Christ. The relationship is further emphasized by the angel's red robe, the color that symbolizes Christ's Passion. The angel on the right wears the green associated with the feast of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit descended upon Christ's followers, while God the Father sits on the left, his importance indicated by the gaze of the others turned toward him. The unity of the godhead is symbolized by the fact that all three of the angels wear blue garments, and they seem to be engaged in sacred conversation, conveyed by gaze and gesture, around the chalice that represents Christ's sacrifice. In the background, a house alludes to both Abraham's house and the home of eternal salvation, while the mountain suggests Mount Tabor, the Biblical site where the Holy Spirit descended. To convey the complex symbolic meaning, Rublev left out many of the traditional elements of the story that are usually depicted. Though not a great deal is known about him, most scholars believe Andrei Rublev was a monk in the Holy Trinity Monastery. The monastery was and still is considered to be the spiritual heart of the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1551 the Russian Orthodox Church Council of the Hundred Chapters met to consider the iconographical canon and declared this icon was the model for all Orthodox icons. In an era of great discord and violence, Rublev's image also emphasized spiritual unity, mutual love, humility and peace. Rublev's reputation has only grown in the contemporary world. The noted filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky's Andrei Rublev (1966) was based upon the artist's life, and in 1988 the artist was canonized as a saint.

Tempera on wood - Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia

Beginnings of Byzantine Art and Architecture

To start: defining the byzantine period.

The term Byzantine is derived from the Byzantine Empire, which developed from the Roman Empire. In 330 the Roman Emperor Constantine established the city of Byzantion in modern day Turkey as the new capital of the Roman empire and renamed it Constantinople. Byzantion was originally an ancient Greek colony, and the derivation of the name remains unknown, but under the Romans the name was Latinized to Byzantium.

In 1555 the German historian Hieronymus Wolf first used the term Byzantine Empire in Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ , his collection of the era's historical documents. The term became popularized among French scholars in the 17 th century with the publication of the Byzantine du Louvre (1648) and Historia Byzantina (1680), but was not widely adopted by art historians until the 19 th century, as the distinctive style of Byzantine architecture and art in mosaics, icon painting, frescos, illuminated manuscripts, small scale sculptures and enamel work, was defined.

The Byzantine Empire lasted until 1453 when Constantinople was conquered by the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Byzantine art and architecture is usually divided into three historical periods: the Early Byzantine from c. 330-730, the Middle Byzantine from c. 843-1204, and Late Byzantine from c. 1261-1453. The political, social, and artistic continuity of the Empire was disrupted by the Iconoclastic Controversy from 730-843 and then, again, by the Period of the Latin Occupation from 1204-1261.

The Roman Empire

In the era leading up to the founding of the Byzantine Empire, the Roman Empire was the most powerful economic, political, and cultural force in the world. A polytheistic society, Roman religion was deeply informed by Greek mythology, as Greek gods were adopted into the Roman mos maiorum , or "way of the ancestors," viewing their own founding fathers as the source of their identity and worldly power. At the same time, as the empire absorbed the deities of the peoples they conquered as a way of supporting civic stability, the monotheism of Christianity, which first appeared in Roman-held Judea in the 1 st century, was seen as a political and civil threat. The Emperor Nero instituted the first persecution of Christians, as he blamed the sect for the Great Fire of Rome in 65, and subsequent emperors followed suit.

In 303 the Roman Emperor Diocletian instituted the Great Prosecution, during an era when political leaders, including Constantine, were engaged in a war, driven by competing claims to be Diocletian's successor. Facing a battle with his rival Maxentius, legend has it that Constantine converted to Christianity because of a vision. Described by the historian Eusebius, "he saw with his own eyes in the heavens a trophy of the cross arising from the light of the sun, carrying the message, In Hoc Signo Vinces (In this sign, you shall conquer)." Marking his soldier's shields with the Chi Rho , a symbol of Christ, Constantine was victorious and, subsequently, became emperor. His 313 Edict of Milan legalized the practice of Christianity, and in 324, he moved to create a new capital in the East, Constantinople, in order to integrate those provinces into the empire while simultaneously creating a new center of art, culture, and learning.

Early Christian Art

Creating frescoes, mosaics, and panel paintings, Early Christian art drew upon the styles and motifs of Roman art while repurposing them to Christian subjects. Works of art were created primarily in the Christian catacombs of Rome, where early depictions of Christ portrayed him as the classical "Good Shepherd," a young man in classical dress in a pastoral setting. At the same time, meaning was often conveyed by symbols, and an early iconography began to develop. As the Edict of Milan was followed by the Emperor Theophilus I's 380 edict establishing Christianity as the official religion of the empire, Christian churches were built and decorated with frescoes and mosaics. The classical sculptural tradition was abandoned, as it was feared that figures in the round were too reminiscent of pagan idols. In the first two centuries of the Byzantine Empire, as the historians Horst Woldemar Janson and Anthony F. Janson wrote, there was, "No clear-cut line between Early Christian and Byzantine art. East Roman and West Roman - or, as some scholars prefer to call them, Eastern and Western Christian - traits are difficult to separate before the sixth century."

Early Byzantine Art and Emperor Justinian I

The flowering of Byzantine architecture and art occurred in the reign of the Emperor Justinian from 527-565, as he embarked on a building campaign in Constantinople and, subsequently, Ravenna, Italy. His most notable monument was the Hagia Sophia (537), its name meaning "holy wisdom," an immense church with a massive dome and light filled interior. The Hagia Sophia's many windows, colored marble, bright mosaics, and gold highlights became the standard models for subsequent Byzantine architecture.

To design the Hagia Sophia, burnt down in a previous riot, Justinian I employed two well-known mathematicians, Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. Isidore taught stereometry, or solid geometry, and physics and was known for compiling the first collection of the works of Archimedes, a classical Greek engineer and scientist. A mathematician, Anthemius wrote a pioneering study on solid geometric forms and their relationships while arranging surfaces to focus light on a single point. The two men drew upon their knowledge of geometrical principles to engineer the Hagia Sophia's large dome as they pioneered the use of pendentives. The triangular supports at the corners of the dome's square base redistributed the weight, making it possible to build the largest dome in the world until the St. Peter's Basilica dome, which also employed pendentives, was completed in Rome in 1590.

Hiring 10,000 artisans to build and decorate the Hagia Sophia, Justinian I also established innumerable workshops in icon painting, ivory carving, enamel metalwork, mosaics and fresco painting in Constantinople. As art historians H.W. Janson and Anthony F. Janson wrote, during his reign, "Constantinople became the artistic as well as political capital of the empire....The monuments he sponsored have a grandeur that justifies the claim that his era was a golden age." As the Empire was at its most geographically expansive during Justinian's reign, Byzantine art and architecture influenced modern day Turkey, Greece, the Adriatic regions of Italy, the Middle East, Spain, Northern Africa, and Eastern Europe. While other structures, particularly his Chrysotriklinos , the imperial palace reception room, were equally influential, that building, like other early structures in Constantinople, was later destroyed. As a result, the best examples of Early Byzantine innovation can be seen in Ravenna, Italy.

Ravenna, Italy

Justinian I appointed his protégé Maximianus, a lowly and somewhat unpopular deacon, as Archbishop of Ravenna, where he acted as a kind of implicit regent for the Emperor within Italy. In 547, Maximianus completed the construction of San Vitale, a central-plan church using a Greek cross within a square that became a model for subsequent architecture. The shallow dome, placed upon a drum, used terra cotta forms for the first time as construction material, while the interior's exquisite mosaics and sacred objects, including the Throne of Maximianan (mid-11 th century) defined the Byzantine style.

Having survived almost intact since its consecration, the interior of the Church of San Vitale created an effect of intricate splendor, with every inch richly decorated. Large mosaics depicting the Emperor and Empress established Byzantine composition and figurative techniques, as the realistic depictions of classical art were abandoned in favor of an emphasis upon iconographic formality. The tall, thin, and motionless figures with almond shaped faces and wide eyes, posed frontally, against a gold background became the instantly recognizable definition of Byzantine art.

Acheiropoieta and Icons

Early Byzantine artists pioneered icon painting, small panels depicting Christ, the Madonna, and other religious figures. Objects of both personal and public veneration, they developed from classical Greek and Roman portrait panels and were informed by the Christian tradition of Acheiropoieta . Acheiropoieta , meaning, "made without hands," was an image believed to have been miraculously created. According to tradition, St. Luke the Evangelist, one of the original twelve apostles, painted the image of the Madonna and Child Jesus when they miraculously appeared to him. The Monastery of the Panaghia Hodegetria in Constantinople was built to house a now-lost icon believed to be St. Luke's painting. As art historian Robin Cormack noted, it became "perhaps the most prominent cult object in Byzantium." These miraculous images influenced the development of iconographic types, as St. Luke's icon became known as Hodegetria, meaning "She Who Points the Way," as the Madonna pointed to the Child Jesus.

Acheiropoieta were often credited with contemporary miracles. The Image of Edessa was believed to have come to the divine aid of the city of Edessa in its 593 defense against the Persians. The central image of Christ's head, known as the Mandylion in the Byzantine tradition, recalled the image of Christ's face imprinted on a cloth while he walked to the place of his crucifixion. Worshippers believed they were in the presence of the divine, as art historian Elena Boerck wrote, "Icons, unlike idols, have their own agency. They're interactive images, in which the divine is present." Nonetheless, as the worship of icons became a dominant feature of Byzantine life, a fierce and destructive theological debate developed.

Iconoclastic Controversy

By the 8 th century, the Byzantine Empire was under pressure and often at war, and in this tense climate the controversy over the spiritual validity of icons erupted. Motivated by the belief that recent events, including military defeats and a volcanic eruption in the Aegean Sea in 726, were God's punishment for what he called, "a craft of idolatry," the Emperor Leo III officially prohibited religious images in 730 and launched a movement called Iconoclasm, meaning "breaking of icons." Long standing theological debates over the divine and human nature of Christ and a power struggle between the imperial state and the church stoked the controversy. The Iconoclasts felt that no icon could portray both Christ's divine and human nature, and to convey only one aspect of Christ was a heresy. Those who supported icons argued that, unlike idols which depicted a false god, the images simply depicted the incarnate Christ and that the images derived their authority from Acheiropoieta . By inserting himself into the debate, the Emperor substituted imperial decree for religious authority, undercutting the influence and power of the church. Subsequently, the state violently supressed monastic clergy and destroyed icons.

The era came to an end with a change in imperial power. Following the death of her husband, the Emperor Theophilus, in 842, the Empress Theodora took the throne and, as she was passionately devoted to the veneration of icons, summoned a council that restored icon worship and deposed the iconoclastic clergy. The occasion was celebrated at the Feast of Orthodoxy in 843, and icons were carried in triumphal procession back to the various churches from which they had been taken. Nonetheless, the Iconoclastic Controversy had a notable impact on the later development of art, as the councils that restored the worship of icons also formulated a codified system of symbols and iconographic types that were also followed in mosaics and fresco painting.

Middle Byzantine 867-1204

The Middle Byzantine era is often called the Macedonian Renaissance, as Basil I the Macedonian, crowned in 867, reopened the universities and promoted literature and art, renewing an interest in classical Greek scholarship and aesthetics. Greek was established as the official language of the Empire, and libraries and scholars compiled extensive collections of classical texts. The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, Photios was not only the leading theologian but has been described by the historian Adrian Forescue as "the greatest scholar of his time." His Bibliotheca was an important compilation of almost three hundred works by classical authors, and he played a leading role in seeing Byzantine culture as rooted in Greek culture. The result was, as Janson and Janson wrote, "an almost antiquarian enthusiasm for the traditions of classical art," displayed in works like the illuminated manuscript, the Paris Psalter (c. 900) a book of Biblical psalms that included full page illustrations from the life of King David and that employed a more realistic treatment of both the figures and the landscape.

Throughout Europe, Byzantine culture and art was seen as the height of aesthetic refinement, and, as a result, many rulers, even those politically antagonistic to the Empire, employed Byzantine artists. In Sicily, which had been conquered by the Normans, Roger II, the first Norman King, recruited Byzantine artists and, as a result, the Norman architecture that developed in Sicily and Great Britain, following the Norman Conquest in 1066, profoundly influenced Gothic architecture. Hundreds of Byzantine artists were also employed at the Basilica of San Marco in Venice when construction began in 1063. In Russia, Vladimir of Kyiv converted to the Orthodox Church upon his marriage to a Byzantine princess. He employed artists from Constantinople at the St. Sophia's Cathedral he built in Kyiv in 1307. Notable examples of Macedonian Renaissance art were also created in Greece, while the influx of Byzantine artists influenced art throughout Western Europe as shown by the Italian artist Berlinghiero of Lucca's Hodegetria (c. 1230).

The Latin Occupation 1204-1261

Famed for its wealth and artistic treasures, Constantinople was cruelly sacked and the Empire conquered in 1204 by the Crusade Army and Venetian forces under the Fourth Crusade. The brutal attack upon a Christian city and its inhabitants was unprecedented, and historians view it as a turning point in medieval history, creating a lasting schism between the Catholic and Orthodox churches, severely weakening the Byzantine Empire and contributing to its later demise when conquered by the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Many notable artworks and sacred objects were looted, destroyed, or lost. Some works, like the Roman bronze works of the Hippodrome, were carried off to Venice where they are still on display, while other works, including sacred objects and altars as well as classical bronze statues, were melted down, and the Library of Constantinople was destroyed. Though the Latins were driven out by 1261, Byzantium never recovered its former glory or power.

Late Byzantium 1261-1453

Following the Latin Conquest, the Late Byzantine era began to renovate and restore Orthodox churches. However, as the Conquest had decimated the economy and left much of the city in ruins, artists employed more economical materials, and miniature mosaic icons became popular. In icon painting, the suffering of the population during the Conquest led to an emphasis upon images of compassion, as shown in sufferings of Christ. Artistic vitality shifted to Russia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece, where regional variations of icon painting developed. Russia became a leading center with the Novgorod School of Icon Painting, led by master painters Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev. Byzantine art also influenced contemporaneous art in the West, particularly the Sienese School of Painting and the International Gothic Style, as well as painters like Duccio in his Stroganoff Madonna (1300).

Byzantine Art and Architecture: Concepts, Styles, and Trends

Architectural innovations.

Known for its central plan buildings with domed roofs, Byzantine architecture employed a number of innovations, including the squinch and the pendentive. The squinch used an arch at the corners to transform a square base into an octagonal shape, while the pendentive employed a corner triangular support that curved up into the dome. The original architectural design of many Byzantine churches was a Greek cross, having four arms of equal length, placed within a square. Later, peripheral structures, like a side chapel or second narthex, were added to the more traditional church footprint. In the 11 th century, the quincunx building design, which used the four corners and a fifth element elevated above it, became prominent as seen in The Holy Apostles in Thessaloniki, Athens, Greece. In addition to the central dome, Byzantine churches began adding smaller domes around it.

Byzantine architecture was informed by Poikilia , a Greek term, meaning "marked with various colors," or "variegated," that in Greek aesthetic philosophy was developed to suggest how a complex and various assemblage of elements created a polysensory experience. Byzantine interiors, and the placement of objects and elements within an interior, were designed to create ever changing and animated interior as light revealed the variations in surfaces and colors. Variegated elements were also achieved by other techniques such as the employment of bands or areas of gold and elaborately carved stone surfaces.

For instance the basket capitals in the Hagia Sophia were so intricately carved, the stone seemed to dematerialize in light and shadow. Decorative bands replaced moldings and cornices, in effect rounding the interior angles so that images seemed to flow from one surface to another. Photios described this surface effect in one of his homilies: "It is as if one had entered heaven itself with no one barring the way from any side, and was illuminated by the beauty in changing forms...shining all around like so many stars, so is one utterly amazed. [...] It seems that everything is in ecstatic motion, and the church itself is circling around."

Iconographic Types and Iconostasis

Byzantine art developed iconographic types that were employed in icons, mosaics, and frescoes and influenced Western depictions of sacred subjects. The early Pantocrator, meaning "all-powerful," portrayed Christ in majesty, his right hand raised in a gesture of instruction and led to the development of the Deësis, meaning "prayer," showing Christ as Pantocrator with St. John the Baptist and the Virgin Mary, and, sometimes, additional saints, on either side of him. The Hodegetria developed into the later iconographic types of the Eleusa, meaning tenderness, which showed the Madonna and the Child Jesus in a moment of affectionate tenderness, and the Pelagonitissa, or playing child, icon. Other iconographic types included the Man of Sorrows, which focused on depicting Christ's suffering, and the Anastasis, which showed Christ rescuing Adam and Eve from hell. These types became widely influential and were employed in Western art as well, though some like the Anastasis only depicted in the Byzantine Orthodox tradition.

Iconostasis, meaning "altar stand," was a term used to refer to a wall composed of icons that separated worshippers from the altar. In the Middle Byzantine period, the Iconostasis evolved from the Early Byzantine templon , a metal screen that sometimes was hung with icons, to a wooden wall composed of panels of icons. Containing three doors that had a hierarchal purpose, reserved for deacons or church notables, the wall extended from floor to ceiling, though leaving a space at the top so that worshippers could hear the liturgy around the altar. Some of the most noted Iconostases were developed in the Late Byzantine period in the Slavic countries, as shown in Theophanes the Greek's Iconostasis (1405) in the Cathedral of the Annunciation in Moscow. A codified system governed the placement of the icons arranged according to their religious importance.

Novgorod School of Icon Painting

The Novgorod School of Icon Painting, founded by the Byzantine artist, Theophanes the Greek, became the leading school of the Late Byzantine era, its influence lasting beyond the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Theophanes' work was known for its dynamic vigor due to his brushwork and his inclusion of more dramatic scenes in icons, which were usually only depicted in large-scale works. He is believed to have taught Andrei Rublev who became the most renowned icon painter of the era, famous for his ability to convey complex religious thought and feeling in subtly colored and emotionally evocative scenes. In the next generation, the leading icon painter Dionysius experimented with balance between horizontal and vertical lines to create a more dramatic effect. Influenced by Early Renaissance Italian artists who had arrived in Moscow, his style, known for pure color and elongated figures, is sometimes referred to as "Muscovite mannerism," as seen in his icon series for the Cathedral of the Dormition (1481) in Moscow.

Carved Ivory

In the Byzantine era, the sculptural tradition of Rome and Greece was essentially abandoned, as the Byzantine church felt that sculpture in the round would evoke pagan idols; however, Byzantine artists pioneered relief sculpture in ivory, usually presented in small portable objects and common objects. An early example is the Throne of Maximianan (also called, the Throne of Maximianus ), made in Constantinople for the Archbishop Maximianus of Ravenna for the dedication of San Vitale. The work depicted Biblical stories and figures, surrounded by decorative panels, carved in different depths so that the almost three-dimensional treatment in some panels contrasted against the more shallow two-dimensional treatment of others.

In the Middle Byzantine period, ivory carving was known for its elegant and delicate detail, as seen in the Harbaville Triptych (mid-11 th century). Reflecting the Macedonian Renaissance's renewed interest in classical art, artists depicted figures with more naturally flowing draperies and contrapposto poses . Byzantine ivory carvings were highly valued in the West, and, as, a result, the works exerted an artistic influence. The Italian artist Cimabue's Madonna Enthroned (1280-90), a work prefiguring the Italian Early Renaissance's use of depth and space, is predominantly informed by Byzantine conventions.

Later Developments - After Byzantine Art and Architecture

During its almost one thousand year span, the Byzantine era influenced Islamic architecture, the art and architecture of the Carolingian Renaissance, Norman architecture, Gothic architecture, and the International Gothic style. When the Turkish Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople in 1453, renaming it Istanbul, the Byzantine Empire came to an end. Nonetheless the Byzantine style continued to be employed in Greece and in Eastern Europe and Russia, where a "Russo-Byzantine" style developed in architecture.

In the mid-1800s, Russia underwent a Byzantine Revival, also called the Neo-Byzantine, which was established as the official style for churches by Alexander II of Russia, who reigned from 1885-1891. The style continued to be used until World War I, and, following the Russian Revolution of 1917, a number of architects immigrated to the Balkans where churches in the Byzantine Revival style continued to be made until after World War II. The veneration of icons, and the painting of them, is still a notable feature of the Orthodox faith, as Orthodox households have a space dedicated to icons, and churches, renowned for their images, draw worshippers from near and far.

Byzantine icons have continued to exert an influence, being employed for more traditional religious imagery, such as Luigi Crosio's late 19th-century rendering of Lady of Refuge, a popular image among Catholics, but also reframed within modern art in works such as Natalia Goncharova's The Evangelists (1911) and other Russian Futurists of the time. In particular, Russian Suprematist painter Kazimir Malevich famously exhibited his radically abstract Black Square (1915) in the corner of the room, a space traditionally reserved for religious icons and referred to as the "red corner." As Russian writer Tatyana Tolstaya wrote of this radical act, "Instead of red, black (zero color); instead of a face, a hollow recess (zero lines); instead of an icon - that is, instead of a window into the heavens, into the light, into eternal life - gloom, a cellar, a trapdoor into the underworld, eternal darkness." In subverting the traditional Byzantine icon, Malevich hoped to comment on the bleak state of modernity.

Contemporary Interpretations of the Style

Contemporary artists working in Byzantine styles and subjects include the Russian Maxim Sheshukov, the Romanian Ioan Pope, the American architect Andrew Gould, iconographer Peter Pearson, the Canadian sculptor Jonathan Pageau, and the Ukrainian Angelika Artemenko. The Archimandrite, or priest-monk, Zenon Theodor was acclaimed for his 2008 paintings in St. Nicholas Cathedral, in Vienna, Austria, while Greek artist Fikos combines Byzantine murals and icons with his interest in street art, comic book strips, and graffiti in what he calls "Contemporary Byzantine Painting." In America, the Brooklyn-based Alfonse Borysewicz has been called "one of the most important religious artists since the French Catholic Georges Rouault" by art historian Gregory Wolfe.

Useful Resources on Byzantine Art and Architecture

• Byzantine Art Our Pick By Robin McCormack
• Art of the Byzantine Era By David Talbot Rice
• Byzantine Architecture (History of World Architecture) By Cyril Mango
• Master Builders of Byzantium By Robert Ousterhout
• Heaven and Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections Our Pick
• Byzantium (c. 330-1453) By Sarah Brooks / Metropolitan Museum of Art
• Byzantine art page, number of articles Our Pick Getty Blog
• The Barberini Ivory
• Byzantium art comes to life at Art Institute By Laura Pearson / Chicago Tribune / Oct 1, 2014
• On Background By Sarah Williams Goldhagen / New Republic / August 11, 2010
• Performance: The Virgin Hodegetria Our Pick By Lora Boros / Getty Blog / May 13, 2014
• Theophanes the Greek, Russia's first great master of religious art By Anastasi Gorbatove / rbth / January 7, 2015
• Contemporary Byzantine Painting: An Interview With Fikos Our Pick By Fr. Silouan Justiniano / Orthodox Arts Journal / August 30, 2016
• Blue versus Green: Rocking the Byzantine Empire By Mike Dash / smithsonian.com / March 2, 2012
• Golden Years By Mark Stevens / New York Magazine

Similar Art

The Holy Trinity (1577-79)

The Evangelists (1911)

Dome of Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore (Florence Cathedral) (1420-36)

Related artists.

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Content compiled and written by Rebecca Seiferle

Edited and revised, with Summary and Accomplishments added by Valerie Hellstein

Guide to Byzantine Art

(2 reviews)

Evan Freeman, Smarthistory

Anne McClanan , Portland State University

Copyright Year: 2021

Publisher: Smarthistory

Language: English

Formats Available

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Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Rachel Danford, Assistant Professor, Marshall University on 12/30/22

The book effectively covers a lot of ground and is well suited to undergraduate readers. It discusses a good mix of artistic media (architecture, manuscripts, metalwork, painting, textiles, sculpture). Chronologically, it is comprehensive, moving... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

The book effectively covers a lot of ground and is well suited to undergraduate readers. It discusses a good mix of artistic media (architecture, manuscripts, metalwork, painting, textiles, sculpture). Chronologically, it is comprehensive, moving from Early Christian/Late Antique to Late Byzantine (3rd to 15th c). In terms of geography, attention is paid to the center at Constantinople, artistic production in other regions of the Byzantine world (Georgia, Armenia, Serbia, Bulgaria), and Mediterranean courts influenced by Byzantium (Palermo, Venice, Jerusalem). Finally, even though it is difficult to separate secular and sacred in Byzantium, the book does a nice job balancing religious art/issues and more secular ones.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The authors are attentive to recent trends in scholarship and fold important methodological approaches into their discussions (attention to international trade routes, cross-cultural exchange, the social life of buildings, and highlighting artistic activity in regions beyond the center of Constantinople). Their presentation of the information is, therefore, up-to-date and accurate (unsurprising, given that the authors are well respected and well know scholars in the field).

Clarity rating: 5

The authors know their target audience of undergraduates well and write in an accessible way (for example, when defining an icon acknowledging that students’ minds will go first to pop icons or computer icons). The glossary at the end will be a valuable tool, since terminology and unfamiliar place names are often obstacles to teaching Byzantine art to undergrads.

Consistency rating: 5

The information and vocabulary choices are consistent throughout.

Modularity rating: 5

Excellent. For my purposes, I will not assign the entire textbook, but I do intend to use some of the “cross-cultural perspectives” chapters, given that my class is a combined Byzantine and Islamic Art course. The chapters on the Dome of the Rock, the Troyes casket, and secular architecture will be particularly useful. I will use other chapters in the future when I teach Western medieval Europe, since the sections on Norman Sicily, Jerusalem, the Crusades, and Venice all lend themselves well to a Western medieval art class as much as a Byzantine art class.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The book is organized according to the usual breakdown of Byzantine periods (Early, Middle, Late). The intro at the beginning does a good job outlining this framework for students. Ousterhout's architecture chapters at the beginning of each subsequent section act as a backbone to the book, doing double-duty as summaries of both architectural forms and historical chronology.

Interface rating: 4

One critique on the layout in the online version: occasionally the text appears in one column and sometimes in two columns. When the text is in two columns, it can be difficult to read on a device like a phone, because it can be unclear where the first column ends and when a reader should scroll back up to the top to read the second column. I believe this is only an issue when reading on a small, handheld device. However, since most of my students would probably read on their phones, it is worth noting.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I noticed no obvious errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

One of the strengths of this textbook is its attention to cross-cultural perspectives and exchanges. It also admirably acknowledges gaps between modern perceptions and historical realities. This sensitivity to the situatedness of modern interpreters looking at the past is a strength.

The “questions for study and discussion” promise to save time by fostering self-motivated learning. My students rarely do the readings unless there are accompanying graded reading questions, which are labor intensive for me to both write and grade. However, I could envision assigning the pre-prepared questions for CR/NC as a way of getting the students thinking about the material outside of class that doesn’t cost me too much time as the instructor.

Reviewed by Kayla Olson, Assistant Professor, Reference and Liaison Librarian, Winona State University on 10/21/21

Byzantine Art is an enormous, expansive topic. As a result, this textbook is a massive undertaking. There really is no way to cover every single area and idea surrounding the topic unless one intends on sacrificing quality or content. I do not... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Byzantine Art is an enormous, expansive topic. As a result, this textbook is a massive undertaking. There really is no way to cover every single area and idea surrounding the topic unless one intends on sacrificing quality or content. I do not think that instructors of Byzantine Art will expect a textbook to be their one and only instruction material in the first place. With that said, I think that the chosen objects, foci, and ideas in this textbook will assist instructors in making their courses as comprehensive as possible.

In future editions, it may be beneficial to take advantage of the e-text format to link between words and their place in the glossary. For example, there is no explanation of “encaustic” in the text-proper, but it exists in the glossary. It can be disruptive to have to scroll to the end of the book to find those definitions, when one could click a link to jump to the spot. This is especially true for a long text like this one.

From what I can tell, the information is accurate, and the scholars responsible for writing the chapters are all authoritative experts. It is appreciated that Smarthistory vets their texts through a peer-review process, too.

This takes on a more academic format than some other art history textbooks: it reads almost like a companion reference text or a scholarly anthology. This is useful, because it is easy to select individual chapters to share with students, and it thus it should make it easier to update the material over time. Because the prose is straightforward, updates and fixes should be simple.

Clarity rating: 4

The prose is clear and works to provide substantial context throughout. If I could recommend something for future editions: the asides written in parentheses may be better placed in footnotes, or in separate textboxes in a different color on the sides. That way the important context that is provided is not simply skimmed over by the reader, but rather stands out to frame the rest of the text. The information that is currently in parentheses is very helpful, however.

It is obvious that a lot of thought was put into making sure that a variety of types of material were included in the book: there are chapters that look through the lens of architecture, art history, archaeological small finds, and literary/historical primary sources. This framework makes it feel comprehensive without making it confusing for readers. If any students do decide to read the book from digital cover-to-cover, the variety will also help pique interest.

The modularity of the text is well structured. Chapters are clearly delineated, so they can be read individually without needing to constantly refer to other parts of the book. Necessary context is repeated, but not to the extent that it is overly self-referential or disruptive. The case studies (“Art/architecture in focus”, "Conversation") lend especially well to modular instruction. Headings and subheadings are consistent and properly describe the text that follows.

Considering the scope of Byzantine Art, the topics are organized well-enough according to their chronology, and the chapters focus on the impact of Byzantine art across a broad area. This really demonstrates the complexity of the long history of the Byzantine Empire. These same topics could be rearranged in any number of ways, so the way the authors chose is sufficient (since I do not believe the text is meant to be read from front to back as much as it is meant to give instructors a variety of options to pull from). The integration of different media (e.g. videos, transcripts, etc.) breaks up the text in a good way and offers more ways of engagement for students and instructors.

There do not appear to be any glaring issues with the interface or images. Fortunately, because many of the images come from the Metropolitan Museum Online Collection, the quality of individual object photos is very good. I am not sure whether the Youtube videos are meant to be playable from within a downloaded .PDF itself, but even if I could not play it within a downloaded version, the links provided beneath are sufficient and open-source. The videos open fine in the Pressbooks interface.

There are no major grammatical errors that I can see.

The text does well in its descriptions of art across the Byzantine Empire, from Spain to the Balkans to modern-day Turkey and Syria. It highlights women and works to show how bias toward historical figures arises and spreads in past writings. The authors do not treat the large swathe of geography as a monolith, but rather describe how diverse it was. The text also goes out of the way to discuss various secular parts of Byzantine art and architecture beyond the ecclesial.

Again, this subject area is an enormous one. More often than not, scholars and instructors of the pre-Byzantine classical antiquity or post-Byzantine medieval periods underestimate just how massive it is. If this book were in print, given the detailed images, color, and size, it would likely be egregiously expensive for students. The fact that it is a peer-reviewed, free, and born-digital resource that takes advantage of mixed-media and modularity is impressive. Hopefully it will serve many instructors and students well.

Table of Contents

• I. A beginner's guide
• II. Early Byzantine art and architecture, c. 330-700 C.E.
• III. The Iconoclastic Controversy, c. 700s-843 C.E.
• IV. Middle Byzantine art and architecture, c. 843-1204 C.E.
• V. The Latin Empire, c. 1204–1261 C.E.
• VI. Late Byzantine Art and Architecture, c. 1261–1453 C.E.

Ancillary Material

About the book.

The “Beginner’s guide” introduces foundational concepts, such as the chronology of Byzantine history, sacred imagery, and wearable objects. Subsequent sections are arranged chronologically, covering the Early Byzantine period (c. 330–700), the Iconoclastic Controversy (c. 700s–843), the Middle Byzantine period (843–1204), the Latin Empire (c. 1204–1261), and the Late Byzantine period (c. 1261–1453) and beyond.

These sections include thematic essays on Byzantine art and architecture, essays that focus on key works (subtitled artworks in focus or architecture in focus), and essays that explore Byzantium’s relationships with other cultures (subtitled cross-cultural perspectives). Finally, we have included questions for study or discussion to encourage teachers, students, and other readers to engage with videos and other content on the Smarthistory website which could not be included in this book format but which we believe richly compliments what is presented here.

About the Contributors

Anne McClanan  is a Professor of Byzantine Art at Portland State University, after studying at Harvard (Ph.D.), Johns Hopkins (M.A.), and Columbia University (A.B.). She is currently writing a book on the representation of griffins, looking across time at the transformation and persistence of this motif. Her prior publications explore topics of gender, including a book about early Byzantine empresses and an anthology about the premodern material culture of procreation and marriage, and iconoclasm. She has excavated in Turkey, Jordan, and Israel.

Dr. Evan Freeman is Contributing Editor for Byzantine art at Smarthistory. He completed his Ph.D. at Yale University in 2019, where he wrote his dissertation on portable ritual objects of the Middle Byzantine period. He held an Andrew W. Mellon Postdoctoral Fellowship at Smarthistory from 2020–2021 and was recently awarded an Alexander von Humboldt Postdoctoral Research Fellowship to pursue research at the University of Regensburg. His research explores art, architecture, and ritual in the Byzantine Empire and the wider medieval Mediterranean and Slavic lands.

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Byzantine Art – Traversing the Byzantine Empire Art Period

Byzantine art, which developed as a branch of the Roman Empire, was mainly distinguished by a move away from naturalism within Classical Art towards a more abstracted and worldwide look. The Byzantine empire spanned more than one thousand years and included works created during the 14 th and 15 th centuries. Seen as a significant period in the development of Western art, Byzantine art went on to create incredibly well-known sculptures, paintings, and mosaic works that are still talked about today.

Table of Contents

• 1 What Is Byzantine Art?
• 2 A History of Byzantine Art
• 3.1 Early Byzantine Art (circa 330 – 750 A.D.)
• 3.2 Middle Byzantine Art (circa 850 – 1204 A.D.)
• 3.3 The Latin Occupation (1204 – 1261 A.D.)
• 3.4 Late Byzantine Art (circa 1261 – 1453 A.D.)
• 4 Byzantine Iconoclasm
• 5.1 Religious Iconography
• 5.2 Mosaics
• 5.3 Stylized Imagery
• 5.4 Carved Ivory
• 5.5 Illuminated Manuscripts
• 6.1 Byzantine Painting
• 6.2 Byzantine Sculpture
• 6.3 Byzantine Art and Architecture
• 7.1 Christ Pantocrator (circa 6th century A.D.)
• 7.2 The Hagia Sophia (built in 537 A.D.)
• 7.3 Emperor Justinian Mosaic (created between 546 – 556 A.D.)
• 8 Legacy of the Byzantine Era

What Is Byzantine Art?

The term “Byzantine art” originated from the Byzantine Empire, which was said to have initially developed from the Roman Empire. In 330 A.D., in what is now known as Turkey, the Roman Emperor Constantine formed the city of Byzantion as the new capital city of the Roman Empire. Originally an ancient Greek colony, Byzantion was Latinized by the Romans to be called Byzantium, until its name was changed to Constantinople.

Byzantine art was traditionally comprised of Christian Greek artworks that came from the Eastern Roman Empire, as well as other nations that were culturally influenced by it. States that were impacted by the style of artworks developing within the Roman Empire were part of the Byzantine Commonwealth, which encapsulated many nations demonstrating the characteristics of Byzantine art. Some states that used these characteristics but remained separate from the Byzantine Empire were the Republic of Venice and the Kingdom of Sicily.

Classifying artworks as Byzantine art proved to be a bit tricky, as the Byzantine Empire and its artistry went on to exist for over a millennium.

During its reign, the Byzantine Empire moved away from Constantinople and expanded far and wide, meaning that the artworks created during this period of time stretched past the Italian peninsula and into the Middle East and Northern Africa. Countries that still maintain elements of Byzantine art today include Greece, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia.

The Byzantine art period went through many political, social, and artistic disruptions. Byzantine architecture and art are generally divided up into three phases, namely the Early Byzantine era, the Middle Byzantine era, and the Late Byzantine era. Intrusions into this artistic period were the result of the Iconoclastic Controversy and the Latin Occupation, which both went on to leave a noticeable influence on the development of Byzantine art.

The Byzantine Empire persisted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The movement was credited with producing some of the most notable icon paintings, frescoes, mosaics, illuminated manuscripts, sculptures, enamel work, and church architectures ever seen, of which some are still visible today. Many states went on to preserve aspects of the empire’s culture and art for centuries afterward, with the characteristics of Byzantine art even being used in the new Ottoman Empire that emerged after.

A History of Byzantine Art

The Byzantine art era, which spanned between 330 to 1453 A.D., existed as an incredibly important movement within art history. While some critics have understated the prominence of Byzantine art, believing it to not be as famous as the Italian or Northern Renaissance , the movement greatly influenced the creation of artworks and sculptures, with its style still in existence today.

Byzantine Empire art was known for its lavish mosaics and excessive use of gold, as the artworks made were said to be in response to the rise of Christianity in Europe.

Byzantine art emerged after the Roman emperor, Constantine the Great, reassigned the ancient imperial capital from Rome to Byzantium, which was renamed the city of Constantinople in his own honor. Roman artisans were moved to the city so as to decorate the Christian churches with a variety of ancient Roman mosaics, as Emperor Constantine had finally declared tolerance for Christianity.

Constantinople was also referred to as the “New Rome” due to the city’s newly discovered standing as the political capital of the Roman Empire. Inhabitants of the city were Greek-speaking Christians, who deemed themselves to be Romans and thus the inheritors of the ancient Roman Empire. Byzantine art thus originated from the Christianized Greek culture that existed in the Roman Empire, with elements of both Christianity and classical Greek mythology being artistically expressed in the artworks that were produced.

As the Byzantine Empire developed, an essential aspect of it was that it was much more Greek than Roman in many ways. Thus, Hellenistic art and the concept of naturalism went on to influence the production of art during this time. This led to Constantinople, the heart of the Byzantine Empire, to be viewed as the focal point of art history at that point, which helped disseminate the style’s works, methods, and ideas throughout the Empire.

Known to be the Eastern branch of the Roman Empire in its initial stage, Early Byzantine art had a strong Roman and Classical influence. Artists adopted various Roman traditions when creating art, such as the process of collecting and displaying artworks in private to the exclusive wealthier classes of Byzantium who were thought to appreciate art more. However, as the Byzantine art movement began to evolve, themes that were once considered very important within Roman and Classical art began to be reworked and altered.

One of the most significant themes that began to change as Byzantine art continued to develop was the depiction of conventional religious scenes.

As the Byzantine era went on, religion continued to exist as a dominant theme in the traditional artworks made, but a closer inspection of these individual works revealed the ever-changing approach to art that was employed. Despite the Byzantine art movement signifying a move away from Classical art, religion as a definitive theme prevailed in the artworks made.

By the 12 th century C.E., Byzantine art had become a lot more suggestive and inventive in spite of the subject matter staying the same. Due to this, the vast majority of the surviving Byzantine Empire Art pieces have demonstrated religion to be one of the most dominant themes throughout the period. As an empire, Byzantine art continued to expand and shrink over the centuries, as the era was greatly influenced by the influx of new ideas that came from other parts of Europe.

As most pieces coming from this period contained a predominantly religious message, Byzantine artwork was mainly used to decorate churches throughout the Mediterranean. Byzantine art was largely characterized by abstraction and a two-dimensional representation, as artists attempted to generate a universal appeal for their artworks.

The various ideas and art objects of the Byzantine Empire were constantly spread between different cultures in Europe through royal gifts, religious missions, and movements of the artists themselves.

Byzantine art demonstrated a great focus on an impersonal interpretation of church theology into artistic terms, which were mainly seen in the architecture, paintings, mosaics, frescoes, and sculptures that came from this period. The outcome of emulating religion as a rigid tradition rather than on a personal whim resulted in a sophisticated style of art to develop, with the spirituality and expression of Byzantine art rarely equaled in later art periods.

Artists within the Byzantine era beautified almost everything that they came into contact with. Various buildings, books, and most notably, Christian churches, were all decorated using bright stones, gold mosaics, carved ivory, precious metals, and spirited wall paintings and frescoes . Representations of icons, like Christ, the Virgin Mary, or specific saints, were used to adorn churches and private homes in an attempt to manifest the figure itself and its holy presence. This technique became one of the typical characteristics of Byzantine art.

These techniques of Byzantine art can still be seen in certain Christian churches around the world today, as the importance of religious art within the Byzantine era was monumental. Artistic ideals circulated to important outposts like Sicily and Crete, where the inclusion of Byzantine iconography into the artworks that were being produced would go on to become formative influences on the later development of the Italian Renaissance .

The style of Constantinople art that emerged from the Byzantine Empire flourished for hundreds of years and spread throughout what is now present-day Spain, Italy, and Turkey. Byzantine art continued until the 15 th century when the city of Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire.

Despite this bringing the movement to a close, certain artworks produced during the Ottoman Empire were labeled as “post-Byzantine” due to the characteristics used, which demonstrated the lasting effects that this period had on the history of Western art.

Periods Within the Byzantine Era

Lasting until 1453 A.D., art and architecture that emerged from the Byzantine Empire can generally be split up into three historical periods that have been labeled as Early Byzantine art, Middle Byzantine art, and Late Byzantine art. However, a disruption in the continuity of the Byzantine Empire occurred between the last two periods by the Latin Occupation.

Early Byzantine Art (circa 330 – 750 A.D.)

In 330 A.D., Roman Emperor Constantine adopted Christianity as the prevailing religion and switched his capital city from Rome to Constantinople. This religious shift drastically affected the type of art that was created in the Empire, as Christianity began to replace the Greco-Roman gods of antiquity that previously defined Roman religion and culture. Considered to be the first golden age of the new Empire, the Early Byzantine art period extended well into the 700s while Christianity’s culture and religion diversified the state.

The practice of Christianity, which developed in the 4 th century, spread throughout the entire Byzantine Empire and was an important influence on the art created. Throughout the Early Byzantine period, Constantine devoted a great effort to the adornment of Constantinople and decorated various public spaces with ancient statues. The following ruler, Emperor Justinian, saw to this and oversaw the building of iconic Constantinopolitan churches, with the most famous example being the original foundations of the patriarchal cathedral, the Hagia Sophia.

Early Byzantine art centered around Roman law as well as Greek and Roman culture so as to sustain a carefully controlled government.

This led to the artistic traditions of the affluent state extending throughout the empire and into other provinces entirely, such as those in North Africa. However, as the art period advanced, the Byzantine Empire was subject to intrusions by various Western territories over the decades, which introduced a whole host of other influences to Early Byzantine art.

Important artworks, such as decorations for the inside of churches like icons and mosaics, as well as illuminated manuscripts, exist as some of the most notable Byzantine pieces to survive this era. An iconic manuscript to outlive this time period is Homer’s Iliad , which is considered to be one of the oldest works of Western literature today. Unfortunately, very few Constantinopolitan monuments from this period remain, yet the influence of Early Byzantine art can be seen in the surviving structures in other cities.

Middle Byzantine Art (circa 850 – 1204 A.D.)

After a brief period of the Iconoclastic controversy, which favored the proper use of icons, breaking out at the end of the first Byzantine period, the Middle Byzantine art era emerged. Following a great stage of crisis, which destroyed much of the images that developed in the Early Byzantine period, the stylistic and thematic interests of the period continued into the Middle Byzantine art phase.

A greater focus was placed on the building of churches and decoration of the interior, which brought some changes to the Byzantine Empire.

The most notable change was that Greek became the prescribed language of the Byzantine state and church, as Christianity extended from Constantinople to the Slavic regions of the North. This led to the adoption of Orthodox Christianity by Russia in the 10 th century, as the influence of Byzantine art had given new inspiration to the Slavic land.

Byzantine art and architecture began to flourish during the Middle Byzantine art period as a result of the Empire’s increasing wealth and foundation of rich art patrons. Architecture during this phase moved towards the centralized cross-in-square plan, which is what Byzantine architecture is best known for. The production of manuscripts and stone and ivory carvings reached a peak during the Middle Byzantine period, as a renewed interest in Classical art and ancient literature emerged.

This demonstrated the Empire’s continual and active involvement with its ancient past, which helped extend the movement’s control throughout the various phases. This era marked the reopening of universities and the promotion of literature and art, which led to a renewed interest in classical Greek knowledge and aesthetics, which helped reestablish Greek as the official language.

Thus, the Middle Byzantine period, which was also referred to as the Macedonian Renaissance, was seen as a period of heightened stability and fortune.

The Latin Occupation (1204 – 1261 A.D.)

The disruption that occurred between the last two phases of Byzantine art was the Latin Occupation, which went on to have a profound effect on the Empire through the major political fragmentation that was caused. Armies of the Fourth Crusade attacked Europe and overthrew the capital of Constantinople, in an effort to return the Eastern Empire to Western Christendom.

The barbaric attack of the Crusade army on the Christian city and its people was completely unprecedented, which led to a significant breakdown of the Byzantine Empire’s nobility and ruling classes. This resulted in historians going on to earmark the Latin Occupation as a major decisive moment in medieval history. Essentially, a permanent division between the Catholic and Orthodox churches was created, which led to a slow deterioration of the Byzantine Empire until its final demise by the Ottoman Empire.

Due to this, many notable and sacred artworks and objects created during the Middle Byzantine period were destroyed and lost, while others were transported elsewhere.

Some objects can still be seen on display in Venice today, but this remains a small collection. Unfortunately, important bronze statues were melted down and the iconic Library of Constantinople was completely destroyed, which effectively wiped out the majority of the history of the Middle Byzantine era.

However, this new occupation found itself in competition with exiled Byzantine states, who fought to gain control. In 1261, the Byzantine state at Nicaea was able to expel the Latins from Constantinople, which led to the restoration of Byzantine power. Despite this, the imperial city never regained its former magnificence and power. The name of the city was then changed to “Palaiologoi” to mark the beginning of a new reigning dynasty that could possibly recover the authority that had been lost.

Late Byzantine Art (circa 1261 – 1453 A.D.)

Following the Latin Occupation, the final period of Byzantine art emerged. Known as the Late Byzantine art era, this phase focused on the renovation and restoration of Orthodox churches that were destroyed. Under the rule of a Byzantine Greek family that rose to nobility, the Late Byzantine art period was renamed the Palaiologan era, which began the longest-ruling dynasty of the Byzantine Empire.

As the Occupation had completely annihilated the economy and left most of Constantinople in ruins, artists began to make use of more inexpensive materials, which led to the rising popularity of miniature mosaic icons. As icon paintings further developed, the suffering experienced by the population resulted in a greater emphasis being placed on images of compassion. Paintings depicting the sufferings of Christ became commonplace during Late Byzantine art, as they invoked feelings of sympathy and tenderness.

Byzantine art and architecture managed to flourish for a significant period of time during the Palaiologan era, which was surprising due to the military and political circumstances faced by Byzantine rulers. The political borders of the Late Byzantine period were dramatically reduced due to the Latin Occupation; however, the religious influence of Byzantine art was still able to extend far beyond its own borders. The Late Byzantine era existed as a period of diminished wealth and stability, which led to its eventual demise by the Ottoman Empire.

This brought about the end of the Byzantine Empire, despite Byzantine art techniques living on in outposts like Greece, Italy, and even the Ottoman Empire. The development of Byzantine art was continued by the Russian Empire, which emerged around the time that Constantinople fell. This was seen as the heir of Byzantium, as the churches and icons were created in a distinctly Late Byzantine art manner.

The Renaissance was also said to borrow from the traditions of Byzantine art, which demonstrated the influence of this final period.

Byzantine Iconoclasm

At the start of the 8 th century, the Byzantine Empire was constantly under duress and often at war with others. It was during this uneasy environment that dispute over the spiritual validity of icons began to erupt. In 730 A.D., Emperor Leo III formally banned all religious images and initiated a movement dubbed “Iconoclasm”, which saw the destruction of all religious icons. Society was also prompted by the belief that recent events, like military defeats and the 726 A.D. volcanic eruption in the Aegean Sea, were God’s retribution to humanity.

This dispute was further triggered by discussions between the imperial state and the church, as the disconnect between the holy and human nature of Christ was brought to the forefront. Those participating in the movement, known as Iconoclasts, believed that no icon could accurately represent both Christ’s divine and human nature.

Only portraying one aspect of Christ was considered to be blasphemous, which eventually led to society stopping producing images of Christ entirely as none were good enough.

While Iconoclasm significantly restricted the role of religious art and led to the damage of some portable icons and the removal of earlier pieces of mosaics, it never implanted a complete ban on the creation of figural art . Plenty of literary sources indicated that secular art continued to be produced during this period of the Byzantine era, with some structures that were built still existing today.

The Hagia Eirene in Constantinople is one of the best-kept examples of Iconoclastic church adornment today. The church was rebuilt after an earthquake in 740 A.D. and the interior was decorated with mosaics despite the stance on religious imagery at the time. Some churches that were built outside of the empire during this time were also seen to be decorated in a definite “Byzantine” style. This went on to demonstrate the continued efforts of artists who attempted to keep some characteristics of Byzantine art alive.

The Iconoclastic period lasted until about 843 A.D. and was a relatively uninterrupted period of time. After the death of Emperor Leo III, Empress Theodora took over. As she was intensely devoted to the adoration of icons, she formed a council that restored icon worship. Despite its destruction, the Iconoclastic Controversy was said to have had a prominent effect on the later development of art.

This renewed praise of icons formulated a coded system of symbols and iconographic types that were also used in future mosaics and paintings.

Characteristics of Byzantine Art

Byzantine Empire Art, also known as Constantinople art, existed as a very distinct period of artistic production. Artworks that were made had many similar characteristics that often overlapped at certain points. The elements present in Byzantine art pieces were all thought to be conventionally “Byzantine” in nature, which helped in the development of specific characteristics to identify these types of works.

Religious Iconography

Due to its complex history with the inclusion of icons, Byzantine art depicted various religious subjects almost entirely. These subjects were typically in the form of Jesus or the Virgin Mary, with different scenes from the Bible being incorporated as well. During this time, the church was very influential within Byzantine society due to its power and wealth and easily dictated the subject matters that were used.

Therefore, subjects of a religious nature were encouraged over others, which led to religion being the predominant theme.

Some incredibly famous works from this period that showcase the integration of religious iconography remain to this day. A notable example of this is the Hagia Sophia, as iconography can be seen through its iconic mosaic work that still exists. Within the mosaic, Christ is depicted as the Pantocrator or ruler of the universe, effectively demonstrating the inclusion of religious icons in Byzantine artworks.

Another popular medium that was used within a significant amount of Byzantine artwork that was created was mosaics. The art of mosaic work quickly became one of the primary characteristics that were used to identified Byzantine art, as these artworks typically depicted religious scenes from the Bible and various spiritual icons. Artists who made use of this style made intricate mosaics out of thousands of glass, ceramic, and stone pieces that they arranged to form the images they desired.

Like the Romans who also made use of mosaics, Byzantine artists extended this art form by integrating more luxurious materials into their designs, such as precious stones and gold leaf. Mosaics within Byzantine Empire art were to create symbolic images of the divine and the Absolute and to evoke feelings associated with the heavenly realm. Most Byzantine mosaic works appeared to project celestial figures that seemed to be floating, which was further enhanced by the gold backgrounds that were used to represent the absence of earthly space.

The figures in Byzantine mosaics seemed to be isolated, as they were suspended in the air by their backgrounds. By placing these figures in a spiritual world, artists were able to give parishioners some access to this world through the mosaics that were created. Byzantine art intended to differ from Roman art through the types of mosaics that were produced, as artists placed focus on creating visions of the spiritual and the intangible world of Heaven.

Stylized Imagery

One of the simpler characteristics of Byzantine art was that artists tended to prefer stylized imagery over naturalistic depictions in the artworks that were made. This was because art aimed to encourage a sense of wonder and admiration for the church, which was further seen in the religious imagery that was chosen as a subject matter.

Thus, the use of elegant, floating figures and golden mosaic works highlighted the spirituality of religious subjects and essentially demonstrated their suitability in church settings.

Carved Ivory

Sculptures within the Byzantine era different greatly from Roman and Greek traditions, as the older characteristics were abandoned in favor of new ones. Byzantine artists pioneered relief sculptures, which were usually presented in the form of small moveable, and ordinary objects. These art pieces were also traditionally carved in ivory, as sculptures made from this material were known for their elegance and delicate detail.

Byzantine sculpture pieces made from ivory were thought to be highly valued in the West. Due to this, the artworks exerted a strong influence over the other artists and emerging mediums. These carved ivory pieces went on to inform many other movements, particularly the use of depth and space that was displayed in the Italian Renaissance.

Illuminated Manuscripts

Another major genre of Byzantine art was the use of illuminated manuscripts, which referred to manuscripts that were accompanied by decoration in the form of miniature illustrations, initials, and marks in the borders. The elements of this medium, which were mostly used when illustrating texts of a religious, devotional, or theological nature, were seen as typical characteristics of Byzantine art.

Traditionally, a manuscript was only considered to be illuminated if the text was decorated in either gold or silver. Despite manuscript illumination not reaching the same impressive effects as the monumental paintings and mosaics that adorned churches, it was seen as an important characteristic that helped spread the Byzantine style and use of iconography throughout Europe.

Types of Byzantine Art

Throughout the Byzantine period, many mediums of art were experimented with. Unfortunately, due to the numerous conquests and occupations that happened during this time of history, much of the art created in the Byzantine Empire no longer exists. Out of these mediums, painting, sculpture, and architecture proved to be the most popular among artists and craftsmen.

Byzantine Painting

Paintings and frescoes created during the Byzantine era were typically seen on the inside of churches or cathedrals as decoration pieces. During this time, the Constantinople art pieces that were produced had three main purposes: to beautify buildings, to instruct the uneducated on matters essential for the benefit of their soul, and to support the faithful that they were indeed on the right road to salvation. In addition to paintings, churches were also adorned with beautiful mosaics that conveyed the same messages.

The subjects depicted in Byzantine painting frescos were limited, as they only included key religious figures like Jesus Christ and central events from the Bible.

In the large Christian basilica buildings where these paintings were traditionally found, depictions of Christ usually occupied the central dome to denote his importance. Other notable areas included the barrel of the dome which portrayed prophets, the joins between the vault and dome which depicted the evangelists, and the sanctuary which was home to the Virgin Mary and child.

The walls below the dome were also seen as significant, as they generally contained scenes from the New Testament about the lives of saints. The structure of these basilica’s also added to the importance given to the Byzantine paintings seen. The high ceilings and long side walls provided an ideal medium upon which to represent religious scenes and send visual messages to the congregation, as even the most modest of shrines were adorned with a plethora of fresco paintings.

Aside from these religious buildings, small wooden panels were also used as a popular canvas for paintings, however, this was generally seen in the late Byzantine art period. Paintings during this era varied greatly as they depended on the time frame or location. More attention to detail was paid to the subjects and their personality from the 13 th century on, with some examples of this being seen in the Hagia Sophia in Trabzon. Daring color blends were also experimented with, as seen in the wall paintings in various Byzantine churches in Greece today.

Byzantine Sculpture

Throughout the entire Byzantine era, little sculpture was produced in comparison to the other art forms that were generated. However, the sculptures that were made were typically small relief carvings that were made out of ivory. Despite their diminutive size, these sculptures were sophisticated and elegant in construction and were used to decorate book covers, reliquary boxes, or other similar objects. In addition to ivory, marble and limestone existed as other common materials for sculptors to use for their craft.

Borrowing from late Roman art, where portrait sculptures were made to be incredibly realistic, Byzantian sculpture pieces continued the production of this trend.

At times, certain sculptures were also carved out of bronze and marble when they were said to represent emperors and popular charioteers. These types of sculptures were only carved in these unique materials due to the heightened status of their subject matter and were seen in the Hippodrome of Constantinople.

The majority of the limited figure sculptures created during the Byzantine art era were made of ivory. However, by the 6 th century, three-dimensional portraits were considered to be quite rare as sculpture had not reached the popularity it once had in antiquity. Sadly, only a sole free-standing example of this sculpture work survives today. This sculpture, titled The Virgin and Child , was speculated to have been created between 1220 and 1230 A.D. and is on display at the Victoria and Albert Museum in the United Kingdom today.

Byzantine Art and Architecture

The earliest reference to architecture in the Byzantine era was determined by the longitudinal Basilica church plans that were developed in Italy. This saw a favoring of large vaults and domes in the Byzantine architecture structures that were created, which led to the creation of various architectural innovations to come from this time period. In addition to domed roofs, the squinch and pendentive were incorporated. The squinch formed a base for an octagonal or spherical dome, while the pendentive placed a circular dome over a square room.

One of the original influences in Byzantine architecture was the Greek cross. This emblem, which had four arms of an equal length, was used in the design of many Byzantine churches for its proportionality. As architecture developed, surrounding structures were added to traditional churches, such as side chapels or a secondary narthex.

The architectural design of churches during the Byzantine Empire was optimal for the type of paintings and frescos that were to be added inside. Traditionally, at the top of the central dome, the figure of Christ was depicted as he was said to be the ruler of the universe and thus needed to be placed at the very top.

Below him, angels, archangels, and saints were generally depicted around the base of the dome, while the Virgin Mary was portrayed on a higher level in a half-dome. The lowest realm was built so as to be reserved for the congregation, which allowed worshippers to gain some sort of access to the Heavenly world that was depicted inside the dome.

Thus, all architectural elements within Byzantine churches were meticulously thought out, as they each played an important role in the storytelling of Christ and were shown to be accessible to ordinary churchgoers.

Famous Byzantine Artwork

Throughout the Byzantine Empire, hardly any distinction was made between artists and craftspeople, as both produced and assembled exquisite objects that were used for specific purposes. Thus, the artists behind the works were not as important as the actual works themselves, as these pieces were believed to have great influence over Byzantine society at the time.

A lot of artists within Byzantine art who went on to create illuminated manuscripts were often priests and monks, demonstrating the fine line that existed between so-called artists and professional individuals in society. Prior to the 13 th century, it was very uncommon for an artist to sign their work. Due to this, the artists of some of the limited surviving artworks cannot be pinpointed, which again demonstrates that the status associated with creating art was not as important during the Byzantine Empire as it is today.

Potential reasons to explain why artists hardly signed their works were because they originally lacked social status, or that the artworks were made by groups of artists as opposed to a single person. However, the most plausible reason for this was because the personalization of artworks was believed to take away from its original purpose, particularly in religious art.

Byzantine artists were traditionally supported by patrons including emperors, monasteries, and churches, who commissioned works, further proving that their name on the artwork was not as important as the purpose for which it was destined.

Unfortunately, as not much artwork survived this period of history, we will be taking a look at just a few notable remaining pieces from the Byzantine art era.

Christ Pantocrator (circa 6 th century A.D.)

Existing as one of the oldest Byzantine religious icons of all time is the Christ Pantocrator of St. Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai, Egypt. Thought to be the earliest known version of the Pantocrator style that still survives today, this encaustic wood painting is one of the most significant and recognizable works in both the Byzantine art era and Eastern Orthodox Christianity.

Meaning “all-powerful”, this specific depiction of Christ Pantocrator set the precedent for the popular iconographic style that had begun to spread through the Byzantine Empire and eventually into Europe. It was painted in Constantinople sometime during the 6 th century and sent to Emperor Justinian I as a gift to celebrate the establishment of the monastery near Mount Sinai. The location was also said to be associated with the prophet Moses and the Ten Commandments.

Due to its geographic isolation, this monastery in Egypt was a great distance away from Constantinople, which enabled it to evade the widespread devastation that happened to art because of the Iconoclastic Controversy. Because of this, it is often considered an exceptional example of Early Byzantine art as it makes up one of the few remaining pieces from that period of artistic production.

This style of painting was known as encaustic, which was a form of hot wax painting, whereby colored pigments were heated up and applied directly to surfaces such as prepared wood and canvases. With this artwork being painted on a wooden panel, Christ is depicted from a frontal angle with a distinct halo framing his head. Inside his halo, the subtle shadow of the cross is visible, demonstrating the spirituality of this work.

Further displays of religion are shown through the details in this painting. The right hand of Christ is raised in a gesture that was associated with blessing and he is holding a Gospel book adorned with jewels in the shape of a cross. With the figure appearing to be almost life-like as it fills up the majority of the pictorial frame, this painting compels viewers’ attention through the calm and direct gaze of Christ.

The Hagia Sophia (built in 537 A.D.)

One of the most iconic examples of the combination of Byzantine art and architecture is the Hagia Sophia, which was built during the Early Byzantine art period. Existing as the largest Christian church in the Byzantine Empire, the rebuilding of the Hagia Sophia was commissioned by Emperor Justinian during his extensive campaign in Constantinople.

Meaning “holy wisdom”, the Hagia Sophia is a mighty church characterized by its massive dome and light-filled interior, which can be visited in Istanbul, Turkey today.

Built as the patriarchal cathedral for the imperial city of Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia was a prominent and celebrated structure. The multiple windows, colored marble, dazzling mosaics, and golden highlights seen in its structure and decoration became the standard models for subsequent Byzantine architecture that developed during this period. The dome of the Hagia Sophia is the biggest in the world, which was executed by the architects’ pioneering the corners of the dome’s square base to evenly distribute its weight.

Existing as a symbol of the spiritual authority of the Orthodox church, the Hagia Sophia communicated social hierarchies through its interior structure. The ground floor and upper gallery were separated by gender and social class, with the higher section usually reserved for the Emperor and other noble patrons.

After the Turkish conquest of the Byzantine Empire, the Hagia Sophia was converted to a mosque, which it still is today. The interior decoration was slightly changed after its conversion, with mosaics being painted over in gold and subsequently replaced with medallions engraved with calligraphy. The building’s original design was maintained, as it was greatly admired by the Ottoman Empire, demonstrating the influence that iconic Byzantine architecture had, as the structure later became a model for Ottoman architecture.

Today, the Hagia Sophia stands as a national museum in addition to being a mosque. This was done so as to remove the structure from the many religious controversies that have still been associated with this site as time has gone on.

Despite the conflict associated with the Hagia Sophia, it still exists as one of the most significant examples of Byzantine art and architecture.

Emperor Justinian Mosaic (created between 546 – 556 A.D.)

This mosaic piece, which depicts Emperor Justinian I, is one of the most distinctive styles of mosaic works that was defined during the Early Byzantine art period. Existing as an iconic image of political authority from the Byzantine era, this mosaic of Emperor Justinian I can be viewed in the San Vitale church in Ravenna, Italy today.

Within this mosaic, the Emperor is portrayed to haloed and wearing a crown made out of jewels, while wearing royal purple robes and holding a big golden bowl for the bread of the Eucharist. Besides him, the Bishop Maximianus of Ravenna is depicted, along with three other members of the clergy. Other individuals include the imperial administration as well as a group of soldiers, who all make up the background of the mosaic.

By being placed in the center, the Emperor is seen as the primary authority between the power of the church and the influence of the government and military during the Byzantine Empire. The hierarchal style of the mosaic conveys a heavy atmosphere that simultaneously draws viewers in to be confronted by the direct gazes of the figures.

The similar stance adopted by each figure referenced the dimensions of time and earthly space, which appeared in the majority of mosaics in Early Byzantine art.

Legacy of the Byzantine Era

The Byzantine art era was an incredibly important period of historical and artistic development, as it went on to influence the development of early Western art history. The art movements that developed in its aftermath, while great in their own rights, were said to be merely attempted recreations of the type of art that was produced in the Byzantine era. This was simply because great splendor was incorporated into Byzantine Empire Art, which would not be seen for a while in emergent movements.

Some artworks from the Byzantine Empire were dispatched as diplomatic gestures to emperors while Constantinople still ruled, such as Byzantine silks and mosaic works. Artists were also sent to other regions to recreate the mosaics that were seen in the Byzantian churches at the time, which effectively demonstrated the great influence and draw that Byzantine art had on the different areas of the world.

While certain areas were seen as centers of Byzantine influence, like Venice and Norman Sicily, some artistic movements developed directly due to the Empire’s effect. A notable example of this is Islamic Art , which essentially began with artists and craftsmen who were mainly trained in Byzantine styles. While elements of Byzantine art were altered, it proved to be the underlying style that was referred to within the creation of Islamic Art and other various art movements as well.

Despite coming to a close in 1453 when the Empire was captured by the Ottoman Turks, Byzantine art proved to be very influential. The elements that made up Byzantine art had been widely diffused at this point, which enabled the movement to exist as a cultural heritage. Some aspects even survived the Turkish conquest and were used as new movements emerged, demonstrating the universal relevance of Byzantine art as a whole.

The Byzantine art period existed as an extremely fascinating movement, as it was seen as the starting point for other iconic art movements that emerged. Despite it occurring so many centuries ago, Byzantine art proved to be very influential, with some elements that are used in contemporary artworks today being traced back to this time in history. Spanning for over a millennium, the question “what is Byzantine art” is complex, as so much more can still be learned. If you have enjoyed reading this article, we encourage you to learn more.

Take a look at our Byzantine art webstory here!

Isabella studied at the University of Cape Town in South Africa and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts majoring in English Literature & Language and Psychology. Throughout her undergraduate years, she took Art History as an additional subject and absolutely loved it. Building on from her art history knowledge that began in high school, art has always been a particular area of fascination for her. From learning about artworks previously unknown to her, or sharpening her existing understanding of specific works, the ability to continue learning within this interesting sphere excites her greatly.

Her focal points of interest in art history encompass profiling specific artists and art movements, as it is these areas where she is able to really dig deep into the rich narrative of the art world. Additionally, she particularly enjoys exploring the different artistic styles of the 20 th century, as well as the important impact that female artists have had on the development of art history.

Learn more about Isabella Meyer and the Art in Context Team .

Cite this Article

Isabella, Meyer, “Byzantine Art – Traversing the Byzantine Empire Art Period.” Art in Context. June 17, 2021. URL: https://artincontext.org/byzantine-art/

Meyer, I. (2021, 17 June). Byzantine Art – Traversing the Byzantine Empire Art Period. Art in Context. https://artincontext.org/byzantine-art/

Meyer, Isabella. “Byzantine Art – Traversing the Byzantine Empire Art Period.” Art in Context , June 17, 2021. https://artincontext.org/byzantine-art/ .

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Byzantine thought and art : a collection of essays

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Byzantine Art: The Virgin Mary Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

The virgin mary in byzantine representations, theotokos in greek expressions, the virgin mary in western representations, the virgin mary in the later middle ages, mother of god, works cited.

Although, no declaration of any sort was made of Christ in early religious artistry “the text only states that in the vital instant of the cordon the godless Chagan glimpsed a number of a woman, clothed in a dignified kind, running beside the ramparts of the town walls” (Ousterhout 95). The bard connected this lady to the Virgin of the Blachernai. This image of the Blessed Virgin, the Blachernitissa, was affiliated to the maphorion (Figure 1).

The maphorion always was presumed to be the assurance for the Byzantine empires’ security as its episode in the place of adoration of the Blachernai in the 5th century; by the 7th century the image of the Virgin Blachernitissa was affiliated with mutually the maphorion and the defense of the realm (Ousterhout 95).

The Virgin Mary, well-known as the Theotokos in Greek expressions, was centralized to Byzantine religion as foremost important spiritual records. As the intermediary flanked by agony human being and Christ and the lady who protected the Constantinople, she was amply recognized. The Virgin symbolizes Greek songs in the praise of God, which were considered to be of importance, for signifying the Akathistos Hymn, which was created to endeavor the church festival held on the 25th of March. Account imaginative depictions of Christ’s mother objective on her starting and babyhood or her Koimesis (her Dormition, or everlasting siesta).

Most images of the Virgin stress her purpose as the mother of Jesus Christ, brandishing her status and keeping her son such as ‘The Vladimir Virgin’ (Figure 2). The sort of art in which the Virgin keeps Christ is very meticulous. Confident mimics developed into “types” that became names of refuge or rhythmical descriptions.

Hence, an image of the Virgin was proposed to encompass her resemblance and, at the equal instance, the imitation of a fine well-known image unique (Forsyth, 1972).

For emergence, the Virgin Hodegetria is a noise admired figure of the Virgin in which Christ is held by her in the left arm and indications in the main heading of him through her right hand, brandishing that he is the means to deliverance (Figure 3).

In Constantinople, the Hodegon Monastery named it Hodegetria, where the image brandishing the Virgin in this exact position existed in even in the 12th century, depicting to fight back the city. What came to be renowned later was a type similar to that of Virgin Eleousa (Figure 4); which is pronounced to have rooted from the Virgin Hodegetria.

These types comprise the sympathetic for demonstration of the Virgin. She is exposed viewpoint to seem her insolence to the impudence of her offspring, who respond this liking by placing the support of his arm around her neck. Byzantine images of the Virgin were then moved on to the West (Forsyth, 1972).

Thus, as asserted by Pentcheva,

“Vestiges of the Virgin proceeded to purpose as the only entails of sign of the Virgin’s defense of Constantinople in the time span directly later than Iconoclasm. Only beginning with the middle of the 10th century … did Marian icons start to come by a public function in triumphal parades and battles. … By the second half of the eleventh 100 years, Psellos and Attaleiates record the custom of the Byzantine emperors to convey an exceptional Marian icon on infantry campaigns: the Blanchernitissa” (Ousterhout, 96).

Nearly all Western types of the Virgin’s similarity, for demonstration the “Throne of Wisdom” (Figure 5) in 12th century coming from France, in which the Christ is suggested confrontationally as the supplement of heavenly knowledge, surfaced to have started in Byzantium.

Other similar art created includes ‘The Cambrai Madonna’ (Figure 6) Byzantine types become amply distributed in Western Europe by the 7th century. The12th and 13th centuries sighted an outstanding growth of the spiritual grouping of the Virgin in Western Europe, in element inspired by the literature of Theology for demonstration.

Saint Bernard of Clairvaux (Figure 7), Song of Songs in the Old Testament shows Virgin Mary being adored as Christ’s bride, personification of the Church, Heaven’s Queen and Intercessor for the deliverance of humanity (Belting, 1994).

This activity found out its grandest signal in the mission of France, which are frequently devoted to “Our Lady” (Figure 1) and many villages, for demonstration Siena, puts beneath her protection. Belting directs exceptional vigilance to the 13th century and to Tuscany in considering and interpreting the change of the Holy Image among East and West. “The decorating of panel crosses, altarpieces, and devotional pictures appeared in Italy in 13 th Century with the aggression of an explosion….Tuscany with its increasing villages was at the forefront of the movement.” (Belting 349)

The hieratic photos such as the ‘Mother of the word made Flesh’ (Figure 8), of the Romanesque period, which purpose Mary’s noble characteristic, gave an approach in the Gothic age to more offer images highlighting the binding flanked by mother and child (Cormack, 1997).

When sealed, the pivoted statue made higher of the Virgin nurturing the child Christ, any person who saves the Holy Spirit. Her piece of clothing unfastens higher, like the wings of a triptych, to divulge in her body the diagram of God the Father. He saves the pass, organized of couple tree trunks, from which the presently not existing diagram of Christ hung (Cormack, 1997).

The neighboring wings are embellished with views from Christ’s childhood or Incarnation that is to declare, the personification of God the Son in personal embodiment. This is evident especially in ‘”Tripticho” Crucifixion-Virgin Mary-Jesus Birth’ (Figure 9), which is a three fold image.

“We should habitually recall that painters were not free to invent the minutia of pictures but administered with archetypes that, more often than not, were forms in the local area accessible that had become famous, for causes conspicuous at the time but unidentified today. Painters may have disregarded the Eastern icons, which we today know to have been the factual archetypes, and intermediary forms may have profited more significance for the charge of a picture.

In its inquiring about the authorship of enduring images, art history has neglected this kind of study and has therefore tended to overestimate the individual assistance of individual painters and to underestimate the function of granted kinds, which artists duplicated other than invented.” (Belting 352)

The valued run of sensitivity in the Byzantine reaction to the Mother of God in journals, art and piety has been emphasized in a well-known paper by Ioli Kalavrezou (1990), and this statements a many trade for the appealing attribute today of icons of the Theotokos.

It was aggregated even so with a doctrinal and theological discourse of extensive complexity without which more icons were not able to be entirely expounded or appreciated. Giving due sinking implement to both these characteristics of the run of the Theotokos in Byzantium is the contest to which the providers to this size have enhanced so admirably.

Belting, Hans. Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image Before the Era of Art. Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1994.

Cormack, Robin. “Women and Icons, and Women in Icons.” James, L. Women, Men and Eunuchs. Gender in Byzantium. London, 1997. 24–51, 31–8.

Forsyth, Ilene H. The Throne of Wisdom: Wood Sculptures of the Madonna in Romanesque France. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972.

Kalavrezou, Loli. Images of the Mother. When the Virgin Mary became Meter Theou. DOP (1990): 165–72.

Ousterhout, Robert. “The Virgin of the Chora: An Image and Its Contexts.” Brubaker, Robert Ousterhout and Leslie. The Sacred Image East and West. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1995.

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IvyPanda. (2021, December 22). Byzantine Art: The Virgin Mary. https://ivypanda.com/essays/byzantine-art-the-virgin-mary/

"Byzantine Art: The Virgin Mary." IvyPanda , 22 Dec. 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/byzantine-art-the-virgin-mary/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'Byzantine Art: The Virgin Mary'. 22 December.

IvyPanda . 2021. "Byzantine Art: The Virgin Mary." December 22, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/byzantine-art-the-virgin-mary/.

1. IvyPanda . "Byzantine Art: The Virgin Mary." December 22, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/byzantine-art-the-virgin-mary/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Byzantine Art: The Virgin Mary." December 22, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/byzantine-art-the-virgin-mary/.

The lives of Christ and the Virgin in Byzantine art

The Byzantine Empire under the Emperor Justinian, c. 550 C.E.

The Byzantine Empire spanned more than a millennium and penetrated geographic regions far from the capital of Constantinople. As a result, Byzantine art includes works created from the fourth century to the fifteenth century and from such diverse regions as Greece, the Italian peninsula, the eastern edge of the Slavic world, the Middle East, and North Africa. So what is Byzantine art and what do we mean when we use this term?

Events from the lives of Jesus Christ and his mother, the Virgin Mary, were among the most frequently depicted subjects in Byzantine art. Many of these events were recorded in the four  Gospels in the Christian Bible, but others were also inspired by non-biblical texts, such as the “Protoevangelion of James,” which were nevertheless read by the Byzantines. The Byzantines commemorated these events as church feasts according to the liturgical calendar  each year (as does the Eastern Orthodox Church  today, which is heir to Byzantium’s religious tradition).

Depictions of these events appeared in a wide range of media, on different scales, and in public and private settings. It would be inaccurate to imply that these scenes were always the same; they varied depending on the circumstances of their production as well as the periods in which they were made. Acknowledging the risk of oversimplifying an artistic tradition that endured for more than a millennium, this essay nevertheless seeks to introduce the stories and common features in Byzantine depictions of the lives of Christ and the Virgin.

Commonly depicted subjects in Byzantine art

Birth of the Virgin fresco, c. 1314, King’s Church, Studenica Monastery, Serbia (photo: Blago , CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)

The Birth of the Virgin

Drawn from non-biblical accounts such as the “Protoevangelion of James,” the Birth of the Virgin is commemorated as a Church feast on September 8. Anna, the Virgin’s mother, lies on a bed. Midwives bathe the newborn Mary. Other women bustle about, attending to Anna. Joachim, the Virgin’s father, sometimes appears as well. At Studenica Monastery in Serbia, Joachim stands beside the Virgin as she lies in a cradle after her bath in the lower right. (view annotated image)

Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple, c. 1315–1321, Chora Monastery, Constantinople (Istanbul), mosaic (photo: byzantologist, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple

The Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple is based on non-biblical texts and is commemorated on November 21. The Virgin Mary is a child. She processes with her parents, Joachim and Anna, along with several candle-bearing maidens, toward the Jewish temple. Joachim and Anna offer the Virgin to God and the priest Zacharias receives her into the temple. As the narrative continues, Mary dwells within the temple, where an angel feeds her bread. The earliest examples of this image date to the tenth century. The hymnography for the feast emphasizes that the Virgin herself became a temple by allowing God to dwell in her when she conceived Christ. At the Chora Monastery , the procession to the temple takes a circular form to accommodate the vault where it appears. (view annotated image)

Annunciation mosaic, Daphni monastery, Chaidari, c. 1050–1150 (photo: Mark L. Darby , all rights reserved)

The Annunciation

The Annunciation (Greek: Evangelismos ) is recorded in Luke 1:26–38 and commemorated on March 25. Simple compositions, such as the mosaic found at Daphni, show the archangel Gabriel approaching the Virgin Mary to announce that the Holy Spirit will come upon her and that she will conceive the Son of God, Jesus. Other images show the Spirit descending as a dove on a ray of light. Artists sometimes include additional details from a non-biblical text known as the “Protoevangelion of James.” The Virgin may hold scarlet thread to weave a veil for the temple or appear near a well where she is drawing water when the angel approaches.

Nativity of Christ miniature in the Menologion of Basil II, c. 1000 (The Vatican Library, photo: Wikimedia Commons )

The Nativity   of Christ

The Nativity of Christ depicts the birth of Jesus. It is drawn primarily from  Matthew 1:18–2:12 and Luke 2:1–20   and is commemorated on December 25. The newborn Christ appears in a manger (a feeding trough for animals) near an ox and ass. The Virgin sits or reclines near Christ, but Joseph is usually relegated to the periphery (appearing in the lower left corner in the miniature from the Menologion of Basil II) to minimize his role in the Christ’s birth (emphasizing Mary’s virginity). The narrative continues with one or two midwives bathing Christ. Angels announce the good news to shepherds. The star that guided the Magi from the east shines down on the Christ child. (view annotated image)

The Presentation in the Temple, 15th century, Byzantium, tempera on wood, gold ground, 44.5 x 42.2 cm ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art )

The Meeting of the Lord in the Temple

The Meeting of the Lord in the Temple (Greek: Hypapantē ) is described in  Luke 2:22–38 and commemorated on February 2. Mary and Joseph enter the Jewish temple to sacrifice two birds and offer Jesus to the Lord, in accordance with the Jewish law. They encounter the prophet Simeon (shown taking the Christ child in his arms in this image from The Metropolitan Museum of Art) and the prophetess Anna, who identify Christ as the Messiah. The temple is often visualized as a Christian church, indicated by a Christian altar and other church furniture. (view annotated image)

Baptism of Christ, 11th century, mosaic, Hosios Loukas Monastery, Boeotia (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Baptism of Christ

The Baptism of Christ (sometimes called “Theophany” or “Epiphany”) is recounted in Matthew 3:13–17 ,  Mark 1:9–11 , and  Luke 3:21–22 , and is commemorated by the Eastern Orthodox Church on January 6. John the Baptist, or “Forerunner,” baptizes Christ in the Jordan River, while attending angels stand nearby. The Holy Spirit descends on Christ in the form of a dove, while the words of God the Father identifying Jesus as his Son are represented by a hand blessing from the heavens. An ax appears with a tree, referencing the Baptist’s ominous words, “Even now the ax is lying at the root of the trees; every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire” (Matthew 3:10). Sometimes, as at Hosios Loukas Monastery, the Jordan River is personified as a human figure in the water, corresponding with its personification in the hymnography for the feast. A cross also appears in the water at Hosios Loukas as a reference to the cross and column at the pilgrimage site associated with this event in Palestine, as described by a sixth-century pilgrim named Theodosius. (view annotated image)

Icon of the Transfiguration, beginning of the 13th century, Constantinople, mosaic, 52 x 36 cm (Musée du Louvre, photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Transfiguration

The Transfiguration is described in Matthew 17:1–13 , Mark 9:2–8 , and Luke 9:28–36  and is commemorated on August 6. Jesus ascends a mountain (which tradition identifies as Mount Tabor) with Peter, James, and John (three of his disciples) and is transformed so that he shines with divine light. This light often appears as rays and a mandorla (an almond- or circle-shaped halo of light), as seen in the mosaic icon at the Louvre. Moses and Elijah—two figures representing the law and the prophets from the Hebrew Bible—appear on either side of Christ. Early examples of this motif are found at the Monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai and Sant’Apollinare in Classe . (view annotated image)

The Passion

The Passion (“suffering”) refers to Christ’s sacrificial death on the cross and the period leading up to it. It is commemorated annually during Holy Week, whose dates vary from year to year based on the lunar cycle.

The Raising of Lazarus, fragment of a templon beam , 12th century, Mount Athos, tempera on wood, 21.5 x 24 cm (Byzantine and Christian Museum, Athens)

The Raising of Lazarus

The Raising of Lazarus (a friend of Christ’s) from the dead is recorded in John 11:38–44 . The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates this miracle of Christ on the Saturday before Palm Sunday . Christ, trailed by the Apostles, calls forth the shrouded Lazarus from the tomb, as seen in the templon beam fragment in Athens. Mary and Martha, the sisters of Lazarus, kneel at Christ’s feet. Additional figures open the tomb and free Lazarus from his grave clothes. One bystander usually holds his nose because of the stink of Lazarus’s decomposing body. (view annotated image)

Center Panel of a Triptych Icon with the Entry into Jerusalem, 10th century, Constantinople, ivory, 18.4 x 14.7 cm (Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, photo: Andreas Praefcke , CC0)

The Entry into Jerusalem

The Entry into Jerusalem is recounted in  Matthew 21:1–11 , Mark 11:1–10 , Luke 19:29–40 , and John 12:12–19  and is commemorated on Palm Sunday, the Sunday before Pascha (Easter). Jesus rides into the city of Jerusalem on a donkey. A crowd hails him, throwing cloaks and palms on the road before him. Children often climb among the palm trees, as in the Berlin ivory. (view annotated image)

Last Supper, 1105/6, Panagia Phorbiotissa, Asinou, Cyprus (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Last Supper

The Last Supper, “Mystical Supper,” or just “Supper” (Greek: Deipnos ), represents the meal that Christ shared with his disciplines before his crucifixion, which is recorded in Matthew 26:20–29 , Mark 14:17–25 , Luke 22: 14–23 , and I Corinthians 11:23–26 , and is commemorated on Holy Thursday (known as “Maundy Thursday” in the Latin church). Judas reaches to dip his food in a bowl, which Christ identifies as a sign of betrayal. The table frequently takes the form of a late-antique, C-shaped “sigma” table  as at the church of the Panagia Phorbiotissa in Asinou, Cyprus. Often, a large fish appears on the table, which may illustrate the ancient Christian use of the Greek word for “fish” ( ichthys ) as an acronym for “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” The Last Supper is typically interpreted as the first celebration of the Eucharist . (view annotated image)

Foot washing mosaic, 11th century, mosaic, Hosios Loukas Monastery, Boeotia (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Washing of the Feet

The Washing of the Feet occurred during the Last Supper, according to John 13:2–15 . In the Gospel account, Peter resists letting Jesus wash his feet. But Christ explains: “If I, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another’s feet. For I have set you an example” (John 13:14–15). The mosaic at Hosios Loukas Monastery shows Christ in the act of washing Peter’s feet. (view annotated image)

Crucifixion from templon beam with twelve feast scenes, 12th century, Cyprus or Sinai, tempera and gold over fine textile ground on panel, 44.1 x 118.3 x 3.1 cm (The Holy Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai, Egypt)

The Crucifixion

The Crucifixion depicts Christ’s death on the cross, described  Matthew 27:32-56 , Mark 15:21-41 , Luke 23:26-49 , John 19:16-37 , and commemorated on Holy Friday (known as “Good Friday” in the west) during Holy Week. Simpler representations of the scene include the Virgin and John the Evangelist, illustrating John’s account . The sun and moon or angels appear in the sky above. More complex compositions, such as that found on a templon beam at Sinai, incorporate other women who followed Christ as well as Roman soldiers, such as Saint Longinus who converted to Christianity. John recounts how one of the soldiers pierced Christ with a spear, spilling blood and water from his side ( John 19:34-35 ). The event unfolds at Golgotha, the “Place of the Skull,” outside of the city walls of Jerusalem (which sometimes appear in the background). Some depictions of this scene include a skull at the foot of the cross, which tradition identifies as the skull of Adam (the first man), reflecting the Christian belief that Christ is the “New Adam” as savior of humankind. (view annotated image)

Deposition fresco, 1164, Saint Panteleimon, Gorno Nerezi, North Macedonia (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Deposition from the Cross

The Deposition from the Cross depicts Christ’s body being removed from the cross after his crucifixion. As at the church of Saint Panteleimon at Nerezi , the composition often includes the Virgin and John the Evangelist (who were present at Christ’s crucifixion), as well as Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, two followers of Jesus. It is based on Gospel accounts that describe Joseph of Arimathea burying Christ’s body in Joseph’s own tomb ( Matthew 27:57-61 , Mark 15:42-47 , Luke 23:50-56 ,  John 19:38-42 ). (view annotated image)

Threnos fresco, 1164, Saint Panteleimon, Gorno Nerezi, North Macedonia (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Lamentation

The Lamentation, or  Threnos , depicts Christ’s mother and other followers mourning over Christ’s dead body following the crucifixion. As at the church of Saint Panteleimon at Nerezi , the Lamentation often includes John the Evangelist (who was present at the Crucifixion), as well as Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, two followers of Jesus who helped remove his body from the cross and bury him. (view annotated image)

Myrrhbearing women at the empty tomb, 6th century, mosaic, Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Resurrection

The Resurrection of Christ from the dead occurred on the third day after his crucifixion according to New Testament accounts, and is celebrated each year on Pascha (Easter). The Gospels describe women who followed Jesus as the first witnesses to Christ’s resurrection:  Matthew 28:1–10;   Mark 16:1–8;   Luke 23:55–24:12;   John 20:1–18.  Early Christian art depicts the myrrhbearing  women bringing spices to anoint Christ’s body but discovering that the tomb is empty. An angel tells them that Christ has risen from the dead. At Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, the empty tomb is envisioned as a rotunda, likely a reference to the Roman emperor Constantine’s Church of the Holy Sepulchre that marked the site of Christ’s resurrection in Jerusalem.

Anastasis fresco, c. 1315–1321, Chora Monastery, Constantinople (Istanbul) (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Anastasis

The Anastasis (Greek for “resurrection”), also known as the “Harrowing of Hades” or “Harrowing of Hell,” became a standard resurrection composition from the eighth century onward. Based largely on non-biblical sources, the scene shows Christ descending into Hades (the underworld)—sometimes carrying his cross as an instrument of salvation—to raise the dead from their tombs. Locks and hinges lie broken underfoot as Christ tramples the broken gates of the underworld that once imprisoned the dead. In some images, Christ also tramples the personified figure of Hades, who represents death. At the Chora Monastery , Christ reaches with both hands to raise Adam and Eve (the first humans) from their tombs. Righteous figures from the Hebrew Bible and Christian New Testament—usually David , Solomon , and John the Baptist—stand nearby. The image corresponded with the chief hymn of Pascha (Easter): “Christ is risen from the dead, trampling down death by death, and upon those in the tombs bestowing life!” (view annotated image)

The Incredulity of Thomas, 11th century, mosaic, Hosios Loukas Monastery, Boeotia (photo: byzantologist , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Incredulity of Thomas

The Incredulity of Thomas appears in John 20:24–29 , and is commemorated in the Eastern Orthodox Church the Sunday after Pascha (Easter). When some of the disciples claim to have encountered the risen Christ, the Apostle Thomas expresses doubt, stating: “Unless I see the mark of the nails in his hands, and put my finger in the mark of the nails and my hand in his side, I will not believe” (John 20:25). A week later, Jesus appears and invites Thomas to touch his wounds: the moment depicted in this mosaic at Hosios Loukas Monastery. Thomas exclaims: “My Lord and my God!” (John 20:28). (view annotated image)

Ascension miniature, late 13th century, Nicaea or Nicomedia (modern Turkey), tempera and gold leaf ( The J. Paul Getty Museum )

The Ascension

The Ascension of Christ into heaven, following his resurrection from the dead, is described in Luke 24:50–53 and Acts 1:9–12 and is commemorated on the Thursday that falls forty days after Pascha (Easter). The iconography derives from pre-Christian imperial apotheosis  scenes (for example, on the Arch of Titus in Rome). Christ appears within a mandorla and is borne heavenward by angels, as seen in the miniature from the Getty Museum. The Virgin and Apostles stand on earth below. The ascension often appeared in church vaults, corresponding with the Byzantine interpretation of the church as a microcosm with the vaults representing the heavens.   (view annotated image)

Pentecost miniature, late 13th century, Nicaea or Nicomedia (modern Turkey), tempera and gold leaf ( The J. Paul Getty Museum )

Pentecost (literally “the fiftieth day”) depicts the descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles as described in Acts 2 and is commemorated fifty days after Pascha (Easter). The Holy Spirit takes the form of tongues of fire. Sometimes the Virgin appears with the Apostles, although she is not present in the biblical account. In Acts, the Holy Spirit inspires the Apostles to preach the crucified and risen Christ in different languages so that all can understand. In artistic representations of the event, figures representing different “tribes” and “tongues,” or a single figure personifying the entire “cosmos,” (seen in this miniature from the Getty) receive the Apostles’ words. Sometimes, the “prepared throne” ( Hetoimasia ) is included as the source from which the flames descend. (view annotated image)

Icon with the Koimesis, late 10th century, probably made in Constantinople, ivory, 18.6 x 14.8 x 1.1 cm ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art )

The Dormition

The Dormition (Greek: Koimēsis , literally “falling asleep”) represents the death of the Virgin Mary, described in non-biblical texts and commemorated on August 15. The Virgin lies on her funeral bier surrounded by the Apostles. Christ stands behind the Virgin, receiving her soul, which takes the form of a swaddled infant. Later icons sometimes include additional details such as the Apostles miraculously borne to the scene on clouds and the gates of heaven opening to receive the Virgin. Tenth-century ivories from Constantinople like this one are among the earliest depictions of the Dormition. (view annotated image)

Additional resources

Alexander P. Kazhdan, ed., The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium , 3 vols., (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).

“The life of Christ in medieval and Renaissance art”

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Midlands Art Papers 5 (2022)

Midlands Art Papers is a collaborative online journal, working between the University of Birmingham and 13 partner institutions to research and explore the world class works of art and design in public collections across the Midlands.

Tusk Fragment with the Ascension

Tusk Fragment with Christ Enthroned

Hanging with Polychrome Columns

The Fieschi Morgan Staurotheke

Yellow-Green Hexagonal Glass Bottle with a Stylite Saint

Ostrakon with Menander's "Sentences"

Jug with Medallions

Illuminated Gospel

Processional Cross

Annie Labatt Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Charlotte Appleyard Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2004

The Byzantine empire ‘s interaction with Islamic culture had a profound effect on its art. Islam’s rise and military success were the greatest threat to the stability of the empire and its territories. Mirroring the political climate, art became a medium of confrontation and cooperation between the two sides. The exchange and adaptation of motifs and genres became a common expression of power and individuality in the face of constantly changing relations between the two groups.

Islamic leaders were impressed by Byzantine mosaics and invited mosaicists to work on the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Islamic artists used Christian models for iconography . Meanwhile, Byzantine artists adapted Islamic motifs for their own use. The First Church of the Monastery of Hosios Loukas, in Phokis, Greece, is decorated with patterns based on the Arab kufic script. The words do not mean anything, they are purely aesthetic, but they are clearly a nod to Islamic art. The batrashil ( 14.137 ), a silk liturgical vestment, shows an understanding of Syriac and Arabic, this time in its legible form—the artist even used Arabic to sign her name. The writing is embroidered onto the garment. A processional cross ( 1999.103 ) from Ethiopia is a fusion of wood sculpture and metalwork clearly inspired by Islamic shapes and patterns, which were most likely learned from textiles, ceramic vessels and tiles, and glass developed in the Muslim world. The illuminated gospel ( 1998.66 ) from Ethiopia also employs a design inspired by Islamic ornamentation known as harag , which means the tendril of a climbing plant.

Labatt, Annie, and Charlotte Appleyard. “Byzantine Art under Islam.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bzis/hd_bzis.htm (October 2004)

Further Reading

Cutler, Anthony. "Tiles and Tribulations: A Community of Clay across Byzantium and Its Adversaries." In A Lost Art Rediscovered: The Architectural Ceramics of Byzantium , edited by Sharon E. J. Gerstel and Julie A. Lauffenburger, pp. 159–69. Baltimore: Walters Art Museum, 2001.

Ettinghausen, Richard. From Byzantium to Sasanian Iran and the Islamic World: Three Modes of Artistic Influence . Leiden: Brill, 1972.

Grabar, Oleg. "Islamic Influence on Byzantine Art." In The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium , edited by Alexander P. Kazhdan. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

Miles, George C. "Byzantium and the Arabs: Relations in Crete and the Aegean Area." Dumbarton Oaks Papers 18 (1964), pp. 1–32.

Nelson, Robert S. "Palaeologan Illuminated Ornament and the Arabesque." Wiener Jahrbuch für Kunstgeschichte 41 (1988), pp. 1–22.

Redford, Scott. "Byzantium and the Islamic World, 1261–1557." In Byzantium: Faith and Power (1261–1557) , edited by Helen C. Evans, pp. 389–96. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004. See on MetPublications

Soucek, Priscilla. "Byzantium and the Islamic East." In The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843–1261 , edited by Helen C. Evans and William D. Wixom, pp. 402–34. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1997. See on MetPublications

Additional Essays by Annie Labatt

• Labatt, Annie. “ The Religious Relationship between Byzantium and the West .” (October 2004)
• Labatt, Annie. “ Constantinople after 1261 .” (October 2004)
• Labatt, Annie. “ Frescoes and Wall Painting in Late Byzantine Art .” (October 2004)
• Labatt, Annie. “ Mendicant Orders in the Medieval World .” (October 2004)
• Labatt, Annie. “ Saints and Other Sacred Byzantine Figures .” (October 2004)

Additional Essays by Charlotte Appleyard

• Appleyard, Charlotte. “ Mendicant Orders in the Medieval World .” (October 2004)

Related Essays

• African Christianity in Ethiopia
• The Birth of Islam
• Figural Representation in Islamic Art
• Icons and Iconoclasm in Byzantium
• Saints and Other Sacred Byzantine Figures
• The Age of Süleyman “the Magnificent” (r. 1520–1566)
• Art and Death in Medieval Byzantium
• The Art of the Abbasid Period (750–1258)
• The Art of the Fatimid Period (909–1171)
• The Art of the Ilkhanid Period (1256–1353)
• Artistic Interaction among Cultures in Medieval Iberia
• The Byzantine City of Amorium
• Byzantium (ca. 330–1453)
• Courtly Art of the Ilkhanids
• Europe and the Islamic World, 1600–1800
• Frescoes and Wall Painting in Late Byzantine Art
• Glass from Islamic Lands
• Glass Ornaments in Late Antiquity and Early Islam (ca. 500–1000)
• Hagia Sophia, 532–37
• Jewish Art in Late Antiquity and Early Byzantium
• Monasticism in Western Medieval Europe
• The Religious Relationship between Byzantium and the West
• Silks from Ottoman Turkey
• Takht-i Sulaiman and Tilework in the Ilkhanid Period
• Trade and Commercial Activity in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Middle East

List of Rulers

• List of Rulers of Byzantium
• List of Rulers of the Islamic World
• Anatolia and the Caucasus, 1000–1400 A.D.
• Arabian Peninsula, 1000–1400 A.D.
• Balkan Peninsula, 1000–1400 A.D.
• Central Europe (including Germany), 1000–1400 A.D.
• Eastern and Southern Africa, 1000–1400 A.D.
• Eastern Europe and Scandinavia, 1000–1400 A.D.
• The Eastern Mediterranean, 1000–1400 A.D.
• The Eastern Mediterranean, 500–1000 A.D.
• Egypt, 1000–1400 A.D.
• France, 1000–1400 A.D.
• Iberian Peninsula, 1000–1400 A.D.
• Iberian Peninsula, 500–1000 A.D.
• Iran, 1000–1400 A.D.
• Iraq (Mesopotamia), 500–1000 A.D.
• Iraq, 1000–1400 A.D.
• Italian Peninsula, 1000–1400 A.D.
• Western North Africa (The Maghrib), 1000–1400 A.D.
• Amharic Art
• The Annunciation
• Christianity
• Medieval Art
• Monasticism
• The Nativity
• Parchment / Vellum
• Religious Art
• Sculpture in the Round
• Tigrinya Art