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Nationalism and National Integration in Nigeria

First Online: 04 December 2020

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essay on culture a veritable tool for national unity

Abubakar Abdulahi 6 &
Yahaya T. Baba 6

Part of the book series: Advances in African Economic, Social and Political Development ((AAESPD))

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This chapter examines the contexts within which nationalism evolved in Nigeria, largely against the backdrop of Africa’s colonial history and the associated crisis of national integration in the postcolonial period. This chapter argues that struggles for independence in Nigeria was influenced largely by developments around the world and happenings within the Nigeria’s colonial entity. Western education among the natives, influences of the First and Second World Wars as well successes of independence struggles in states such as India inspired Nigeria’s Independence struggles. Through different phases of the nationalist struggles, many structural reforms were instituted by the colonial government and bequeathed to the Nigerian state that appears to sow the seed of discord among the various fragments that make up the Nigerian state, which complicates the country’s drive to nationhood and national integration. This chapter is guided by a combination of three theories of self-determination, which advocates ethnic nationalism as the basis of national integration, the melting pot theory that emphasized the elimination of ethnic and other subnational identities and the management theory that advocates for the institutionalization of responsible and representative government as recipe for national integration. Methodologically, this chapter relied on existing secondary data collected and analyzed through desk review. The substance of these materials provided insights on the trends and challenges of different phases of nationalist movement in Nigeria as well as Nigeria’s touted path to nation-building and national integration. This chapter found that many factors undermine Nigeria’s national integration. These include the debate about appropriateness of the political system, resource mobilization and allocation, power sharing, structural arrangements among other contentious issues, which exploded into myriad of political crisis of military coups and counter coups, civil war, north-south dichotomy, ethnic nationalism, regional tension and bad governance. This chapter argues that some remedies such as Federal Character Principle, National Youth Service Corps and Federal Unity Schools, though made some positive impacts but are far from facilitating national integration in Nigeria. This chapter concludes that the Nigerian nationalists have succeeded in the struggle for political independence; however, they failed in their drive to ensure full integration of the state after independence.

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Nationalism and Nationalist Agitation in Africa: the Nigerian Trajectory

National Integration, Citizenship, Political Participation and Democratic Stability in Nigeria

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Abdulahi, A., Baba, Y.T. (2021). Nationalism and National Integration in Nigeria. In: Ajayi, R., Fashagba, J.Y. (eds) Nigerian Politics. Advances in African Economic, Social and Political Development. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50509-7_16

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What Makes a Nation: Unity, Identity, and Strength

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Unity: the backbone of a nation, identity: the heartbeat of a nation, strength: nurturing a nation's potential.

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Language Policy in Nigeria: Prospect for National Unity

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The Impact of Football on Cultural Identity and National Unity

1. introduction.

It sounds simplistic to say that football contributes to the achievement of group morale or political goals. This is why the works that focus on this relationship seem almost testimonial or even suspicious. And when there are some that support it, they focus primarily on the instrumentalization of football by governments, established entities, or independent political actors to achieve these objectives, and not as an autonomous tool that advances these values. This chapter aims to pay tribute to football, arguing that, on many occasions, society was exposed to various interests, and the sport, rather than becoming an instrument at the service of these agents, even when it did, was able to retain its own identity and thus carry out through it actions that seemed impossible to achieve from any other angle. In an increasingly smaller world, where nothing is absolutely national, loyalty towards national collective, loyalty to own values, can only be realized through something absolutely national. This absoluteness, which characterizes the true collective boundaries, more often lies only in the popular assemblies, especially in the rituals that this mobilizes. In times of need, of constituting with great rapidity homogeneous social blocks, it is essentially the most ordinary, more universally tomable cultural forms that we turn to. It is especially at the level of folklore, of language, of representations that civilizations assume their differences more than anywhere else. And which lead individuals to infer on simple external characteristics, a representation or a culture of the world, and above all, origin, identity, and national unity.

2. Historical Background of Football and Its Role in Society

The football game has a long history, dating back at least some 3000 years, but probably much further back beyond the dawn of organized societies. Before the advent of mechanized warfare, the soldiers of ancient empires such as the Persian, Mongolian, and Roman imperial armies enjoyed a good kick-about as it was a relaxing and social form of exercise. From the historical development of the game, these primitive forms of football arose in societies at similar evolutionary levels of social progression and political organization. Only in the early years of the nineteenth century did football begin to emerge as the game we would recognize today. In 1848, the public schools drew up the Cambridge Rules for the game, and these are widely regarded as the forerunners of modern football. The FA drew up their own rules in 1863, and these are the direct predecessors of the rules we observe in 21st-century football. The rules of football soon began to amalgamate into a standardized code, leading to the need for an administrative organ to develop them and ensure they were observed. In 1863, the Football Association was established at Freemasons Tavern, London, by representatives of 12 clubs. The aim of the association was to 'establish a definite code of rules for the regulation of football'. This would enable clubs and bodies promoting the game to incorporate this set of rules into their own 'footballing constitutions', which would assist with the standardization and development of the game. Such standardization would undoubtedly facilitate more competitive and entertaining matches, helping to ring the changes to the forthcoming crime-ridden era and fulfilling other social objectives. Only three months later, 50 other clubs registered with the association, and by the late 19th century, the game was a national concern. Understandably, the association would be concerned with organizing competitions as ways of promoting the game and increasing the gate receipts. Its secretary, CW Alcock, suggested that a game between sides containing representatives of the four home nations' national football associations might be a success, and this resulted in the staging of the first official British international match.

3. Cultural Identity and Its Significance in National Unity

Cultural identity is the social science approach to understanding the world. The theory sees our "cultural identity" as being shaped at the same time in two incompatible ways: 'We are all born into a cultural setting, and geography, our immediate family, and its characteristics all help to define the set of groups that we feel we might belong to. [That is, cultural identity is defined at its simplest level by lines of birth and demography.] At the same time, a complex set of side issues also helps to shape our cultural identity; we are not permanent members of this group or that, nor of particular sub-groups, such as community or clan or village or family; all help shape the identity crisis of the soul. Thus the idea of unity and divided allegiance is a central feature of culture. People born in a particular cultural setting have no choice about this, and in any case find it difficult to move. Culture is about options.' This is the aspect of national identity, which can pull individuals apart and it does not necessarily promote national unity. Yet identity plays a special role in showing that we are all human. Cultural identity shapes, at its most general level, culture itself - the patterns of life - the ideas, habits, language, and the associations of a group of people. Moreover, society is just a group of people at a particular point in time, so these patterns of life for societies in various phases of conflict make it easier to track the development of a cultural identity during the process. Such a struggle to define cultural identity can have several outcomes, some of which have a greater tendency to produce cultural conflict than others. The relatively simple case so far is that of accommodation, learned through direct education or in the current environment by more indirect means.

4. The Influence of Football on Cultural Identity

When we talk about football, we are actually talking about a part of human life. Our emotions about football are as wide and deep as the ocean. Football is one of the sports of the people. Its modern Olympic title is "Soccer." It is a sport that can feed on war and nourish war. It is a worldwide sport that has spread to every corner of the planet. In the shadow of the war, the blood dyed green can also wash away the hatred in the white world. The football fans with different nations, races, colors, and religions all mix together like brothers without feeling the difference. In the 21st century, the relationship between two nations is built on equal-footed contacts. Only if we can truly understand each other and respect each other's religion and culture can we understand the significance of football to a whole nation. Cultural acceptance is an in-depth understanding; cultural acceptance is a harmonious coexistence. The long-standing football has indeed become a significant link between nations. There has been a parable that to recognize a person, we need to care about the dignity and feelings of the person. To recognize a nation, we need to respect the customs, religion, and culture of the nation. Sanju and Ronaldo were both from Brazil. When they were playing in the Brazilian national team, they communicated with their mother in the national language of both Brazil and the native language of the community they stayed at home. The national language's feelings towards players defined the underlying experiences and profiles.

5. The Role of Football in Fostering National Unity

The game of football, as a form of social practice involving the most passionate forms of collective association, remains a symbol of people's consciousness and a unity that is perhaps truly genuine. The role of sport lies not in connection with the apparent physical benefits that come with a lifestyle, but it rather contributes to an enhancement of the institutions of society, as well as the values and achievements of cultural identity on the national level. Football has the potential to contribute to intercultural dialogue, the exchange of good practices and mutual understanding between a country's inhabitants, but this potential can only be realized if the game is practiced openly and honestly. Maintaining the situation and placing football where it should be is actually a long-term process. This is necessary given the societal level of people who influence the younger population. The aim of this paper is to familiarize and focus sports scientists, sports workers, and society at large with the importance and contribution of football to national cultural identity and unity. The evaluation of practical social implications should enable a positive creation of educational initiatives and other forms of intervention designed to maximize these benefits throughout this process. We focus on the role of football in the Netherlands, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina as a tool for strengthening national encompassing as well as the relationship of individual and national, the need for belonging and empowerment through football by combining a broad background theory about expanding and creating processes of so-called identity, order, and power. There are many different ways in which this level can be maintained. Mentors, educators, and teachers belonging to various subjects of the education system should have a more responsible attitude towards a particular sport. All institutions should focus more on the field of integrity in football as it encompasses identity. Although football creates a common identity, at the same time we do not want to forget workers who are still marginal to the football industry. The lower layers of football from the very beginning through certain development trends foretell the economic collapse of workers in this industry. The theme underlines the hope of linking football with social welfare.

6. Case Studies: Countries Where Football Plays a Significant Role

When examining the effect of football on a country, we will look at how the sport of football is able to build cultural and national identity. William, an English academic, argues that the role of football in terms of national unity and identity is a complex one. The effect of football on a country will vary by its history and relationship with the sport. There is a difference in how football is perceived and thus acted out between a young footballing nation and a mature footballing nation. Young nations tend to seek validation from the footballing world because they are not widely known; football is then used as a way to increase their image. For mature footballing nations, the role of football in their identity is similar to that of former imperialist ones, regions with a distinct cultural status among others. National identity and football can only become one if the state, as often exemplified via the national team, however, it's an appropriate channel for that. Communities and patriotisms will vary given the ample diversity of the geopolitical players acting in the FIFA and UEFA leagues. In a democratic society such as Europe, football fans share the benefits of a given region or country. However, they see more than thirty national teams, over 200 clubs, both from their paying seat and their sofa. Will citizens demonstrate their preferential empathy without being told?

7. Challenges and Controversies Surrounding Football and National Identity

In this section, the controversies discussed are the ethnic homogeneity of the football squad, the attitude of footballers towards the apartheid of South Africa, and the consequences of a World Cup series for the host nation. There are some praiseworthy instances in which representatives of the Football Association deserve credit for standing up for their principles and putting themselves on a collision course with politicians. One of the fairest World Cup final sides is precisely the 1966 England team, which is managed by Sir Alf Ramsey, a reasonably principled man who displays a proper balance of spine and diplomacy. Sir Alf sets high standards of conduct for his players and happily, only two of them, both recognizably having right-wing affiliations, grumble at the representation of Bobby Charlton as the Black Panther of the team. There is no doubt that complaints greet the announcement of the England squad for Euro '96. Laurie Cunningham and Cyrille Regis have to guard against attacks on the field. The third Black player playing for England is refusing to leave the dressing room for the debut of the Patrick Kluivert style. The cheers for Holland are particularly loud because they are moving ahead of England in understanding and accepting a multicultural football scene. They put a Black player, Ruud Gullit, as their captain and pick footballers who describe themselves respectfully as Surinamese line-up at times instead of overpaid English talent. The German craver of footballing oddities is limping out of the field at another Germany loss to England, feeling disgusted.

8. Future Prospects and Recommendations for Harnessing Football's Potential

Based on the insights and findings presented in this paper, we make a number of recommendations and offer some suggestions for how countries and organizations can work to ensure that football forges a positive role in society. It is important to note that the recent workings about football detailed in the introduction provide a platform for our efforts. For too long, the blueprint of professionalization has dominated football. Indeed, this model has acted as a straitjacket when it comes to harnessing football's considerable positive spillovers. Given our findings, we would recommend using football not only to celebrate excellence through spectating, but also to optimize both the 'low road' and 'high road' in wider society by formalizing the links between professional clubs and academic institutions and the promotion of international service as well as further credentials of athletes that promote volunteering and providing strong foundational horizons. The timing is right. Various stakeholders from national governments to international governing bodies and civil society have a growing appetite for hybrid changes in the organization of football. Major national governing bodies have shown that they are open to institutional change and working together. High-profile bodies such as the International Olympic Committee and intergovernmental organizations including MEPs have added to these calls. Major corporations have begun collaborations with their communities by running innovative CSR programs that utilize the strengths of football; special campaigns work at city level, supported by the likes of NGOs and local government can also detoxify leading teams. Football has particularly significant back-office power. Its network of agents, accountants, tax consultants, and real-estate agents belong to a global coalition that is not only accepting socially responsible demands, but also shaping a forwarding vision of football. Truly, to harness the wider social benefits of football and to excel in the political arena, stakeholders need to channel the capabilities of professional football by designing a new social contract.

9. Conclusion and Key Findings

This study has examined the potential of football, as the dominant sport in most of the European countries and one of the most popular sports around the world, to provide countries with a sense of cultural and national unity and identity. The study is unique in employing the KOF index to measure globalization and the specific globalization effects on cultural global clustering, subsequently exploring its impact on the cultural and national unity. Specifically, the purpose of the study is to examine to what extent football can contribute to the development and sustainability of cultural and national identity and unity in the context of globalization. In particular, the study tests the impact of football activities and the cultural global clustering index on an index of cultural identity and on the inclusiveness in the society of a given country. Results from the empirical study show a noticeable relevance of football for inclusive growth of a country's society. The findings indicate that a country hosting the World Cup's flag football matches experiences a 14.5% higher relative inclusive growth, as compared to a country losing and exiting the tournament. This result is even slightly higher when the association football match is matched separately and not bundled with other association football and rugby matches. This relative incremental effect decreases to only about 11.5% when a country hosts non-football matches. What the results from the KOF index and cultural global clustering index indicate is that the process of global clustering boosts the society's inclusiveness in the sense that a richer cultural identity and cultural and national unity bring the society closer together. This cultural clustering prevails only in countries that exhibit a higher degree of processes of globalization. Especially the need to find boundaries and to create awareness of oneself is a function of the process of globalization like cultural global clustering by finding a place in society.

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Teklemariam Haile

Temesgen Thomas

Despite the evolution of multiethnic Ethiopia by territorial conquest, successive feudal regimes were embarked on hegemonic project of building a nation–state. However, this had brought the National Questions as the politico-ideological agenda by the Ethiopian Student Movement (ESM). The ESM advocated Marxist–Leninism as their ideological curricula and promoted self–determination up to secession as a solution to the National Questions. Descended from the ESM, the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) and its satellite armed groups assumed the state power as the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) after waging a successful armed struggle against socialist military regime in 1991. As a legitimate response to the National Questions, the TPLF/ EPRDF adopted a federal system that was explicitly based on ethnicity and formalized ethnic rights to self-determination up to secession. By transforming itself into multi-ethnic EPRDF, the TPLF enlarged its programme and ideology nationwide with the ambition of creating a renewed, 'revolutionary– democratic centralist federalism' instead of an enforced unitary state. Accordingly, the normative base for ethnic federalism in Ethiopia is undoubtedly connected with ideology of the TPLF. With its triple radical and pioneering approaches: federalism, ethnicity and principle of self–determination, Ethiopia has gone further than any other African states and further than almost any state worldwide. Cite This Article As: Thomas, Temesgen (2016). Ethnic Federal System in Ethiopia: Origin, Ideology and Paradoxes. Inter. J. Polit. Sci. Develop. 4(1): 1-15

Abrham Amare

Since EPRDF seized power following gravy bloodsheds of civil war, in 1991, 'ethnicity' institutes as a cornerstone to enjoy greater political, legal, political economy, and structural space by putting an end to the centralized system of administration. During the early 1990s, numerous political faction groups triggered and pattered by 'socialism thought' were considering 'ethnic' based federalism as a magic bullet to bring the long civil war to an end and save the nation of collapse. In the other side of the story, however, since the onset there was/is unfold doubt about the wisdom of giving greater political space to 'ethnicity'. On top, there was/is a debate about the continuing nature, form, and the role of it in the nation's political discourse. This paper inquires, the two divergent roles, i.e. threats and prospects, ethnic based federalism in the contemporary Ethiopian politics. In addition, I attempt to assess the basic arguments proposed by various state and non-state actors; interest groups, academicians, politicians, national, and ethno-national groups from in and out point of views. In the prospects side, it glorified as a means to bridge out inclusive politics, development, democracy, and brotherhood among multi-cultural people of the country. From the other opposite side, the continued emphasis on ethnic politics coupled with limited democratic practice, disintegration, a state of fear, barbarian politics, vacuum national consensus, political corruption, and pointless social classifications. Furthermore, it indicates the centrality of ethnicity in shaping state-society relations and governance pattern in contemporary Ethiopia. Consequently, the paper attempted to evaluate the ramifications of a growing trend of ethnic entrepreneurship and ethnic-centered politics in the nation. Finally, the paper concludes and forward recommends for cope out mechanisms of the stated problems.

Dialectical Anthropology

Asafa Jalata

Utrecht law review

Assefa Fiseha

Courtney Meyer

Yonas Gedamu

After the fall of the military regime (the Dergue) in Ethiopia, that had ruled for seventeen years, the EPRDF (Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front) coalition and some former liberation fronts took control of the state and the systemic political transformation of the country. The impact they made on the state stability, political and economic questions however, invite further investigation. Considering the historical preludes, understanding today’s political landscape and lingering political and economic questions, this dissertation examines an institutional solution introduced by EPRDF led government in Ethiopia, i.e. Ethnic Federalism. The post-1991 politics and EPRDF’s coalition however, are highly dominated by the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) with a political base of roughly six percent of the total population. Nonetheless, the coalition, while challenged by fractured coalitions of political opposition and intra-party struggles, remains stable and in contr...

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