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Research Management: Starting, Completing and Submitting the Final Research Report, Dissertation or Thesis

First Online: 25 May 2023

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Uche M. Mbanaso 4 ,
Lucienne Abrahams 5 &
Kennedy Chinedu Okafor 6

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This chapter addresses the topics of research planning, the need to adopt your own personal strategy for completing the research and the adaptability to change in the research environment. It discusses the nature of the student researcher-supervisor relationship, noting the many roles of the supervisor, as guide, supportive mentor and facilitator, while it is ultimately the responsibility of the student researcher to produce the research. The challenges and practicalities of resource management, time management and research-life balance are discussed. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the process of preparing for defence and examination of the research report, dissertation or thesis.

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Bibliography

Baars, W. (2006). Project management handbook: Data archiving and networked services . Version 1.1. https://www.projectmanagement-training.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/book_project_management.pdf

Bright Hub Project Management. (2011, February 22). Decision-tree vs. grid analysis . https://www.brighthubpm.com/project-planning/107546-comparing-decision-tree-and-grid-analysis-techniques/

Hyttinen, K. (2017). Project management handbook . Laurea Publications. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320101542_PROJECT_MANAGEMENT_HANDBOOK

MindTools. (2018). SMART goals . https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/smart-goals.htm

Project Management Institute (PMI). (2020, January 12). What is project management? https://www.pmi.org/about/learn-about-pmi/what-is-project-management

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Centre for Cybersecurity Studies, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria

Uche M. Mbanaso

LINK Centre, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Lucienne Abrahams

Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria

Kennedy Chinedu Okafor

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Mbanaso, U.M., Abrahams, L., Okafor, K.C. (2023). Research Management: Starting, Completing and Submitting the Final Research Report, Dissertation or Thesis. In: Research Techniques for Computer Science, Information Systems and Cybersecurity. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30031-8_8

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Research Article

Does time management work? A meta-analysis

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Software, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Concordia University, Sir George Williams Campus, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Roles Methodology, Validation

Affiliation FSA Ulaval, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada

Roles Validation, Writing – review & editing

Brad Aeon,
Aïda Faber,
Alexandra Panaccio

Published: January 11, 2021
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066
Reader Comments

Does time management work? We conducted a meta-analysis to assess the impact of time management on performance and well-being. Results show that time management is moderately related to job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. Time management also shows a moderate, negative relationship with distress. Interestingly, individual differences and contextual factors have a much weaker association with time management, with the notable exception of conscientiousness. The extremely weak correlation with gender was unexpected: women seem to manage time better than men, but the difference is very slight. Further, we found that the link between time management and job performance seems to increase over the years: time management is more likely to get people a positive performance review at work today than in the early 1990s. The link between time management and gender, too, seems to intensify: women’s time management scores have been on the rise for the past few decades. We also note that time management seems to enhance wellbeing—in particular, life satisfaction—to a greater extent than it does performance. This challenges the common perception that time management first and foremost enhances work performance, and that wellbeing is simply a byproduct.

Citation: Aeon B, Faber A, Panaccio A (2021) Does time management work? A meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 16(1): e0245066. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066

Editor: Juan-Carlos Pérez-González, Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia (UNED), SPAIN

Received: October 27, 2020; Accepted: December 21, 2020; Published: January 11, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Aeon et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist

Introduction

Stand-up comedian George Carlin once quipped that in the future a “time machine will be built, but no one will have time to use it” [ 1 ]. Portentously, booksellers now carry one-minute bedtime stories for time-starved parents [ 2 ] and people increasingly speed-watch videos and speed-listen to audio books [ 3 – 5 ]. These behaviors are symptomatic of an increasingly harried society suffering from chronic time poverty [ 6 ]. Work is intensifying—in 1965 about 50% of workers took breaks; in 2003, less than 2% [ 7 ]. Leisure, too, is intensifying: people strive to consume music, social media, vacations, and other leisure activities ever more efficiently [ 8 – 11 ].

In this frantic context, time management is often touted as a panacea for time pressure. Media outlets routinely extol the virtues of time management. Employers, educators, parents, and politicians exhort employees, students, children, and citizens to embrace more efficient ways to use time [ 12 – 16 ]. In light of this, it is not surprising that from 1960 to 2008 the frequency of books mentioning time management shot up by more than 2,700% [ 17 ].

Time management is defined as “a form of decision making used by individuals to structure, protect, and adapt their time to changing conditions” [ 18 ]. This means time management, as it is generally portrayed in the literature, comprises three components: structuring, protecting, and adapting time. Well-established time management measures reflect these concepts. Structuring time, for instance, is captured in such items as “Do you have a daily routine which you follow?” and “Do your main activities during the day fit together in a structured way?” [ 19 ]. Protecting time is reflected in items such as “Do you often find yourself doing things which interfere with your schoolwork simply because you hate to say ‘No’ to people?” [ 20 ]. And adapting time to changing conditions is seen in such items as “Uses waiting time” and “Evaluates daily schedule” [ 21 ].

Research has, furthermore, addressed several important aspects of time management, such as its relationship with work-life balance [ 22 ], whether gender differences in time management ability develop in early childhood [ 23 ], and whether organizations that encourage employees to manage their time experience less stress and turnover [ 24 ]. Despite the phenomenal popularity of this topic, however, academic research has yet to address some fundamental questions [ 25 – 27 ].

A critical gap in time management research is the question of whether time management works [ 28 , 29 ]. For instance, studies on the relationship between time management and job performance reveal mixed findings [ 30 , 31 ]. Furthermore, scholars’ attempts to synthesize the literature have so far been qualitative, precluding a quantitative overall assessment [ 18 , 32 , 33 ]. To tackle this gap in our understanding of time management, we conducted a meta-analysis. In addressing the question of whether time management works, we first clarify the criteria for effectiveness. In line with previous reviews, we find that virtually all studies focus on two broad outcomes: performance and wellbeing [ 32 ].

Overall, results suggest that time management enhances job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. Interestingly, individual differences (e.g., gender, age) and contextual factors (e.g., job autonomy, workload) were much less related to time management ability, with the notable exception of personality and, in particular, conscientiousness. Furthermore, the link between time management and job performance seems to grow stronger over the years, perhaps reflecting the growing need to manage time in increasingly autonomous and flexible jobs [ 34 – 37 ].

Overall, our findings provide academics, policymakers, and the general audience with better information to assess the value of time management. This information is all the more useful amid the growing doubts about the effectiveness of time management [ 38 ]. We elaborate on the contributions and implications of our findings in the discussion section.

What does it mean to say that time management works?

In the din of current debates over productivity, reduced workweeks, and flexible hours, time management comes to the fore as a major talking point. Given its popularity, it would seem rather pointless to question its effectiveness. Indeed, time management’s effectiveness is often taken for granted, presumably because time management offers a seemingly logical solution to a lifestyle that increasingly requires coordination and prioritization skills [ 39 , 40 ].

Yet, popular media outlets increasingly voice concern and frustration over time management, reflecting at least part of the population’s growing disenchantment [ 38 ]. This questioning of time management practices is becoming more common among academics as well [ 41 ]. As some have noted, the issue is not just whether time management works. Rather, the question is whether the techniques championed by time management gurus can be actually counterproductive or even harmful [ 26 , 42 ]. Other scholars have raised concerns that time management may foster an individualistic, quantitative, profit-oriented view of time that perpetuates social inequalities [ 43 , 44 ]. For instance, time management manuals beguile readers with promises of boundless productivity that may not be accessible to women, whose disproportionate share in care work, such as tending to young children, may not fit with typically male-oriented time management advice [ 45 ]. Similarly, bestselling time management books at times offer advice that reinforce global inequities. Some manuals, for instance, recommend delegating trivial tasks to private virtual assistants, who often work out of developing countries for measly wages [ 46 ]. Furthermore, time management manuals often ascribe a financial value to time—the most famous time management adage is that time is money. But recent studies show that thinking of time as money leads to a slew of negative outcomes, including time pressure, stress, impatience, inability to enjoy the moment, unwillingness to help others, and less concern with the environment [ 47 – 51 ]. What’s more, the pressure induced by thinking of time as money may ultimately undermine psychological and physical health [ 52 ].

Concerns over ethics and safety notwithstanding, a more prosaic question researchers have grappled with is whether time management works. Countless general-audience books and training programs have claimed that time management improves people’s lives in many ways, such as boosting performance at work [ 53 – 55 ]. Initial academic forays into addressing this question challenged those claims: time management didn’t seem to improve job performance [ 29 , 30 ]. Studies used a variety of research approaches, running the gamut from lab experiments, field experiments, longitudinal studies, and cross-sectional surveys to experience sampling [ 28 , 56 – 58 ]. Such studies occasionally did find an association between time management and performance, but only in highly motivated workers [ 59 ]; instances establishing a more straightforward link with performance were comparatively rare [ 31 ]. Summarizing these insights, reviews of the literature concluded that the link between time management and job performance is unclear; the link with wellbeing, however, seemed more compelling although not conclusive [ 18 , 32 ].

It is interesting to note that scholars often assess the effectiveness time management by its ability to influence some aspect of performance, wellbeing, or both. In other words, the question of whether time management works comes down to asking whether time management influences performance and wellbeing. The link between time management and performance at work can be traced historically to scientific management [ 60 ]. Nevertheless, even though modern time management can be traced to scientific management in male-dominated work settings, a feminist reading of time management history reveals that our modern idea of time management also descends from female time management thinkers of the same era, such as Lillian Gilbreth, who wrote treatises on efficient household management [ 43 , 61 , 62 ]. As the link between work output and time efficiency became clearer, industrialists went to great lengths to encourage workers to use their time more rationally [ 63 – 65 ]. Over time, people have internalized a duty to be productive and now see time management as a personal responsibility at work [ 43 , 66 , 67 ]. The link between time management and academic performance can be traced to schools’ historical emphasis on punctuality and timeliness. In more recent decades, however, homework expectations have soared [ 68 ] and parents, especially well-educated ones, have been spending more time preparing children for increasingly competitive college admissions [ 69 , 70 ]. In this context, time management is seen as a necessary skill for students to thrive in an increasingly cut-throat academic world. Finally, the link between time management and wellbeing harks back to ancient scholars, who emphasized that organizing one’s time was necessary to a life well-lived [ 71 , 72 ]. More recently, empirical studies in the 1980s examined the effect of time management on depressive symptoms that often plague unemployed people [ 19 , 73 ]. Subsequent studies surmised that the effective use of time might prevent a host of ills, such as work-life conflict and job stress [ 22 , 74 ].

Overall, then, various studies have looked into the effectiveness of time management. Yet, individual studies remain narrow in scope and reviews of the literature offer only a qualitative—and often inconclusive—assessment. To provide a more quantifiable answer to the question of whether time management works, we performed a meta-analysis, the methods of which we outline in what follows.

Literature search and inclusion criteria

We performed a comprehensive search using the keywords “time management” across the EBSCO databases Academic Search Complete , Business Source Complete , Computers & Applied Sciences Complete , Gender Studies Database , MEDLINE , Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection , PsycINFO , SocINDEX , and Education Source . The search had no restrictions regarding country and year of publication and included peer-reviewed articles up to 2019. To enhance comprehensiveness, we also ran a forward search on the three main time management measures: the Time Management Behavior Scale [ 21 ], the Time Structure Questionnaire [ 19 ], and the Time Management Questionnaire [ 20 ]. (A forward search tracks all the papers that have cited a particular work. In our case the forward search located all the papers citing the three time management scales available on Web of Science .)

Time management measures typically capture three aspects of time management: structuring, protecting, and adapting time to changing conditions. Structuring refers to how people map their activities to time using a schedule, a planner, or other devices that represent time in a systematic way [ 75 – 77 ]. Protecting refers to how people set boundaries around their time to repel intruders [ 78 , 79 ]. Examples include people saying no to time-consuming requests from colleagues or friends as well as turning off one’s work phone during family dinners. Finally, adapting one’s time to changing conditions means, simply put, to be responsive and flexible with one’s time structure [ 80 , 81 ]. Furthermore, time management measures typically probe behaviors related to these three dimensions (e.g., using a schedule to structure one’s day, making use of downtime), although they sometimes also capture people’s attitudes (e.g., whether people feel in control of their time).

As shown in Fig 1 , the initial search yielded 10,933 hits, excluding duplicates.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.g001

The search included no terms other than “time management” to afford the broadest possible coverage of time management correlates. Nevertheless, as shown in Table 1 , we focused exclusively on quantitative, empirical studies of time management in non-clinical samples. Successive rounds of screening, first by assessing paper titles and abstracts and then by perusing full-text articles, whittled down the number of eligible studies to 158 (see Fig 1 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t001

Data extraction and coding

We extracted eligible effect sizes from the final pool of studies; effect sizes were mostly based on means and correlations. In our initial data extraction, we coded time management correlates using the exact variable names found in each paper. For instance, “work-life imbalance” was initially coded in those exact terms, rather than “work-life conflict.” Virtually all time management correlates we extracted fell under the category of performance and/or wellbeing. This pattern tallies with previous reviews of the literature [ 18 , 32 ]. A sizable number of variables also fell under the category of individual differences and contextual factors, such as age, personality, and job autonomy. After careful assessment of the extracted variables, we developed a coding scheme using a nested structure shown in Table 2 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t002

Aeon and Aguinis suggested that time management influences performance, although the strength of that relationship may depend on how performance is defined [ 18 ]. Specifically, they proposed that time management may have a stronger impact on behaviors conducive to performance (e.g., motivation, proactiveness) compared to assessments of performance (e.g., supervisor rankings). For this reason, we distinguish between results- and behavior-based performance in our coding scheme, both in professional and academic settings. Furthermore, wellbeing indicators can be positive (e.g., life satisfaction) or negative (e.g., anxiety). We expect time management to influence these variables in opposite ways; it would thus make little sense to analyze them jointly. Accordingly, we differentiate between wellbeing (positive) and distress (negative).

In our second round of coding, we used the scheme shown in Table 2 to cluster together kindred variables. For instance, we grouped “work-life imbalance,” “work-life conflict” and “work-family conflict” under an overarching “work-life conflict” category. The authors reviewed each variable code and resolved rare discrepancies to ultimately agree on all coded variables. Note that certain variables, such as self-actualization, covered only one study (i.e., one effect size). While one or two effect sizes is not enough to conduct a meta-analysis, they can nonetheless be grouped with other effect sizes belonging to the same category (e.g., self-actualization and sense of purpose belong the broader category of overall wellbeing). For this reason, we included variables with one or two effect sizes for comprehensiveness.

Meta-analytic procedures

We conducted all meta-analyses following the variables and cluster of variables outlined in Table 2 . We opted to run all analyses with a random effects model. The alternative—a fixed effects model—assumes that all studies share a common true effect size (i.e., linking time management and a given outcome) which they approximate. This assumption is unrealistic because it implies that the factors influencing the effect size are the same in all studies [ 83 ]. In other words, a fixed effects model assumes that the factors affecting time management are similar across all studies—the fallacy underlying this assumption was the main theme of Aeon and Aguinis’s review [ 18 ]. To perform our analyses, we used Comprehensive Meta-Analysis v.3 [ 84 ], a program considered highly reliable and valid in various systematic assessments [ 85 , 86 ].

In many cases, studies reported how variables correlated with an overall time management score. In some cases, however, studies reported only correlations with discrete time management subscales (e.g., short-range planning, attitudes toward time, use of time management tools), leaving out the overall effect. In such cases, we averaged out the effect sizes of the subscales to compute a summary effect [ 83 ]. This was necessary not only because meta-analyses admit only one effect size per study, but also because our focus is on time management as a whole rather than on subscales. Similarly, when we analyzed the link between time management and a high-level cluster of variables (e.g., overall wellbeing rather than specific variables such as life satisfaction), there were studies with more than one relevant outcome (e.g., a study that captured both life satisfaction and job satisfaction). Again, because meta-analyses allow for only one effect size (i.e., variable) per study, we used the mean of different variables to compute an overall effect sizes in studies that featured more than one outcome [ 83 ].

Overall description of the literature

We analyzed 158 studies for a total number of 490 effect sizes. 21 studies explored performance in a professional context, 76 performance in an academic context, 30 investigated wellbeing (positive), and 58 distress. Interestingly, studies did not systematically report individual differences, as evidenced by the fact that only 21 studies reported correlations with age, and only between 10 and 15 studies measured personality (depending on the personality trait). Studies that measured contextual factors were fewer still—between 3 and 7 (depending on the contextual factor). These figures fit with Aeon and Aguinis’s observation that the time management literature often overlooks internal and external factors that can influence the way people manage time [ 18 ].

With one exception, we found no papers fitting our inclusion criteria before the mid-1980s. Publication trends also indicate an uptick in time management studies around the turn of the millennium, with an even higher number around the 2010s. This trend is consistent with the one Shipp and Cole identified, revealing a surge in time-related papers in organizational behavior around the end of the 1980s [ 87 ].

It is also interesting to note that the first modern time management books came out in the early 1970s, including the The Time Trap (1972), by Alec MacKenzie and How to Get Control of your Time and your Life (1973), by Alan Lakein. These books inspired early modern time management research [ 21 , 58 , 88 ]. It is thus very likely that the impetus for modern time management research came from popular practitioner manuals.

To assess potential bias in our sample of studies, we computed different estimates of publication bias (see Table 3 ). Overall, publication bias remains relatively low (see funnel plots in S1). Publication bias occurs when there is a bias against nonsignificant or even negative results because such results are seen as unsurprising and not counterintuitive. In this case, however, the fact that time management is generally expected to lead to positive outcomes offers an incentive to publish nonsignificant or negative results, which would be counterintuitive [ 89 ]. By the same token, the fact that some people feel that time management is ineffective [ 38 ] provides an incentive to publish papers that link time management with positive outcomes. In other words, opposite social expectations surrounding time management might reduce publication bias.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t003

Finally, we note that the link between time management and virtually all outcomes studied is highly heterogeneous (as measured, for instance, by Cochran’s Q and Higgins & Thompson’s I 2 ; see tables below). This high level of heterogeneity suggests that future research should pay more attention to moderating factors (e.g., individual differences).

Time management and performance in professional settings

Overall, time management has a moderate impact on performance at work, with correlations hovering around r = .25. We distinguish between results-based and behavior-based performance. The former measures performance as an outcome (e.g., performance appraisals by supervisors) whereas the latter measures performance as behavioral contributions (e.g., motivation, job involvement). Time management seems related to both types of performance. Although the effect size for results-based performance is lower than that of behavior-based performance, moderation analysis reveals the difference is not significant (p > .05), challenging Aeon and Aguinis’s conclusions [ 18 ].

Interestingly, the link between time management and performance displays much less heterogeneity (see Q and I 2 statistics in Table 4 ) than the link between time management and other outcomes (see tables below). The studies we summarize in Table 4 include both experimental and non-experimental designs; they also use different time management measures. As such, we can discount, to a certain extent, the effect of methodological diversity. We can perhaps explain the lower heterogeneity by the fact that when people hold a full-time job, they usually are at a relatively stable stage in life. In school, by contrast, a constellation of factors (e.g., financial stability and marital status, to name a few) conspire to affect time management outcomes. Furthermore, work contexts are a typically more closed system than life in general. For this reason, fewer factors stand to disrupt the link between time management and job performance than that between time management and, say, life satisfaction. Corroborating this, note how, in Table 6 below, the link between time management and job satisfaction ( I 2 = 58.70) is much less heterogeneous than the one between time management and life satisfaction ( I 2 = 95.45).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t004

Moreover, we note that the relationship between time management and job performance (see Fig 2 ) significantly increases over the years ( B = .0106, p < .01, Q model = 8.52(1), Q residual = 15.54(9), I 2 = 42.08, R 2 analog = .75).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.g002

Time management and performance in academic settings

Overall, the effect of time management on performance seems to be slightly higher in academic settings compared to work settings, although the magnitude of the effect remains moderate (see Table 5 ). Here again, we distinguish between results- and behavior-based performance. Time management’s impact on behavior-based performance seems much higher than on results-based performance—a much wider difference than the one we observed in professional settings. This suggests than results-based performance in academic settings depends less on time management than results-based performance in professional settings. This means that time management is more likely to get people a good performance review at work than a strong GPA in school.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t005

In particular, time management seems to be much more negatively related to procrastination in school than at work. Although we cannot establish causation in all studies, we note that some of them featured experimental designs that established a causal effect of time management on reducing procrastination [ 90 ].

Interestingly, time management was linked to all types of results-based performance except for standardized tests. This is perhaps due to the fact that standardized tests tap more into fluid intelligence, a measure of intelligence independent of acquired knowledge [ 91 ]. GPA and regular exam scores, in contrast, tap more into crystallized intelligence, which depends mostly on accumulated knowledge. Time management can thus assist students in organizing their time to acquire the knowledge necessary to ace a regular exam; for standardized exams that depend less on knowledge and more on intelligence, however, time management may be less helpful. Evidence from other studies bears this out: middle school students’ IQ predicts standardized achievement tests scores better than self-control while self-control predicts report card grades better than IQ [ 92 ]. (For our purposes, we can use self-control as a very rough proxy for time management.) Relatedly, we found no significant relationship between time management and cognitive ability in our meta-analysis (see Table 8 ).

Time management and wellbeing

On the whole, time management has a slightly stronger impact on wellbeing than on performance. This is unexpected, considering how the dominant discourse points to time management as a skill for professional career development. Of course, the dominant discourse also frames time management as necessary for wellbeing and stress reduction, but to a much lesser extent. Our finding that time management has a stronger influence on wellbeing in no way negates the importance of time management as a work skill. Rather, this finding challenges the intuitive notion that time management is more effective for work than for other life domains. As further evidence, notice how in Table 6 the effect of time management on life satisfaction is 72% stronger than that on job satisfaction.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t006

Time management and distress

Time management seems to allay various forms of distress, although to a lesser extent than it enhances wellbeing. The alleviating effect on psychological distress is particularly strong ( r = -0.358; see Table 7 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t007

That time management has a weaker effect on distress should not be surprising. First, wellbeing and distress are not two poles on opposite ends of a spectrum. Although related, wellbeing and distress are distinct [ 93 ]. Thus, there is no reason to expect time management to have a symmetrical effect on wellbeing and distress. Second, and relatedly, the factors that influence wellbeing and distress are also distinct. Specifically, self-efficacy (i.e., seeing oneself as capable) is a distinct predictor of wellbeing while neuroticism and life events in general are distinct predictors of distress [ 94 ]. It stands to reason that time management can enhance self-efficacy. (Or, alternatively, that people high in self-efficacy would be more likely to engage in time management, although experimental evidence suggests that time management training makes people feel more in control of their time [ 89 ]; it is thus plausible that time management may have a causal effect on self-efficacy. Relatedly, note how time management ability is strongly related to internal locus of control in Table 8 ) In contrast, time management can do considerably less in the way of tackling neuroticism and dampening the emotional impact of tragic life events. In other words, the factors that affect wellbeing may be much more within the purview of time management than the factors that affect distress. For this reason, time management may be less effective in alleviating distress than in improving wellbeing.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t008

Time management and individual differences

Time management is, overall, less related to individual differences than to other variables.

Age, for instance, hardly correlates with time management (with a relatively high consistency between studies, I 2 = 55.79, see Table 8 above).

Similarly, gender only tenuously correlates with time management, although in the expected direction: women seem to have stronger time management abilities than men. The very weak association with gender ( r = -0.087) is particularly surprising given women’s well-documented superior self-regulation skills [ 95 ]. That being said, women’s time management abilities seem to grow stronger over the years ( N = 37, B = -.0049, p < .05, Q model = 3.89(1), Q residual = 218.42(35), I 2 = 83.98, R 2 analog = .03; also see Fig 3 below). More realistically, this increase may not be due to women’s time management abilities getting stronger per se but, rather, to the fact that women now have more freedom to manage their time [ 96 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.g003

Other demographic indicators, such as education and number of children, were nonsignificant. Similarly, the relationships between time management and personal attributes and attitudes were either weak or nonsignificant, save for two notable exceptions. First, the link between time management and internal locus of control (i.e., the extent to which people perceive they’re in control of their lives) is quite substantial. This is not surprising, because time management presupposes that people believe they can change their lives. Alternatively, it may be that time management helps people strengthen their internal locus of control, as experimental evidence suggests [ 89 ]. Second, the link between time management and self-esteem is equally substantial. Here again, one can make the argument either way: people with high self-esteem might be confident enough to manage their time or, conversely, time management may boost self-esteem. The two options are not mutually exclusive: people with internal loci of control and high self-esteem levels can feel even more in control of their lives and better about themselves through time management.

We also note a very weak but statistically significant negative association between time management and multitasking. It has almost become commonsense that multitasking does not lead to performance [ 97 ]. As a result, people with stronger time management skills might deliberately steer clear of this notoriously ineffective strategy.

In addition, time management was mildly related to hours spent studying but not hours spent working. (These variables cover only student samples working part- or full-time and thus do not apply to non-student populations.) This is consistent with time-use studies revealing that teenagers and young adults spend less time working and more time studying [ 98 ]. Students who manage their time likely have well-defined intentions, and trends suggest those intentions will target education over work because, it is hoped, education offers larger payoffs over the long-term [ 99 ].

In terms of contextual factors, time management does not correlate significantly with job autonomy. This is surprising, as we expected autonomy to be a prerequisite for time management (i.e., you can’t manage time if you don’t have the freedom to). Nevertheless, qualitative studies have shown how even in environments that afford little autonomy (e.g., restaurants), workers can carve out pockets of time freedom to momentarily cut loose [ 100 ]. Thus, time management behaviors may flourish even in the most stymying settings. In addition, the fact that time management is associated with less role overload and previous attendance of time management training programs makes sense: time management can mitigate the effect of heavy workloads and time management training, presumably, improves time management skills.

Finally, time management is linked to all personality traits. Moreover, previous reviews of the literature have commented on the link between time management and conscientiousness in particular [ 32 ]. What our study reveals is the substantial magnitude of the effect ( r = 0.451). The relationship is not surprising: conscientiousness entails orderliness and organization, which overlap significantly with time management. That time management correlates so strongly with personality (and so little with other individual differences) lends credence to the dispositional view of time management [ 101 – 103 ]. However, this finding should not be taken to mean that time management is a highly inheritable, fixed ability. Having a “you either have it or you don’t” view of time management is not only counterproductive [ 104 ] but also runs counter to evidence showing that time management training does, in fact, help people manage their time better.

Does time management work? It seems so. Time management has a moderate influence on job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. These three outcomes play an important role in people’s lives. Doing a good job at work, getting top grades in school, and nurturing psychological wellbeing contribute to a life well lived. Widespread exhortations to get better at time management are thus not unfounded: the importance of time management is hard to overstate.

Contributions

Beyond answering the question of whether time management works, this study contributes to the literature in three major ways. First, we quantify the impact of time management on several outcomes. We thus not only address the question of whether time management works, but also, and importantly, gauge to what extent time management works. Indeed, our meta-analysis covers 53,957 participants, which allows for a much more precise, quantified assessment of time management effectiveness compared to qualitative reviews.

Second, this meta-analysis systematically assesses relationships between time management and a host of individual differences and contextual factors. This helps us draw a more accurate portrait of potential antecedents of higher (or lower) scores on time management measures.

Third, our findings challenge intuitive ideas concerning what time management is for. Specifically, we found that time management enhances wellbeing—and in particular life satisfaction—to a greater extent than it does various types of performance. This runs against the popular belief that time management primarily helps people perform better and that wellbeing is simply a byproduct of better performance. Of course, it may be that wellbeing gains, even if higher than performance gains, hinge on performance; that is to say, people may need to perform better as a prerequisite to feeling happier. But this argument doesn’t jibe with experiments showing that even in the absence of performance gains, time management interventions do increase wellbeing [ 89 ]. This argument also founders in the face of evidence linking time management with wellbeing among the unemployed [ 105 ], unemployment being an environment where performance plays a negligible role, if any. As such, this meta-analysis lends support to definitions of time management that are not work- or performance-centric.

Future research and limitations

This meta-analysis questions whether time management should be seen chiefly as a performance device. Our questioning is neither novel nor subversive: historically people have managed time for other reasons than efficiency, such as spiritual devotion and philosophical contemplation [ 72 , 106 , 107 ]. It is only with relatively recent events, such as the Industrial Revolution and waves of corporate downsizing, that time management has become synonymous with productivity [ 43 , 65 ]. We hope future research will widen its scope and look more into outcomes other than performance, such as developing a sense of meaning in life [ 108 ]. One of the earliest time management studies, for instance, explored how time management relates to having a sense of purpose [ 73 ]. However, very few studies followed suit since. Time management thus stands to become a richer, more inclusive research area by investigating a wider array of outcomes.

In addition, despite the encouraging findings of this meta-analysis we must refrain from seeing time management as a panacea. Though time management can make people’s lives better, it is not clear how easy it is for people to learn how to manage their time adequately. More importantly, being “good” at time management is often a function of income, education, and various types of privilege [ 42 , 43 , 46 , 109 ]. The hackneyed maxim that “you have as many hours in a day as Beyoncé,” for instance, blames people for their “poor” time management in pointing out that successful people have just as much time but still manage to get ahead. Yet this ill-conceived maxim glosses over the fact that Beyoncé and her ilk do, in a sense, have more hours in a day than average people who can’t afford a nanny, chauffeur, in-house chefs, and a bevy of personal assistants. Future research should thus look into ways to make time management more accessible.

Furthermore, this meta-analysis rests on the assumption that time management training programs do enhance people’s time management skills. Previous reviews have noted the opacity surrounding time management interventions—studies often don’t explain what, exactly, is taught in time management training seminars [ 18 ]. As a result, comparing the effect of different interventions might come down to comparing apples and oranges. (This might partly account for the high heterogeneity between studies.) We hope that our definition of time management will spur future research into crafting more consistent, valid, and generalizable interventions that will allow for more meaningful comparisons.

Finally, most time management studies are cross-sectional. Yet it is very likely that the effect of time management compounds over time. If time management can help students get better grades, for instance, those grades can lead to better jobs down the line [ 110 ]. Crucially, learning a skill takes time, and if time management helps people make the time to learn a skill, then time management stands to dramatically enrich people’s lives. For this reason, longitudinal studies can track different cohorts to see how time management affects people’s lives over time. We expect that developing time management skills early on in life can create a compound effect whereby people acquire a variety of other skills thanks to their ability to make time.

Overall, this study offers the most comprehensive, precise, and fine-grained assessment of time management to date. We address the longstanding debate over whether time management influences job performance in revealing a positive, albeit moderate effect. Interestingly, we found that time management impacts wellbeing—and in particular life satisfaction—to a greater extent than performance. That means time management may be primarily a wellbeing enhancer, rather than a performance booster. Furthermore, individual and external factors played a minor role in time management, although this does not necessarily mean that time management’s effectiveness is universal. Rather, we need more research that focuses on the internal and external variables that affect time management outcomes. We hope this study will tantalize future research and guide practitioners in their attempt to make better use of their time.

Supporting information

S1 checklist. prisma 2009 checklist..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.s001

S1 File. Funnel plots.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.s002

S2 File. Dataset.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.s003

Acknowledgments

We would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge our colleagues for their invaluable help: Mengchan Gao, Talha Aziz, Elizabeth Eley, Robert Nason, Andrew Ryder, Tracy Hecht, and Caroline Aubé.

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Time Management: 10 Strategies for Better Time Management

The term Time Management is a misnomer. You cannot manage time; you manage the events in your life in relation to time. You may often wish for more time, but you only get 24 hours, 1,440 minutes, or 86,400 seconds each day. How you use that time depends on skills learned through self-analysis, planning, evaluation, and self-control. Much like money, time is both valuable and limited. It must be protected, used wisely, and budgeted.

People working and moving around a large clock.

Are more productive.
Have more energy for things they need to accomplish.
Feel less stressed.
Have more free time to do the things they want.
Get more things done.
Relate more positively to others.
Feel better about themselves. (Dodd and Subdheim, 2005)

Finding a time management strategy that works best for you depends on your personality, ability to self-motivate, and level of self-discipline. By incorporating some, or all the ten strategies below, you can more effectively manage your time.

1. Know How You Spend Your Time

A time log is a helpful way to determine how you use your time. Record what you are doing in 15-minute intervals for a week or two. Evaluate the results:

Did everything you needed to do get done?
Which tasks require the most time?
What time of day when you are most productive?
Where is most of your time is devoted (i.e. job, family, personal, recreation)?

Identifying your most time-consuming tasks and determining whether you are investing your time in the most important activities can help you to determine a course of action. Having a good sense of the time required for routine tasks can help you be more realistic in planning and estimating how much time is available for other activities. Many apps exist to help you keep track of your time, as mentioned in Strategy 3.

2. Set Priorities

Managing your time effectively requires a distinction between what is important and what is urgent (MacKenzie, 1990). Experts agree that the most important tasks usually aren’t the most urgent tasks. However, we tend to let the urgent tasks dominate our lives. Covey, Merrill, and Merrill (1994) categorize activities into four quadrants in their Time Management Matrix: urgent, not urgent, important, and not important. While activities that are both urgent and important must be done, Covey et al. suggests spending less time on activities that are not important (regardless of their urgency) to gain time for activities that are not urgent but important. Focusing on these important activities allows you to gain greater control over your time and may reduce the number of important tasks that become urgent.

Do these tasks as soon as possible.

Examples:

Defer these tasks until all urgent and important tasks have been completed.

Examples:

Delegate these tasks to the appropriate people who can manage them.

Examples:

Delete these tasks – they are often time wasters.

Examples:

Creating a "to do” list is an easy way to prioritize. Whether you need a daily, weekly, or monthly list depends on your lifestyle. Be careful to keep list-making from getting out of control. List manageable tasks rather than goals or multi-step plans. Rank the items on your “to do” list in order of priority (both important and urgent). You may choose to group items in categories such as high priority, medium priority, or low priority; number them in order of priority; or use a color-coding system. The goal is not to mark off the most items, but to mark off the highest priority items (MacKenzie, 1990). A prioritized “to do” list allows you to set boundaries so you can say “no” to activities that may be interesting or provide a sense of achievement but do not fit your basic priorities.

3. Use a Planning Tool

People constructing a tower of blocks reading

When using a planning tool:

Always record your information on the tool itself. Jotting notes elsewhere that must be transferred later is inefficient and wastes more time.
Review your planning tool daily.
Keep a list of your priorities in your planning tool and refer to it often.
Keep planning tools synchronized. If you keep more than one, make sure your phone, computer, and paper planning tools match.
Keep a back-up system.

Apps on your phone can be great planning tools. Apps typically fall into one of the following categories:

Time Trackers – Gain an awareness of how you spend your time.
Time Savers – Increase productivity and break time-wasting habits.
Task Managers – Prioritize and organize tasks to improve time management.
Habit Developers – Create healthy habits to encourage time management.

4. Get Organized

Disorganization leads to poor time management. Research has shown that clutter has a strong negative impact on perceived well-being (Roster, 2016). To improve your time management, get organized.

Set up three boxes (or corners of a room) labeled "Keep," "Give Away," and "Toss." Sort items into these boxes. Discard items in your “Toss” box. Your "Give Away" box may include items you want to sell, donate, or discard.

The next step is to improve the time you spend processing information. For example, tasks such as email can eat up your day. To combat wasted time, implement an email organization system that allows you to process the information in each email as efficiently as possible. Use folders, flagging, or a color-coded system to keep track of what’s what.

5. Schedule Appropriately

Scheduling is more than just recording what must be done (e.g., meetings and appointments). Be sure to build in time for the things you want to do. Effective scheduling requires you to know yourself. Your time log should help you to identify times when you are most productive and alert. Plan your most challenging tasks for when you have the most energy. Block out time for your high priority activities first and protect that time from interruptions.

Schedule small tasks such as drafting an email, creating a grocery shopping list, reading, watching webinars or listening to podcasts for long commutes or when waiting for a call or appointment. Capitalize on what would otherwise be time lost. Avoid nonproductive activities, such as playing games or scrolling through social media. Limit scheduled time to about three-fourths of your day to allow for creative activities such as planning, dreaming, and thinking.

6. Delegate: Get Help from Others

Delegating means assigning responsibility for a task to someone else, freeing up your time for tasks that require your expertise. Identify tasks others can do and select the appropriate person(s) to do them. Select someone with the appropriate skills, experience, interest, and authority needed to accomplish the task. Be specific. Define the task and your expectations while allowing the person some freedom to personalize the task. Check how well the person is progressing periodically and provide any assistance, being careful not to take over the responsibility. Finally, reward the person for a job well done or make suggestions for improvements if needed. (Dodd and Sundheim, 2005). Another way to get help is to “buy” time by obtaining goods or services that save time. For example, paying someone to mow your lawn or clean your house, or joining a carpool for your children’s extracurricular activities frees time for other activities. The time-savings from hiring someone for specialized projects is often worth the cost.

7. Stop Procrastinating

People put off tasks for a variety of reasons. Perhaps the task seems overwhelming or unpleasant. To help stop procrastination, consider “eating the big frog first.” A quote commonly attributed to Mark Twain says, “If it’s your job to eat a frog today, it’s best to do it first thing in the morning. And if it’s your job to eat two frogs, it’s best to eat the big frog first.” Unpleasant tasks we procrastinate completing are “big frogs.” Complete these tasks as your first action of the day to get them out of the way. Another option is to “snowball” your tasks by breaking them down into smaller segments, completing preparatory tasks, and eventually completing the larger task at hand. Whether you choose the “big frog first” or “snowball” method, try building in a reward system for completed tasks to help stay motivated.

8. Manage Time-Wasters

Reduce or eliminate time spent in these activities by implementing some simple tips.

Handheld Devices

Take advantage of voice-to-text features such as transcribed voicemails or to make notes or draft emails and text messages when you are on the go.
Avoid small talk. Stay focused.
Take any necessary action immediately following a call.
Impose screen time limits and regularly monitor your digital wellness (see Strategy 10).
Schedule breaks from your devices.
Set aside a specific time to view and respond to email, but don’t let it accumulate to the point it becomes overwhelming to sort.
Turn off notifications for email.
Handle each item only once if possible.
Immediately delete or unsubscribe from junk emails.
Keep address books up-to-date and organized.
Utilize built-in shortcuts to sort email.

Unexpected Visitors

Schedule time for face-to-face visits.
Inform visitors of your time constraints and politely offer to reschedule.
Set a mutually agreeable time limit for the visit.
When someone comes to the door, stand up and have your meeting standing to help keep it brief.

In-Person and Virtual Meetings

Know the purpose of the meeting in advance.
Arrive early.
Start and end the meeting on time.
Prepare an agenda and stick to it. Use a timed agenda, if necessary.
Don’t schedule meetings unless they are necessary and have a specific purpose or agenda.
Use recording software or designate a note-taker.

Family Obligations

Use and sync virtual calendars for easy sharing between busy family members.
Make each family member responsible for consulting the master calendar for potential conflicts.
Create a central area or agreed upon app for posting communications such as appointment reminders, announcements, and messages.

9. Avoid Multi-tasking

Psychological studies have shown that multi-tasking does not save time. In fact, the opposite is often true. You lose time when switching from one task to another, resulting in a loss of productivity (Rubinsteim, Meyer, and Evans, 2001). Routine multi-tasking may lead to difficulty in concentrating and maintaining focus. Do your best to focus on just one task at a time by keeping your area clear of distractions, including turning off notifications on your devices, and set aside dedicated time for specific tasks.

10. Stay Healthy

The care and attention you give yourself is an important investment of time. Scheduling time to relax or do nothing helps you rejuvenate physically and mentally, enabling you to accomplish tasks more quickly and easily. Be sure to monitor your screen time as a part of your digital well-being, setting boundaries to stay healthy. A study conducted by Google showed that four out of five study participants who took steps to improve their digital well-being believe their overall well-being was positively impacted as well (Google, 2019). To improve your digital well-being, set time limits or utilizing built-in software on electronic devices such as phones and tablets to help maintain your digital wellness. Blue light blockers and grayscale mode may also help you improve your digital well-being. Set a time each night to shut off all digital devices to give your mind time to relax; this can also help improve your sleep schedule.

Unfortunately, poor time management and too much screen time can result in fatigue, moodiness, and more frequent illness. To reduce stress, reward yourself for time management successes. Take time to recognize that you have accomplished a major task or challenge before moving on to the next activity.

Whatever time management strategies you use, take time to evaluate how they have worked for you. Do you have a healthy balance between work and home life? Are you accomplishing the tasks that are most important in your life? Are you investing enough time in your own personal well being? If the answer is “no” to any of these questions, then reevaluate your time management strategies and transition to ones that will work better for you. Successful time management leads to greater personal happiness, more accomplishments at home and at work, and a more satisfying future.

Previously updated by: Roxie Price, University of Georgia Extension Dana Carney, University of Georgia Extension Rachael Clews, K-State Research and Extension

Originally written by: Sue W. Chapman, retired, UGA Extension Michael Rupured, retired, UGA Extension

Covey, S. R., Merrill, A. R., & Merrill, R. R. (1994). First things first: To live, to love, to learn, to leave a legacy . Simon & Schuster.

Dodd, P., & Sundheim, D. (2005). The 25 best time management tools and techniques: How to get more done without driving yourself crazy . Peak Performance Press, Inc.

Google, Global (DE, ES, FR, IT, PL, U.K., U.S.). (2019). Digital wellbeing survey (General population, 18+ years, n=97).

MacKenzie, A. (1990). The time trap (3rd ed.). American Management Association.

Roster, C., Ferrari, J., & Jurkat, M. (2016, March 16). The dark side of home: Assessing possession ‘clutter’ on subjective well-being. Journal of Environmental Psychology , 46 , 32–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.03.003

Rubinsteim, J., Meyer, D., & Evans, J. (2001). Executive control of cognitive processes in task switching. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 27 (4), 763–797. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.27.4.763

Status and Revision History Published with Full Review on Apr 25, 2014 Published with Minor Revisions on Aug 26, 2020 Published with Full Review on Feb 19, 2024

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Does time management work? A meta-analysis

1 Concordia University, Sir George Williams Campus, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Aïda Faber

2 FSA Ulaval, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada

Alexandra Panaccio

Associated data.

All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Introduction

What does it mean to say that time management works?

Literature search and inclusion criteria

As shown in Fig 1 , the initial search yielded 10,933 hits, excluding duplicates.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is pone.0245066.g001.jpg

Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
Study must contain a quantitative measure of time management (e.g., scale, survey, questionnaire) and/or feature a time management experiment with at least one control group	Qualitative approaches (e.g., interviews, case studies)
Construct must be related to time management, such as time structure, time planning, scheduling, time management behaviors, time management practice, time management skills, and attitudes toward time management	Time-use studies (e.g., national time-use surveys, individual-level time-tracking studies), time perception studies, studies on non-personal time management (e.g., real-time management in supply chains), and time management studies focusing mainly on clinical samples (e.g., with chronic pain or ADHD)
Study must be about time management in relation to other variables (e.g., life satisfaction, stress, academic achievement)	Studies focusing exclusively on time management (e.g., factor analyses)

Data extraction and coding

Performance				Wellbeing		Individual Differences
Professional Setting		Academic Setting		Positive (wellbeing)	Negative (distress)	Demographics	Personality	Attributes and Attitudes	Contextual Factors
				Job Satisfaction	Emotional Exhaustion	Age	Agreeableness	Internal Locus of Control	Job Autonomy
Job performance	Creativity	GPA	Procrastination (reverse coded)	Life Satisfaction	Stress	Gender	Extraversion	Type A	Role Overload
	Helping Behavior	Standardized Tests	Motivation	Mental Health (positive)	Work-life Conflict	Education	Conscientiousness	Self-esteem	Time Management Training
	Job Involvement	Test Scores		Optimism	Anxiety	Number of Children	Neuroticism	Protestant Work Ethic
	Procrastination (reverse coded)			Physical health (positive)	Depression	Marital Status	Openness	Multitasking
	Motivation			Positive affect	Psychological Distress			Cognitive Ability
	Proactiveness			Self-actualization	Hopelessness			Hours Worked
				Sense of purpose	Boredom
				Wellbeing	Negative Affect
					Worry
					Physical Distress

Meta-analytic procedures

Meta-analyses do not typically perform calculations on correlations (e.g., Pearson’s r). Instead, we transformed correlations into Fisher’s z scales [ 83 ]. The transformation was done with z = 0.5 × ln ( 1 + r 1 − r ) , where r represents the correlation extracted from each individual study. The variance of Fisher’s Z was calculated as V z = 1 n − 3 where n corresponds to the study’s sample size; the standard error of Fisher’s Z was calculated as S E z = V z .

Overall description of the literature

Job performance	Academic achievement	Wellbeing	Distress
344	2,735	6,496	9,333
75	309	339	364
B(0) = 2.76	B(0) = 1.18	B(0) = 0.31	B(0) = -1.18
CI (95%) = (-.77; 6.28)	CI (95%) = (-.36; 2.72)	CI (95%) = (-.4.08; 4.69)	CI (95%) = (-.3.31; 0.94)
> .05	> .05	> .05	> .05
1 study missing	0 studies missing	0 studies missing	14 studies missing
New effect size = .188	0 studies missing	0 studies missing	New effect size = .283

Time management and performance in professional settings

Variable	k	N	r	95% CI	Q(df)		(SE)
	21	3,990	0.259	0.197–0.318	77.32 (20)	0.016	0.007	74.13
	13	2,532	0.221	0.144–0.295	44.19 (12)	0.015	0.009	72.84
	13	2,474	0.297	0.225–0.365	40.56 (12)	0.013	0.008	70.41
Creativity	1	213	0.460	0.347–0.560	-	-	-	-
Helping behavior	1	254	0.160	0.038–0.278	-	-	-	-
Job involvement	4	617	0.207	0.129–0.282	2.99 (3)	0	0.006	0
Procrastination (reverse coded)	2	198	0.374	0.166–0.550	1.61 (1)	0.012	0.046	37.92
Motivation	4	711	0.352	0.226–0.467	10.12 (3)	0.014	0.016	70.37
Proactiveness	3	813	0.267	0.121–0.401	8.81 (2)	0.014	0.018	77.30

* p < .05

** p < .01

*** p < .001.

k = number of studies related to the variable | N = total sample size related to the variable.

r = effect size of the correlation between time management and the variable | 95% CI = confidence interval of the effect size.

Q = Cochran’s Q, a measure of between-study heterogeneity | τ 2 = measure of between-study variance | I 2 = alternative measure of between-study heterogeneity.

Variable	k	N	r	95% CI	Q(df)		(SE)
	30	9,905	0.313	0.244–0.380	395.83 (29)	0.040	0.014	92.67
Job satisfaction	11	2,856	0.248	0.189–0.305	24.21 (10)	0.006	0.005	58.70
Life satisfaction	9	2,855	0.426	0.273–0.558	175.86 (8)	0.068	0.038	95.45
Mental health (positive)	2	473	0.556	0.349–0.711	7.56 (1)	0.031	0.051	86.77
Optimism	2	330	0.305	0.108–0.479	3.44 (1)	0.016	0.032	70.94
Physical health (positive)	2	567	0.293	-0.002–0.542	13.07 (1)	0.045	0.068	92.35
Positive affect	5	2,725	0.280	0.186–0.368	18.73 (4)	0.010	0.010	78.65
Self-actualization	1	336	0.280	0.178–0.376	-	-	-	-
Sense of purpose	1	529	0.351	0.274–0.424	-	-	-	-
Wellbeing	5	1,447	0.219	0.092–0.338	22.86 (4)	0.018	0.016	82.50

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Object name is pone.0245066.g002.jpg

Time management and performance in academic settings

Variable	k	N	R	95% CI	Q(df)		(SE)
	76	30,605	0.262	0.223–0.300	916.31 (75)	0.029	0.007	91.81
	63	27,225	0.196	0.160–0.232	535.28 (62)	0.018	0.005	88.41
GPA	57	24,270	0.213	0.178–0.247	384.48 (56)	0.014	0.004	85.43
Standardized Tests	7	6,270	0.011	-0.053–0.094	33.35 (6)	0.007	0.006	82.01
Test Scores	3	603	0.228	0.151–0.303	1.21 (2)	0	0.005	0
	28	8,186	0.430	0.365–0.490	310.83 (27)	0.037	0.013	91.31
Procrastination (reverse coded)	14	3,558	0.490	0.399–0.572	136.62 (13)	0.040	0.020	90.48
Motivation	17	5,805	0.381	0.302–0.454	178.85 (16)	0.031	0.013	91.05

Variable	k	N	r	95% CI	Q(df)		(SE)

Age	21	7,579	0.032	-0.013–0.076	70.42 (20)	0.007	0.004	71.60
Age (excluding children)	19	6,811	0.048	0.010–0.086	40.71 (18)	0.004	0.002	55.79
Gender	37	16,044	-0.087	-0.129 \| -0.045	232.40 (36)	0.013	0.005	84.51
Education	3	808	0.019	-0.050–0.088	0.304 (2)	0	0.005	0
Number of children	3	961	0.027	-0.037–0.090	0.247 (2)	0	0.004	0
Marital status	3	980	0.015	-0.048–0.078	0.548 (2)	0	0.003	0

Agreeableness	10	4,562	0.169	0.091–0.244	57.85 (9)	0.013	0.008	84.43
Extraversion	13	5,345	0.102	0.039–0.164	59.05 (12)	0.010	0.006	79.67
Conscientiousness	15	5,159	0.451	0.326–0.561	367.16 (14)	0.079	0.041	96.18
Neuroticism	14	5,222	-0.151	-0.229 \| -0.072	94.61 (13)	0.018	0.010	86.26
Openness	11	4,793	0.141	0.037–0.243	124.17 (10)	0.028	0.016	91.94

Internal locus of control	3	579	0.346	0.269–0.419	2.16 (2)	0	0.006	7.39
Type A	7	2,388	0.110	0.017–0.202	31.05 (6)	0.013	0.09	80.67
Self-esteem	3	947	0.346	0.225–0.456	8.19 (2)	0.010	0.014	75.58
Protestant Work Ethic	3	998	0.026	-0.036–0.088	0.240 (2)	0	0.003	0
Multitasking	5	932	-0.088	-0.164 \| -0.010	5.53 (4)	0.002	0.006	27.66
Cognitive ability	3	1,484	0.015	-0.064–0.094	4.36 (2)	0.003	0.005	54.11
Hours spent studying	6	3,184	0.137	0.036–0.235	30.08 (5)	0.012	0.011	83.37
Hours spent working	8	3,682	-0.042	-0.159–0.076	64.87 (7)	0.023	0.019	89.21

Job autonomy	4	751	0.101	-0.060–0.256	8.38 (3)	0.016	0.022	64.23
Role overload	7	1,187	-0.146	-0.284 \| - 0.003	26.59 (6)	0.025	0.023	77.43
Time management training	3	846	0.173	0.031–0.309	5.92 (2)	0.010	0.016	66.62

a Female = 1; Male = 2.

b Single = 1; Married = 2.

Time management and wellbeing

Time management and distress

Variable	k	N	r	95% CI	Q(df)		(SE)
	58	15,387	-0.222	-0.273 \| -0.170	611.57 (57)	0.038	0.010	90.68
	26	5,621	-0.225	-0.295 \| -0.153	184.49 (25)	0.031	0.012	86.44
Emotional exhaustion	3	213	-0.260	-0.338 \| -0.179	1.86 (2)	0	0.006	0
Stress	17	3,367	-0.286	-0.390 \| -0.176	163.84 (16)	0.05	0.024	90.23
Work-life conflict	9	2,812	-0.163	-0.277 \| -0.043	82.11 (8)	0.031	0.018	90.25
	34	10,100	-0.254	-0.315 \| -0.190	350.58 (33)	0.034	0.012	90.85
Anxiety	16	6,648	-0.181	-0.255 \| -0.105	140.28 (15)	0.021	0.011	89.30
Depression	2	625	-0.226	-0.375 \| -0.065	-	-	-	-
Psychological distress	10	2,196	-0.358	-0.447 \| -0.263	52.98 (9)	0.023	0.014	83.01
Hopelessness	2	565	-0.218	-0.296 \| -0.138	-	-	-	-
Boredom	5	1,248	-0.310	-0.507 \| -0.081	69.68 (4)	0.070	0.055	94.26
Negative affect	4	2,393	-0.232	-0.451 \| 0.014	70.74 (3)	0.061	0.061	95.75
Worry	3	291	-0.191	-0.355 \| -0.016	3.98 (2)	0.012	0.025	49.77
	7	2,067	-0.204	-0.264 \| -0.142	11.52 (6)	0.003	0.004	47.93

Time management and individual differences

Time management is, overall, less related to individual differences than to other variables.

Age, for instance, hardly correlates with time management (with a relatively high consistency between studies, I 2 = 55.79, see Table 8 above).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is pone.0245066.g003.jpg

Contributions

Future research and limitations

Supporting information

S1 checklist, acknowledgments.

We would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge our colleagues for their invaluable help: Mengchan Gao, Talha Aziz, Elizabeth Eley, Robert Nason, Andrew Ryder, Tracy Hecht, and Caroline Aubé.

Funding Statement

The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Data Availability

No category

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Time Management

Colleen Kaesehagen

Introduction

Poor time management is a common challenge facing students in higher education. Avoiding this challenge can be accomplished through prioritisation and time management efforts. This chapter provides looks at time management and how to identify your time management style. You will learn how to conduct a time audit of your life and create a semester, weekly and daily plan. Following this, an examination of how to break up tasks into manageable time frames and tips from three proven time management strategies will help keep you on track to graduate from university on time.

Time Management at University

Time management at university can be very different from anything you have experienced previously. At university, time management is left up to you. While it is true that there are assignment due dates and organised classroom activities, learning at the university level requires more than just the simple completion of work. It involves decision-making and the ability to evaluate information. This is best accomplished when you are an active partner in your own learning activities.

You can expect to spend much more time on learning activities outside the classroom than you will in the classroom. Most courses have a workload of 120 hours each semester. This is a workload of 10-12 hours each week to attend or listen to lectures and tutorials, prepare for assessments, and to read study material. Some weeks may be more intense, depending on the time of the semester and the courses you are taking. Not only will you be learning on a larger scale, but the depth of understanding and knowledge you will put into it will be significantly more than you may have encountered previously. This is because there are greater expectations required of university graduates in the workplace. Nearly any profession that requires a university degree has with it a level of responsibility that demands higher-level thinking and therefore higher learning.

Identifying your Time Management Style

Managing time and prioritising tasks are not only valuable skills for pursuing an education, but they can become abilities that follow you through the rest of your life, especially if your career takes you into a leadership role.

Table 5 is an exercise that is intended to help you recognise some things about your own time management style, and identify any areas where you might be able to improve. Think about the answer that best represents your position on each statement.


Statement	Always	Usually	Sometimes	Rarely	Never
I like to be given strict deadlines for each task. It helps me stay organised and on track.
I would rather be 15 minutes early than one minute late.
I like to improvise instead of planning everything out ahead of time.
I prefer to be able to manage when and how I do each task.
I have a difficult time estimating how long a task will take.
I have more motivation when there is an upcoming deadline. It helps me focus.
I have difficulty keeping priorities in the most beneficial order.

When you have finished, consider what your answers mean in regard to potential strengths and/or challenges for you when it comes to time management in university. If you are a person who likes strict deadlines, what would you do if you took a course that only had one large paper due at the end? Would you set yourself a series of mini deadlines that made you more comfortable and that kept things moving along for you? Or, if you have difficulty prioritising tasks, would it help you to make a list of the tasks to do and order them, so you know which ones must be finished first?

The simplest way to manage your time is to plan accurately for how much time it will take to do each task, and then set aside that amount of time. How you divide the time is up to you. If it is going to take you five hours to study for a final exam, you can plan to spread it over five days, with an hour each night, or you can plan on two hours one night and three hours the next.

This approach however relies on being able to estimate time accurately. To get organised and plan for the semester ahead, you will need to consider study and non-study commitments. Conduct an audit on how much time you spend on aspects of your daily life, include studying, working, sleeping, eating, caring for others, socialising, household chores and exercising. This will allow you to see where your time is going and where you could achieve some better balance for your life, work and study.

In this activity, write down all the things you think you will do tomorrow, and estimate the time you will spend doing each (see Table 6). Then track each thing you have written down to see how accurate your estimates were. After you have completed this activity for a single day, you may consider completing another time audit for an entire week so that you are certain to include all of your activities.


Daily activity	Estimate time	Actual time
Practice quiz	5 minutes	15 minutes
Lab conclusions	20 minutes	35 minutes
Food shopping	45 minutes	30 minutes
Drive to work	20 minutes	20 minutes
Work	4 hours	4 hours
Physical therapy	1 hour	50 minutes

Plan your Semester

Now that you have audited your time and you know how much time is required in all areas of your life you can now make a plan. It is important to view your time in three different ways

semester plan
weekly plan

Semester Plan

Make a plan of the whole semester.
Write in assignment due dates and exam blocks
Write in class or lab attendance requirements
Include other significant commitments, for example, work or family commitments

Weekly Plan

Consider the tasks you need to complete each week
Include all the expectations of your course such as weekly readings or tutorial preparation.
Allocate time for exam preparation, tutorial preparation and time to work on upcoming assignments.
Write daily ‘to do’ lists
Use time management apps on your phone to set reminders
Allow for some flexibility

Breaking Tasks Down

Predicting how long a task will take is usually the most difficult part of time management. It is challenging to estimate accurately time spent on-task and to also account for interruptions or unforeseen problems that cause delays. When it comes to academic activities, many tasks can be dependent upon the completion of other things first, or the time a task takes can vary from one instance to another. For example, if a lecturer assigned you three chapters of reading, you would not know how long each chapter might take to read until you looked at them. The first chapter might be 30 pages long while the second is 45. The third chapter could be only 20 pages but made up mostly of charts and graphs for you to compare. By page count, it might seem that the third chapter would take the least amount of time, but actually studying charts and graphs to gather information can take longer than regular reading.

The next strategy discussed, is to break tasks into smaller, more manageable units that do not require as much time to complete. As an example, imagine you are assigned a two-page essay that is to include references. You estimate that to complete the essay would take you between four and five hours. You look at your calendar over the next week and see that there are no open five-hour blocks. While looking at your calendar, you do see that you can squeeze in an hour every night. Instead of trying to write the entire paper in one sitting, you break it up into much smaller components as shown in the table below (see Table 7).


	Monday	Tuesday	Wednesday	Thursday	Friday	Saturday	Sunday
8:00 a.m. –10:00 a.m.		Work		Work			Work
10:00 a.m – 12:00 p.m	Algebra	Work	Algebra	Work	Algebra	10 a.m. – 11 a.m. only if needed	Work
12:00 p.m. – 2:00 p.m.	Lunch/study	1pm English comp	Lunch/study	1pm English comp	Lunch/study	Family picnic
2:00 p.m. – 4:00 p.m	History	English comp	History	English comp	History	Family picnic
4:00 p.m. – 6:00 p.m.	Study for algebra quiz	Grocery	Study for history exam	Study for history exam	Research 5 p.m. -6 p.m. Rewrite and polish final draft	Family picnic	Laundry
6:00 p.m – 7:00 p.m	Write outline: look for references	Research references to support outline; look for good quotes	Research presentation project	Write second page and closing draft	Create presentation	Meet with Darcy	Prepare university stuff for next week
7:00 p.m. – 8:00 p.m.	Free time	Free time	Write paper introduction and first page draft	Research presentation project	Create presentation		Free time

Or you could use a variation of the Pomodoro Technique discussed in the next section and write for three 20-minute segments each day at different times. The key is to look for ways to break down the entire task into smaller steps and spread them out to fit your schedule.

Three Strategies for Time Management

Here are three time management strategies that you can try:

Daily Top Three,
Pomodoro Technique, and
Eat the Frog.

Daily Top Three

For the daily top three strategy, decide which three things are the most important to finish that day, and these become the tasks that you complete. It is a very simple technique that is effective because each day you are finishing tasks and removing them from your list. Even if you took one day off a week and completed no tasks on that particular day, a daily top three strategy would have you finishing 18 tasks in the course of a single week. That is a good number of things crossed off your list.

Pomodoro Technique

The Pomodoro Technique allows you to tackle one task at a time with high intensity before taking a short-timed break, and then repeating this process. The Pomodoro Technique recommends 25 minutes of work and then a five-minute break, and after two hours of this, a longer break of 15-30 minutes (Cirillo, n.d). Be flexible in your approach, for example you don’t have to stop after 25 minutes if you are working well, or you may restart your 25 minutes if you get distracted. To make the most of this technique, plan your tasks ahead of time and be specific about what you want to achieve during each time block.

Eat the Frog

The Eat the Frog strategy comes from a quote attributed to Mark Twain: “Eat a live frog first thing in the morning and nothing worse will happen to you the rest of the day.” In time management this is based on the concept that if a person takes care of the biggest or most unpleasant task first, everything else will be easier after that.

We underestimate how much worry can impact our performance. If you are continually distracted by anxiety over a task you are dreading, it can affect the task you are working on at the time. When the task you are concerned with is finished, you will you have a sense of accomplishment and relief, and other tasks will seem lighter and not as difficult.

Managing your time effectively while you are studying at university can mean the difference between success and failure. By managing your time and using some positive strategies, you can give yourself the best possible chance of successful study outcomes.

Time management at university level is up to you.
Expect to spend more time on learning outside of the classroom than you will inside the classroom.
Identify your time management style to help you create deadlines.
Consider study and non-study commitments when auditing your time to help you to see where your time goes.
Plan your semester first, add weekly tasks, and then make a ‘to do’ list for daily tasks.
Break large tasks into small blocks of time which will fit into your schedule.
Use the Daily Top Three to write down three tasks that are important to finish that day.
Use the Pomodoro Technique to work on one task for a 25-minute period. then take a five-minute break then repeat until you have been working for two hours.
Use Eat the Frog to take care of the biggest task first so that everything else seems easier after that.

Cirillo, F. (n.d). The Pomodoro Technique . Cirillo Consulting. https://francescocirillo.com/pages/pomodoro-technique

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Time Management Is About More Than Life Hacks

Erich C. Dierdorff

Your productivity hinges on these three skills.

There is certainly no shortage of advice — books and blogs, hacks and apps — all created to boost time management with a bevy of ready-to-apply tools. Yet, the frustrating reality for individuals trying to improve their time management is that tools alone won’t work. You have to develop your time management skills in three key areas: awareness, arrangement, and adaptation. The author offers evidence-based tactics to improve in all three areas.

Project creep, slipping deadlines, and a to-do list that seems to get longer each day — these experiences are all too common in both life and work. With the New Year’s resolution season upon us, many people are boldly trying to fulfill goals to “manage time better,” “be more productive,” and “focus on what matters.” Development goals like these are indeed important to career success. Look no further than large-scale surveys that routinely find time management skills among the most desired workforce skills, but at the same time among the rarest skills to find.

Erich C. Dierdorff is a professor of management and entrepreneurship at the Richard H. Driehaus College of Business at DePaul University and is currently an associate editor at Personnel Psychology.

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The Impact of Time Management on the Students' Academic Achievements

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Republic of the Philippines Department of the Education Region VI- Western Visayas Schools Division of Iloilo LAMBUNAO NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL Senior High School Lambunao, Iloilo 1 Chapter I Introduction to the Study Chapter I cover seven parts: (1) Background of the Study, (2) Theoretical Framework, (3) Statement of the Problem, (4) Research Hypothesis, (5) Significance of the Study, (6 ...
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individual characteristics and others influence in time management research (Claessens et al, 2007). This is also in line with related empirical findings. For example, high achieving students were found to exhibit more self-regulated learning skills (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990), and with time management in particular
Does time management work? A meta-analysis
Does time management work? We conducted a meta-analysis to assess the impact of time management on performance and well-being. Results show that time management is moderately related to job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. Time management also shows a moderate, negative relationship with distress. Interestingly, individual differences and contextual factors have a much weaker ...
Time Management: 10 Strategies for Better Time Management
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5 Time management and ... ISBN 978-1-4390-8446-5, Chapter ... implications for classroom instruction and suggest that review units should be planned carefully by taking the time of the final test ...
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A critical gap in time management research is the question of whether time management works [28, 29]. ... We extracted eligible effect sizes from the final pool of studies; effect sizes were mostly based on means and correlations. In our initial data extraction, we coded time management correlates using the exact variable names found in each ...
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RESEARCH-PAPER-CHAPTER-1-5 (1)
The overall mean equal to 3. 68 with standard deviation equal to 1.18 implies that the sampled students generally "Agree" to the implemented learning modalities in terms of cost effective under the blended learning. 27 Table 8: Assessment on the Implemented Learning Modalities in terms of Time Management Time Management AWM SD Descriptive ...
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(DOC) Chapter 1-5 final research paper
Chapter 1-5 final research paper ... rents, and other forms of earnings received... in a given period of time (Wikipedia, 2017). Management. The organization and coordination of the activities of a business in order to achieve defined objectives (BusinessDictionary.com, 2014). Public Market.

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Does time management work? A meta-analysis

Introduction

What does it mean to say that time management works?

Literature search and inclusion criteria

Data extraction and coding

Meta-analytic procedures

Overall description of the literature

Time management and performance in professional settings

Time management and performance in academic settings

Time management and wellbeing

Time management and distress

Time management and individual differences

Contributions

Future research and limitations

Supporting information

S1 File. Funnel plots.

S2 File. Dataset.

Acknowledgments

Time Management: 10 Strategies for Better Time Management

1. Know How You Spend Your Time

2. Set Priorities

3. Use a Planning Tool

4. Get Organized

5. Schedule Appropriately

6. Delegate: Get Help from Others

7. Stop Procrastinating

8. Manage Time-Wasters

Handheld Devices

Unexpected Visitors

In-Person and Virtual Meetings

Family Obligations

9. Avoid Multi-tasking

10. Stay Healthy

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Does time management work? A meta-analysis

Aïda Faber

Alexandra Panaccio

Introduction

What does it mean to say that time management works?

Literature search and inclusion criteria

Data extraction and coding

Meta-analytic procedures

Overall description of the literature

Time management and performance in professional settings

Time management and performance in academic settings

Time management and wellbeing

Time management and distress

Time management and individual differences

Contributions

Future research and limitations

Supporting information

Funding Statement

Data Availability

RESEARCH-PAPER-CHAPTER-1-5 (1)

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