green nanotechnology research paper

• Open access
• Published: 27 May 2024

Green nanotechnology: illuminating the effects of bio-based nanoparticles on plant physiology

• Sunil Kumar Verma 1   na1 ,
• Prashant Kumar 2   na1 ,
• Anshu Mishra 3 ,
• Renu Khare 4   na1 &
• Devendra Singh 1   na1  

Biotechnology for Sustainable Materials volume  1 , Article number:  1 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The use of bio-based nanoparticles in agriculture has gained significant attention due to their potential to enhance plant development, growth, and differentiation. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the impact of bio-based nanoparticles on plant physiology. In this review paper, the various types of bio-based nanoparticles, including cellulose, chitosan, and lignin nanoparticles, and their effects on plant growth and development were discussed. The mechanisms by which these nanoparticles interact with plants at the cellular and molecular levels were also examined. Furthermore, the potential applications of bio-based nanoparticles in agriculture, such as improving nutrient uptake, enhancing stress tolerance, and promoting sustainable crop production, are also highlighted. Overall, this review provides valuable insights into the potential benefits of utilizing bio-based nanoparticles for enhancing plant growth and development while also considering their potential environmental impacts.

Graphical Abstract

Introduction

Bio-based nanoparticles have emerged as a promising tool in the field of plant science due to their unique properties and potential applications. These nanoparticles, derived from natural sources such as plants, bacteria, or fungi, offer several advantages over conventional materials. They possess a high surface area-to-volume ratio, excellent stability, and biocompatibility, rendering them appropriate for various plant-related applications [ 1 ].

Bio-based nanoparticles (i.e., cellulose, chitosan, and lignin nanoparticles), derived from renewable and biodegradable sources, have gained significant attention in agriculture due to their potential to enhance plant growth and development while minimizing environmental impacts. These nanoparticles possess unique properties that enable them to interact with plants at the cellular and molecular levels, influencing various physiological processes and improving overall plant performance. This article provides an overview of recent literature, highlighting examples of various bio-based nanoparticles and their multifaceted roles in plant growth and development. Cellulose nanoparticles, extracted from plant cell walls, have emerged as promising bio-based nanoparticles for agricultural applications. Their unique properties, i.e., high surface area, crystallinity, and biodegradability, make them suitable for various applications [ 2 ]. Cellulose nanoparticles have been shown to enhance nutrient uptake by increasing root surface area and facilitating the transport of nutrients into plant cells. Improve stress tolerance by activating defense mechanisms and regulating gene expression, enabling plants to better withstand environmental stresses like salinity, drought, as well as extreme temperatures. Promote plant growth and development by stimulating cell division, hormone production, and photosynthesis, resulting in increased biomass and yield [ 2 ].

Chitosan nanoparticles, derived from chitin, a natural polymer found in crustacean shells and fungal cell walls, have demonstrated promising effects on plant growth and development. Their inherent antimicrobial and antioxidant properties contribute to their beneficial roles in agriculture; Chitosan nanoparticles exhibit antifungal and antibacterial activity, protecting plants from various pathogens. They enhance nutrient uptake by chelating metal ions and facilitating their absorption by plant roots. Chitosan nanoparticles promote root development and improve seed germination by stimulating cell division and enhancing water retention [ 3 ].

Lignin nanoparticles, obtained from plant biomass, have garnered interest for their potential in sustainable agriculture. Their unique structure and properties contribute to their beneficial effects on plant growth and development. Lignin nanoparticles improve soil quality by enhancing soil structure, increasing water retention capacity, and promoting microbial activity. They facilitate nutrient uptake by increasing the surface area for nutrient adsorption and enhancing nutrient availability to plants. Lignin nanoparticles stimulate root development and promote plant growth by influencing hormone production and regulating gene expression [ 1 ].

In addition to cellulose, chitosan, and lignin nanoparticles, various other bio-based nanoparticles have shown promise in agriculture. These include Starch nanoparticles, which enhance seed germination, promote root development, and improve nutrient uptake. Protein nanoparticles which facilitate nutrient delivery, improve stress tolerance, and enhance plant growth. Lipid nanoparticles that enhance nutrient encapsulation and delivery, improve stress tolerance, and promote plant growth [ 2 ].

Biobased nanoparticles, derived from natural sources i.e., animals, plants, and microorganisms, have gained significant attention in various fields due to their unique properties and advantages over chemical-based nanoparticles. Biobased nanoparticles offer a sustainable alternative to chemical-based nanoparticles as they are derived from renewable resources. This reduces the dependence on fossil fuels and minimizes the environmental impact associated with the production and disposal of chemical-based nanoparticles. Biobased nanoparticles are often biocompatible, meaning they are less likely to cause adverse effects when used in biological systems. This makes them suitable for applications in medicine, such as drug delivery systems or imaging agents, where compatibility with living organisms is crucial. Chemical-based nanoparticles may pose health risks due to their potential toxicity [ 3 ]. In contrast, biobased nanoparticles are generally considered safer because they are derived from natural sources and can be metabolized by living organisms more easily.

Biobased nanoparticles exhibit a wide range of properties that can be tailored for specific applications. They can be modified through surface functionalization or encapsulation techniques to enhance their stability, solubility, or targeting capabilities. The production of biobased nanoparticles can be cost-effective compared to chemical-based counterparts since the raw materials used are often readily available and relatively inexpensive. Biobased nanoparticles possess inherent functionalities that can be harnessed for various applications. For example, chitosan nanoparticles derived from crustacean shells have antimicrobial properties, making them suitable for use in food packaging or wound healing [ 3 ].

Chemical-based nanoparticle synthesis often involves hazardous chemicals as well as energy-intensive processes that contribute to pollution and carbon emissions. In contrast, biobased nanoparticle production methods typically have lower environmental footprints due to the use of natural resources and less energy-intensive processes. Biobased nanoparticles can be integrated into existing manufacturing processes without significant modifications or disruptions since they share similarities with conventional materials used in industries like cosmetics, textiles, and electronics [ 4 ].

Overall, the importance of biobased nanoparticles lies in their sustainable nature, biocompatibility, low toxicity profile, versatility, cost-effectiveness, enhanced functionality, reduced environmental impact, and compatibility with existing technologies. These advantages make them promising candidates for a wide range of applications across various industries while addressing concerns related to health risks and environmental sustainability associated with chemical-based alternatives [ 4 , 5 , 6 ].

This paper aims to explore the impact of bio-based nanoparticles on plant development, growth, and differentiation. It contributes to our understanding of how these nanoparticles can influence plant development, growth, and differentiation can be seen in Table  1 .

This article differs from previously published articles by focusing specifically on bio-based nanoparticles. While previous studies may have examined the impact of different types of nanoparticles on plants, this article narrows its scope to those derived from biological sources. This distinction is crucial as bio-based nanoparticles are considered more environmentally friendly as well as sustainable compared to their synthetic counterparts. By delving into the effects of bio-based nanoparticles on plant biology, this article provides new information to readers. It may uncover novel mechanisms through which these particles interact with plants and shed light on their potential applications in agriculture, horticulture, or environmental remediation. Additionally, it may identify any potential risks or adverse effects associated with the use of bio-based nanoparticles in plant systems. [ 5 , 6 ]

Bio-based nanoparticles: types and synthesis

Bio-based nanoparticles can be classified into various types based on their origin and composition. Some common types include cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs), silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), and magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) Table  2 [ 57 , 58 ].

These nanoparticles could be synthesized with the help of different methods i.e., chemical reduction, green synthesis using plant extracts or microorganisms, or physical methods like sonication or ball milling [ 61 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles, also known as green nanoparticles, are a class of nanoparticles that are derived from natural sources such as plants, animals, and microorganisms [ 6 ]. These nanoparticles have gained significant attention as a result of being environmentally friendly in nature and potential applications in various fields, including medicine, agriculture, and environmental remediation [ 5 , 62 ].

There are several types of bio-based nanoparticles that can be synthesized from different natural sources. Some of the commonly studied types include cellulose nanoparticles, chitosan nanoparticles, protein-based nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles, and nanocrystals derived from minerals [ 58 , 63 ]. Cellulose nanoparticles are among one of the utmost extensively studied bio-based nanoparticles. It could be extracted from various plant sources, i.e., wood pulp, cotton fibers, and agricultural waste [ 64 ]. The synthesis of cellulose nanoparticles involves the breakdown of cellulose fibers into smaller particles using mechanical or chemical methods [ 65 ]. These particles possess distinctive characteristics such as high aspect ratio, excellent mechanical strength, and biodegradability, which make them suitable for applications in packaging materials, reinforcement agents in composites, and drug delivery systems [ 66 , 67 ].

Chitosan nanoparticles are another type of bio-based nanoparticle that is a derivative of chitin, a natural polymer found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans such as shrimp and crabs. Chitosan has excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability properties, which make it appropriate for bio-medical applications, for instance, drug delivery systems and tissue engineering scaffolds [ 68 ]. The chitosan nanoparticle synthesis involves the conversion of chitosan into smaller particles using techniques like ionic gelation or emulsion cross-linking. Protein-based nanoparticles are synthesized from proteins obtained from various sources such as soybeans, milk proteins (casein), or silk fibers. These proteins can be modified to form stable nanoparticle structures through techniques like self-assembly or coacervation [ 69 ]. Protein-based nanoparticles have shown promising applications for drug delivery systems because of their capability to encapsulate drugs efficiently and protect them from degradation [ 12 ].

Lipid-based nanoparticles are synthesized using lipids extracted from natural sources such as vegetable oils or animal fats. These lipids can form various structures, including liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), or nano-emulsions, depending on the synthesis method employed [ 70 ]. Lipid-based nanoparticles have been widely investigated for drug delivery applications due to their ability to encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs effectively. Nanocrystals derived from minerals are another type of bio-based nanoparticle that can be synthesized by extracting minerals from natural sources like clay or calcium carbonate. These nanocrystals possess distinctive physico-chemical characteristics which bring out them as a suitable for applications in catalysis, sensing devices, and environmental remediation. The synthesis methods for bio-based nanoparticles vary depending on the type of nanoparticle being produced. Common techniques include solvent evaporation/precipitation methods, emulsion/solvent diffusion methods, coacervation methods, and self-assembly techniques like electrostatic assembly or layer-by-layer deposition [ 71 ]. Figure  1 depicts the steps involved in the synthesis of NPs from biobased material.

Pictorial representation for green synthesis of nanoparticles using plant-biobased material

In conclusion, bio-based nanoparticles offer a sustainable alternative to conventional synthetic NPs due to their eco-friendly nature and potential applications in various fields. The synthesis methods for these particles depend on the nanoparticle type being produced but generally involve extraction or modification processes using natural sources, for instance, animals, plants, or microorganisms [ 5 , 6 , 72 ]. Continued research in this field holds great promise for developing novel nanomaterials with enhanced properties for an extensive range of applications (Fig.  2 )

A diagrammatic representation of how nanoparticles function physiologically in plants

Uptake and translocation of bio-based nanoparticles in plants

Understanding the uptake and translocation mechanisms of bio-based nanoparticles is crucial to assess their impact on plant development. Several studies concluded that these nanoparticles can enter plants through various routes, such as root uptake, foliar application, or seed treatment. As soon as they are within the plant system, they can translocate to different organs via vascular tissues or intercellular spaces [ 18 , 19 ]. The uptake coupled with translocation mechanisms of bio-based nanoparticles can vary depending on the specific type of nanoparticle and the target organism [ 73 ]. However, there are some general mechanisms that can be observed.

Uptake and translocation mechanisms of bio-based nanoparticles

Bio-based nanoparticles can be taken up passively by cells through processes such as diffusion or osmosis. This mechanism is primarily driven by concentration gradients and does not require energy expenditure by the cell. Meanwhile, in active uptake, bio-based nanoparticles can be taken up by cells through specific transporters or receptors on the cell membrane. This mechanism requires poor in the form of adenosine triphosphate and is often selective for certain types of nanoparticles [ 18 ]. Once inside the cell, bio-based nanoparticles may undergo intracellular transport to reach their target destination. This can involve movement along cytoskeletal elements such as microtubules or actin filaments [ 73 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles could be internalized into cells through endocytosis, which involves the formation of vesicles around the particles within the cell membrane. These vesicles then fuse with intracellular compartments such as endosomes or lysosomes. Similarly, exocytosis allows for the release of bio-based nanoparticles from cells [ 74 ]. In multicellular organisms, bio-based nanoparticles may be transported through vascular systems such as xylem in plants or blood vessels in animals. This allows for long-distance translocation to several parts of the organism [ 75 ].

It’s imperative to take note that uptake and translocation mechanisms of bio-based nanoparticles can be influenced by various factors, including nanoparticle size, surface charge, surface functionalization, and interactions with biomolecules present in the surrounding environment [ 56 ]. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for optimizing nanoparticle delivery systems in applications such as drug delivery or plant nutrient uptake enhancement. The bio/geotransformations that take place in the soil influence the toxicity and bioavailability of nanoparticles. When NPs interact with plant roots, they can go to aerial portions and collect in organelles at the subcellular or cellular levels. Plant roots have an important role in the NPs adsorption from the soil, which is regarded as the first step in bioaccumulation. Researchers discovered that root adsorption, as well as changes i.e., crystal phase dissolution, biological transformation, or bioaccumulation, all contributed to the accumulation of NPs in plant tissues. The size of the NPs is important in their absorption since it influences whether they can pass through cell wall pores or plant stomata [ 76 ].

Small NPs (3–5 nm) can enter plant roots through different routes, including osmotic pressure, capillary pressures, and direct transit through root epidermal cells. The root epidermal cells contain semipermeable cell membranes with tiny holes, limiting the passage of big NPs. However, some NPs can cause new pores to develop in the epidermal cell wall, making it easier for them to enter. Once inside the root, NPs travel through extracellular gaps until they reach the central vascular cylinder, from which they can ascend through the xylem in a unidirectional fashion. To enter the central vascular cylinder, NPs must penetrate the Casparian strip barrier via symplastic transport [ 76 ]. The process begins with binding to a protein carrier on the endodermal membrane of the cell, followed by endocytosis, pore creation, and transport. NPs can travel across cells via plasmodesmata before becoming internalized in the cytoplasm. If NPs cannot be internalized, they accumulate on the Casparian strip. Once in the xylem, NPs are delivered to the shoots before returning to the roots via the phloem [ 76 ]. Plants have nanoparticles in their epidermal cell walls, cortical cell cytoplasm, as well as nuclei. NPs that do not penetrate the root surface of soil aggregates can impair nutrient uptake. NPs can also be effectively absorbed in seeds by penetrating the coat via parenchymatic intercellular gaps and diffusing into the cotyledon. Additionally, studying these processes helps ensure safe use and minimize potential adverse effects associated with bio-based nanoparticle exposure (Fig.  3 ) [ 75 , 77 ].

An organized representation illustrates the mechanisms used by plant species to absorb and transport nanoparticles

Effects of bio-based NPs on plant growth

Bio-based nanoparticles have been reported to influence various aspects of plant growth, including seed germination, root development, shoot growth, leaf morphology, and biomass accumulation [ 78 ]. For instance, CNCs have been presented to enhance seed germination rates and promote root elongation in different plant species. Similarly, CSNPs have demonstrated positive effects on shoot growth by enhancing photosynthetic efficiency and nutrient uptake [ 79 , 80 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles, also known as nano biopesticides or nano fertilizers, have gained significant attention in recent years due to their potential to enhance plant growth and productivity [ 4 ]. These nanoparticles are derived from natural sources i.e., plants, fungi, bacteria, and other biological materials. The effects of bio-based nanoparticles on plant growth can be summarized as follows:

Increased nutrient uptake

Bio-based nanoparticles can improve the efficiency of nutrient absorption by plants. Bio-based nanoparticles can play a significant role in increasing nutrient uptake by plants through various mechanisms. Bio-based nanoparticles have a high surface area and can interact with a large number of nutrient molecules, forming strong bonds. This increased adsorption capacity allows the nanoparticles to capture and retain nutrients from the surrounding environment, preventing their loss through leaching or volatilization [ 81 ]. Some nutrients, such as phosphorus, are often present in the soil in forms that are not easily soluble and, therefore, not readily available for plant uptake. Bio-based nanoparticles can enhance nutrient solubility by forming complexes with them, increasing their dispersion in the soil solution and making them more accessible to plant roots [ 82 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can promote the growth and development of new roots, increasing the root surface area and enhancing the plant's ability to absorb nutrients from the soil. The nanoparticles can stimulate root elongation and branching, along with root hair formation, which are specialized structures that increase the nutrient absorption capacity of the roots [ 77 ].

Bio-based nanoparticles can facilitate the transport of nutrients within the plant, ensuring that they reach the tissues where they are needed most. The nanoparticles can bind to nutrients and transport them, and the plant's vascular tissues are responsible for nutrient transport. This efficient transport system ensures that nutrients are delivered to the actively growing parts of the plant, supporting optimal growth and development [ 74 , 77 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can improve the plant's ability to utilize nutrients more efficiently. The nanoparticles can help to stabilize nutrients in the soil, preventing their loss through leaching or volatilization. They can also slow the release of nutrients, ensuring a more sustained supply for the plant over time. This increased nutrient use efficiency reduces the need for excessive fertilizer applications, minimizing environmental pollution and promoting sustainable agriculture practices [ 83 ]. Under stress conditions, for instance, drought, salinity, or nutrient deficiency, plants often experience reduced nutrient uptake and utilization [ 31 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can alleviate these effects by improving nutrient absorption and transport, helping plants maintain their growth and productivity even under adverse conditions. By enhancing nutrient adsorption, solubility, root development, nutrient transport, and nutrient use efficiency, bio-based nanoparticles can significantly increase nutrient uptake by plants, leading to improved growth, productivity, and overall plant health [ 77 , 84 ].

Enhanced water retention

Bio-based nanoparticles have water retention ability and prevent its evaporation from the soil. This property helps in maintaining optimal soil moisture levels for plant growth, especially in arid or drought-prone regions. Improved water retention also reduces the frequency of irrigation required for crop cultivation [ 85 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can play a significant role in enhancing water retention in various ways. Bio-based nanoparticles have a high surface area and can also absorb and retain a large amount of water. When incorporated into the soil, these nanoparticles can increase the soil's water-holding capacity, allowing it to store more water for plant use [ 86 ]. In case of reduced water evaporation, bio-based nanoparticles can form a protective layer on the soil surface, reducing water evaporation from the soil. This layer acts as a physical barrier, preventing water molecules from escaping into the atmosphere [ 4 ]. While improving soil structure bio-based nanoparticles can help to improve soil structure by promoting aggregation and reducing compaction. An ill-structured soil with a high porosity allows for better water infiltration and retention. The nanoparticles could fasten soil particles together, creating a more stable structure that resists erosion and maintains soil moisture [ 87 ]. In the case of enhanced water uptake by plants, bio-based nanoparticles can enhance water uptake by plants by increasing the surface area of the root and improving root development. The nanoparticles can stimulate the growth of new roots and root hairs, which are specialized structures that increase the plant's ability to absorb water from the soil [ 77 ].

By increasing water retention in the soil and enhancing water uptake by plants, bio-based nanoparticles can help to reduce water stress in plants, particularly under drought conditions. Plants treated with bio-based nanoparticles can maintain their water status and continue to grow and produce even when water is scarce [ 86 , 88 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles enhance the drought tolerance of plants by enhancing their ability to cope with water deficit stress. The nanoparticles facilitate plants in maintaining their water balance, reduce water loss through transpiration, and scavenge ROS (reactive oxygen species) produced under drought conditions [ 89 ]. Various nanoparticle examples that help in water retention include lignin NPs that have been used for water retention applications, showing a 1.6 times higher water retention capacity than hydrogel. The size of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles has a strong effect on the kinetics and efficiency of water adsorption. Smaller nanoparticles absorb more water layers, leading to higher water retention capacity. Magnetic nanoparticles, such as magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ), have been used for water treatment applications, including separation of water pollutants. Nanogels derived from lignin have been used for water retention applications, showing improved water retention capacity compared to hydrogel [ 88 ]. These examples demonstrate the potential of various nanoparticles in enhancing water retention, which is valuable for various applications, including agriculture, environmental management, and water treatment.

Increased crop productivity

Bio-based nanoparticles play a substantial role in increasing crop productivity through various mechanisms; bio-based nanoparticles can enhance photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert sunlight into energy. The nanoparticles enhance the light absorption efficiency and utilization by chloroplasts, the organelles responsible for photosynthesis. This increased photosynthetic activity leads to increased biomass production and crop yield [ 90 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles have antimicrobial and antifungal properties, which can help to defend plants from diseases and pests. The nanoparticles can inhibit the growth and spread of pathogens, reducing crop losses and improving overall plant health [ 91 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can enhance the plant's ability to tolerate various environmental stresses, including drought, salinity, and nutrient deficiency. Under stress conditions, plants often experience reduced growth and productivity [ 81 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can alleviate these effects by improving nutrient absorption, water retention, and photosynthesis, helping plants maintain their growth and productivity even under adverse conditions [ 92 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can improve seed germination and vigor by enhancing water uptake as well as nutrient absorption by the seeds. The nanoparticles can also protect the seeds from pathogens and environmental stresses, increasing the chances of successful germination coupled with seedling establishment [ 93 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles enhance the quality of crops by increasing the nutritional content and reducing the presence of contaminants [ 94 ]. Nanoparticles can help increase the levels of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants in crops, creating more nutrition and benefits for human health [ 95 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles offer a promising approach to increasing crop productivity by improving nutrient uptake, water retention, photosynthesis, stress tolerance, and crop quality. By enhancing plant growth and development, bio-based nanoparticles contribute to more sustainable and resilient agricultural practices, helping to meet the growing demand for food production worldwide [ 91 , 93 ].

Controlled release of agrochemicals

Bio-based nanoparticles could be used as agrochemical delivery systems such as pesticides and herbicides [ 96 ]. These nanoparticles can encapsulate the active ingredients and release them gradually over time, ensuring targeted application and minimizing environmental contamination [ 97 ]. This controlled release mechanism improves the efficacy of agrochemicals while reducing its adverse impact on non-target organisms [ 98 ]. NMs provide a precise and regulated approach for distributing AIs at the correct dosage while reducing AI waste and inadvertent harm to non-target creatures. This technique also decreases the danger of resistance produced by high or low AI concentrations. These nanoscale polymers, including urea–formaldehyde resin, polyurea, or polyurethane, are produced under precise conditions [ 97 ]. The scientists used in situ deposition to create a magnetic nanocarrier from diatomite and Fe 3 O 4 . This nanocarrier successfully contained both cypermethrin (insecticide) as well as glyphosate (herbicide), both of which were then chitosan-coated to restrict their release under an acidic environment. The magnetic characteristics of Fe 3 O 4 allowed the separation of nanocarriers from water and soil, allowing for material recycling [ 97 ].

Enhanced disease resistance

Bio-based nanoparticles possess antimicrobial properties that can help plants combat various diseases caused by pathogens, for instance, fungi, viruses, and bacteria [ 99 ]. These nanoparticles can inhibit the growth as ill as the proliferation of harmful microorganisms, thereby reducing the incidence of plant diseases and improving overall crop health [ 100 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can play a substantial function in enhancing disease resistance in plants through various mechanisms; many bio-based nanoparticles have inherent antimicrobial and antifungal properties, which can directly inhibit the growth and spread of plant pathogens [ 101 ]. These nanoparticles can interact with the cell membranes of pathogens, causing damage and preventing their entry into plant tissues. They can also generate ROS coupled with other toxic compounds that can kill or suppress the growth of pathogens [ 102 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can improve the uptake of nutrients by plants, leading to increased plant growth and vigor. Healthy and ill-nourished plants are more resistant to diseases, as they have stronger cell walls and a more robust immune system [ 74 ].

Bio-based nanoparticles can stimulate the plant's natural defense responses against pathogens. They can decrease the production of defense-related proteins, such as pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins and phytoalexins, which help to protect the plant from infection [ 99 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles could be used as agrochemical carriers, for example, pesticides and fungicides. The nanoparticles can encapsulate and also protect the agrochemicals from degradation and inactivation in the environment [ 96 ]. They can also facilitate the targeted delivery of agrochemicals to specific plant tissues or pathogens, reducing the overall amount of chemicals required and minimizing their impact on non-target organisms [ 100 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles improve plant's resistance to abiotic stresses, i.e., salinity, drought, and nutrient deficiency [ 79 ]. Under stress conditions, plants are more susceptible to disease infection [ 103 ]. By alleviating the effects of abiotic stress, bio-based nanoparticles can indirectly enhance the plant's ability to resist diseases [ 104 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles develop coatings or films that can be smeared on plant surfaces to reduce the transmission of diseases. These coatings can physically barrier pathogens from entering the plant and can also release antimicrobial substances to inhibit their growth [ 100 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles are used in plant breeding programs to develop new crop varieties with enhanced disease resistance [ 101 ]. Nanoparticles can be integrated with plant cells or tissues to introduce specific genes or genetic modifications that confer resistance to particular diseases [ 100 ]. Overall, bio-based nanoparticles offer a promising approach for enhancing disease resistance in plants by directly inhibiting pathogens, stimulating plant defense responses, improving nutrient uptake, and reducing the abiotic stress impact. By protecting plants from diseases, bio-based nanoparticles contribute to increased crop productivity and sustainability, reducing the need for chemical pesticides and fungicides [ 99 , 101 ].

Increased photosynthetic efficiency

Bio-based nanoparticles have been found to enhance photosynthesis in plants by increasing chlorophyll content and improving light absorption efficiency [ 4 ]. This leads to increased production of carbohydrates as well as energy for plant growth [ 105 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can play a important role in increasing photosynthetic efficiency in plants through various mechanisms. Bio-based nanoparticles can improve the absorption of light energy by plants. Some nanoparticles have optical properties that allow them to scatter and reflect light, increasing the amount of light available for photosynthesis. They can also act as light-harvesting agents, capturing light energy and transferring it to chlorophyll molecules in the chloroplasts [ 105 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can enhance the production and stability of chlorophyll, the green pigment responsible for capturing light energy during photosynthesis. They can also help maintain the structural integrity of chloroplasts, ensuring that the photosynthetic machinery functions optimally [ 106 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can promote the assimilation of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) into plant tissues. They can facilitate the transport of CO 2 into the chloroplasts and enhance the enzyme activity riveted in the Calvin cycle, the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis. In the context of photosynthesis, nanoparticles have been reported to play a crucial role in improving the efficiency of this crucial process in plants.

TiO2 nanoparticles have been extensively studied for their potential application in improving photosynthesis in plants. These nanoparticles can act as a photocatalyst, absorbing light energy and transferring it to the chloroplasts of plant cells, thereby enhancing photosynthetic activity. Additionally, TiO 2 nanoparticles can also scavenge ROS generated during photosynthesis, thus protecting the plant from oxidative damage. For example, a study published in the journal Environmental Science and Pollution Research demonstrated that foliar application of TiO2 NPs on maize plants led to an increase in photosynthetic pigments, chlorophyll content, and overall photosynthetic activity. This resulted in improved growth and yield of maize plants. Silver nanoparticles have also been inspected for their potential role in enhancing photosynthesis in plants. These nanoparticles possess antimicrobial properties and can help protect plants from pathogenic infections that may hinder photosynthetic activity. Additionally, silver nanoparticles have been reported to improve the efficiency of light absorption by chloroplasts through their interaction with light energy. A study published in the journal Plant Physiology and Biochemistry reported that foliar application of AgNPs on tomato plants resulted in increased chlorophyll content, stomatal conductance, and net photosynthetic rate. This led to improved growth as well as yield of tomato plants under both normal and stress conditions. Carbon-based nanoparticles such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene oxide (GO) have also shown promise for improving photosynthesis in plants. These nanoparticles can act as carriers for delivering nutrients or growth-promoting substances to plant cells, thereby enhancing their metabolic activities, including photosynthesis. For instance, a study published in the journal Nanoscale Research Letters demonstrated that foliar application of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on wheat plants led to increased chlorophyll content, stomatal conductance, and net photosynthetic rate. This resulted in improved yield as well as growth of wheat plants under both normal and drought stress conditions. In conclusion, various types of NPs, i.e., titanium dioxide, silver, and carbon-based NPs, have shown potential for improving photosynthesis in plants through different mechanisms such as enhanced light absorption, ROS scavenging, antimicrobial activity, or nutrient delivery. Further studies is needed to fully understand the effects of these NPs on plant physiology and their long-term impact on agricultural productivity and sustainability.

Photorespiration is a process that competes with photosynthesis and reduces its efficiency. Bio-based nanoparticles can inhibit photorespiration by reducing the activity of photorespiratory enzymes and scavenging ROS produced during photorespiration [ 4 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can improve water use efficiency in plants, which is crucial for photosynthesis. They can reduce water loss through transpiration by forming a protective layer on the leaf surface. By maintaining adequate hydration, bio-based nanoparticles help to ensure that the photosynthetic machinery has the necessary water to function efficiently [ 85 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can help safeguard plants from abiotic stresses such as salinity, drought, and nutrient deficiency. Under stress conditions, photosynthesis is often impaired. Bio-based nanoparticles can assuage the effects of these stresses by improving nutrient uptake, water retention, and stress tolerance, indirectly enhancing photosynthetic efficiency [ 103 ]. Bio-based NPs can be used to develop novel photosynthetic systems that are more efficient and productive than natural photosynthesis. For example, nanoparticles are used to generate artificial light-harvesting complexes that can capture a broader spectrum of light energy [ 92 ]. Overall, bio-based nanoparticles offer a promising approach for increasing photosynthetic efficiency in plants by improving chlorophyll content, light absorption and structure, CO2 assimilation, water use efficiency, and stress tolerance. By enhancing photosynthesis, bio-based nanoparticles can contribute to increased crop productivity and sustainability, helping to meet the growing demand for food production worldwide [ 105 ].

Improved stress tolerance

Bio-based nanoparticles can help plants cope with various abiotic stresses i.e., salinity, drought, heat, and heavy metal toxicity (Fig.  4 ) [ 104 ].

The systematic diagrammatic representation shows that the involvement of nanoparticles is pivotal in combating abiotic stress

Stimulated root development

Bio-based nanoparticles have been displayed to promote root growth by stimulating cell division and elongation in root tissues. This results in a larger root system with increased surface area for nutrient uptake from the soil [ 77 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can play a significant role in stimulating root development in plants through various mechanisms; bio-based nanoparticles can stimulate root elongation and root branching by influencing the plant's hormonal balance. They can increase the production of auxin, a plant hormone that promotes root growth and root development. This leads to the formation of longer and more branched roots, which enhances the plant's ability to anchor itself in the soil and access water and nutrients [ 77 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can help to improve the overall architecture of the root system. They can promote the development of a more extensive and efficient root system with a higher density of fine roots. This improved root architecture enhances the plant's ability to explore the soil volume and access water and nutrients more effectively [ 77 , 107 ]. Some of the NPs that have been studied for their role in improved root development include silver nanoparticles, which have been shown to improve root growth and development in plants by promoting cell division and elongation. They also have antibacterial properties, which can protect the roots from pathogens and improve overall plant health. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles have been found to stimulate root growth by increasing the production of ROS in plant cells, which can promote cell proliferation and differentiation. Zinc oxide nanoparticles have been reported to enhance root elongation and biomass accumulation in plants by regulating the expression of genes involved in root development. Carbon-based nanoparticles, i.e., carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide, have also been studied for their potential to improve root development in plants. These nanoparticles can enhance water and nutrient uptake by roots, leading to improved growth and productivity.

Bio-based nanoparticles can influence the interactions between roots and the surrounding rhizosphere, which is the zone of soil influenced by root activity. The nanoparticles can promote the growth and activity of beneficial soil microorganisms, for instance, mycorrhizal fungi and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These microorganisms can enhance nutrient uptake and root development, leading to improved plant growth [ 106 , 108 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles are used in plant breeding programs to develop new rootstocks with enhanced root development. Nanoparticles can be incorporated into plant cells or tissues to introduce specific genes or genetic modifications that promote root growth. Overall, bio-based nanoparticles offer promising opportunities for sustainable agriculture by enhancing plant growth, improving nutrient uptake efficiency, increasing stress tolerance, reducing chemical inputs, and minimizing environmental impacts associated with conventional farming practices [ 87 ]. However, further research is needed to fully understand their long-term effects on crop productivity and potential risks associated with their use in agricultural systems.

Impact of bio-based nanoparticles on plant differentiation

Plant differentiation refers to the process by which unspecialized cells undergo specific changes to become specialized cells with distinct functions. Bio-based nanoparticles have shown the potential to influence cell differentiation processes such as trichome formation or xylem vessel differentiation [ 109 ]. It has been documented that by triggering particular signaling pathways, AuNPs cause the development of trichomes in Arabidopsis leaves. Bio-based nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as promising tools in agriculture owing to their distinctive properties and potential to enhance plant growth and development [ 110 ]. NPs derived from natural sources, i.e., animals, plants, and microorganisms, offer several advantages over synthetic NPs, including biodegradability, biocompatibility, and eco-friendliness [ 111 ]. Bio-based NPs can interact with plant cells and modulate gene expression patterns, influencing various developmental processes, including differentiation [ 112 ]. NPs can deliver genetic material (e.g., DNA or RNA) into plant cells, leading to the up-or-down-regulation of specific genes involved in differentiation pathways [ 113 ].

NPs are widely used in gene expression studies and gene therapy. They can be used to deliver nucleic acids i.e., DNA, RNA, or small interfering RNA (siRNA) into cells to modulate gene expression. For example, lipid-based nanoparticles have been developed for the delivery of siRNA to silence specific genes involved in diseases i.e., cancer and genetic disorders. Gold NPs have also been used to deliver DNA into cells for gene therapy applications. Hormones are signaling molecules that regulate various physiological processes in the body. NPs can be used to mimic hormone signaling by delivering hormone-like molecules to target cells or tissues. For example, polymer-based nanoparticles have been designed to deliver insulin to diabetic patients as a non-invasive alternative to traditional insulin injections. Additionally, lipid-based NPs can be used to deliver hormone replacement therapies for conditions such as menopause. Nanoparticles are ideal for targeted drug delivery due to their small size and ability to encapsulate drugs or therapeutic molecules. They can be functionalized with targeting ligands i.e., antibodies or peptides to specifically bind to receptors on target cells or tissues. For example, liposomal nanoparticles have been developed for the targeted delivery of chemotherapy drugs to cancer cells while minimizing off-target effects on healthy tissues. Similarly, magnetic NPs can be guided by an external magnetic field to target specific sites within the body for drug delivery or imaging purposes.

NPs can interfere with the hormonal balance in plants, affecting differentiation processes. Auxin, cytokinin, gibberellin, and Abscisic acid acts an important role in regulating cell division, organ formation, and tissue differentiation [ 114 ]. NPs have the ability to mimic or block these hormones' effects, changing the pathways leading to differentiation [ 115 ]. Bio-based NPs can interact with receptors or components of signal transduction pathways, affecting downstream signaling events that regulate differentiation[ 112 ]. NPs have the ability to alter cell fate and differentiation patterns by activating or inhibiting particular signaling pathways [ 116 ]. NPs can induce or scavenge ROS, which are signaling molecules involved in various cellular processes, including differentiation. NPs have the ability to modify ROS levels, which in turn affects signaling pathways related to differentiation and the redox status of cells [ 117 , 118 ]. NPs can enhance the uptake as well as transport nutrients into plant cells, providing essential elements for differentiation processes. NPs can act as nutrient carriers, facilitating their delivery to specific tissues or organs where differentiation occurs [ 83 ]. Bio-based NPs can enhance plant tolerance to numerous abiotic stresses, like drought, salinity, and nutrient deficiency. Under stress conditions, plants may exhibit altered differentiation patterns to adapt to the changing environment. NPs can assuage the depredation of stress on differentiation by providing protection against stress-induced damage [ 103 ].

NPs can interact with plant-associated microorganisms, including beneficial bacteria and fungi, which contribute to the plant growth and development. NPs can modulate the composition and activity of the plant microbiota, indirectly influencing differentiation processes [ 119 ]. Bio-based NPs can be engineered to target specific tissues or cell types, enabling the regulated delivery of bioactive molecules or genetic material to regulate differentiation processes. This targeted approach enhances the effectiveness coupled with the specificity of NP applications in plant biotechnology [ 90 , 120 ]. Bio-based NPs are biodegradable and have a loir environmental impact compared to synthetic NPs. Their use in agriculture reduces the accumulation of persistent NPs in the environment, minimizing potential risks to ecosystems as well as human health [ 121 ]. Overall, bio-based nanoparticles offer an engaging methodology for modulating plant differentiation processes. By understanding the mechanisms of interaction between NPs and plants, researchers can design and engineer NPs to control differentiation pathways precisely, leading to improved crop production and enhanced plant traits [ 122 ].

Mechanisms underlying the effects of bio-based NPs on plants

The exact mechanisms underlying the effects of bio-based NPs on plants are still not fully understood but are believed to involve complex interactions at the molecular level [ 123 ]. These interactions may include nanoparticle-cell membrane interactions indicating changes in membrane permeability or alterations in gene expression patterns through epigenetic modifications [ 124 ]. When applied to plants, bio-based nanoparticles have been found to exhibit several beneficial effects, including enhanced growth, improved nutrient uptake, increased stress tolerance, and enhanced disease resistance [ 125 ]. Table 3 summaries various nanoparticle examples that play a role in ROS signaling, hormone modulation, and systematic resistance. The underlying mechanisms responsible for these effects can be attributed to several factors.

Bio-based nanoparticles enhance the availability and uptake of essential nutrients by plants. There are several mechanisms that underlie the effects of bio-based nanoparticles on enhanced nutrient availability. These mechanisms include Bio-based NP, such as nanocellulose or chitosan nanoparticles, which have a high volume-to-surface area ratio. This increased surface area allows greater contact with nutrients, facilitating their adsorption and retention. Plants and microorganisms can have greater access to nutrients when the nanoparticles serve as carriers or reservoirs for those nutrients [ 131 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can modify the solubility of nutrients, causing them to be more available for uptake by plants or microorganisms. For example, chitosan nanoparticles can chelate metal ions, increasing their solubility and availability for plant uptake. Similarly, nanocellulose NPs increase the solubility of organic compounds, making them more accessible to microorganisms for nutrient acquisition [ 132 ]. Nutrients can be released from bio-based nanoparticles in a regulated manner over time, resulting in a steady supply. This regulated release of nutrients can be accomplished by either encasing the nutrients inside the nanoparticles or by altering the surface characteristics of the NPs to control nutrient release. This sustained nutrient release can improve nutrient uptake efficiency and utilization by plants or microorganisms [ 97 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can provide protection against nutrient losses due to leaching or volatilization. By enclosing nutrients in a protective layer, the nanoparticles can stop them from leaching out of the substrate or soil. This protection can help to retain nutrients in the root zone, increasing their availability for plant uptake or microbial utilization [ 133 ].

Bio-based nanoparticles can enhance microbial activity in the rhizosphere or soil, leading to increased nutrient mineralization and availability. The microbes' growth and metabolic activity can be stimulated by the nanoparticles by providing them with a supply of carbon and energy [ 134 ]. This increased microbial activity can result in the nutrient release from organic matter or the transformation of complex nutrients into more bioavailable forms [ 135 ]. Overall, the mechanisms underlying the effects of bio-based nanoparticles on enhanced nutrient availability are multifaceted and involve chemical, physical, and as ill as biological processes. These mechanisms can vary depending on the specific type of nanoparticles and the targeted nutrient. Bio-based NPs boost the water-holding capacity of soils when applied as soil amendments or incorporated into hydrogels. There are several mechanisms that can explain the effects of bio-based nanoparticles on increased water retention. These mechanisms include bio-based nanoparticles, such as cellulose nanocrystals or chitosan nanoparticles, which have a high volume-to-surface area ratio. This increased surface area allows them to interact with water molecules more effectively, leading to improved water retention [ 136 ]. Many bio-based nanoparticles have hydrophilic properties, meaning they have a strong affinity for water molecules. This hydrophilicity allows them to attract and retain water, preventing its evaporation or drainage from the soil [ 90 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can absorb and retain large amounts of water because of their distinctive structure and composition. For example, cellulose nanocrystals have a crystalline structure that can absorb water through capillary action, Although chitosan nanoparticles can create hydrogels that expand when water is present [ 137 ].

Bio-based nanoparticles can form stable aggregates or networks in the soil matrix, which can trap and hold water within their structure. These aggregates act as reservoirs for water, slowly releasing it to plant roots over time. Incorporation of bio-based NPs into the soil can improve its physical properties, such as porosity and aggregate stability. This improved soil structure allows for better infiltration and retention of water, reducing runoff and increasing water availability for plants [ 121 , 138 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can create a physical barrier on the soil surface, reducing evaporation rates by limiting direct contact between the soil and air. This barrier prevents moisture loss from the soil surface and helps maintain higher levels of soil moisture [ 137 ]. Overall, these mechanisms contribute to increased water retention in soils treated with bio-based nanoparticles, providing benefits for plant growth in addition to drought resistance in agricultural as well as environmental applications.

Regulation of hormone levels

Bio-based nanoparticles modulate the levels of plant hormones such as auxins, cytokines, gibberellins, and Abscisic acid. These hormones act important roles in various physiological processes in plants, including growth regulation, floiring induction, seed germination, and stress responses. Bio-based NPs stimulate plant growth as well as development by altering hormone levels [ 115 ]. One mechanism underlying the effects of bio-based nanoparticles on plants is the regulation of hormone levels. Bio-based nanoparticles, such as those derived from plant extracts or microbial sources, can interact with plant cells and tissues, leading to transformations in hormone signaling pathways. Hormones play crucial roles in regulating various aspects of plant growth and development, including seed germination, shoot and root growth, floiring, fruiting, and stress responses. They act as chemical messengers that coordinate different physiological processes in plants [ 114 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can modulate hormone levels by several mechanisms. Firstly, they can directly interact with hormone molecules and alter their stability or activity. For example, bio-based nanoparticles may bind to hormones and protect them from degradation by enzymes or environmental factors. This may lead to increased hormone availability and prolonged signaling effects.

Secondly, bio-based nanoparticles can affect the synthesis or breakdown of hormones within plant cells. Enzymes involved in the manufacture or breakdown of hormones may be stimulated or inhibited by them. Hormone concentration fluctuations may result from this, which may then affect how plants grow and develop [ 139 ]. Thirdly, bio-based nanoparticles can influence hormone perception and signaling processes within plant cells. They may interact with hormone receptors or other components of the signaling pathway, either enhancing or inhibiting their activity. This can affect the sensitivity of plants to hormones and modify their responses to internal or external stimuli [ 116 ]. Overall, the regulation of hormone levels is a key mechanism by which bio-based nanoparticles exert their effects on plants. By modulating hormone synthesis, degradation, perception, or signaling processes, these nanoparticles can influence various aspects of plant growth and development [ 115 ]. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for harnessing the potential benefits of bio-based nanoparticles in agriculture and environmental applications.

Activation of defense mechanisms

It has been documented that plant defense systems against pests and diseases are triggered by bio-based nanoparticles. Bio-based nanoparticles have been shown to activate defense mechanisms in plants, leading to enhanced resistance against various biotic and abiotic stresses. Table 4 states different metallic nanoparticles exhibiting antibacterial activity via a variety of ways.

Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain these effects, including bio-based nanoparticles, which can induce the production of ROS in plant cells. ROS acts as signaling molecules that trigger a cascade of defense responses, including the activation of defense-related genes and antimicrobial compound synthesis. This ROS-mediated signaling pathway plays an important part in plant defense against pathogens [ 136 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can modulate the levels and activities of phytohormones, such as jasmonic acid (JA), salicylic acid (SA), and ethylene (ET). These phytohormones are known to regulate plant defense responses. For example, SA is involved in systemic acquired resistance (SAR) against pathogens, while JA and ET are associated with induced systemic resistance (ISR) [ 114 ]. Bio-based NPs boost the production or perception of these phytohormones, leading to the activation of defense mechanisms. Bio-based nanoparticles can induce systemic resistance in plants, where local application of nanoparticles leads to enhanced resistance not only at the site of application but also in distant plant parts. This systemic resistance is mediated by long-distance signaling molecules, such as jasmonates or mobile small RNAs, which activate defense responses in uninfected tissues [ 100 ]. PTI is an early immune response triggered by the recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on plant cell surfaces. Bio-based nanoparticles can mimic PAMPs or interact with PRRs directly, leading to the activation of PTI and subsequent defense responses [ 150 , 151 ]. Through a variety of processes, including expanded root surface area, improved root hair production, or altered ion transporters, bio-based nanoparticles can promote plant nutrient uptake. Improved nutrient availability can strengthen plant defenses against pathogens and environmental stresses. Overall, the activation of defense mechanisms by bio-based nanoparticles involves complex interactions between nanoparticle properties and plant physiological processes [ 137 , 151 ]. Understanding these underlying mechanisms is crucial for harnessing the possible advantages of bio-based nanoparticles in agriculture and crop protection strategies.

Antioxidant activity

The effects of bio-based nanoparticles on antioxidant activity can be recognized by several underlying mechanisms. These mechanisms include Bio-based nanoparticles, such as those derived from plant extracts or biopolymers, which possess inherent antioxidant properties. They can scavenge and neutralize ROS, which are extremely reactive molecules that can cause oxidative damage to cells and tissues [ 118 ]. By scavenging ROS, bio-based nanoparticles reduce oxidative stress and enhance antioxidant activity. Some bio-based nanoparticles contain functional groups that can chelate metal ions. Metal ions, particularly transition metals like iron and copper, can catalyze ROS production through Fenton and Haber-Iiss reactions. By chelating these metal ions, bio-based nanoparticles prevent their participation in ROS generation, thereby reducing oxidative stress[ 152 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can modulate the activity of antioxidant enzymes i.e., glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) [ 153 ]. These enzymes are essential for keeping the redox equilibrium of cells and neutralizing reactive oxygen species. Bio-based nanoparticles can upregulate the expression or enhance the activity of these enzymes, leading to increased antioxidant capacity [ 154 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles are often designed to have small sizes and high surface areas, which facilitate their cellular uptake by several mechanisms like endocytosis or passive diffusion [ 155 ]. Once inside the cells, these nanoparticles can interact with cellular components involved in antioxidant defense systems, including mitochondria and cytoplasmic antioxidants like glutathione (GSH). Cellular antioxidant activity is increased as a result of this interaction [ 156 ].

It has been demonstrated that bio-based nanoparticles can modify a number of signaling pathways connected to antioxidant defense and the oxidative stress response. For example, they can activate nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a TF (transcription factor) that regulates the antioxidant genes expression [ 116 ]. Activation of Nrf2 leads to increased synthesis of antioxidant enzymes and molecules, thereby enhancing overall antioxidant activity. Overall, the effects of bio-based nanoparticles on antioxidant activity involve a combination of direct scavenging of ROS, metal chelation, modulation of enzyme activity, cellular uptake and distribution within cells, and modulation of signaling pathways involved in oxidative stress response [ 117 ]. These mechanisms collectively contribute to the enhanced antioxidant capacity observed with bio-based nanoparticle treatments.

Nanoparticle-mediated gene expression regulation

The effects of bio-based nanoparticles on nanoparticle-mediated gene expression regulation can be recognized to several underlying mechanisms [ 113 ]. These mechanisms involve the interaction between the nanoparticles and cellular components, leading to gene expression changes. Bio-based nanoparticles can be internalized by cells through various uptake mechanisms, such as endocytosis or direct penetration of the cell membrane. Once inside the cells, these nanoparticles can interact with cellular components, including DNA and RNA molecules [ 155 ]. After cellular uptake, bio-based nanoparticles can undergo intracellular trafficking within different compartments of the cell, like endosomes or lysosomes. This trafficking process can influence the availability and accessibility of the nanoparticles to their target genes [ 157 ].

Bio-based nanoparticles can directly bind to nucleic acids, including DNA or RNA molecules. This binding can affect the stability and structure of nucleic acids, leading to gene expression changes. For example, the binding of bio-based nanoparticles to promoter regions of genes can modulate their transcriptional activity [ 158 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles have been reported to induce epigenetic modifications that regulate gene expression [ 148 ]. These modifications include DNA methylation or histone modifications, which can alter chromatin structure and accessibility of genes for transcriptional machinery [ 159 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can activate specific signaling pathways within cells, leading to downstream effects on gene expression regulation. For example, activation of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway by bio-based nanoparticles has been reported to modulate the pro-inflammatory gene expression [ 160 ]. Bio-based nanoparticles can serve as carriers for regulatory molecules such as small interfering RNA (siRNA) or microRNA (miRNA). These regulatory molecules can specifically target and silence or activate specific genes, thereby influencing gene expression [ 4 ]. Some bio-based nanoparticles have been reported to generate ROS upon interaction with cells. ROS can act as signaling molecules that regulate gene expression through activation or inhibition of specific transcription factors [ 118 ].

Overall, the effects of bio-based nanoparticles on nanoparticle-mediated gene expression regulation are complex and involve multiple mechanisms that depend on nanoparticle properties and cellular context [ 158 ]. Understanding these underlying mechanisms is crucial for optimizing nanoparticle design along with application in various biomedical fields, such as drug delivery and gene therapy [ 161 ]. It’s imperative to note that the mechanisms underlying the effects of bio-based nanoparticles on plants are still being extensively studied and understood; further research is needed for a comprehensive understanding of these mechanisms at molecular levels [ 79 ].

Environmental implications and future perspectives

While bio-based nanoparticles offer numerous benefits for plant development and growth enhancement applications, their potential environmental implications need careful consideration. Assessing their long-term impacts on soil health is essential for microbial communities and ecosystem functioning before widespread application in agriculture practices (Table  5 ) [ 162 ].

Environmental implications of bio-based nanoparticles

Bio-based nanoparticles (NPs) are generally biodegradable, breaking down into non-toxic compounds over time. This reduces their persistence in the environment compared to synthetic NPs, curtailing the risk of long-term accumulation and potential adverse effects on ecosystems [ 6 ]. Bio-based NPs are often derived from natural sources and exhibit good biocompatibility with plants and other organisms. Their ecotoxicity is generally less than that of synthetic NPs, as it’s less likely to induce adverse effects on non-target organisms [ 163 ]. Bio-based NPs can interact with soil microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and archaea. These interactions can be beneficial or detrimental, depending on the type of NP and the specific microbial community. NPs can influence microbial diversity, activity, and nutrient cycling processes in the soil [ 164 ]. While bio-based NPs are biodegradable, there is still a potential for their accumulation in the environment if they are applied in large quantities or if they are not properly managed. Understanding the fate of ill transport of bio-based NPs in different environmental compartments is crucial for assessing their long-term environmental implications [ 165 ].

Future perspectives of bio-based nanoparticles

Bio-based NPs can be engineered to release their cargo (e.g., nutrients, pesticides, or genetic material) in a controlled manner, reducing environmental impacts and improving the efficiency of agricultural practices. This precision approach can minimize the use of chemical inputs and reduce the risk of contamination [ 166 , 167 ]. Bio-based NPs can be functionalized to target specific tissues, organs, or organisms, enabling the targeted delivery of bioactive molecules or genetic material. This approach increases the bio-based NP efficacy in plant protection, nutrient delivery, and bioremediation applications [ 168 ]. Developing cost-effective and scalable methods in terms of the synthesis of bio-based NPs is crucial for their widespread adoption in agriculture. Green synthesis approaches using renewable resources and environmentally friendly processes can reduce the environmental footprint of NP production [ 169 ]. Establishing regulatory frameworks and standards for the production, application, and disposal of bio-based NPs is necessary to guarantee their responsible and safe application in agriculture. This includes guidelines for environmental risk assessment, monitoring, and end-of-life management [ 170 ]. Integrating bio-based NPs with sustainable agriculture practices, such as organic farming and precision agriculture, can maximize their benefits while minimizing potential risks. This holistic approach considers the entire agricultural system and aims toward boosting crop productivity, reducing environmental impacts, and promoting soil health [ 50 ]. To fully comprehend how bio-based NPs interact with plants, soil microbes, and the environment, more research is required. This includes studying the long-term effects of NPs on soil health, biodiversity, and ecosystem functioning. Innovation in NP design, functionalization, and application methods will further enhance their potential in sustainable agriculture [ 171 ].

By addressing these environmental implications and exploring future perspectives, bio-based nanoparticles can be harnessed to revolutionize agriculture while minimizing their environmental impact and promoting sustainable practices [ 172 ]. Although nanoparticles' efficiency in overcoming abiotic stress is well-proven, almost all of these studies have been conducted in the laboratory. Concerns have been expressed about the increasing use of nanoparticles, specifically their possible harmful influence on the ecosystem and the buildup of NPs in parts of plants that are edible. As a result, it is critical to perform targeted research to create acceptable evaluation procedures for analyzing the impact of NPs as well as nano-fertilizers on the abiotic and biotic elements of ecosystems. Apart from this the plant parts and nanoparticles derived from these plant can also be used to treat various human infection [ 173 , 174 , 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 179 , 180 ].

Bio-based nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as a promising tool in agriculture, providing an eco-friendly and sustainable approach to enhance plant development, growth, and differentiation. With their unique properties such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, and targeted delivery, bio-based NPs have valuable applications in plant biotechnology. They can influence gene expression, hormonal signaling, and signal transduction pathways, thereby regulating differentiation processes and improving root development, shoot proliferation, and flower and fruit production. Additionally, bio-based NPs enhance nutrient uptake and transport, supplying essential elements for plant growth. Furthermore, they improve plant tolerance to abiotic stresses like drought, salinity, and nutrient deficiency by mitigating the negative effects on differentiation and other physiological processes. Compared to synthetic NPs, bio-based NPs offer advantages such as decreased environmental accumulation, reduced toxicity, and better compatibility with plant cells, minimizing adverse effects on plant growth. As research progresses, bio-based NPs hold immense potential for transforming agriculture by contributing to sustainable crop production, improved plant traits, and enhanced resilience to environmental stresses. To ensure their safe and effective use, further exploration of interaction mechanisms, optimization of NP design and application methods, and the establishment of regulatory frameworks are necessary.

In summary, bio-based nanoparticles offer a sustainable and promising approach to enhance plant development, growth, and differentiation, contributing to the advancement of agriculture and food security in a changing global environment. Furthermore, it is critical to examine the effects of NPs on the health of humans and set acceptable limits. Future research should focus on the production of low-cost, non-toxic, environmentally friendly, as well as self-degradable nanoparticles to help commercialize nanotechnology in the farming industry.

Availability of data and materials

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University for continuous support and assistance during research work and scientific writing.

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Sunil Kumar Verma, Prashant Kumar, Renu Khare and Devendra Singh contributed equally to these works.

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Faculty of Biotechnology, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Lucknow Deva Road, Barabanki, 225003, Uttar Pradesh, India

Sunil Kumar Verma & Devendra Singh

Department of Bioinformatics, Kalinga University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India

Prashant Kumar

Maharishi School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Maharishi University of Information Technology, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

Anshu Mishra

Faculty of Biosciences, Institute of Biosciences & Technology, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Lucknow Deva Road, Barabanki, 225003, Uttar Pradesh, India

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Verma, S.K., Kumar, P., Mishra, A. et al. Green nanotechnology: illuminating the effects of bio-based nanoparticles on plant physiology. Biotechnol Sustain Mater 1 , 1 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s44316-024-00001-2

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Green nanotechnology: a review on green synthesis of silver nanoparticles — an ecofriendly approach

Shabir ahmad.

1 Department of Chemistry, Islamia College University, Peshawar, 25120, Pakistan

Sidra Munir

2 Department of Chemistry, Government Girls Degree College, Peshawar, Pakistan

Behramand Khan

3 Department of Chemistry, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat, Pakistan

Muhammad Bilal

Muhammad omer.

4 Institute of Chemical Sciences, University of Swat, Swat, 19201, Pakistan

Muhammad Alamzeb

5 Department of Chemistry, University of Kotli 11100, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan

Syed Muhammad Salman

Background: Nanotechnology explores a variety of promising approaches in the area of material sciences on a molecular level, and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are of leading interest in the present scenario. This review is a comprehensive contribution in the field of green synthesis, characterization, and biological activities of AgNPs using different biological sources.

Methods: Biosynthesis of AgNPs can be accomplished by physical, chemical, and green synthesis; however, synthesis via biological precursors has shown remarkable outcomes. In available reported data, these entities are used as reducing agents where the synthesized NPs are characterized by ultraviolet-visible and Fourier-transform infrared spectra and X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy.

Results: Modulation of metals to a nanoscale drastically changes their chemical, physical, and optical properties, and is exploited further via antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, antioxidant, and cardioprotective activities. Results showed excellent growth inhibition of the microorganism.

Conclusion: Novel outcomes of green synthesis in the field of nanotechnology are appreciable where the synthesis and design of NPs have proven potential outcomes in diverse fields. The study of green synthesis can be extended to conduct the in silco and in vitro research to confirm these findings.

Introduction

Nanotechnology offers fields with effective applications, ranging from traditional chemical techniques to medicinal and environmental technologies. AgNPs have emerged with leading contributions in diverse applications, such as drug delivery, 31 ointments, nanomedicine, 37 chemical sensing, 41 data storage, 47 cell biology, 54 agriculture, cosmetics, 60 textiles, 17 the food industry, photocatalytic organic dye–degradation activity, 64 antioxidants, 66 and antimicrobial agents. 68

Despite the contradictions reported on the toxicity of AgNPs, 69 its role as a disinfectant and antimicrobial agent has been given considerable appreciation. The available documented data 73 , 74 and the interest of the community in this field prompted us to work on plant-mediated green synthesis and biological activities of AgNPs.

Different types of nanoparticles

Some distinctive reported forms of nanoparticles (NPs) are core–shell NPs, 76 photochromic polymer NPs, 78 polymer-coated magnetite NPs, 80 inorganic NPs, AgNPs, CuNPs, 82 AuNPs, 85 PtNPs, 86 PdNPs, 88 SiNPs, 89 and NiNPs, 91 while others are metal oxide and metal dioxide NPs, such as ZnONPs, 94 CuO NPs, 95 FeO, 97 MgONPs, 100 TiO 2 NPs, 102 CeO 2 NPs, 103 and ZrO 2 NPs. 104 Each of these has an exclusive set of characteristics and applications, and can be synthesized by either conventional or unconventional methods. An extensive classification of NPs is provided in Figure 1 . 105 – 111

Different approaches to nanomaterial (NM) classification.

Abbreviation: NPs, nanoparticles.

Nanoparticle synthesis

Comprehensive approaches available for NP synthesis are bottom-up and top-down. 112 The latter approach is immoderate and steady, whereas the former involves self-assembly of atomicsize particles to grow nanosize particles. This can be achieved by physical and chemical means, 113 as summarized in Table 1 . However, ecofriendly green syntheses are economical, and proliferate and trigger stable NP formation, as shown in Figure 2 .

Chemical and physical synthesis of AgNPs

Abbreviations: NPs, nanoparticles; TEM, transmission electron microscopy; FTIR, Fourier-transform infrared; XRD, X-ray diffraction; DSC, differential scanning calorimetry; TGA, thermogravimetric analysis; UV-vis, ultraviolet-visible (spectroscopy); EDS, energy-dispersive spectroscopy; DLS, dynamic light scattering; Fl-FFF, flow field-flow fractionation; EFTEM, energy-filtered TEM; NA, not applicable.

Various approaches to the synthesis of Ag nanoparticles (NPs).

Green approach (biological/conventional methods)

The surging popularity of green methods has triggered synthesis of AgNPs using different sources, like bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants, resulting in large-scale production with less contamination. Green synthesis is an ecofriendly and biocompatible process, 119 generally accomplished by using a capping agent/stabilizer (to control size and prevent agglomeration), 120 plant extracts, yeast, or bacteria. 121

Green synthesis using plant extracts

In contrast to microorganisms, plants have been exhaustively used,as apparent from Table 2 . This is because plant phytochemicals show greater reduction and stabilization. 122 Eugenia jambolana leaf extract was used to synthesize AgNPs that indicated the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, and sugar compounds. 123 Bark extract of Saraca asoca indicated the presence of hydroxylamine and carboxyl groups. 124 AgNPs using leaves of Rhynchotechum ellipticum were synthesized, and the results indicated the presence of polyphenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, carbohydrates, and steroids. 125 Hesperidin was used to form AgNPs of 20–40 nm. 126 Phenolic compounds of pyrogallol and oleic acid were reported to be essential for the reduction of silver salt to form NPs. 127 Pepper-leaf extract acts as a reducing and capping agent in the formation of AgNPs of 5–60 nm. 128 Fruit extracts of Malus domestica acted as a reducing agent. Similarly, Vitis vinifera , 39 Andean blackberry, 129 Adansonia digitata , 130 Solanum nigrum , 131 Nitraria schoberi 132 or multiple fruit peels have also been reported for AgNP synthesis. 133 Combinations of plant extracts have also been reported. 134 Some other reductants used for AgNO 3 are polysaccharide, 135 soluble starch, 136 natural rubber, 137 tarmac, 138 cinnamon, 25 stem-derived callus of green apple, 25 red apple, 139 egg white, 140 lemon grass, 141 coffee, 142 black tea, 143 and Abelmoschus esculentus juice. 144 Besides these, an extensive diagram representing different parts of different plant leaves, eg, peel, seed, fruit, bark, flower, stem, and root, also used in nanoformulations, is given in Figure 3 . Green synthesis is economical and innocuous. 30 , 38 , 150

Plant-mediated synthesis of AgNPs

Abbreviations: CV, Cyclic voltammograms; ART, total reflectance technique; NPs, nanoparticles; UV-vis, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy; TEM, transmission electron microscopy; SEM, scanning electron microscopy; FESEM, field-emission SEM; HREM, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy; XRD, X-ray diffraction; FTIR, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy; AFM, atomic force microscopy; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography; DLS, dynamic light scattering; EDX, energy-dispersive X-ray (spectroscopy); EDAX, ED X-ray analysis; SAED, selected-area electron diffraction; TGA, thermogravimetric analysis; NA, not available; CV, ; ART, .

Plant mediated synthesis of AgNPs.

Biosynthesis using microorganisms

Bacteria-mediated synthesis of AgNPs

Microorganisms like fungi, bacteria, and yeast are of huge interest for NP synthesis; however, the process is threatened by culture contamination, lengthy procedures, and less control over NP size. NPs formed by microorganisms can be classified into distinct categories, depending upon the location where they are synthesized. 183 Otari et al synthesized AgNPs intracellularly using Actinobacteria Rhodococcus sp. NCIM 2891. 184 Kannan et al biosynthesized AgNPs using Bacillus subtillus extracellularly. 185 Table 3 provides some illustrative examples of the synthesis of AgNPs using different bacterial strains.

Abbreviations: NPs, nanoparticles; UV-vis, ultraviolet-visible (spectroscopy); TEM, transmission electron microscopy; SEM, scanning electron microscopy; FESEM, field-emission SEM; HRSEM, high-resolution TEM; XRD, X-ray diffraction; FTIR, Fourier-transform infrared (spectroscopy); AFM, atomic force microscopy; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography; DLS, dynamic light scattering; EDX, energy-dispersive X-ray (spectroscopy); EDAX, ED X-ray analysis; SAED, selected-area electron diffraction; TGA, thermogravimetric analysis; NA, not available; TLC, thin-layer chromatography.

Alga-mediated synthesis of AgNPs

A diverse group of aquatic microorganisms, algae have been used substantially and reported to synthesize AgNPs. They vary in size, from microscopic (picoplankton) to macroscopic (Rhodophyta). AgNPs were synthesized using microalgae Chaetoceros calcitran s , C. salina , Isochrysis galbana , and Tetraselmis gracilis 199 Cystophora moniliformis marine algae were used by Prasad et al as a reducing and stabilizing agent to synthesize AgNPs. 200 Table 4 illustrates some examples of the micro and macro-algae used for AgNPs synthesis.

Abbreviations: NPs, nanoparticles; UV-vis, ultraviolet-visible (spectroscopy); TEM, transmission electron microscopy; SEM, scanning electron microscopy; XRD, X-ray diffraction; FTIR, Fourier-transform infrared (spectroscopy).

Fungus-mediated synthesis of AgNPs

Extracellular synthesis of AgNPs using fungi is also a viable alternative, because of their economical large-scale production. Fungal strains are chosen over bacterial species, because of their better tolerance and metal-bioaccumulation property. Table 5 gives some of the fungal strains used for AgNP synthesis.

Abbreviations: NPs, nanoparticles; UV-vis, ultraviolet-visible (spectroscopy); TEM, transmission electron microscopy; SEM, scanning electron microscopy; EDX, energy-dispersive X-ray (spectroscopy); XRD, X-ray diffraction; FTIR, Fourier-transform infrared (spectroscopy); AFM, atomic force microscopy; TLC, thin-layer chromatography.

Synthesis from miscellaneous sources

Nanotechnology has placed DNA on a recent drive to be used as a reducing agent. 215 Strong affinity of DNA bases for silver make it a template stabalizer 216 AgNPs were synthesized on DNA strands and found to be possibly located at N 7 guanine and phosphate. 217 Another attempt was made with calf-thymus DNA to synthesize AgNPs. 218 Similarly, silver-binding peptides were identified and selected using a combinatorial approach for NP synthesis. 219

Bioactivities

Antibacterial activity of agnps.

As a broad-spectrum antibiotic, silver is highly toxic to bacteria. It has been of great interest for the past couple of years, due to its wide spectrum of pharmacological activities, with applications in the fields of agriculture, textiles, and especially medicine. Some attributed contributions are given in Table 6 .

Antibacterial activities of AgNPs

Abbreviations: NPs, nanoparticles; NA, not available.

Antifungal activity of AgNPs

Resistant pathogenic activities of bacteria and fungi have increased invasive infections at an alarming rate. Ultimately, the subsequent need is to find more potent antifungal agents. Table 7 provides some examples from the literature that have reported antifungal properties of green synthesized AgNPs.

Antifungal properties of AgNPs

Abbreviations: NPs, nanoparticles; UV-vis, ultraviolet-visible (spectroscopy); TEM, transmission electron microscopy; SEM, scanning electron microscopy; XRD, X-ray diffraction; FTIR, Fourier-transform infrared (spectroscopy); DLS, dynamic light scattering; EDX, energy-dispersive X-ray (spectroscopy); EDAX, ED X-ray analysis; SAED, selected-area electron diffraction.

Anticancer activity of AgNPs

The paramount need of today is the synthesis of effective anticancer treatment, as cardiovascular at the top most; cancer is the second most leading cause of human dysphoria. Therefore the synthesis of anticancer agents is of the utmost necessity. AgNPs also possess substantial anticancer activities, 239 as shown in Table 8 .

Anticancer property of AgNPs

Abbreviations: NPs, nanoparticles; UV-vis, ultraviolet-visible (spectroscopy); TEM, transmission electron microscopy; SEM, scanning electron microscopy; FESEM, field-emission SEM; HRTEM, high-resolution TEM; XRD, X-ray diffraction; FTIR, Fourier-transform infrared (spectroscopy); AFM, atomic force microscopy; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography; DLS, dynamic light scattering; EDX, energy-dispersive X-ray (spectroscopy); EDAX, ED X-ray analysis; TGA, thermogravimetric analysis; PCCS, .

Anti-inflammatory activity of AgNPs

AgNPs of 20–80 nm were synthesized using Sambucus nigra (blackberry) extract. The NPs were characterized using ultraviolet-visible and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction, and further investigations were carried out for anti-inflammatory effects, both in vitro and in vivo, against Wister rats. 177

Antiviral activity of AgNPs

Multidimensional biological activities of AgNPs provide significant antiviral potentiality. HEPES buffer was used to synthesize NPs of 5–20 nm. Postinfection antiviral activity of AgNPs was evaluated using Hut/CCR5 cells using ELISA. AgNPs inhibited HIV1 retrovirus 17%–187% more than the reverse-transcriptase inhibitor azidothymidine triphosphate 245 Polysulfone-incorporated AgNPs manifested antiviral and antibacterial activity. This was attributed to the release of sufficient silver ions from the membrane, acting as an antiviral agent. 246

Cardioprotection

The medicinal herb neem ( Millingtonia hortensis ) has been used to synthesize AgNPs, and showed significant cardioprotective properties in rats. 178

Wound dressing

anotechnology has contributed significantly in the area of wound healing, as healing is attributed to increased anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activity. A cotton fabric treated with NPs of size 22 nm exhibited potent healing power. 247 Another advance in this area was made with the impregnation of AgNPs into bacterial cellulose for antimicrobial wound dressing. Acetobacter xylinum (strain TISTR 975) was used to produce bacterial cellulose, which was immersed in silver nitrate solution. It was effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. 248 The performance of a polymer is increased by the introduction of inorganic NPs. In this regard, polyurethane solution containing silver ions was reduced by dimethylformamide using electrospinning. Collagen was introduced to increase its hydrophilicity. This collagen sponge incorporatingd AgNPs had enhanced wound-healing ability in an animal model. 249 Most recently, Jacob et al biosynthesized nanoengineered tissue impregnated with AgNPs, which significantly prevented borne bacterial growth on the surface of tissue and could help in controlling health-associated infections. 250

Nature has its own coaching manners of synthesizing miniaturized functional materials. Increasing awareness of green chemistry and the benefit of synthesis of AgNPs using plant extracts can be ascribed to the fact that it is ecofriendly, low in cost, and provides maximum protection to human health. Green synthesized AgNPs have unmatched significance in the field of nanotechnology. AgNPs cover a wide spectrum of significant pharmacological activities, and the cost-effectiveness provides an alternative to local drugs. Besides plant-mediated green synthesis, special emphasis has also been placed on the diverse bioassays exhibited by AgNPs. This review will help researchers to develop novel AgNP-based drugs using green technology.

Author contributions

All authors contributed to data analysis, drafting or revising the article, gave final approval of the version to be published, and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Green nanotechnology – A new hope for medical biology

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Green nanotechnology: advancement in phytoformulation research.

1. Introduction

2. herbal approach for developing nanoparticles, 3. nanoparticles synthesized from plant extracts, 3.1. gold and silver nanoparticles, 3.2. copper and copper oxide nanoparticles, 3.3. palladium and platinium nanoparticles, 3.4. titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles, 3.5. indium oxide (in 2 o 3 ), iron oxide, lead, and selenium nanoparticles, 4. green synthesis of metal nanoparticles, 5. green nanotechnology: risk aspects, 6. risk assessment, 7. risk management, 8. risk communication, 9. conclusions, author contributions, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Verma, A.; Gautam, S.P.; Bansal, K.K.; Prabhakar, N.; Rosenholm, J.M. Green Nanotechnology: Advancement in Phytoformulation Research. Medicines 2019 , 6 , 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines6010039

Verma A, Gautam SP, Bansal KK, Prabhakar N, Rosenholm JM. Green Nanotechnology: Advancement in Phytoformulation Research. Medicines . 2019; 6(1):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines6010039

Verma, Ajay, Surya P. Gautam, Kuldeep K. Bansal, Neeraj Prabhakar, and Jessica M. Rosenholm. 2019. "Green Nanotechnology: Advancement in Phytoformulation Research" Medicines 6, no. 1: 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines6010039

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Green Nanotechnology Innovations to Realize UN Sustainable Development Goals 2030

International Journal of Applied Engineering and Management Letters (IJAEML), 5(2), 96-105. ISSN: 2581-7000, 2021

9 Pages Posted: 11 Dec 2021

Shubhrajyotsna Aithal

Srinivas University

P. S. Aithal

Poornaprajna College

Date Written: September 25, 2021

Purpose: Adoption of suitable technology and managing it strategically to solve social problems of the world is the need of the hour. United nations being a multi-country membership organization, has announced 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) in the year 2015 with a slogan of action to end poverty, to protect the planet, and to ensure peace and prosperity by the year 2030. It is argued that nanotechnology that is considered a technology of the 21st century can be used to realize thirteen out of seventeen Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. These thirteen SDGs include: Reduce Poverty, Reduce Hunger, Health & Well-Being, Clean Water & Sanitation, Affordable renewable energy, Sustainable Industrialization, Ensure Sustainable Production & Consumption, Combat on Climate Change, Conserve Ocean & Marine Resources, and Protect life on Land. Methodology: The study uses explorative research methodology based on developing postulates. The data and information are collected from various related scholarly publications searched through suitable keywords in Google scholar. Findings: Nanotechnology anticipated as a universal technology has capabilities to solve problems of society at the basic level, comfortable level, and dreamy desirable levels. Nanotechnology, if not managed strategically and carefully has dangers to human health due to its potential risks of predicted nanotoxicity. In this paper, we have analysed these potentials challenges of nanotechnology, its strategic management, and developed a model of how green and eco-friendly nanotechnology can be used in many industries to realize these thirteen sustainable development goals and eliminates the threat of the technification of development processes. Originality/Value: The paper discusses the advantages and benefits of systematic management of green and eco-friendly nanotechnology in the process of realizing individual sustainable goals in detail. Further, the concept, current research outcome, and the industrial prospects of achieving global SDG using eco-friendly green nanotechnology are analysed using predictive analysis framework of explorative research methodology.

Keywords: SDG, Nanotechnology (NT), Green nanotechnology (GNT), Strategic management, Green nanomaterials, Green synthesis, Eco-friendly production, Technification

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Srinivas University ( email )

Srinivas Campus, Mangaladevi Road Pandeshwar Mangalore, 575001 India

P. S. Aithal (Contact Author)

Poornaprajna college ( email ).

Poornaprajna Institute of Management Udupi District Karnataka India +919343348392 (Phone)

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Special Issue: Green Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials for a Sustainable Environment

The task for UN Environment in the 2030 agenda is to build and improve the integrated approaches to sustainable development and ways that will show how enhancing environmental health would have positive social and economic effects. UN Environment activity promotes the environmental dimension of sustainable development and results in socio-economic development with the goals of lowering environmental hazards and boosting the resilience of societies and the environment.

Green nanotechnology (GN) might wind up being the most efficient platform for achieving the goals of the 2030 Agenda. The goal of GN is to create goods and procedures that are secure, energy-efficient, waste-free, and emit fewer greenhouse gases. Such goods and procedures use renewable resources, and/or their environmental impact is minimal. GN also refers to production techniques that are both economically and environmentally viable. Green chemistry, sustainable engineering, and green manufacturing are some of the other terms that are frequently used in conjunction with green nanotechnology. Green chemistry's concepts can be used to create safer and more environmentally friendly nanomaterials as well as environmentally friendly nano production procedures. Conversely, by utilizing nanotechnology to make manufacturing more environmentally friendly, the concepts of nanoscience can be applied to promote green chemistry.

Therefore, the main objective of this special issue is to publish outstanding research/review papers presenting the latest research in green nanotechnology and their applications in environmental which may play crucial role in SDGs.

Potential topics include, but are not limited to the following:

- Waste to Wealth

- Pollution Abatement

- Catalysis

- Green Chemistry

- Environmental Remediation Applications

- Wastewater treatment

- Photocatalysis

- Biomedical Applications

- Nanomaterials

- Carbon Nanotechnology

- Polymer and Ceramic Nanotechnology

- Sustainable Developments Goals

- Nano-biosensors, Nano Bioengineering, Nano mechanical devices

- Wastewater treatment and water remediation, air treatment, water and air pollutants monitoring

- Sustainable Synthesis of Nanomaterials using different renewable sources

Jagpreet Singh

Department of Chemical Engineering, University Centre for Research & Development, Chandigarh University, India [email protected]; [email protected]

Manoj Gupta

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NUS Singapore [email protected]

Valeria De Matteis

Department of Mathematics and Physics “Ennio De Giorgi”, University of Salento, Italy [email protected]

Articles (44 in this collection)

Investigation on the thermal behavior of g-c 3 n 4 /mos 2 nanocomposite produced by microwave-assisted method, authors (first, second and last of 5).

• Mukul Saxena
• Anuj Kumar Sharma
• Monika Singh
• Content type: Original Paper
• Published: 11 July 2024

Impact of nanomaterials on leather: a nano-Saga from processing to application

• Bindia Sahu
• Anurag Ramesh
• Farhan Zameer
• Content type: Review
• Published: 22 June 2024

Increased biomass and biomolecule productivity of Spirulina sp. LEB 18 cultivated with CO 2 adsorbent nanofibers

• Bruna Barcelos Cardias
• Michele Greque de Morais
• Jorge Alberto Vieira Costa
• Published: 15 June 2024

Ecofriendly agriculture pest control using pheromone packed programed nanovolcanoes framed by graphene oxide

Authors (first, second and last of 12).

• Kamaljit Kaur
• Mahima Chandel
• Vijayakumar Shanmugam
• Published: 24 May 2024

Greening up the fight against emerging contaminants: algae-based nanoparticles for water remediation

Authors (first, second and last of 6).

• K. S. D. Premarathna
• Sie Yon Lau
• Man Kee Lam
• Open Access
• Published: 16 May 2024

Enzymes-based nanomaterial synthesis: an eco-friendly and green synthesis approach

• Published: 07 May 2024

Deciphering the Role of Nanoparticles Induced Microbial Exopolysaccharides in Soil Amelioration and Plant Health

Authors (first, second and last of 7).

• Ritika Chauhan
• Vishnu D. Rajput
• Published: 26 April 2024

Eco-friendly zinc oxide nanoparticles from Moringa oleifera leaf extract for photocatalytic and antibacterial applications

• L. Natrayan
• Gorti Janardhan
• G. Velmurugan
• Published: 02 April 2024

Synthesis, characterization, and advanced sustainable applications of copper oxide nanoparticles: a review

• Muhammad Hamzah Saleem
• Kadambot H. M. Siddique
• Published: 13 March 2024

Comparative studies of carbon materials synthesized from agricultural and plastic waste as catalysts for ozonation of real textile wastewater

Authors (first, second and last of 4).

• Vijay A. Juwar
• Ajit P. Rathod
• Bharat A. Bhanvase
• Published: 01 March 2024

Green-synthesized gold nanoparticles induce adaptation in photosynthetic responses, sugar and nitrogen metabolism, and seed yield of salt-stressed mustard plants

• Sayeda Khatoon
• Moksh Mahajan
• M. Iqbal R. Khan
• Published: 29 February 2024

Investigation of antibacterial, antioxidant, cytotoxicity and photocatalytic dye degradation activity of green synthesized copper oxide nanoparticles using Ceropegia debilis plant extract

• M. Dhanalakshmi
• Venkatramana Losetty
• Published: 28 February 2024

Study of chromate (VI) removal via sequential combined fenton’s process and adsorption by nano-magnesium oxide-modified wood biochar for tannery wastewater treatment

Authors (first, second and last of 8).

• Kavita Singh
• Bablu Prasad
• Kumar Suranjit Prasad
• Published: 18 February 2024

Synergetic effect using green nano-zero-valent iron and biodegradation ( Pseudomonas BSPS_PHE2) for cyanide and phenol removal in coke-oven wastewater

• Megha Tyagi
• Sheeja Jagadevan
• Deepak Kukkar
• Published: 06 February 2024

Efficient ozone decomposition over nickel-modified amorphous MnO x catalysts

• Qiuyan Zhang
• Published: 04 February 2024

Carbon dots support for preconcentration and analysis of anti-inflammatory drug ibuprofen: an innovative remedy for wastewater treatment

• Sameera Shafi
• Zohaib Sarwar
• Published: 31 January 2024

Catalytic and kinetic studies of CuFe 2 O 4 as a superior heterogeneous nanocatalyst for dye degradation and Cr(VI) reduction

• Rupali R. Chavan
• Vishalkumar R. More
• Ashok D. Chougale

Green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles from Calotropis procera latex: an eco-friendly catalyst for biodiesel production from Calotropis procera seed oil

• Surinder Kumar
• Shilpa Kumari
• Rahul Sharma
• Published: 29 January 2024

Nanozymes: advance enzyme-mimicking theragnostic tool: a review

Authors (first, second and last of 10).

• Gaurav Pant
• Simranjeet Singh
• Sasan Zahmatkesh
• Published: 21 January 2024

Investigating the impact of chitosan nanocarrier for different dilution factors of Cornus circinata for bioremediation and antimicrobial applications

• Sorimuthu Revathi
• S. Thanigaivel
• Nibedita Dey
• Published: 20 January 2024

Black gram husk-derived carbon dots: characterization and catalytic dye reduction activities

• N. S. Karthikeyan
• Matias Soto-Moscoso
• Published: 10 January 2024

Nanopriming with magnesium oxide nanoparticles enhanced antioxidant potential and nutritional richness of radish leaves grown in field

• Ayushi Gautam
• Lili Syahani Rusli
• Praveen Guleria
• Published: 09 January 2024

Upgradation of highly efficient and profitable eco-friendly nanofluid-based vegetable oil prepared by green synthesis method for the insulation and cooling of transformer

• Abubakar Siddique
• Shameem Siddique
• Published: 02 January 2024

Citrus limetta peels derived carbon dots as highly active carbocatalyst for carbon–carbon bond formation

• Gurmeet Kaur
• Published: 08 December 2023

Sustainable and efficient removal of cationic and neutral dyes from aqueous solution using nano-engineered CuFe 2 O 4 /Peanut shell magnetic composite

• Atul Sharma
• Arshi Choudhry
• Saif Ali Chaudhry
• Published: 06 December 2023

Recent advancements in nanotechnological approaches for pollution monitoring and environmental sustainability

Authors (first, second and last of 9).

• J. Manjunathan
• N. Thirumalaivasan

Fabrication of metal-oxide arrays: mechanism of solvent-mediated metal infiltration into block copolymer nanopatterns

• Sajan Singh
• Jhonattan Frank Baez Vasquez
• Michael A. Morris
• Published: 02 December 2023

Synergistic antimicrobial and antiproliferative proficiency of Phaseolus vulgaris seed extract-derived silver nanoparticles: a green fabrication approach

• Mudasir Ahmad Mir
• Neelam Prabha Negi
• Manpreet Kaur Aulakh
• Published: 27 November 2023

Activation of nanoparticles of nickel ferrite by divalent metal ions co-doping for the methyl orange dye’s photocatalytic degradation: a kinetic and adsorption isotherm study

• Seema Kumari
• Asha Kumari
• Published: 26 November 2023

Removal of chromium ions by a bionanocomposite hydrogel based on starch- g -poly(acrylic acid) reinforced by cellulose nanofibers through a fix-bed adsorption column

• Maryam Heidarzadeh-Samani
• Tayebeh Behzad
• Nooshin Bahadoran Baghbadorani
• Published: 24 November 2023

Enhancing the silica-magnetic catalyst-assisted bioethanol production from biowaste via ultrasonics

• Hemalatha Manivannan
• Anikesh Krishnamurthy
• G. Mohan Kumar
• Published: 16 November 2023

Bidirectional approach of β-cyclodextrin-capped silver nanoparticles: reduction in toxicity and enhancement in antibacterial activity

• Mohd Jahir Khan
• Abrar Ahmad
• Mahmood Ahmad Khan
• Published: 31 October 2023

Investigation of freeze–thaw resistance of natural and sintered magnesia wastes in self-compacting concrete

• Ali Sariişik

Review of in-depth knowledge on the application of oxides nanoparticles and nanocomposites of Al, Si and Ca as photocatalyst and antimicrobial agents in the treatment of contaminants in water

• Nnabuk Okon Eddy
• Richard Alexis Ukpe
• Sunday Emmanson Udo

Influence of nano bentonite clay and nano fly ash on the mechanical and durability properties of concrete

• Dhrub Kumar Das
• Aditya Kumar Tiwary
• Published: 21 October 2023

Fe-doped nano-cobalt oxide green catalysts for sulfoxidation and photo degradation

• Minaxi S. Maru
• Sunil Kumar

Reviewing the advancement of calcium hydroxyapatite-mediated treatment for the remediation of wastewater: applications, degradation kinetics and future perspective

• Akash Tripathi
• Rishabh Raj
• M. M. Ghangrekar
• Published: 17 July 2023

A review of combustion properties, performance, and emission characteristics of diesel engine fueled with Al 2 O 3 nanoparticle-containing biodiesel

• Fariborz Sharifianjazi
• AmirHossein Esmaeilkhanian
• Elahe Ahmadi
• Published: 13 July 2023

A comprehensive review on mitigating abiotic stresses in plants by metallic nanomaterials: prospects and concerns

• Vijay Rani Rajpal
• Satya Prakash
• Renu Deswal
• Published: 05 July 2023

Bismuth (III) oxide (Bi 2 O 3 )/poly (vinyl alcohol) nanocomposite fiber-coated polyester fabrics for multifunctional applications

• Leila Gholamzadeh
• Abolfazl Zare Mehrjardi
• Published: 24 April 2023

A review of applying modified/functionalized non-carbon materials to remove emergent heavy ions pollutants

• Anh Quang Dao
• Do Mai Nguyen
• Tran Thanh Tam Toan
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Back to Journals » International Journal of Nanomedicine » Volume 14

Green nanotechnology: a review on green synthesis of silver nanoparticles — an ecofriendly approach

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Authors Ahmad S , Munir S , Zeb N , Ullah A , Khan B , Ali J , Bilal M , Omer M , Alamzeb M   , Salman SM , Ali S  

Received 5 January 2019

Accepted for publication 26 March 2019

Published 10 July 2019 Volume 2019:14 Pages 5087—5107

DOI https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S200254

Checked for plagiarism Yes

Review by Single anonymous peer review

Peer reviewer comments 2

Editor who approved publication: Dr Thomas Webster

Shabir Ahmad, 1 Sidra Munir, 1 Nadia Zeb 1,2 Asad Ullah, 1 Behramand Khan, 1 Javed Ali, 3 Muhammad Bilal, 3 Muhammad Omer, 4 Muhammad Alamzeb, 5 Syed Muhammad Salman, 1 Saqib Ali 5 1 Department of Chemistry, Islamia College University, Peshawar 25120, Pakistan; 2 Department of Chemistry, Government Girls Degree College, Peshawar, Pakistan; 3 Department of Chemistry, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat, Pakistan; 4 Institute of Chemical Sciences, University of Swat, Swat, 19201, Pakistan; 5 Department of Chemistry, University of Kotli 11100, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan Background: Nanotechnology explores a variety of promising approaches in the area of material sciences on a molecular level, and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are of leading interest in the present scenario. This review is a comprehensive contribution in the field of green synthesis, characterization, and biological activities of AgNPs using different biological sources. Methods: Biosynthesis of AgNPs can be accomplished by physical, chemical, and green synthesis; however, synthesis via biological precursors has shown remarkable outcomes. In available reported data, these entities are used as reducing agents where the synthesized NPs are characterized by ultraviolet-visible and Fourier-transform infrared spectra and X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. Results: Modulation of metals to a nanoscale drastically changes their chemical, physical, and optical properties, and is exploited further via antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, antioxidant, and cardioprotective activities. Results showed excellent growth inhibition of the microorganism. Conclusion: Novel outcomes of green synthesis in the field of nanotechnology are appreciable where the synthesis and design of NPs have proven potential outcomes in diverse fields. The study of green synthesis can be extended to conduct the in silco and in vitro research to confirm these findings. Keywords: green synthesis, plant mediated synthesis, silver bioactivity, microorganism

Introduction

Nanotechnology offers fields with effective applications, ranging from traditional chemical techniques to medicinal and environmental technologies. AgNPs have emerged with leading contributions in diverse applications, such as drug delivery, 31 ointments, nanomedicine, 37 chemical sensing, 41 data storage, 47 cell biology, 54 agriculture, cosmetics, 60 textiles, 17 the food industry, photocatalytic organic dye–degradation activity, 64 antioxidants, 66 and antimicrobial agents. 68

Despite the contradictions reported on the toxicity of AgNPs, 69 its role as a disinfectant and antimicrobial agent has been given considerable appreciation. The available documented data 73 , 74 and the interest of the community in this field prompted us to work on plant-mediated green synthesis and biological activities of AgNPs.

Different types of nanoparticles

Nanoparticle synthesis

Green approach (biological/conventional methods)

The surging popularity of green methods has triggered synthesis of AgNPs using different sources, like bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants, resulting in large-scale production with less contamination. Green synthesis is an ecofriendly and biocompatible process, 119 generally accomplished by using a capping agent/stabilizer (to control size and prevent agglomeration), 120 plant extracts, yeast, or bacteria. 121

Green synthesis using plant extracts

Biosynthesis using microorganisms

Bacteria-mediated synthesis of agnps.

Alga-mediated synthesis of AgNPs

Fungus-mediated synthesis of AgNPs

Synthesis from miscellaneous sources

Nanotechnology has placed DNA on a recent drive to be used as a reducing agent. 215 Strong affinity of DNA bases for silver make it a template stabalizer 216 AgNPs were synthesized on DNA strands and found to be possibly located at N 7 guanine and phosphate. 217 Another attempt was made with calf-thymus DNA to synthesize AgNPs. 218 Similarly, silver-binding peptides were identified and selected using a combinatorial approach for NP synthesis. 219

Bioactivities

Antibacterial activity of agnps.

Antifungal activity of AgNPs

Anticancer activity of AgNPs

Anti-inflammatory activity of AgNPs

AgNPs of 20–80 nm were synthesized using Sambucus nigra (blackberry) extract. The NPs were characterized using ultraviolet-visible and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction, and further investigations were carried out for anti-inflammatory effects, both in vitro and in vivo, against Wister rats. 177

Antiviral activity of AgNPs

Multidimensional biological activities of AgNPs provide significant antiviral potentiality. HEPES buffer was used to synthesize NPs of 5–20 nm. Postinfection antiviral activity of AgNPs was evaluated using Hut/CCR5 cells using ELISA. AgNPs inhibited HIV1 retrovirus 17%–187% more than the reverse-transcriptase inhibitor azidothymidine triphosphate 245 Polysulfone-incorporated AgNPs manifested antiviral and antibacterial activity. This was attributed to the release of sufficient silver ions from the membrane, acting as an antiviral agent. 246

Cardioprotection

The medicinal herb neem ( Millingtonia hortensis ) has been used to synthesize AgNPs, and showed significant cardioprotective properties in rats. 178

Wound dressing

anotechnology has contributed significantly in the area of wound healing, as healing is attributed to increased anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activity. A cotton fabric treated with NPs of size 22 nm exhibited potent healing power. 247 Another advance in this area was made with the impregnation of AgNPs into bacterial cellulose for antimicrobial wound dressing. Acetobacter xylinum (strain TISTR 975) was used to produce bacterial cellulose, which was immersed in silver nitrate solution. It was effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. 248 The performance of a polymer is increased by the introduction of inorganic NPs. In this regard, polyurethane solution containing silver ions was reduced by dimethylformamide using electrospinning. Collagen was introduced to increase its hydrophilicity. This collagen sponge incorporatingd AgNPs had enhanced wound-healing ability in an animal model. 249 Most recently, Jacob et al biosynthesized nanoengineered tissue impregnated with AgNPs, which significantly prevented borne bacterial growth on the surface of tissue and could help in controlling health-associated infections. 250

Nature has its own coaching manners of synthesizing miniaturized functional materials. Increasing awareness of green chemistry and the benefit of synthesis of AgNPs using plant extracts can be ascribed to the fact that it is ecofriendly, low in cost, and provides maximum protection to human health. Green synthesized AgNPs have unmatched significance in the field of nanotechnology. AgNPs cover a wide spectrum of significant pharmacological activities, and the cost-effectiveness provides an alternative to local drugs. Besides plant-mediated green synthesis, special emphasis has also been placed on the diverse bioassays exhibited by AgNPs. This review will help researchers to develop novel AgNP-based drugs using green technology.

Author contributions

All authors contributed to data analysis, drafting or revising the article, gave final approval of the version to be published, and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

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• Published: 20 September 2024

Next-generation fertilizers: the impact of bionanofertilizers on sustainable agriculture

• Pankaj Kumar Arora 1 ,
• Shivam Tripathi 2 ,
• Rishabh Anand Omar 2 ,
• Prerna Chauhan 1 ,
• Vijay Kumar Sinhal 1 ,
• Amit Singh 3 ,
• Alok Srivastava 1 ,
• Sanjay Kumar Garg 1 &
• Vijay Pal Singh 1  

Microbial Cell Factories volume  23 , Article number:  254 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Bionanofertilizers are promising eco-friendly alternative to chemical fertilizers, leveraging nanotechnology and biotechnology to enhance nutrient uptake by plants and improve soil health. They consist of nanoscale materials and beneficial microorganisms, offering benefits such as enhanced seed germination, improved soil quality, increased nutrient use efficiency, and pesticide residue degradation, ultimately leading to improved crop productivity. Bionanofertilizers are designed for targeted delivery of nutrients, controlled release, and minimizing environmental pollutants, making them a sustainable option for agriculture. These fertilizers also have the potential to enhance plant growth, provide disease resistance, and contribute to sustainable farming practices. The development of bionanofertilizers addresses the adverse environmental impact of chemical fertilizers, offering a safer and productive means of fertilization for agricultural practices. This review provides substantial evidence supporting the potential of bionanofertilizers in revolutionizing agricultural practices, offering eco-friendly and sustainable solutions for crop management and soil health.

Introduction

As the world’s population is projected to reach 11 billion by 2100, food production needs to increase by 60–70% to meet the growing demand [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Traditional approaches to addressing food production challenges have involved the use of pesticides, chemical fertilizers, and genetically modified seeds [ 4 ].

The excess use of chemical fertilizers is reported to result in the degradation of soil health, reduction in food quality, and environmental problems [ 5 ]. A significant portion of these chemical fertilizers remains unused and can contribute to issues like leaching, mineralization, and bioconservation. The accumulation of chemical fertilizers has broader environmental consequences, affecting ecosystems such as soil microflora, marine environments, and parasites [ 6 ].

The challenges associated with traditional fertilizers, including issues with soil fertility, environmental impact, and inefficient nutrient utilization, have prompted a call for advancements in farming and agriculture [ 7 – 8 ]. One proposed solution is the implementation of nanotechnology, to achieve sustainable agriculture and enhance crop production [ 8 – 9 ].

Nanotechnology has a great potential for revolutionizing agriculture. By working at the ultra-small scale of nanoparticles (less than 100 nanometers in size), scientists are developing tools that can improve crop yields, fight disease, and promote sustainability [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Nanotechnology allows for targeted delivery of fertilizers, pesticides, and other agricultural products. By encapsulating them in nanoparticles, they can be delivered directly to the plant or target pest, reducing waste and environmental impact [ 13 ]. Nanofertilizers can deliver nutrients directly to plant roots, improving nutrient uptake and reducing waste. This can lead to healthier plants and improved crop yields [ 14 ]. Nanotech-based fertilizers can be designed to release nutrients slowly over time, ensuring optimal uptake by plants and reducing the need for frequent application. This can lead to increased crop yields and improved plant health. Nanotechnology can contribute to sustainable agriculture by reducing water and pesticide use [ 15 – 16 ]. Overall, nanotechnology has the potential to significantly improve agricultural practices, leading to increased food production, improved food safety, and a more sustainable food system.

Nanofertilizers and bionanofertilizers are two important nano-based products for sustainable agriculture that provide more efficient and targeted nutrient delivery systems to increase agriculture production [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. The main objective of this review is to comprehensively assess the current state of knowledge and research on the application of nano-fertilizers and bionanofertilizers in agricultural systems. It aims to determine how these advanced fertilizers can support sustainable agriculture by boosting crop yields, enhancing soil quality, and reducing environmental harm. Additionally, the review intends to critically evaluate the effectiveness of bionanofertilizers in improving agricultural results in comparison to traditional fertilizers. This involves exploring their advantages, drawbacks, and future development possibilities. In this brief review, we discuss the synthesis, application, benefits, and limitations of bionanofertilizers, along with an overview of nanofertilizers.

Nanofertilizers

Nanofertilizers are the kind on nanomaterials which act as plant nutrient (micro or macro nutrient) itself or carrier of the plant nutrients. Nutrients-encapsulated within nanomaterials are also known as nonofertilizers [ 19 ]. Nanofertilizers are nanomaterial-based formulations designed to deliver nutrients to plants in a more controlled and efficient manner. Nanofertilizers can be categorized into various types, including nano-sized particles of conventional fertilizers, nanostructured materials, and encapsulated nutrients that release slowly over time.

Synthesis of nanofertilizers

The synthesis of nanofertilizers can be achieved through various methods, broadly classified into top-down and bottom-up approaches.

Top-down synthesis

In this method of synthesis, bulk amount of material braked down into nano sized particles using various physical and chemical methods. Top-down synthesis includes, mechanical treatment, chemical treatment, thermal/laser extirpation, and sputtering [ 20 ]. In mechanical treatment large amount of material is break down into nano sized particle using ball-milling. Approximately 100 to 300 nm sized particles can be achieved by ball milling. In chemical treatment the materials are treated by various oxidizing or reducing agents such as NaBr, which changes the structure of the materials and leads to the formation of nano sized materials, which are further used as fertilizers. Thermal treatment synthesizes the material by carbon vapor deposition and treatment of the material till their reduction temperature for several hours in a particular gaseous environment [ 21 ]. In sputtering, thin films of nanoparticles are deposited using vacuum. A direct current magnetron sputtering process was optimized for producing uniformly sized silver nanoparticles [ 22 ].

Bottom-up synthesis

In bottom-up synthesis nanofertilizers are synthesized from small monomers, atoms, and molecules. This approaches utilized physical and chemical forces at the nanoscale to assemble these building blocks into the desired nanoparticle structure [ 23 ]. The bottom-up synthesis performs using various chemical process such as precipitation, vapor deposition, sol-gel process, molecular condensation, laser pyrolysis, aerosol pyrolysis, and spray pyrolysis to synthesize nanoparticles [ 24 ] (Fig. 1 ).

Biological synthesis

Biological synthesis of nanofertilizers involves the use of biological entities such as plants, microorganisms, and enzymes to produce nanoparticles [ 25 , 26 ]. This method is also known as green synthesis. This method is often preferred over chemical synthesis due to its eco-friendliness, cost-effectiveness, and the ability to produce biocompatible materials.

Synthesis methods of nanoparticles

Types of nanofertilizers

Nano fertilizers can be classified into five major classes based on plant requirements and carrier support. These classes typically include macronutrient-based nanofertilizers, micronutrient-based nanofertlizers, Organic nanofertilizers, hybrid nanofertilizers aand carbon-based nanofertilizers. In this section, various types of nanofertilizers are discussed:

Macronutrient-based nanofertilizers

Plants require a range of macronutrients to grow and flourish, including calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), magnesium (Mg), nitrogen (N), and sulfur (S). Insufficient amounts of these essential nutrients can hinder plant development and increase susceptibility to diseases and pests. Ensuring plants receive a proper balance of macronutrients is crucial for their health and vitality. The primary macronutrients, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, are known as fertilizer elements and are indicated by the “NPK” labeling on fertilizer products [ 27 ]. As the demand for food rises towards 2050, the need for macronutrients will also grow. Nanofertilizers, which possess a high volume-to-surface ratio due to their nanomaterial composition, can enhance the efficiency of macronutrient uptake with smaller quantities compared to traditional fertilizers [ 28 ]. In this subsection, macronutrient-based nanofertilizers are discussed:

Nitrogen-based nanofertilizers

Nitrogen is a crucial nutrient for plants due to its essential role in synthesizing amino acids, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll [ 29 ]. It is also a key element in enzymes that participate in energy metabolism, photosynthesis, and respiration. A deficiency in nitrogen leads to stunted growth, yellowing leaves, and reduced yield in plants [ 29 ]. Therefore, providing an adequate nitrogen supply is vital for healthy plant growth and productivity.

Nitrogen-based nanofertilizers incorporate nanoparticles (NPs) like metal oxides, graphene, and carbon nanotubes combined with nitrogen molecules. These fertilizers slowly release nitrogen into the soil, minimizing nitrogen runoff into aquatic systems and reducing the risk of environmental harm [ 15 ]. Research has shown that nitrogen-based nanofertilizers can enhance productivity more effectively than traditional mineral urea while mitigating its drawbacks. By increasing chlorophyll content in plant leaves, these nanofertilizers promote rapid growth in both shoots and roots [ 29 ]. With particles sized 20–50 nm, nano nitrogen particles have a higher surface area and more particles per unit area compared to conventional urea, and nano-urea may contain 4% nitrogen in its liquid form [ 29 ]. Researchers have also developed urea-coated zeolite chips and urea-modified hydroxyapatite nanoparticles, which provide a controlled, long-term release of nitrogen tailored to plant needs [ 30 ].

Phosphorus-based nanofertilizers

Phosphorus is a vital mineral for plant development and growth, aiding in nutrient uptake and being essential for photosynthesis. Phosphorus nanofertilizers are more economical, efficient, and environmentally friendly compared to conventional fertilizers. Slow-release phosphorus nanofertilizers ensure a continuous supply of phosphorus throughout the crop’s life cycle. These nanofertilizers can quickly penetrate the plant cuticle through the cuticular pathway and travel long distances within the plant’s vascular system via the stomatal pathway. Research indicates that using phosphorus nanofertilizers can increase both grain and straw yield in Wheat [ 31 ]. This improvement is likely due to enhanced growth hormone levels, improved metabolic processes, and increased photosynthetic activity. The use of phosphorus nanofertilizers boosts photosynthesis and plant metabolism, leading to more panicles and grain development, ultimately resulting in higher wheat yields and better growth metrics [ 31 ]. In a study by Liu and Lal [ 32 ], apatite nanoparticles were applied as phosphorus nanofertilizer, and the seed yield and growth rate of Glycine max were improved by 20% and 30%, respectively, compared to conventional phosphorus fertilizers (Ca(H 2 PO 4 ) 2 ).

Potassium-based nanofertilizers

Potassium (K) is one of the three primary macronutrients commonly used in agriculture, and its deficiency can negatively impact essential plant growth processes and crop yields. Potassium-based nanofertilizers exhibit enhanced nutrient uptake, reduced leaching susceptibility, and contribute to improved soil structure. A study on alfalfa plant ( Medicago sativa ) showed that potassium sulfate (K 2 SO 4 ) nanoparticles enhanced growth, mineral content, and stress response mechanisms [ 33 ]. Similarly, daffodil plants ( Narcissus tazatta ) fertilized with potassium nanofertilizers exhibited significant differences in anthocyanin content in petals, biomass production, and water absorption [ 34 ].

Calcium-based nanofertilizers

Calcium is vital for numerous functions, including stabilizing cell walls, retaining and transporting minerals in soil, neutralizing harmful compounds, and aiding seed development. It also plays a crucial role in fruit quality. As an intracellular messenger, calcium regulates stress signals, hormone responses, and various developmental processes. Calcium nanofertilizers have been shown to enhance crop yields, improve the quality of fruits and vegetables, and bolster plant disease resistance [ 15 ]. Nano-calcium carbonate has been shown to boost wheat photosynthesis by stimulating antioxidant enzyme activity, increasing the levels of photosynthetic pigments, enhancing Rubisco activity, improving stomatal conductance, and activating the PSII reaction center [ 35 ]. Furthermore, research indicates that the use of calcium nanofertilizers has led to a significant biomass increase of around 15% in peanuts ( Arachis hypogaea ) [ 36 ].

Magnesium-based nanofertilizers

Magnesium is crucial for photosynthesis as it forms the core of the chlorophyll molecule, making it essential for plant growth. It also has the ability to activate enzymes [ 37 ]. Despite its importance, magnesium has been undervalued as a nutrient in recent years, earning it the moniker “the forgotten element”. Nano-Magnesium and phosphorus influenced atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine levels in Datura seeds and leaves, as the PMT gene, which encodes the putrescine N-methyl transferase enzyme involved in atropine synthesis, is reduced in expression [ 38 ]. Foliar applications of nano-magnesium and chitosan to sesame plants subjected to water scarcity have the potential to influence the plants’ physiological functions and overall yield. These effects manifest in alterations to proline content, total sugar levels, the activities of peroxidase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase, photosynthetic pigment composition, seed yield, and oil content across different sesame cultivars [ 39 ].

Sulfur-based nanofertilizers

Sulfur plays a crucial role in chlorophyll formation, enhancing nitrogen efficiency, and bolstering plant defenses [ 40 ]. Nanostructured sulfur-based growth enhancers have demonstrated an impact on the germination process of wheat seeds when cultivated in greenhouse and nursery environments. The application of nano-sulfur to sulfur-deficient soils enhances the efficiency of fertilizer utilization and accelerates the transfer of nutrients from plant vegetative parts to grain formation [ 41 ]. Cao et al. [ 42 ] demonstrated that sulfur nanoparticles measuring 30 nm and 100 nm were more effective in managing the Fusarium wilt than the use of bulk sulfur granules and sulfate. Studies have indicated that nano-sulfur serves as a plant growth enhancer, boosting stress resistance in plants and improving their nutritional quality [ 43 ]. Additionally, nano-sulfur can lower the uptake of toxic metals, thereby reducing food chain contamination and promoting food safety and security [ 44 , 45 ].

Micronutrient-based nanofertilizers

Micronutrients are trace elements which required in little amount (approximately ≤ 100 ppm), however they are essential for several metabolic process during plant growth. These micronutrients include Boron (B), Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Molybdenum (Mo), and Chlorine (Cl). In this subsection, we described micronutrient based nanofertilizers:

Iron-based nanofertilizer

Iron is an essential micronutrient for plants, integral to key physiological processes such as chlorophyll production, respiration, and enzyme activity. Although iron is abundant in the Earth’s crust, it often occurs in forms that plants cannot easily absorb, resulting in deficiencies that can significantly reduce crop yields. Ghafariyan et al. [ 46 ] reported that an Iron nanofertilizer boosted chlorophyll content in Glycine max leaves by about 10%. Similarly, Delfani et al. [ 47 ] observed a 7% increase in seed weight in the Vigna unguiculata when using an iron-nanofertilizer. Application of Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles at a low dose (50 mg/L) to Oryza sativa (rice) enhanced crop growth. However, a higher concentration (500 mg/L) negatively affected growth, reducing root length, surface area, diameter, and volume [ 48 ].

Copper-based nanofertilizer

Copper is a vital micronutrient for plants, essential for numerous physiological processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, and the production of enzymes and proteins. Copper nanoparticles increased the lignin content in the roots and reduced root growth in soybean plants [ 49 ]. Research has demonstrated that they are particularly effective in preventing various common bacterial and fungal diseases [ 50 – 51 ].

Boron-based nanofertilizer

Plants require small amounts of boron as a fertilizer element, but it is essential for developing cell walls and for transporting photosynthesis products from leaves to active growth regions. While fertilizers can help alleviate boron deficiency, frequent application can negatively impact soil fertility and the environment. Boron is also crucial for bark development, the transport of hormones that affect stem and root growth, pollen germination, flowering, and increasing carbohydrate delivery to active growth areas during the reproductive stage. Meier et al. [ 52 ] documented increases in both root and aerial biomass in lettuce and zucchini plants uning Boron nanofertilizrs. In contrast, Davarpanah et al. [ 53 ] discovered that applying a boron (B) nanofertilizer enhanced the yield of pomegranate trees and, when used with a zinc nanofertilizer, improved fruit quality. Similarly, Ibrahim et al. [ 54 ] found significant improvements in plant height, pod number, and overall yield in mung bean ( Vigna radiata L.) plants when boron nanoparticles were applied foliarly.

Mangenese-based nanofertilizer

Manganese nanoparticles have been demonstrated to be a more effective source of manganese micronutrients than the commercially available MnSO₄ salt [ 55 ]. MnNPs not only support plant growth but also enhance photosynthesis in mung beans ( Vigna radiata ). In contrast, MnSO₄ salt inhibited plant development at a concentration of 1 mg/L, while MnNPs maintained a positive impact. Specifically, at a concentration of 0.05 ppm, Mn nanofertilizer increased root, shoot, rootlet, and biomass growth in Vigna radiata by 52%, 38%, 71%, and 38%, respectively [ 56 ].

Nickel-based nanofertilizer

Nickel is a trace element essential for various plant functions, such as enzyme activation, nitrogen metabolism, and chlorophyll synthesis. In a study with 10-day-old wheat seedlings, nickel nanoparticles (NPs) at low concentrations of 0.01 and 0.1 mg/L did not markedly affect growth or development. However, a small increase in chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b content was noted with the 0.01 mg/L application [ 57 ]. Despite its trace element status, nickel’s absorption is crucial for numerous enzyme functions, cellular redox regulation, and several development-related processes, including growth and physiological and biochemical responses.

Zinc-based nanofertilizers

Zinc nanoparticles (ZnNPs) have been demonstrated to significantly enhance various plant growth parameters, including root and shoot length, biomass, and overall yield. In plants such as Vigna radiata , Cicer arietinum , Cucumis sativus , Raphanus sativus , Brassica napus , and Cluster bean, ZnO nanofertilizers have notably improved biomass, shoot and root length, chlorophyll content, protein levels, and phosphatase enzyme activity [ 58 , 59 ]. ZnNPs also boost plant tolerance to a range of stresses, such as drought, salinity, and heavy metal toxicity, by helping plants maintain a more balanced physiological and biochemical state under stress. ZnNPs can increase chlorophyll content and photosynthetic activity, leading to improved growth and higher crop yields.

Organic nanofertilizers

Organic nanofertilizers consist of naturally occurring substances, derived from plant, animal, or mineral sources, that are engineered to nanoscale dimensions (1–100 nm). They are derived from organic matter like compost, manure, or plant residues or polymers such as chitosan, alginate, carrageenan, pectin etc [ 60 ].

One promising example of organic nanofertilizers is the use of chitosan-based nanofertlizers [ 61 ]. Chitosan, a natural polymer derived from chitin, forms a biodegradable and biocompatible matrix that can encapsulate various nutrients. To date, several types of chitosan-based nanpfertilizers have been developed including nanochitosan, nanochitosan nano-NPK fertilizers and Cu-chitosan [ 61 ]. Another example is NanoMax-NPK that contains organic micronutrients/trace elements, vitamins, and probiotics, along with multiple organic acids (protein-lacto-gluconates) including include chelated nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, oxygen, amino acids, and organic carbon [ 60 ]. Ferbanat and nanonat are examples of liquid organic fertilizers that enhanced growth of the yield of cucumbers [ 62 ].

Georgieva et al. [ 63 ] assessed the effects of two organic nanofertilizers, Lithovit and Nagro, on in vitro germination, pollen tube elongation, and pollen grain viability in Pisum sativum L. cv. Pleven 4. The application of these nanofertilizers significantly improved results compared to the untreated control, with increases of 44.2% and 47.23% in pollen germination and pollen tube elongation, respectively.

Organic nanofertilizers represent a significant advancement in sustainable agriculture. They offer efficient nutrient delivery, improved soil health, and enhanced plant growth, contributing to higher yields and better environmental outcomes.

Hybrid nanofertilizers

Hybrid nanofertilizers are innovative agricultural products combining the strengths of different nanomaterials to deliver essential nutrients to plants in a controlled and efficient manner [ 64 ]. These fertilizers offer a promising solution to address the challenges of traditional fertilizers, such as nutrient loss, environmental pollution, and low crop yields.

Hybrid nanofertilizers typically comprise a nanomaterial carrier, essential nutrients, and often additional components such as growth regulators. The nanomaterial carrier, often composed of silica or polymer nanoparticles, encapsulates the nutrients, protecting them from degradation and facilitating controlled release [ 64 ]. This controlled release mechanism ensures a sustained supply of nutrients to the plant, optimizing uptake and minimizing losses through leaching.

Tarafder et al. [ 65 ] introduced a novel, hybrid nanofertilizer designed for the gradual and sustained release of nutrients into soil and water environments. This innovative fertilizer is constructed from urea-modified hydroxyapatite, that supplies essential nutrients including nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus. To further enhance the fertilizer’s effectiveness, nanoparticles of copper, iron, and zinc were incorporated into the urea-modified hydroxyapatite matrix, thereby improving nutrient delivery and overall efficiency. The hybrid fertilizer significantly boosted the absorption of copper, iron, and zinc nutrients in okra plants ( Abelmoschus esculentus ) due to the slow release of these elements from this hybrid fertilizer.

Haruna et al. [ 66 ] produced a nanohybrid urea-hydroxyapatite fertilizer loaded with carbon nanotube. The inclusion of carbon nanotubes likely helps in maintaining the structural integrity of the fertilizer, which in turn ensures a more controlled and prolonged release of nutrients.

Carbon-based nanofertilizers

Carbon-based NFs have a widespread use in the development of plant and enhances the growth of plant [ 67 ]. Carbon NFs Effectively passing through the seed coat and moving from the root to the shoot and leaf, and can move throughout plants. When nanocarbons suspended or distributed to water and growth medium, then the plants can easily absorb them while taking in other essential minerals. These nanocarbons are mainly utilized by the roots of treated plants to enhance their ability to transport water. Carbon nanotubes have emerged as potential agricultural enhancers, demonstrating their ability to boost growth and yield in various plants [ 67 ]. Studies have indicated that these materials can be effectively applied as fertilizers for a wide range of crops, including vegetables like tomato, cabbage, carrot, rape, onion, and cucumber, as well as agricultural staples such as soybeans, ryegrass, and corn [ 68 , 69 ].

A key mechanism behind this enhancement is the ability of carbon nanotubes to facilitate water absorption by plants. These structures can penetrate germinating seeds, stimulating growth [ 70 ]. Moreover, research on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) has revealed their efficacy in improving seed germination for a diverse array of crops, including tomatoes, corn, and garlic [69. 72]. Khodakovskaya et al. [ 72 ] have shown that MWCNTs can penetrate tomato seeds, leading to increased water uptake and subsequently higher germination rates. Their experiments demonstrated a remarkable 90% increase in seed germination compared to untreated seeds after a 20-day treatment period.

Mechanism of plants uptake of the nanofertilizers

The ability of nanofertilizers to transport nutrients to target areas in biological systems is quite promising. Plants can absorb and move nanoparticles, and several variables, including particle size, surface charge, concentration, exposure duration, and plant type, influence this process. Some entry points, including stomata, root hairs, and surface fractures on leaves, allow nanoparticles to enter the plant system. After entering the plant, nanoparticles can propagate by bulk flow, phloem loading, and diffusion throughout the plant system. Numerous variables, including the size, shape, and surface characteristics of the nanoparticles, as well as the pH and presence of other ions or chemicals in the solution, might affect how well the nanoparticles move.

Uptake of nanofertilizers through plant leaves (Foliar mode)

Nanofertilizers are sprayed on the leaves of the plants or crops. Nanofertilizerts deposited on the surface of the leaves and after deposition they get absorbed through the stomata present on the leaf or by the cuticle [ 73 ]. The primary constituents of the waxy cuticle found on leaf epidermis are wax, cutin, and pectin. The waxy stratum corneum has two distinct channels on its surface: one is lipophilic and the other is hydrophilic. Both the lipophilic and hydrophilic channels have a range of sizes between 0.6 and 4.8 nm. Hydrophilic nanoparticles with a diameter smaller than 4.8 nm can easily diffuse through the hydrophilic channels. On the other hand, lipophilic nanoparticles are absorbed by the leaf through infiltration and diffusion due to the presence of lipophilic channels in the cuticle surface. For plants to regulate the exchange of gases and water, the stomata on their leaf surfaces are essential. Typically, stomata range in size from 10 to 100 μm. Different plant species differ in the size and density of their stomata. The precise size exclusion limit of the stomatal aperture for nanoparticle diffusion is yet unknown because of the distinct geometric structure and physiological role of stomata [ 73 ].

Uptake of nanoparticles through plant roots

Adsorption takes place on the root surface to initiate the first interaction between nanoparticles and plant roots. Since organic acids and mucus can be released by the root hairs, the root surface is negatively charged. This means that positive-charged nanoparticles are more likely to aggregate in the root and be readily absorbed on the root surface. Nanoparticles may be able to reach the root column through the development of lateral roots, which may open up a new adsorption surface for them. The plant root epidermis resembles the plant leaf surface in terms of composition and function. However, the surface of the primary and secondary roots’ root hair and plant root tip epidermis are not completely grown. Upon exposure, the root epidermis is directly affected by the nanoparticles, which then penetrate it. There are several methods that plant cells can absorb nanoparticles when they get into their tissue, including the ion route, endocytosis, interaction with cell membrane. After absorption, nanoparticles can move through symplastic and apoplastic pathways [ 74 ].

Interaction of nanofertilizers with plant cells

Nanoparticles are atomic aggregates with at least one dimension between 1 and 100 nm. Their physicochemical properties differ from larger materials due to their high surface area-to-volume ratio, resulting in unique biological, chemical, and physical properties. Various imaging techniques, including Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and confocal microscopy, have been used to demonstrate how nanoparticles interact with plant cells and tissues. The unique characteristics of nanoparticles, such as small size, high surface-to-volume ratio, and electron exchange ability, contribute to these interactions [ 75 ].

Plants can absorb nanoparticles through different routes, including stomatal, lipophilic, cuticular, and hydrophilic pathways when applied to leaves. The size of nanoparticles influences the absorption route, with smaller nanoparticles (0.6–4.8 nm) absorbed by hydrophilic, cuticular, and lipophilic pathways, while larger nanoparticles (over 20 nm) can pass through stomata [ 76 ].

The phloem system is identified as the primary pathway for nanoparticle transmission from leaf surfaces to roots, as macromolecules and nutrients move through the phloem [ 77 ]. Various transport mechanisms, including aquaporins, endocytosis, ion channels, and membrane transporters, are involved in nanoparticle transport [ 78 – 79 ]. It is mentioned that polymer-coated nanofertilizers act as smart nanofertilizers that release nutrients in a controlled manner [ 80 ]. Formulating nanofertilizers with polymers such as alginate, albumin, chitosan, and polyacrylates, polycaprolactones, and polylactide is recommended [ 17 ]. Nanofertilizers, such as chitosan-coated nanofertilizers and nanoclay-based fertilizers, have shown increased effectiveness in releasing nutrients compared to conventional fertilizers. Natural zeolites and urea-hydroxyapatite hybrid nanofertilizers are also mentioned as effective in binding and gradually releasing nutrients in soil [ 81 ]. A range of channels, including apoplastic, symplastic, and transmembrane, are used to absorb nano fertilizers by roots. The size of particles that can be absorbed by plants ranges from 7 to 200 nm. The positive surface charge of nanoparticles contributes to their absorption onto the negatively charged root surfaces. The distribution and accumulation of nanofertilizers in crop plants are influenced by factors such as particle characteristics, surrounding conditions, plant type, and rhizosphere composition. The application method plays a crucial role in determining the effectiveness of nanofertilizers for plant growth and development [ 81 ]. Figure  2 explains mode of uptake of nanofertilizers through various mechanism.

Significance of nanofertilizers

The conventional fertilizers suffer from significant nutrient loss due to leaching and volatilization [ 15 ]. Nano-fertilizers address this by encapsulating nutrients within a nanoscale shell, enabling controlled release and direct delivery to plant roots [ 82 ]. This improved nutrient use efficiency can lead to a reduction in the overall amount of fertilizer required. Studies have shown that controlled release nanofertilizers can significantly enhance crop productivity [ 83 ]. Research demonstrated improved crop yield, nutrient use efficiency, and overall plant health in various crops like rice, wheat, corn, and soybeans [ 84 ]. By ensuring a steady supply of essential nutrients, nano-fertilizers promote plant growth and development, leading to larger and potentially higher quality crops.

Plants treated with nano-fertilizers often exhibit a stronger defense system against pathogens and pests [ 85 ]. This can be attributed to improved nutrient uptake, leading to the production of natural defense compounds and activation of stress response pathways within the plant. Certain types of nanofertilizers, like those containing copper or zinc oxide, possess inherent antimicrobial properties [ 86 ]. These nanoparticles can directly target and inactivate harmful bacteria, fungi, and viruses, reducing disease incidence in crops.

As mentioned before, nanofertilizers enhance nutrient uptake by plants. This improved nutritional status makes plants more resilient to abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, and extreme temperatures.

Uptake and translocation of nanofertilizers inside the plant cells

Studies suggest that nano-fertilizers can stimulate the production of antioxidants within plants [ 87 ]. These antioxidants help scavenge harmful free radicals generated during stress conditions, protecting plant cells and tissues from damageNano-fertilizers might influence the production of plant hormones like auxins and cytokinins, which play a vital role in stress tolerance [ 88 ]. By promoting optimal hormone balance, these nanoparticles can help plants better adapt to unfavorable environmental conditions [ 89 ].

Abiotic stresses like drought or high temperatures can hinder traditional fertilizer uptake. Nano-fertilizers with their controlled release mechanism can ensure a steady supply of nutrients even under stressful conditions, supporting plant resilience. Table  1 summarizes role of various nano fertilizers in plant growth under various stress and non-stress conditions.

Bionanofertilizers

Biofertilizers are a type of fertilizer that contains living microorganisms that promote plant growth by increasing the availability of nutrients in the soil. These microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, and algae, all of which play a vital role in enhancing soil fertility and plant health [ 120 ]. Biofertilizers contribute to the soil by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, solubilizing phosphorus, and mobilizing other essential nutrients that are often unavailable to plants in their natural state. This ensures that plants have a steady supply of the nutrients they need to thrive [ 121 , 122 , 123 ].

Despite the benefits, traditional biofertilizers face challenges such as poor shelf life, sensitivity to environmental conditions (pH, radiation, temperature), on-field stability issues, and the need for large quantities for extensive agricultural areas [ 124 ]. To overcome these problems, bionanofertilizers have been synthesized by combining biofertilizers with nanoparticles [ 125 , 126 ].

Bionanofertilizers represent innovative approaches to enhance nutrient delivery to plants and improve agricultural productivity [ 81 , 125 ]. These technologies leverage nanotechnology to create more efficient and targeted nutrient delivery systems. Nanoencapsulation of biofertilizers is one of the techniques used in formation of bionanofertilizers [ 17 ]. Nanoencapsulation, involving the coating of biofertilizer components in nanoscale polymers, is highlighted as a technique to protect components, extend shelf life, and ensure controlled release of plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPR). Bionanofertilizers offer several advantages, including steady and slow nutrient release to plants, improved field performance, reduced application losses, cost-effectiveness, eco-sustainability, and renewability [ 17 ]. It is suggested to accelerate nutrient uptake (NPK), enhance enzyme activity, increase microbial populations beneficial for the soil, improve soil fertility, enhance crop product quality, and make crops more resistant to diseases. The potential benefits of bionanofertilizers include enhanced agricultural productivity, sustainability, and food security [ 126 ].

Biosynthesis of bionanofertilizer

The synthesis of bionanofertilizers involves three key steps: (1) cultivating the biofertilizer culture; (2) encapsulating it with nanoparticles; and (3) evaluating its efficacy, quality, purity, and shelf life [ 74 , 127 ] (Fig.  3 ). An alternative method for producing bionanofertilizer includes the formation of microcapsules. PGPR suspensions are mixed in a 2:1 ratio with sodium alginate, starch, and bentonite to produce PGPR mixtures crosslinked with calcium chloride solutions, followed by sterile distilled water washing of the formed microcapsules [ 128 ]. Additionally, a bionanofertilizer can be created with the reaction of salicylic acid with nanoparticles. Sodium alginate (2%), ZnONPs (1 g/mL), and salicylic acid (1.5 mM) are added to the biofertilizer in this method. A 3% calcium chloride solution is then applied to the mixture, resulting in beads of 1 mm. These beads are air-dried and incubated at 4 °C [ 127 ]. An effective bionanofertilizer can be produced by combining organic wastes, such as flowers, cow dung, and kitchen waste, with nanoparticles. Decomposition or pyrolysis of organic waste is performed after the waste has been washed to remove impurities. To produce bionanofertilizer, partially decomposed or pyrolyzed waste is combined with nanoparticles [ 129 ].

Synthesis and Applications of bionanofertilizers

The development and implementation of bionanofertilizer formulations on a large scale face limitations due to a lack of complete understanding of the interactions between nanoparticles, biofertilizers, microflora, and plant systems.

Hamed et al. [ 130 ] developed novel bionanofertilizer capsules designed for the slow and controlled release of nutrients (NPK) and the plant growth-promoting bacterium, Pseudomonas fluorescens . These capsules were created by crosslinking chitosan and alginate with humic acid, followed by the incorporation of nano-NPK and PGPR. The application of these capsules demonstrated that they effectively delivered NPK in a controlled manner, potentially enhancing agricultural productivity and sustainability.

Applications of bionanofertilizers

There are two methods for applying nanofertilizers to crop plants: independently as biofertilizers and nanofertilizers or jointly as a bionanofertilizer. When used independently, nanoparticles can directly impact plant growth by enhancing various processes such as photosynthesis, carbon sequestration, seed germination, enzyme activity, and nitrogen fixation. Using the microbe Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Shukla et al. [ 131 ] reported that nanoparticles enhanced the efficacy of biofertilizers significantly increasing crop yields and nutritional value. Celsia and Mala [ 132 ] investigated the role of neem cakes and PGPR in enhancing the growth and survival of Vigna radiata seeds using nanostructured NPK fertilizers. Rajak et al. [ 133 ] demonstrated that using a combination of bionanofertilizer with other nanofertilizers, such as copper nanoparticles (CuNPs), can effectively encourage plant growth and vitality. Farnia and Omidi [ 134 ] observed a notable improvement in grain output (about 1.5–2 times) in Zea mays crops after applying bionanofertilizer (nano-Zn + biofertilizer) for 7 days. Sabir et al. [ 135 ] conducted experiments to compare the effectiveness of nanofertilizer alone versus its combination with biofertilizer ( Ascophyllum nodosum ) on grapevine plants. The combined application showed a notably high contribution to improvements in vine growth, yield, berry quality attributes, and leaf nutrient levels, particularly in alkaline soil conditions. Mukhopadhyay and De [ 136 ] found that nanoclay-coated biofertilizer, containing Trichoderma and Pseudomonas sp., improved the water retention capacity and nutrient utilization efficiency of rainfed Rabi crops, leading to increased crop productivity. Rahman and Zhang [ 137 ] explored the biochemical processes promoted by bionanofertilizer application, suggesting that it improves the yield characteristics of crops like Vigna .

Moradi Pour et al. [ 138 ] nanoencapsulated Bacillus velezensis with sodium alginate and geletin for biocontrol of Pistachio gummosis . Jakien et al. [ 139 ] studied sugar beet plants and found that bionanofertilizer had significant potential for enhancing morphological and physiological characteristics, including leaf area, net photosynthetic productivity, root biomass, and sucrose content. This resulted in an increased yield of white sugar. Safaei et al. [ 140 ] investigated the effectiveness of bionanofertilizer (nanopharmax + humic acid) on black cumin ( Nigella sativa ). The study revealed that the bionanofertilizer increased the amount of nutritious elements in N. sativa . Mir et al. [ 141 ] investigated the impact of bionanofertilizers on the nutrients, carbohydrates, and pigment content of various plants, particularly forage sorghum. By using these fertilizers, agricultural crops obtained significant nutrient enhancements, chlorophyll increases, and carbohydrate gains. More recent applications of bionanofertilizers are summarized in Table 2 .

Overall, these studies collectively demonstrate the potential benefits of bionanofertilizers in improving crop growth, yield, nutrient absorption, and various physiological characteristics across different plant species and environmental conditions.

Advantages of biofertilizers

Bionanofertilizers offer a groundbreaking approach to boosting agricultural output while preserving the environment. By merging the benefits of biological agents and nanotechnology, these innovative fertilizers tackle key agricultural challenges. This section delves into the potential of bionanofertilizers to transform farming practices.

Enhanced nutrient utilization

One of the key benefits of bionanofertilizers is their capacity to enhance nutrient utilization. Traditional fertilizers often encounter challenges with nutrient leaching and poor plant uptake. Bionanofertilizers tackle these issues by employing nanoparticles to deliver nutrients in a controlled and sustained manner. This controlled release system ensures a steady supply of nutrients to plants, minimizing waste and increasing overall efficiency [ 157 ]. Bionanofertilizers containing phosphorus-loaded nanoparticles can significantly improve phosphorus utilization. The nanoparticles gradually release phosphorus, making it readily available to plants. Additionally, some nanoparticles can interact with the soil to enhance phosphorus solubility, further increasing its availability [ 157 ]. Certain bionanofertilizers may contain phosphorus-mineralizing bacteria mineralizes organic phosphorus into plant-available forms.

Increased nutrient absorption

Bionanofertilizers optimize nutrient uptake by increasing the availability of nutrients, improving their solubility, and facilitating their transport into plant cells. Furtheremore, nanobiofertilizers containing beneficial microorganisms can enhance nutrient uptake by promoting the formation of mycorrhizal networks, which facilitate the transport of nutrients from the soil to plant roots [ 158 ].

Reduced environmental impact

Environmental sustainability is a critical concern in agriculture, and bionanofertilizers offer several advantages in this regard. Conventional fertilizers often lead to nutrient runoff, which can cause water pollution and eutrophication. Bionanofertilizers mitigate these issues by improving the efficiency of nutrient use and reducing the potential for nutrient leaching. Nanoparticles in bionanofertilizers can enhance nutrient retention in the soil, leading to reduced environmental impact and lower risk of water contamination. Additionally, the use of bionanofertilizers can contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions associated with traditional fertilizers [ 159 ].

Improved soil health

Bionanofertilizers contribute to improved soil health by enhancing soil microbial activity and structure. Many bionanofertilizers contain beneficial microorganisms that promote soil fertility and health [ 158 ]. These microorganisms can improve soil aeration, increase organic matter content, and stimulate beneficial microbial communities. The interaction between nanoparticles and soil microorganisms can lead to enhanced soil microbial diversity and activity, which is essential for maintaining healthy and productive soils.

Targeted delivery and customization

The nanoscale design of bionanofertilizers allows for targeted delivery of nutrients and customized formulations. Unlike traditional fertilizers, which may spread nutrients indiscriminately, bionanofertilizers can be engineered to deliver nutrients precisely to the plant roots or specific soil areas. This targeted approach enhances the efficiency of nutrient use and reduces wastage [ 15 ]. Furthermore, the ability to customize bionanofertilizer formulations based on specific crop requirements and soil conditions allows for more effective and tailored fertilization practices [ 15 ].

Reduced dosage and cost savings

Bionanofertilizers often require smaller quantities compared to conventional fertilizers due to their enhanced efficiency. The improved nutrient release and absorption capabilities of bionanofertilizers mean that lower doses can achieve the same or better results as larger amounts of traditional fertilizers. This reduction in dosage not only lowers costs for farmers but also minimizes the environmental impact associated with excessive fertilizer application [ 15 ].

Enhanced plant growth and yield

Bionanofertilizers have been shown to significantly enhance plant growth and yield. By improving nutrient availability and absorption, bionanofertilizers can lead to better growth parameters such as root development, shoot height, and leaf area. Research has demonstrated that the application of bionanofertilizers can result in increased crop yields and improved quality across a range of crops, including cereals, vegetables, and fruits [ 133 ]. This enhancement in plant growth contributes to higher productivity and better crop performance.

Disease and pest resistance

In addition to their role in nutrient supply, some bionanofertilizers also offer benefits in terms of disease and pest resistance [ 152 ]. Certain bionanofertilizers have demonstrated antimicrobial properties that can help protect plants from pathogen [ 147 ]. This added benefit of disease and pest resistance further contributes to the overall effectiveness of bionanofertilizers in promoting healthy and resilient crops.

Disadvantages of bionanofertilizers

Bionanofertilizers, which involve the use of nanotechnology in combination with biological components for enhancing plant growth and nutrient uptake, offer several potential advantages. However, like any emerging technology, they also come with certain disadvantages and concerns. Some of the disadvantages of bionanofertilizers include:

The adoption and full use of the bionanofertilizer strategy in the agriculture sector cannot be achieved just through laboratory-based experiments. Therefore, to provide an accurate representation of the environmental impact of nanoparticles, an experimental design needs to be placed in a natural setting.

Validating the acceptable and safety limit of nanoparticle doses should be done by scientific and government-based risk assessments. Moreover, handling the drawbacks of the organic waste used needs to be investigated and explained using realistic natural field settings.

Gaining a thorough grasp of the toxicity of bionanofertilizer applications on plants requires an awareness of their biodegradability and biomagnification transfer effects.

The development and use of bionanofertilizers may raise issues related to intellectual property rights and control over agricultural technologies. This can have implications for the concentration of power in the agricultural sector.

Conclusions

Nanoparticles act as carriers for beneficial microbes and nutrients, delivering them directly to plant roots for improved uptake and efficiency. Bionanofertilizers can improve a plant’s tolerance to environmental stress factors like drought, salinity, and extreme temperatures. The nanocarriers can provide a slow and sustained release of nutrients and microbes over time, reducing the need for frequent applications. With targeted delivery and enhanced stress tolerance, bionanofertilizers have the potential to significantly improve crop yields. By minimizing reliance on chemical fertilizers and promoting sustainable practices, bionanofertilizers can contribute to a greener agricultural future.

Bionanofertilizers represent a significant step forward in biofertilizer technology. Researchers are working on creating bionanofertilizers that combine multiple beneficial properties, such as nitrogen fixation, nutrient solubilization, and biocontrol, into a single product. Bionanofertilizers can be integrated with precision agriculture techniques for customized application based on specific soil and crop needs. Advancements in nanotechnology can lead to bionanofertilizers with longer shelf life and improved efficiency. As research validates the benefits of bionanofertilizers and production costs decrease, their adoption by farmers is expected to rise significantly.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Arora, P.K., Tripathi, S., Omar, R.A. et al. Next-generation fertilizers: the impact of bionanofertilizers on sustainable agriculture. Microb Cell Fact 23 , 254 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-024-02528-5

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Online dating has unexpected influence on wealth gaps, research paper finds

Researchers found online dating trend has led to people marrying within the same income bracket.

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From heartstrings to purse strings, online dating has changed the way we think about love and culture, but what if it's also changing the way we think about money?

A recent paper from researchers at the Federal Reserve Banks of Dallas and St. Louis and Haverford College found that online dating may have contributed to an uptick in income inequality in the U.S. over recent decades as an increasing number of people swipe left on potential mates who don't meet their criteria in select areas.

"Since the emergence of dating apps that allow people to look for a partner based on criteria including education, Americans have increasingly been marrying someone more like themselves. That accounts for about half of the rise in income inequality among households between 1980 and 2020," the researchers found, according to a report from Bloomberg .

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Researchers pulled data from 2008 to 2021 using the Census Bureau’s American Community Survey to assess changes in the ways men and women selected potential partners in the online dating age.

According to Bloomberg's report, these researchers found that women became more selective in terms of age while men became more selective in terms of education.

"But when the researchers compared that with data on married couples from 1960 and 1980, they found that people in the recent period increasingly went for partners with the same wage and education levels. And while many people married someone of the same ethnicity, people became less and less selective on race over time," the article continued.

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As people in similar income brackets continue to marry, households are less likely to have one low-income earner and one high-income earner and instead have partners belonging to similar income brackets.

Paulina Restrepo-Echavarría, economic policy advisor at the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, wrote more about the research in a blog post earlier this month, explaining that the assessment targeted specific areas such as "to what extent people prefer someone like themselves," "how selective (picky) people are when searching for a potential partner" and "how income inequality has been affected by the degree of selectivity of people," to name a few.

Data indicated that online dating raised the Gini Coefficient – a popular measure used to assess income inequality – by three percentage points, the report found.

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"We find that the corresponding changes in mate preferences and increased assortativeness by skill and education over this timeframe account for about half of the increased income inequality among households," the researchers stated in part.

They added in the conclusion, "We find that the increase in income inequality over the past half a century is explained to a large extent by sorting on vertical characteristics, such as income and skill, and their interaction with education."

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AI can help get you more online dating matches

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