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• Published: 02 March 2021

The future of near-field communication-based wireless sensing

• Selin Olenik   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8533-0169 1 ,
• Hong Seok Lee   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2522-3951 1 &
• Firat Güder 1  

Nature Reviews Materials volume  6 ,  pages 286–288 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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• Biomedical engineering
• Health care
• Materials science

Near-field communication emerged as a high-security, wireless, short-range, data exchange technology nearly two decades ago; its ability to simultaneously transfer power and data between devices offers exciting opportunities for the design of miniature, battery-free and disposable sensing systems in health care and food quality monitoring.

Near-field communication (NFC) is based on a simple idea. Two coils of conductors in close proximity can exchange electrical power over short distances (<5 cm) through wireless inductive coupling. The amplitude of the radio frequency signal (13.56 MHz based on ISO/IEC 14443 standards) can be modulated through amplitude (similar to Morse code) or phase shift keying to read and write digital data onto a silicon chip, allowing the simultaneous transfer of data (with speeds up to 424 kbit s −1 ) and power.

Most smart devices, contactless (bank) cards and electronic passports are equipped with NFC technology. NFC can transfer electrical power large enough (10 mW) to power most low-power and low-cost electronics (including microcontrollers) and sensors. NFC does not require batteries, and NFC tags can be produced by established high-volume (for example, roll-to-roll) manufacturing methods on substrates of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or paper at low cost (as low as US $0.03).

The combination of NFC-based wireless power and data exchange with low-cost electronics and sensors enables a myriad of new sensing applications (Fig.  1 ), previously considered to be technologically and economically unfeasible. Cost, size, and ease-of-use are critical in defining new use-cases for connected sensors; NFC can fill an important technological gap that cannot be sufficiently addressed with other wireless technologies (such as Bluetooth and WiFi), in particular, for developing Internet of Things or 5G applications.

Current near-field communication (NFC)-based commercial sensors (technology readiness level (TRL) ≥7) and research sensor prototypes (TRL <6). Sensors are categorized into four classes according to the type of application. Health-care sensors: wearable (adhered onto skin), implantable (inserted in the body) and point-of care (near-patient monitoring) sensors; and food quality (attached to packaging) sensors.

Current NFC-based sensing technologies

Only few NFC-based sensors are commercially available today, with a technology readiness level (TRL) of 7 or above (TRL is a method for estimating the maturity of a technology, with 9 being highest). Most of these NFC-based sensors focus on health, with only few devices truly exploiting both wireless power and communication capabilities. Examples include the intraocular pressure sensor, Eyemate by IOP GmbH, and the wearable glucose monitoring system, FreeStyle Libre by Abbott (powered using a battery rather than NFC). In the food industry, NFC-based sensors have been commercially piloted by Kraft Heinz Company for tamper-proofing and marketing; HZPC, a seed potato supplier, is trialing an NFC-based temperature sensor.

NFC-based sensing technologies are increasingly explored by the academic community (TRL ≤6), with a major focus on applications in health care and food quality monitoring. In health care, NFC-based ‘tattoo-like’ wearable disposable sensors are perhaps the most developed technology. These sensors use a thin and flexible polymer substrate (polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is standard) that is adhered to the skin in order to provide non-invasive and mostly biophysical measurements (for example, electrocardiogram (ECG), skin temperature and haemodynamic parameters), typically using a smartphone as the reader 1 , 2 . Non-invasive biochemical sensing of biofluids, such as analytes in sweat, is also explored 3 , and working prototypes have been tested on humans 1 , 2 . Commercial translation is currently limited, however, by poor durability, noise (for example, electrical noise) and high manufacturing costs (PDMS, or more broadly, silicones, are not a standard material for high-volume manufacturing of flexible devices).

A completely disposable NFC-based electrochemical point-of-care immunosensor has also been developed for detecting viruses such as the hepatitis B virus, providing a viable alternative to current disposable electrochemical point-of-care diagnostics, which require a dedicated reader (for example, glucose test strips) 4 .

In addition, implantable NFC-based sensors have been developed to address longstanding issues associated with batteries (that is, toxicity, bulkiness and battery recharging or removal) 5 , 6 . Clinical translation is currently hindered by low biocompatibility, low robustness (operational lifetime and mechanical integrity), invasiveness and lengthy regulatory processes.

Disposable NFC-based electrical gas sensors show potential for monitoring food quality. These sensors can be included in food packaging to monitor food freshness and safety by measuring gases released by microbial spoilage 7 , 8 . This technology could replace the static (and often confusing) ‘best-before’ dates, providing dynamic information about the chemical or microbial state of a product, which will help reduce food waste and foodborne illnesses. The price constraints of a few cents remain a major challenge, however.

Future requirements for materials

Whether used inside or on the surface of the body, medical sensors are subject to deformation (that is, bending, twisting and stretching), which can compromise the integrity of NFC-based sensors. Creases in the traces of the coil antenna can affect performance and impact energy and data transmission; a tear in the trace would halt operation altogether. Metals, such as GalnSn and EGaln alloys, are liquid at room temperature and offer high thermal and electrical conductivity as well as low toxicity. Such liquid metals can be inserted into soft polymer microchannels (<100 µm in height) to create traces for NFC-tags, which can be stretched, squeezed and folded with a minimum bending radius of 0.15 mm 9 . Off-the-shelf rigid electronic and sensing elements remain susceptible to fracture, however, leading to device failure. Flexible and stretchable electronic (computational) components are, therefore, required to realize truly robust NFC-based sensors.

The cost of disposable NFC-based sensors needs to asymptotically approach zero for low-margin, high-volume applications, for example, food quality sensors. Flexible synthetic (PET) or natural (cellulose) substrates with metal traces can be inexpensively manufactured as part of packaging. However, sensing elements and electronics remain the costliest factor. This can be resolved by exploiting the intrinsic properties of the substrate or conductive traces for sensing 8 . Additionally, films that form part of the packaging can be used as protective layers for sensors. Some films are hydrophobic and gas permeable — essential characteristics for the barrier layers of gas sensors used for monitoring food quality. Most NFC-based sensors depend on microcontroller-based multicomponent designs; the versatility (and underused capabilities) of these designs, however, comes at a premium. First examples of application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) have already been developed for low-cost NFC-based sensors (for example, potentiostat), but a large gap remains between available and required technologies, owing to high initial investments needed for the development of ASICs 4 .

NFC-based sensors are normally designed as 2D devices with a planar coil. The coil must generate a certain inductance to optimally function at 13.56 MHz, which restricts the minimum size of the coil (to a few centimeters in diameter). For further miniaturization, multi-layer coils can be implemented to boost the efficiency of exchanged power. Coil antennas as small as 10 mm (double layer) have been reported 1 , providing a suitable length-scale for most applications. Implantable sensors at this size, however, require invasive surgery for insertion and removal, increasing the risk of infection and incurring high costs. Thus, additional miniaturization techniques must be developed for implantable NFC-based sensors.

To overcome the serious risks (for example, infection) associated with the surgical removal of implants, NFC-based bioresorbable sensors have been developed that resorb into non-toxic byproducts in the body 5 . Molybdenum and magnesium are often used as bioresorbable antennas and conductors; co-polymers, such as poly-lactic acid (PLA) and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), can be used as substrate and encapsulation materials. For encapsulation, an additional layer of the co-polymer is typically stacked on top of the electronics and adhered to the substrate to seal the device. However, weak interfacial adhesion between layers often results in premature degradation or limited operational lifetime (<6 days). A recently developed long-lived (>30 days) bioresorbable polyurethane achieves greater stability owing to its ability to form covalent bonds with itself, providing stronger adhesion 10 .

Most bioresorbable NFC-based sensors are only partially resorbable because not every component or material in the device is able to resorb (including digital NFC chips). NFC and computation require digital logic; silicon, the dominant semiconductor used in digital electronics, is a bioresorbable material, and thus, completely bioresorbable silicon chips may enable fully bioresorbable NFC-based sensors in the future.

Environmental considerations

Disposable NFC-based sensors are made with a combination of materials, which makes them difficult to recycle. For high-volume disposable applications, sensors should ideally be produced from environmentally friendly, non-toxic, biodegradable and sustainable materials, such as cellulose paper, copper and silicon or ceramics. When non-biodegradable materials must be used, designs that maximize overall recyclability should be selected. For example, delamination of sensors should be considered in cases where non-recyclable disposable NFC-based sensors are attached to (single plastic) recyclable packaging. Given that multilayer laminates, which are included in most food packaging, cannot be easily recycled, NFC-based sensors may be attached or embedded in these films for specialized recycling (or incineration).

The road ahead

NFC-based sensing is still in its infancy. The potential of NFC to enable entirely new sensing concepts will likely play an important role in the future of the ‘connected’ technological revolution. Challenges remain to be addressed, however, particularly in terms of materials and manufacturing, to turn laboratory prototypes into commercial products. Interestingly, the current COVID-19 pandemic stresses the need for contactless interactions beyond payment systems (from zero-touch shopping to wireless diagnostic tests), the effect of which will likely accelerate NFC-based sensing technologies. Moreover, because data security is at the core of NFC, NFC-based sensors may be paired with high-security technologies, such as blockchain, to create trusted, automated and connected sensing systems. This combination would improve integrity, accessibility and speed of operations within food and health-care systems.

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Acknowledgements

S.O. acknowledges the Imperial President’s PhD Scholarships. F.G. and H.S.L. thank the LISS DTP (2453729) for the financial support. F.G. also thanks Imperial Centre for Processable Electronics and Agri-Futures Lab.

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S.O. and F.G. wrote and edited the manuscript. H.S.L. edited the manuscript and conceptualized the figure.

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Correspondence to Firat Güder .

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Güder Research Group receives samples from Silicon Craft Technology PLC for research purposes.

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Olenik, S., Lee, H.S. & Güder, F. The future of near-field communication-based wireless sensing. Nat Rev Mater 6 , 286–288 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-021-00299-8

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Published : 02 March 2021

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-021-00299-8

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The increasing rate of connectivity is driving towards a new era of virtual reality which is possible with the high end speed internet. The connectivity between every object is forming a shape of latest technology, i.e. IoT (Internet of Things) which requires the enormous networking connection. Comparing to all those previous technologies, the outrageous demands which are placed on 5G are continuing getting very high, with data rates of up to 20 Gbps and the capacity a thousand times greater. 5G networks will be providing a flexible platform for the upcoming services such as IoT, Artificial Intelligence, Cloud computing, Natural Language Processing, machine communication and all the latest technologies. In this research paper important components of 5G will be discussed. All the important aspects like latency, MIMO, cell distribution, speed, mmWave, slicing, Spectrum will be briefly described which will form a new Platform for all the upcoming technologies.

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The Evolving 5G Landscape

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An Overview of 5G Requirements

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Kaur, K., Kumar, S. & Baliyan, A. 5G: a new era of wireless communication. Int. j. inf. tecnol. 12 , 619–624 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41870-018-0197-x

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Publications, fluid antenna system and other next-generation reconfigurable antenna systems for wireless communications, publication date, first quarter 2026, manuscript submission deadline, 15 february 2025, call for papers.

Next-generation reconfigurable antenna (NGRA) technology has been explored as a promising solution for enabling flexible and adaptive wireless communications. Fluid antenna system (FAS) encompasses any software-controllable fluidic, dielectric or conductive structures, including but not limited to liquid-based antennas, pixel-based antennas, and metasurfaces, that can dynamically reconfigure their shape, size, position, length, orientation, and other radiation characteristics. This technology has inspired several related research studies, such as movable antenna system, flexible-position multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) system, reconfigurable antenna MIMO system, and flexible antenna array, which can be referred to as other NGRA systems. Compared to traditional antenna systems, the reconfigurability of FAS and other NGRA systems introduces new degrees of freedom, thereby enhancing the diversity and multiplexing performance. With their ultra-high spatial resolution, FAS and other NGRA systems offer new capabilities to exploit spatial opportunities where interference naturally experiences deep fades in multiuser communications, leading to concepts such as Fluid Antenna Multiple Access (FAMA) and Compact Ultra Massive Antenna Arrays (CUMA).

Furthermore, FAS and other NGRA systems can be integrated with other enabling technologies such as reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RIS), non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA), rate-splitting multiple access (RSMA), integrated sensing and communications (ISAC), non-terrestrial networks (NTN), vehicular-to-everything (V2X), and more to enhance the performance of future wireless communications. Recent findings also suggest that FAS is closely related to holographic MIMO systems, offering potential advancements for both technologies. In addition, the emergence of virtual FAS presents new opportunities to improve wireless communication systems by enhancing the dimensions of the channels using AI techniques. To fully unleash the potential of FAS and other NGRA systems in future-generation wireless networks, various research challenges must be addressed, including accurate system modeling, system optimization, artificial intelligence (AI) management, multiple access and interference mitigation technologies, channel estimation, and more. 

This Special Issue seeks for the latest research, novelties, and applications of FAS and other NGRA-enabled wireless communication technologies in 6G networks. We solicit original and high-quality papers that cover several topics of interest, including but not limited to:

• System models for FAS and other NGRA systems, compliant with the principles of physics, antenna, and/or circuit theories
• Investigation of electromagnetic- or information-theoretic performance limits for FAS and other NGRA systems
• Advanced optimization theories and algorithms for FAS and other NGRA systems
• AI-assisted algorithms, management, and protocols for FAS and other NGRA systems
• Efficient channel estimation/extrapolation/reconstruction techniques for FAS and other NGRA systems
• New coding and modulation schemes based on FAS and other NGRA systems
• FAS and other NGRA-assisted multiple access schemes for achieving extremely massive connectivity
• FAS and other NGRA-enabled interference mitigation techniques for cell-free and multicell networks 
• FAS and other NGRA systems for millimeter wave and terahertz communications
• Seamless integration of FAS and other NGRA systems with RIS
• Joint communication, sensing, and/or computing designs in FAS and other NGRA systems
• Enhancements in physical layer security and privacy through FAS and other NGRA systems
• Interrelation analysis between holographic MIMO systems and FAS and other NGRA systems
• Applications of FAS and other NGRA systems in V2X and NTN
• Energy-efficient strategies for FAS and other NGRA systems, including energy-aware scheme, energy harvesting, and wireless energy transfer
• Industrial trials, applications, and testbed results of FAS and other NGRA systems for wireless communications

Submission Guidelines

Prospective authors should submit their manuscripts following the IEEE JSAC  guidelines . Papers should be submitted through EDAS according to the following schedule.

Important Dates

Manuscript Submission Deadline: 15 February 2025  First Notification: 15 June 2025 Acceptance Notification: 1 October, 2025 Final Manuscript Due: 15 October 2025  Planned Publication: First Quarter 2026

Guest Editors

Kai-Kit Wong (Lead Guest Editor) University College London, UK

Chao Wang Xidian University, China

Chan-Byoung Chae Yonsei University, South Korea

Ross Murch The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong

Hamid Jafarkhani University of California Irvine, USA

Yang Hao Queen Mary University of London, UK

Wee Kiat New University of College London, UK

New Technologies and Research Trends for Wireless, Mobile and Ubiquitous Multimedia

Edited by: Fuqiang Liu, Junhong Wang, Ping Wang, Weidong Xiang and Guoxin Zheng

This special issue aims to provide the readers with a focused set of peer-reviewed articles to reflect the latest research results on advanced issues in convergence of wireless and mobile multimedia and ubiquitous computing technologies. It will include a number of related topics in multimedia processing, multimedia systems, mobile contexts, social networking services and ubiquitous computing environments. The papers will be peer reviewed by at least three independent reviewers and will be selected on the basis of their quality and relevance to the theme of this special issue.

Edited by: Weijia Jia, Changhoon Lee and Naixue Xiong

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Base-band involved integrative modeling method (BIMM) is proposed for studying the transmission characteristics and bit error rate of the wireless communication, in which the transmitting and receiving antenna...

Empirical study on spatial and temporal features for vehicular wireless communications

Static topology analysis is not sufficient for the dynamic vehicular ad hoc network. Understanding the evolving topology of vehicular ad hoc networkings (VANETs) caused by vehicle mobility is very important for r...

Alternative relaying for cooperative multiple-access channels in wireless vehicular networks

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Geographic routing based on predictive locations in vehicular ad hoc networks

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Two-way amplify-and-forward relaying with carrier offsets in the absence of CSI: differential modulation-based schemes

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Distributed source-relay selection scheme for vehicular relaying networks under eavesdropping attacks

The recent development of vehicular networking technologies brings the promise of improved driving safety and traffic efficiency. Cooperative communication is recognized as a low-complexity solution for enhanc...

LSGO: Link State aware Geographic Opportunistic routing protocol for VANETs

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Single-carrier fractional Fourier domain equalization system with zero padding for fast time-varying channels

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LOA-CAST: a novel low-overhead information broadcast scheme for vehicular ad hoc networks

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A traffic flow phase adaptive routing for vehicular communication on highways

Identification of traffic flow is very important since it can help provide dynamic navigation and optimize the performance of vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs). The existing ways for estimating the traffic st...

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• Copy URL https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/fact-checking-warnings-from-democrats-about-project-2025-and-donald-trump

Fact-checking warnings from Democrats about Project 2025 and Donald Trump

This fact check originally appeared on PolitiFact .

Project 2025 has a starring role in this week’s Democratic National Convention.

And it was front and center on Night 1.

WATCH: Hauling large copy of Project 2025, Michigan state Sen. McMorrow speaks at 2024 DNC

“This is Project 2025,” Michigan state Sen. Mallory McMorrow, D-Royal Oak, said as she laid a hardbound copy of the 900-page document on the lectern. “Over the next four nights, you are going to hear a lot about what is in this 900-page document. Why? Because this is the Republican blueprint for a second Trump term.”

Vice President Kamala Harris, the Democratic presidential nominee, has warned Americans about “Trump’s Project 2025” agenda — even though former President Donald Trump doesn’t claim the conservative presidential transition document.

“Donald Trump wants to take our country backward,” Harris said July 23 in Milwaukee. “He and his extreme Project 2025 agenda will weaken the middle class. Like, we know we got to take this seriously, and can you believe they put that thing in writing?”

Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz, Harris’ running mate, has joined in on the talking point.

“Don’t believe (Trump) when he’s playing dumb about this Project 2025. He knows exactly what it’ll do,” Walz said Aug. 9 in Glendale, Arizona.

Trump’s campaign has worked to build distance from the project, which the Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank, led with contributions from dozens of conservative groups.

Much of the plan calls for extensive executive-branch overhauls and draws on both long-standing conservative principles, such as tax cuts, and more recent culture war issues. It lays out recommendations for disbanding the Commerce and Education departments, eliminating certain climate protections and consolidating more power to the president.

Project 2025 offers a sweeping vision for a Republican-led executive branch, and some of its policies mirror Trump’s 2024 agenda, But Harris and her presidential campaign have at times gone too far in describing what the project calls for and how closely the plans overlap with Trump’s campaign.

PolitiFact researched Harris’ warnings about how the plan would affect reproductive rights, federal entitlement programs and education, just as we did for President Joe Biden’s Project 2025 rhetoric. Here’s what the project does and doesn’t call for, and how it squares with Trump’s positions.

Are Trump and Project 2025 connected?

To distance himself from Project 2025 amid the Democratic attacks, Trump wrote on Truth Social that he “knows nothing” about it and has “no idea” who is in charge of it. (CNN identified at least 140 former advisers from the Trump administration who have been involved.)

The Heritage Foundation sought contributions from more than 100 conservative organizations for its policy vision for the next Republican presidency, which was published in 2023.

Project 2025 is now winding down some of its policy operations, and director Paul Dans, a former Trump administration official, is stepping down, The Washington Post reported July 30. Trump campaign managers Susie Wiles and Chris LaCivita denounced the document.

WATCH: A look at the Project 2025 plan to reshape government and Trump’s links to its authors

However, Project 2025 contributors include a number of high-ranking officials from Trump’s first administration, including former White House adviser Peter Navarro and former Housing and Urban Development Secretary Ben Carson.

A recently released recording of Russell Vought, a Project 2025 author and the former director of Trump’s Office of Management and Budget, showed Vought saying Trump’s “very supportive of what we do.” He said Trump was only distancing himself because Democrats were making a bogeyman out of the document.

Project 2025 wouldn’t ban abortion outright, but would curtail access

The Harris campaign shared a graphic on X that claimed “Trump’s Project 2025 plan for workers” would “go after birth control and ban abortion nationwide.”

The plan doesn’t call to ban abortion nationwide, though its recommendations could curtail some contraceptives and limit abortion access.

What’s known about Trump’s abortion agenda neither lines up with Harris’ description nor Project 2025’s wish list.

Project 2025 says the Department of Health and Human Services Department should “return to being known as the Department of Life by explicitly rejecting the notion that abortion is health care.”

It recommends that the Food and Drug Administration reverse its 2000 approval of mifepristone, the first pill taken in a two-drug regimen for a medication abortion. Medication is the most common form of abortion in the U.S. — accounting for around 63 percent in 2023.

If mifepristone were to remain approved, Project 2025 recommends new rules, such as cutting its use from 10 weeks into pregnancy to seven. It would have to be provided to patients in person — part of the group’s efforts to limit access to the drug by mail. In June, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected a legal challenge to mifepristone’s FDA approval over procedural grounds.

WATCH: Trump’s plans for health care and reproductive rights if he returns to White House The manual also calls for the Justice Department to enforce the 1873 Comstock Act on mifepristone, which bans the mailing of “obscene” materials. Abortion access supporters fear that a strict interpretation of the law could go further to ban mailing the materials used in procedural abortions, such as surgical instruments and equipment.

The plan proposes withholding federal money from states that don’t report to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention how many abortions take place within their borders. The plan also would prohibit abortion providers, such as Planned Parenthood, from receiving Medicaid funds. It also calls for the Department of Health and Human Services to ensure that the training of medical professionals, including doctors and nurses, omits abortion training.

The document says some forms of emergency contraception — particularly Ella, a pill that can be taken within five days of unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy — should be excluded from no-cost coverage. The Affordable Care Act requires most private health insurers to cover recommended preventive services, which involves a range of birth control methods, including emergency contraception.

Trump has recently said states should decide abortion regulations and that he wouldn’t block access to contraceptives. Trump said during his June 27 debate with Biden that he wouldn’t ban mifepristone after the Supreme Court “approved” it. But the court rejected the lawsuit based on standing, not the case’s merits. He has not weighed in on the Comstock Act or said whether he supports it being used to block abortion medication, or other kinds of abortions.

Project 2025 doesn’t call for cutting Social Security, but proposes some changes to Medicare

“When you read (Project 2025),” Harris told a crowd July 23 in Wisconsin, “you will see, Donald Trump intends to cut Social Security and Medicare.”

The Project 2025 document does not call for Social Security cuts. None of its 10 references to Social Security addresses plans for cutting the program.

Harris also misleads about Trump’s Social Security views.

In his earlier campaigns and before he was a politician, Trump said about a half-dozen times that he’s open to major overhauls of Social Security, including cuts and privatization. More recently, in a March 2024 CNBC interview, Trump said of entitlement programs such as Social Security, “There’s a lot you can do in terms of entitlements, in terms of cutting.” However, he quickly walked that statement back, and his CNBC comment stands at odds with essentially everything else Trump has said during the 2024 presidential campaign.

Trump’s campaign website says that not “a single penny” should be cut from Social Security. We rated Harris’ claim that Trump intends to cut Social Security Mostly False.

Project 2025 does propose changes to Medicare, including making Medicare Advantage, the private insurance offering in Medicare, the “default” enrollment option. Unlike Original Medicare, Medicare Advantage plans have provider networks and can also require prior authorization, meaning that the plan can approve or deny certain services. Original Medicare plans don’t have prior authorization requirements.

The manual also calls for repealing health policies enacted under Biden, such as the Inflation Reduction Act. The law enabled Medicare to negotiate with drugmakers for the first time in history, and recently resulted in an agreement with drug companies to lower the prices of 10 expensive prescriptions for Medicare enrollees.

Trump, however, has said repeatedly during the 2024 presidential campaign that he will not cut Medicare.

Project 2025 would eliminate the Education Department, which Trump supports

The Harris campaign said Project 2025 would “eliminate the U.S. Department of Education” — and that’s accurate. Project 2025 says federal education policy “should be limited and, ultimately, the federal Department of Education should be eliminated.” The plan scales back the federal government’s role in education policy and devolves the functions that remain to other agencies.

Aside from eliminating the department, the project also proposes scrapping the Biden administration’s Title IX revision, which prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. It also would let states opt out of federal education programs and calls for passing a federal parents’ bill of rights similar to ones passed in some Republican-led state legislatures.

Republicans, including Trump, have pledged to close the department, which gained its status in 1979 within Democratic President Jimmy Carter’s presidential Cabinet.

In one of his Agenda 47 policy videos, Trump promised to close the department and “to send all education work and needs back to the states.” Eliminating the department would have to go through Congress.

What Project 2025, Trump would do on overtime pay

In the graphic, the Harris campaign says Project 2025 allows “employers to stop paying workers for overtime work.”

The plan doesn’t call for banning overtime wages. It recommends changes to some Occupational Safety and Health Administration, or OSHA, regulations and to overtime rules. Some changes, if enacted, could result in some people losing overtime protections, experts told us.

The document proposes that the Labor Department maintain an overtime threshold “that does not punish businesses in lower-cost regions (e.g., the southeast United States).” This threshold is the amount of money executive, administrative or professional employees need to make for an employer to exempt them from overtime pay under the Fair Labor Standards Act.

In 2019, the Trump’s administration finalized a rule that expanded overtime pay eligibility to most salaried workers earning less than about $35,568, which it said made about 1.3 million more workers eligible for overtime pay. The Trump-era threshold is high enough to cover most line workers in lower-cost regions, Project 2025 said.

The Biden administration raised that threshold to $43,888 beginning July 1, and that will rise to $58,656 on Jan. 1, 2025. That would grant overtime eligibility to about 4 million workers, the Labor Department said.

It’s unclear how many workers Project 2025’s proposal to return to the Trump-era overtime threshold in some parts of the country would affect, but experts said some would presumably lose the right to overtime wages.

Other overtime proposals in Project 2025’s plan include allowing some workers to choose to accumulate paid time off instead of overtime pay, or to work more hours in one week and fewer in the next, rather than receive overtime.

Trump’s past with overtime pay is complicated. In 2016, the Obama administration said it would raise the overtime to salaried workers earning less than $47,476 a year, about double the exemption level set in 2004 of $23,660 a year.

But when a judge blocked the Obama rule, the Trump administration didn’t challenge the court ruling. Instead it set its own overtime threshold, which raised the amount, but by less than Obama.

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MIT engineers’ new theory could improve the design and operation of wind farms

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The blades of propellers and wind turbines are designed based on aerodynamics principles that were first described mathematically more than a century ago. But engineers have long realized that these formulas don’t work in every situation. To compensate, they have added ad hoc “correction factors” based on empirical observations.

Now, for the first time, engineers at MIT have developed a comprehensive, physics-based model that accurately represents the airflow around rotors even under extreme conditions, such as when the blades are operating at high forces and speeds, or are angled in certain directions. The model could improve the way rotors themselves are designed, but also the way wind farms are laid out and operated. The new findings are described today in the journal Nature Communications , in an open-access paper by MIT postdoc Jaime Liew, doctoral student Kirby Heck, and Michael Howland, the Esther and Harold E. Edgerton Assistant Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering.

“We’ve developed a new theory for the aerodynamics of rotors,” Howland says. This theory can be used to determine the forces, flow velocities, and power of a rotor, whether that rotor is extracting energy from the airflow, as in a wind turbine, or applying energy to the flow, as in a ship or airplane propeller. “The theory works in both directions,” he says.

Because the new understanding is a fundamental mathematical model, some of its implications could potentially be applied right away. For example, operators of wind farms must constantly adjust a variety of parameters, including the orientation of each turbine as well as its rotation speed and the angle of its blades, in order to maximize power output while maintaining safety margins. The new model can provide a simple, speedy way of optimizing those factors in real time.

“This is what we’re so excited about, is that it has immediate and direct potential for impact across the value chain of wind power,” Howland says.

Modeling the momentum

Known as momentum theory, the previous model of how rotors interact with their fluid environment — air, water, or otherwise — was initially developed late in the 19th century. With this theory, engineers can start with a given rotor design and configuration, and determine the maximum amount of power that can be derived from that rotor — or, conversely, if it’s a propeller, how much power is needed to generate a given amount of propulsive force.

Momentum theory equations “are the first thing you would read about in a wind energy textbook, and are the first thing that I talk about in my classes when I teach about wind power,” Howland says. From that theory, physicist Albert Betz calculated in 1920 the maximum amount of energy that could theoretically be extracted from wind. Known as the Betz limit, this amount is 59.3 percent of the kinetic energy of the incoming wind.

But just a few years later, others found that the momentum theory broke down “in a pretty dramatic way” at higher forces that correspond to faster blade rotation speeds or different blade angles, Howland says. It fails to predict not only the amount, but even the direction of changes in thrust force at higher rotation speeds or different blade angles: Whereas the theory said the force should start going down above a certain rotation speed or blade angle, experiments show the opposite — that the force continues to increase. “So, it’s not just quantitatively wrong, it’s qualitatively wrong,” Howland says.

The theory also breaks down when there is any misalignment between the rotor and the airflow, which Howland says is “ubiquitous” on wind farms, where turbines are constantly adjusting to changes in wind directions. In fact, in an  earlier paper in 2022, Howland and his team found that deliberately misaligning some turbines slightly relative to the incoming airflow within a wind farm significantly improves the overall power output of the wind farm by reducing wake disturbances to the downstream turbines.

In the past, when designing the profile of rotor blades, the layout of wind turbines in a farm, or the day-to-day operation of wind turbines, engineers have relied on ad hoc adjustments added to the original mathematical formulas, based on some wind tunnel tests and experience with operating wind farms, but with no theoretical underpinnings.

Instead, to arrive at the new model, the team analyzed the interaction of airflow and turbines using detailed computational modeling of the aerodynamics. They found that, for example, the original model had assumed that a drop in air pressure immediately behind the rotor would rapidly return to normal ambient pressure just a short way downstream. But it turns out, Howland says, that as the thrust force keeps increasing, “that assumption is increasingly inaccurate.”

And the inaccuracy occurs very close to the point of the Betz limit that theoretically predicts the maximum performance of a turbine — and therefore is just the desired operating regime for the turbines. “So, we have Betz’s prediction of where we should operate turbines, and within 10 percent of that operational set point that we think maximizes power, the theory completely deteriorates and doesn’t work,” Howland says.

Through their modeling, the researchers also found a way to compensate for the original formula’s reliance on a one-dimensional modeling that assumed the rotor was always precisely aligned with the airflow. To do so, they used fundamental equations that were developed to predict the lift of three-dimensional wings for aerospace applications.

The researchers derived their new model, which they call a unified momentum model, based on theoretical analysis, and then validated it using computational fluid dynamics modeling. In followup work not yet published, they are doing further validation using wind tunnel and field tests.

Fundamental understanding

One interesting outcome of the new formula is that it changes the calculation of the Betz limit, showing that it’s possible to extract a bit more power than the original formula predicted. Although it’s not a significant change — on the order of a few percent — “it’s interesting that now we have a new theory, and the Betz limit that’s been the rule of thumb for a hundred years is actually modified because of the new theory,” Howland says. “And that’s immediately useful.” The new model shows how to maximize power from turbines that are misaligned with the airflow, which the Betz limit cannot account for.

The aspects related to controlling both individual turbines and arrays of turbines can be implemented without requiring any modifications to existing hardware in place within wind farms. In fact, this has already happened, based on earlier work from Howland and his collaborators two years ago that dealt with the wake interactions between turbines in a wind farm, and was based on the existing, empirically based formulas.

“This breakthrough is a natural extension of our previous work on optimizing utility-scale wind farms,” he says, because in doing that analysis, they saw the shortcomings of the existing methods for analyzing the forces at work and predicting power produced by wind turbines. “Existing modeling using empiricism just wasn’t getting the job done,” he says.

In a wind farm, individual turbines will sap some of the energy available to neighboring turbines, because of wake effects. Accurate wake modeling is important both for designing the layout of turbines in a wind farm, and also for the operation of that farm, determining moment to moment how to set the angles and speeds of each turbine in the array.

Until now, Howland says, even the operators of wind farms, the manufacturers, and the designers of the turbine blades had no way to predict how much the power output of a turbine would be affected by a given change such as its angle to the wind without using empirical corrections. “That’s because there was no theory for it. So, that’s what we worked on here. Our theory can directly tell you, without any empirical corrections, for the first time, how you should actually operate a wind turbine to maximize its power,” he says.

Because the fluid flow regimes are similar, the model also applies to propellers, whether for aircraft or ships, and also for hydrokinetic turbines such as tidal or river turbines. Although they didn’t focus on that aspect in this research, “it’s in the theoretical modeling naturally,” he says.

The new theory exists in the form of a set of mathematical formulas that a user could incorporate in their own software, or as an open-source software package that can be freely downloaded from GitHub . “It’s an engineering model developed for fast-running tools for rapid prototyping and control and optimization,” Howland says. “The goal of our modeling is to position the field of wind energy research to move more aggressively in the development of the wind capacity and reliability necessary to respond to climate change.”

The work was supported by the National Science Foundation and Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy.

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• Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

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• Civil and environmental engineering
• Renewable energy
• Climate change

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