research work on medicinal plants

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Revitalizing the science of traditional medicinal plants

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As early as the Qin and Han Dynasty (roughly 221 BCE to 220 CE), Sheng Nong’s Herbal Classic recorded 365 medicines. By the time of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the number of Chinese herbal medicines had grown to close to 2,000. Credit: Marilyna/iStock/Getty Images Plus

Plants can be frustratingly inconsistent. With so much dependent on environmental factors, even clones can produce foliage, roots and fruits of varying quantity and quality. Issues with consistency in plant studies have thwarted attempts to characterize the many botanical extracts used in traditional medicines. But traditional knowledge could be a rich resource for drug discovery, says Timothy Mitchison at Harvard Medical School’s Department of Systems Biology.

For example, pharmaceutical chemist, Youyou Tu, discovered artemisinin, an antimalarial extract from the plant Artemisia after being inspired by an entry in the sixteenth century tome, Compendium of Materia Medica . Used as an ancient remedy for fever, artemisinin was isolated and refined by Tu in the 1970s, and according to the World Health Organization, antimalarials containing artemisinin have saved more than three million lives since 2000. Tu was awarded a Nobel Prize for her work in 2015.

“The long history of human data we have for traditional Chinese medicine could be most valuable thing you can get to help characterize any drug,” says Mitchison. He adds that while traditional Chinese medicine-derived molecules typically exhibit poor pharmacology by the standards expected of a synthetic oral drug, that has implications that are under-explored. He says that short plasma half-lives could suggest these molecules have higher action in the liver or kidney, while low oral bioavailability could be the result of action in the gut, which, he says, might be useful for targeting gut diseases.

1,892: The number of herbs mentioned Compendium of Materia Medica. Credit: Lou-Foto/Alamy Stock Photo

In the case of a plant molecule, colchicine, Mitchison’s long-time study subject, its short half-life corresponds to local action in the liver. “These special features of plant-derived molecules cannot be achieved using standard synthetic drugs, which are systemically adsorbed,” he says. “I would encourage medical researchers to have an open mind regarding different medical traditions.”

In Tu’s lecture after winning the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, she recalled the difficulties of plant research, ranging from managing extraction and purification technologies, to the variables involved in the study of the six Artemisia species, such as accounting for origin, harvest season, and the use of different plant parts.

7,000: Roughly the number of samples in the traditional Chinese medicine collection at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. Credit: Ileana_bt/Shutterstock

The technical and taxonomic challenges of plant research are a source of fascination for Monique Simmonds, director of the Commercial Innovation Unit at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, in London, one of the world’s largest botanical collections. But increased scrutiny of plant research aimed at pharmaceuticals is crucial, she says.

In 1998, Simmonds helped raise funds to create a 7,000-sample traditional Chinese medicine plant collection at Kew, and she currently leads a 300-strong research team focused on unlocking potential drugs derived from plants.

“Some fellow scientists are rightfully cynical about traditional Chinese medicine − some of the research, unfortunately, hasn’t been done with the level of accuracy that you would need for a medicinal drug,” she explains. “A common mistake would be to study different plant species in the same family, such as mistaking Korean and Chinese ginseng.”

17,810: The number of plant species that have a medicinal use, out of some 30,000 plants for which a use of any kind is documented. Credit: Marilyna/iStock/Getty Images Plus

Improving plant study replication through more controlled global standards is part of Simmonds’ mission as the president of the Good Practice in Traditional Chinese Medicine Research Association. Established in 2012, the association now involves 112 institutions and 24 countries, who work on creating better guidelines.

“For example, we would recommend consultation with taxonomists to help independently verify the plants or plant parts being used in research,” says Simmonds. “While taxonomy has been the backbone of Kew’s scientific research, in the next 10 years accelerating taxonomy with machine learning and trait research − from genomic and chemical to morphological and ecological − will also be vital.”

Speeding up drug discovery

At Kew, drug discovery is also being accelerated by machine learning and high-throughput mass spectrometry that reveals the chemical structures of plant compounds. Kew’s Small Molecule Analysis Laboratory, for example, profiles small molecules produced by plants and fungi to help identify chemical structures that might be useful for drug development.

Kaixian Chen, a professor at the Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine (SUTCM), points out that these types of resources have radically sped up the shortlisting process for drug candidate study.

Chen was an early user of computer-aided drug design in the 1990s. “One of the biggest technological leaps during my career has been in virtual screening: we pair our small molecule libraries of traditional Chinese medicine bioactive components with protein structures that are most likely to bind to specific drug targets in our database, saving us a lot of research time and money,” he explains.

In 2021, for example, using high-throughput screening of natural product libraries, Chen’s colleagues at SUTCM discovered an agonist to bile acid receptor TGR5 that is a potential target for drugs to treat obesity. The agonist, notoginsenoside Ft1, is derived from Panax notoginseng , a ginseng species used for 2,000 years in traditional Chinese medicine to enhance circulation.

A small, early mouse model study has validated notoginsenoside Ft1’s potential in treating obesity. “But if we are to continue to make the most of accelerating drug screening technologies, we must ensure scientific rigour in traditional Chinese medicine studies,” Chen says.

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Worldwide Research Trends on Medicinal Plants

Affiliations.

1 Faculty of Law, Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR), 26006 Logroño, Spain.
2 Department of Biology and Geology, University of Almeria, ceiA3, 04120 Almeria, Spain.
3 Department of Engineering, University of Almeria, ceiA3, 04120 Almeria, Spain.
PMID: 32408690
PMCID: PMC7277765
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17103376

The use of medicinal plants has been done since ancient times and may even be considered the origin of modern medicine. Compounds of plant origin have been and still are an important source of compounds for drugs. In this study a bibliometric study of all the works indexed in the Scopus database until 2019 has been carried out, analyzing more than 100,000 publications. On the one hand, the main countries, institutions and authors researching this topic have been identified, as well as their evolution over time. On the other hand, the links between the authors, the countries and the topics under research have been analyzed through the detection of communities. The last two periods, from 2009 to 2014 and from 2015 to 2019, have been examined in terms of research topics. It has been observed that the areas of study or clusters have been reduced, those of the last period being those engaged in unclassified drug, traditional medicine, cancer, in vivo study-antidiabetic activity, and animals-anti-inflammatory activity. In summary, it has been observed that the trend in global research is focused more on the search for new medicines or active compounds rather than on the cultivation or domestication of plant species with this demonstrated potential.

Keywords: bibliometrics; drugs; medicinal plants; traditional medicine; worldwide research.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Methodology.

Worldwide temporal evolution of medical…

Worldwide temporal evolution of medical plants publications.

Medicinal plants publications by scientific…

Medicinal plants publications by scientific categories indexed in Scopus.

Worldwide research on medical plants.

Temporal evolution on medical plants…

Temporal evolution on medical plants publications for Top 12 countries.

Distribution by scientific categories according…

Distribution by scientific categories according to countries.

A collaborative network of authors…

A collaborative network of authors with more than 40 publications on medicinal plants.

Cloudword of keywords in medical…

Cloudword of keywords in medical plants publications.

Network of keywords in medical…

Network of keywords in medical plants publications: Clusters between 2009–2014.

Network of keywords in medical plants publications: Clusters between 2015–2019.

Countries network collaboration.

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REVIEW article

Medicinal plant analysis: a historical and regional discussion of emergent complex techniques.

1 Herbal and East Asian Medicine, School of Life Sciences, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Westminster, London, United Kingdom
2 Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, UCL School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom

The analysis of medicinal plants has had a long history, and especially with regard to assessing a plant’s quality. The first techniques were organoleptic using the physical senses of taste, smell, and appearance. Then gradually these led on to more advanced instrumental techniques. Though different countries have their own traditional medicines China currently leads the way in terms of the number of publications focused on medicinal plant analysis and number of inclusions in their Pharmacopoeia. The monographs contained within these publications give directions on the type of analysis that should be performed, and for manufacturers, this typically means that they need access to more and more advanced instrumentation. We have seen developments in many areas of analytical analysis and particularly the development of chromatographic and spectroscopic methods and the hyphenation of these techniques. The ability to process data using multivariate analysis software has opened the door to metabolomics giving us greater capacity to understand the many variations of chemical compounds occurring within medicinal plants, allowing us to have greater certainty of not only the quality of the plants and medicines but also of their suitability for clinical research. Refinements in technology have resulted in the ability to analyze and categorize plants effectively and be able to detect contaminants and adulterants occurring at very low levels. However, advances in technology cannot provide us with all the answers we need in order to deliver high-quality herbal medicines and the more traditional techniques of assessing quality remain as important today.

Introduction

Medicinal plants have been a resource for healing in local communities around the world for thousands of years. Still it remains of contemporary importance as a primary healthcare mode for approximately 85% of the world’s population ( Pešić, 2015 ), and as a resource for drug discovery, with 80% of all synthetic drugs deriving from them ( Bauer and Brönstrup, 2014 ). Concurrently, the last few hundred years has seen a prolific rise in the introduction, development, and advancement of herbal substances analysis. Humans have been identifying and selecting medicinal plants and foods based on organoleptic assessment of suitability and quality for thousands of years, but it is only in the span of the last seven decades since the invention of basic analytical techniques, e.g., paper chromatography, that has seen rapid development from sight, touch, and smell to using sophisticated instrumentation. Though this mechanization of the senses has appeared relatively recently, historically conceptual expansion has been building throughout the scientific revolution, outwards toward the universe and inwards to a scale below recognition capable with a human eye, leading to development of some of the earliest analytical tools assisting the senses, the telescope and microscope. From the initial discovery of new microscopic worlds, through structural, chemical, and atomic levels, the sensitivity and range of human perception has been extended and enhanced.

Rapid progress is especially evident considering that the concept of a laboratory was only formally formed in Europe during the early 1600s. First as an extension of philosophers’, doctors’, and scientists’ workrooms, it becomes a space to study nature and gather empirical evidence ( Wilson, 1997 ), where studies could be conducted at the analyst’s convenience rather than at specific times when daylight or weather permitted. This was a small but important step towards more formalized analytical investigations.

In modern analysis, single techniques such as paper chromatography and much earlier colorimetry appeared. It was followed by a greater range and wider application of these techniques until early hyphenations such as LC-UV emerged, culminating more recently in multiple combinations of multi-hyphenated instrumentation, availing of the analytical advantages inherent in each individual technique. The emergence of hyphenated analytical techniques in many aspects is analogous to the organoleptic synthesis that occurs when selecting a medicinal plant; viewing, smelling and tasting it to use combinations of different senses, increasing the points of reference/statistical degrees of freedom to improve the probability of correctly identifying and assessing its quality. The emergence and application of these hyphenated techniques only became possible and useful as computer systems and data management tools developed, enabling rapid and selective synthesis of information from the large amount of instrumental and analytical data signals generated.

Probably the single greatest influence in recent times in the advancement of the analysis of herbal materials (and arguably analysis generally) is, though, how large amounts of data can be collected, assimilated, and used more meaningfully in human readable forms. Similar to the historical advancements in combinatorial hyphenated instrumentation, now combinatorial data processing techniques like fingerprinting, metabolomic profiling, and pattern recognition algorithms have emerged, further increasing analytical capabilities, while reducing operator time and expertise required. This trend has further accelerated the pace and rate of advancement of analytical techniques and has led to an increase in the pace and capability of the associated research. In this paper, we analyze publication trends and pharmacopoeial developments in order to better understand the role and progression of analytical techniques. Since their initial discovery and development, with a particular focus on China, an Asian country with both deep cultural and long-term historical roots in plant medicine, to more modern day developments and applications.

Publication Trends

Increasing interest in medicinal plant research and analysis is reflected in the number of recent publications, with more than a three-fold increase from 4,686 publications during the year 2008 to 14,884 in 2018. Output published during the 8 years of the present decade alone outnumbered all those combined before 2000, since the included database records began in 1800 ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 The herbal substance analysis publications trend since search records began in 1800. A keyword search was conducted using the combination “medicinal plant” OR “herbal medicine” AND “analysis” chosen for the maximum retuned records after exploring a list of similar topic and combination of keywords such as “photochemical analysis,” “traditional medicine,” and “herbal.” The Web of Science or collection, KCI- Korean Journal database, MEDLINE ® , Russian Science Citation index, and SciELO Citation index databases were included in the search.

The largest proportion of publications cited in current databases over the last 10 years for medicinal plant analysis reports are in the disciplines of pharmacology and pharmacy ( Figure 2 ). With plant sciences, biochemical molecular biology and agriculture research following closely behind, together comprising almost 70% of the total publications.

Figure 2 Herbal substance analysis publications by discipline, 2008–2018 (169,917 records).

Regional Trends—Last 10 Years

The majority (about 58%) of medicinal plant analysis publications in the last 10 years have collectively emerged from mainland China, India, USA, and South Korea ( Figure 3 ). This may be an expression of the strong medicinal plant traditions in Asia in addition to the USA’s dominant presence as an international user of herbal products ( Hu et al., 2013 ). The major East Asian regions, in particular, China, Japan, South Korea, together with Taiwan, contribute more than half of the total citations (55%). This may be indicative of the rapid economic progress and technological capability of these countries. China is the major contributor, with a 15% increase in its dominance of research outputs in the last 10 years. This influence has also been seen in the effect of China’s growing involvement in aiding the development of pharmacopoeias around the world and as a leader in the analysis of Chinese medicinal plants ( Figure 3 ).

Figure 3 Herbal analysis publications by region, 2008–2018.

Regulation and a Changing Analytical Landscape

From a regulatory perspective, the pharmacopoeial requirements are the central reference point for the analysis of medicinal plants. Though internationally many pharmacopoeias exist, the most comprehensive of these relating to herbal medicinal materials is the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (ChP). The current ChP introduced in 2015 is the 10th iteration presented in three volumes and includes 5,608 drugs, a 10-fold increase from its first edition in 1953. More than half of the current monographs ( Hamid-Reza et al., 2013 , 598) relate to CHM specifically including raw plants, slices, herbal mixtures, and oils. A noticeable inclusion in the current version compared with the previous version is the addition of 400 herbal mixtures ( Qian et al., 2010 ).

Pharmacopoeia Monographs—Their Influences and Challenges

Though more recently the ChP is playing an increasing role in influencing medicinal plant analysis, the development of the ChP has been heavily influenced by Western pharmacopoeias. Historically the identification, preparation, and analysis of medicinal plants were based on classic texts such as the Shengnong Bencao Jing (Shengnong Materia Medica, 25–220 CE), where the category and quality of 365 plants and 113 prescriptions were assessed by taste. Organoleptic sensing of bitterness, sweetness, saltiness, and even neutral tastes were thought to indicate the function and application of the medicine. Arguably, the most influential Chinese pharmacy monograph is the Bencao Gangmu (Compendium of Materia Medica, 1368–1644 CE) containing 1,892 plant descriptions and 11,096 prescriptions sorted in 16 divisions and 60 orders, emphasizing appearance, taste, and odor as a key to authentication and quality.

However, the main precursor to the modern format of the current Chinese Pharmacopoeia was printed in the 1930s with 670 drugs. Even at this early stage, the then dominant Western powers such as Britain, Germany, America, and Japan found challenges in understanding and forming consensus for recognizing, categorizing, and assuring the quality of Chinese medical materials. At this time a difficulty emerged in securing materials for the more Western styled “scientifically run” hospitals. Initially it was though that as Japan had adopted a translation of the German pharmacopoeia in 1886, the Chinese could follow suit using the British Pharmacopoeia, which in 1927 had been translated into Chinese as a joint effort by the London and British Chambers of Commerce. However, some differences in opinion between the four occupiers had to be first resolved.

Many of the technological demands necessary to produce and maintain the pharmacopoeial standards required by the Americans was beyond the ability and technological capability of the Chinese at that time. America had recently just printed a Chinese translation of its United States Pharmacopeia (10 th edition) published in 1926. The strict American standards for aconite, digitalis, adrenalin, and insulin were purported to be managed by new or foreign trained pharmacists ( Read, 1930 ). Preparations such as liniments found in the British and U.S. Pharmacopoeias were included in the Chinese version. Syrups such as those of codeine and glucose and tinctures of cannabis were from the British influence. Foreign residents in China found it difficult to ingest local food and stated an “extensive need for bowel remedies.” Therefore, drugs of the time, albuminis, aspidium, and emetin, were included. Vaccines for diphtheria, tetanus, and smallpox were maintained through the instruction of the USP.

German chemists had already gained a reputation for the isolation of chemical compounds, many of which were used medicinally and were already included in the Japanese Pharmacopoeia such as oxalic acid, pyrogallic acid, and bromine. Therefore, the existing German-Japanese analytical methods were generally utilized for these areas, which comprised about 25% of the new Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Whereas more British and American derived analytical methods and preparations were included for vegetable- and animal-based materials.

Agreement over the correct translation and naming of chemical compounds also proved problematic, e.g. when attempting to resolve disagreement between German-Latin and Anglo-American descriptions such as “natrium chloratum” and “sodii chloridum.” The shared Latin common language elements aided European and American common understanding; however, translation into Chinese was troublesome. A potentially easier route would have been to adopt the Japanese Pharmacopoeia names and descriptions, often possessing the same Asian (Hanzi) character as that in China, however, this was resisted due to the strong nationalistic sentiment at the time in mainland China ( Read, 1930 ).

Though the Japanese favored direct foreign phonetic transliterated terms for drugs, about 60 original Chinese materia medica entries had persisted in the Japanese Pharmacopoeia including entries for camphor, ginger, aloes, cardamom, and star anise.

Difficulty in plant identification and common naming was not confined to Asia. During the early 1900s period of European and American political expansion, attempts were being made in Europe to catalogue multilingual terms for similar plants such as the publication of “the illustrated polyglot dictionary of plants names” in Latin, Arabic, Armenian, English, French, German, Italian, and Turkish languages ( Bedevian, 1936 ), cataloguing 3,657 plants in eight languages.

Chronology of Pharmacopoeial Developments in China

1900–1949.

Medicinal plant publications during the early 1900s, before the formation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, were greatly influenced by the previous “age of exploration.” Many scientific societies were set up by explorers, their peers, and investors as forums to communicate knowledge and acknowledge ownership of findings and discoveries ( Fyfe and Moxham, 2016 ). The rise in fashion of the “gentleman scholar” engaging in academic pursuits supported the occupation of writing. During this time, many publications focused on the identification and classification of ethnic/indigenous medical plants, such as Aztec medicinal plants still in use in modern Mexico ( Braubach, 1925 ; Heinrich et al., 2014 ), Algonquians from nowadays, Canada, ( Speck, 1917 ), Micronesians ( St John, 1948 ), Babylonians and Assyrians, ( Jastrow, 1914 ), Native American Indian tribes ( Castetter et al., 1935 ), Persia, ( Garrison, 1933 ) and India, ( Chopra, 1933 ). Publications in English describing the history and use of Chinese medicine in the context of Western orthodox also appeared ( Chan, 1939 ).

Periods of advancements in TCM research after 1949 to the present day have been described as occurring in three defined phases lasting about 20 years each. The first was 1950–1970, springing from the rapid development of TCM in universities, research, and hospitals in China during this time. The second phase took place during 1980–2000s, where we see the construction of legal, economic, and scientific networks. The third phase, from 2000 to date, is defined by a focus on elucidating the scientific basis and scientific clinical practice of TCM using cross-disciplinary and global collaborations ( Xu et al., 2013 ).

1950–1969

Political context.

This period immediately followed the formation of the People’s Republic of China and saw a rise in nationalism and political introspection. International relationships cooled and a closer connection with the Soviet Union was officially forged with the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance in 1950.

Regulatory and Pharmacopoeial Developments

This period saw the launch of the first edition of the People’s Republic of China Pharmacopoeia (ChP) in Chinese launched in 1953. It contains 531 monographs and mainly retains the information of the previous precursor published in the 1930s, compiled from foreign influences. It guided both identification and quantification of synthetic drugs and medicines together in one issue. Some crude herbal materials were listed, but not in analytical detail. Internationally post-World War II, good-will fostered a sense of cooperation and collaboration. This was also reflected by the World Health Organization’s release of the international pharmacopoeia (Ph. Int) issued by the World Health Organization in 1951, produced in two volumes. It contained 344 monographs and 84 tests, with an aim to provide a harmonized international reference for pharmacopoeial methods. The first European Pharmacopoeia Ph. Eur. was produced in 1967, with a more European focus, but combining many common elements of the long-existing British Pharmacopoeia and the United States Pharmacopeia.

Medicinal Plant Research and Analytical Development

Research publication output during the 1950s was varied but the most cited publication trends concerned identification of plant species using electron microscopy ( Watson, 1958 ), the use of plant tissue staining methods ( Bergeron and Singer, 1958 ; Fernstrom, 1958 ), and use of plant extracts for colorimetric analysis ( Holt and Withers, 1958 ; Lillie, 1958 ). Though originating in the 19 th century, the analytical tradition of extraction, purification, and separation of chemical plant components, e.g., the alkaloids, became increasingly sophisticated during this period ( Svoboda et al., 1959 ). Toxicity studies during this time were still basic, exposing mainly mice to plant extracts and using mortality rate counting and organ biopsy and cell station techniques, e.g., quercetin, podophyllotoxin, and podophyllin extract toxicity studies ( Leiter et al., 1950 ) and induced liver lesions with Pyrrolizidine alkaloid extracts ( Schoental, 1959 ).

Chemical screening of plants for their medicinal effects in various chemical and clinical trials is featured ( Farnsworth, 1966 ) as did their use in derivatized forms for the treatment of nerve inflammation ( Jancso et al., 1967 ) and in human metabolism studies ( Pletscher, 1968 ). Studies into the use of medicinal plants for their potential use in cancer treatments were encouraged by the first isolation of paclitaxel from the pacific yew, Taxus brevifolia Nutt.

Older basic chromatographic techniques that had been already in use remained commonly used analytical techniques, e.g., paper chromatography applied to the analysis of common broom [ Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link.] ( Jaminet, 1959 ) and in medicinal plant quality control ( Paris and Viejo, 1955 ). Separation of alkaloids e.g. in Duboisia myoporoides R. Br. ( Hills and Rodwell, 1951 ) remained a common interest and the analysis of other important metabolites including scilliroside in red squill, Drimia maritima. (L.) Stearn ( Dybing et al., 1954 ). An investigation of Cannabis sativa L. for its antibacterial activity was also conducted during this timeframe ( Krejci, 1958 ).

Much of the medicinal plant research of this period concerned the extraction and isolation of single compounds from plants. Basic colorimetric tests, UV-visible and infrared spectroscopy, and paper chromatography had previously supported this type of analysis. Spectroscopic techniques such as UV-Vis spectrometry with chart recorders had been in use since the 1920s ( Hardy, 1938 ). These were being increasingly used for quantitative applications, such as in the analysis of glucoside in walnuts and monitoring the chemical composition of plants in relation to seasonal variations ( Daglish, 1950 ).

However, the 1950–1970s was a golden period for the development of analytical technology. A time when the techniques of mass spectrometry (MS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and gas chromatography (GC) techniques had come of age. Mass spectrometry, which had been invented in the late 1800s and used in a more analytical form during the 1910s, had now come into a relatively more advanced era. It was during the period 1950–1970 that the ion trap technique was developed, for which Dehmelt and Paul later received a Noble prize. The Purcell and Bloch groups at Harvard and Stanford University, respectively, developed NMR techniques and in 1952 also received a Nobel Prize (in Physics). In 1952, Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Synge also shared a Nobel Prize (in chemistry) for inventing partition chromatography, the basis of modern GC. Gas–liquid separations solved the problem of separating sugar-based molecules, which tended to bond with traditional stationery phases such as silica and volatile compounds, such as volatile oils, which are lost through evaporation during collection, preparation, and analysis. GC was applied for the first time to resolve 17 difficult to separate plant glycosides from a broad range of chemical classes, including phenolic, coumarin, isocoumarin, isoflavone, anthraquinone, cyanogenic, isothiocyanate, and monoterpene ( Furuya, 1965 ), 15 kinds of valerian sesquiterpenoids in valerianaceous plant oils ( Furuya and Kojima, 1967 ), and the extraction and analysis of rose oil ( Minkov and Trandafilov, 1969 ).

Publications included well-applied examples where visible, ultra-violet (UV), and infrared (IR) spectral data were combined to elucidate structural characteristics of plants while undergoing chemical degradation, e.g., the stereochemical discrimination of lignin components paulownin and isopaulownin from Paulownia tomentosa Steud. ( Takahashi and Nakagawa, 1966 ), the alkaloids of the Orchidaceae ( Lüning et al., 1967 ), and terpenoids of Zanthoxylum rhetsa DC ( Mathur et al., 1967 ).

MS was also used side-by-side with NMR, resulting in the structural elucidation of key metabolites, e.g., the characterization of the opium papaverrubine alkaloids and their N ‐methyl derivatives in the genus Papaver ( Brochmann-Hanssen et al., 1968 ), the analysis of three new coumestan derivatives from the root of licorice, Glycyrrhiza spp., ( Shibata and Saitoh, 1968 ), and the isolation and purification of polyprenols from the leaves of Aesculus hippocastanum L. (horse chestnut) ( Wellburn et al., 1967 ).

Up to this time, China had played a very marginal role in international research and development activities, a situation that was to change significantly in the following period.

1970–1989

1971 saw China’s introspection from the Mao era revert to more external international engagement with the “People’s Republic of China” (PRC) elected as a permanent member of the United Nations’ General Assembly. This followed the American government’s extension of political relations with PRC after the Richard Nixon presidential visit that catalyzed an “Opening up to the West” phase in Chinese history. This opening began in 1978, orchestrated by the interim leader Deng Xiaoping, who initiated support for wide sweeping economic reforms. On a local level this manifested as individuals within China being allowed to make personal economic decisions, with the tightly governed communes being dissolved. Rural markets were replaced by open markets, resulting in a dramatic increase in international trade, supporting Xiaoping’s wish to fund economic growth from foreign investment. In the context of medicine, China’s ambition to look outward was highlighted over a decade earlier by a University College London anatomy Professor, Derrick James, when a British delegation visited China in 1954 and in his subsequent Lancet article outlined China’s intention to introduce a more scientific, modernized TCM ( James, 1955 ).

As international trade from China expanded, so did the trade in medicinal plants from Asia and with it, increased access for Chinese scientists to modern analytical instrumentation. Internally by the mid-1980s, 25 Chinese medicine colleges were formed in a reportedly scientific and modern style with an almost 30-fold increase of TCM hospital beds to 2.5 million since the formation of the state in 1949 ( Cai, 1988 ).

The establishment in 1985 of the China State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine began the formal organization of TCM research and development nationally and internationally, sowing the seeds for the formal cooperative global links that would provide the backbone for the future of international Chinese medicinal plant research. China’s motivation to secure international links was also manifest in the publication of the PRC’s first dual Chinese and English language Pharmacopoeia, ChP, 4 th edition in 1997, which began its new 5-year publication cycle trend.

Medicinal Plant Research and Analytical Developments

The newly fostered R&D investment and cooperation during this period globally is represented by the leap in sophistication and complexity of the research published, with a shift from basic to more advanced biochemical investigations and more emphasis focused on disease and diagnosis strategies such as in cancer and infectious disease. The most widely cited articles of this time include advanced biomedical research on Forskolin, from the roots of Plectranthus barbatus Andrews as a diterpene activator in nucleotide metabolism. Even though basic biochemical equipment and colorimetric methods and spectrometric enzymatic assays were used, a more complex understanding of plant metabolites is apparent ( Seamon et al., 1981 ).

This is also evident in the investigation of lectins as cell recognition molecules and their involvement in a wide range of molecular processes and potential pathologies, e.g., in metabolic regulation, viral, and bacterial infection processes ( Sharon and Lis, 1989 ). In addition to plants playing a role as phytochelants in complexing heavy metals ( Grill et al., 1985 and Grill et al., 1987 ), licorice was studied in greater depth using a conceptually new approach of assessing the mineral-corticoid activity of licorice and its role in sodium retention ( Stewart et al., 1987 ) and the radical scavenging properties of its flavonoids ( Hatano et al., 1988 ).

Awareness of plants having a role in cancer with both causative and curative effects emerged, with a highly cited review of potential causes of esophageal cancer in China. Particular concerns were linked to effects of fungal growth and associated nitrosamines due to poor storage conditions ( Mingxin et al., 1980 ). This was a precursor to later studies on aflatoxins, which are now acknowledged as causing serious health problem linked to poor storage and processing. From a therapeutic perspective, the interest in antileukemia and anti-tumor agents, e.g., in Taxus brevifolia Nutt. stem bark, first investigated some decades before, continued and ultimately resulted in the introduction of a completely new therapeutic approach ( Wani et al., 1971 ).

One of the landmark discoveries in medicinal plant history was reported to the west during this period. The antimalaria effect of artemisinin, derived from Artemisia annua L., for which the Chinese scientist Youyou Tu later received a Nobel Prize in Medicine ( Klayman, 1985 ), described a conceptual shift in the approach to treating malaria, illustrating both a change in approach from using quinoline-based drugs, which parasites were showing increasing resistance to, and paving the way for the development of new classes of drugs e.g. with potential in antiviral and anticancer treatment ( Su and Miller, 2015 ).

1990–2008

This period in China was characterized largely by economic, political, and academic success delivering on the earlier aspirations of Deng Xiaoping through focused planning and the tight administrative grip of three successive presidents (Chairpersons) and state administration. An unusually high-performing economy producing more than a 10% sustained gross domestic profit (GDP) created a stable base for China to successfully join the world trade organization in 2001, marking its arrival on the world stage as a competent economic power and its transition to a market economy ( Morrison, 2013 ). This, however, came with challenges to families and the environment.

On a local level as communes of the last decades had dissolved, a system of “household responsibility” was adapted as a kind of contract that guaranteed agricultural family holdings to provide a certain level of food (and herb) output ( Ash, 1988 ). This ensured that levels of agricultural production were optimized for the land available. Because families were now allowed to sell grown products in an open market that mirrored the economic national trend, food and medicinal herbs began to take on more distinct financial attributes. This combined with mass migration of rural workers to rapidly developing industrialized cities away from countryside homes without sufficient locally produced food in urban surrounds created a situation of widespread supply and demand, leading to new value chains for food and medicinal plant products, along with potential motivation for the substitution or adulteration of these products.

As industrialization occurred so too did environmental pollution, with increased volume and concentration of raw materials and waste presenting greater potential for pollution of medicinal plant material. The PRC at this stage had gone through a period of prolonged political stability. Economic policy became more flexible and governance developed an increasingly regulatory role compared with that of previous, more rigid enforcement. Regulation and safety testing of medical products saw further guidance through the production of four further volumes of the ChP in both Chinese and English culminating in the 8 th edition in 2005, listing 3,217 monographs, almost double that of the 1990 edition. This period saw China’s confidence increase and extend to regulatory and guidance aspects, with the ChP undergoing the greatest leap in analytical sophistication and rate of change to date. The 1990 edition was a significant step in the acceptance and introduction of modern instrumental analytical techniques for standard herbal substance testing. Since the 1985 edition, specific identification tests were introduced using mainly thin layer chromatography (TLC). Now chromatogram images of the crude and test samples were included and required for testing. Basic identification was expanded to require quantitation where high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and GC were now included for the first time and TLC extended for content analysis. More instrumental techniques replaced older ones such as the introduction of spectrophotometric determination of the alkaloid content of berberine, which had been gravimetrically analyzed in previous editions. Quantification moved from measuring simpler marker components to more specific active compounds like anthroquinone from He Shou Wu, Polygonum multiflorum Thunb [now Reynoutria multiflora (Thunb.) Moldenke]. The 2000 edition introduced assays for residues of organic chlorine pesticides for Gan Cao, Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC. and Huang Qi, Astragalus membranaceus Fisch. ex Bunge ( Kwee, 2002 ). Another leap occurred in the 2005 edition with an expansion of the acceptance of HPLC-MS, LC-MS-MS, and DNA molecular markers and chemical fingerprinting, setting the stage for 21 st century pharmacopoeial trends and the ChP as a central global influence for the analysis of medicinal plants.

The fruition of investment in external academic relations from the “opening up” phase and internal support for the now formed TCM structures of the previous decades state initiatives were borne out by the publication output in this period, with a six-fold increase in output compared with that of the previous equivalent 20-year period. Much of the output from this time demonstrated a refinement of thought around the effect of plant compounds on humans as a holistic system rather than the more singular metabolic pathway thinking of previous years. It also shows a tremendous emphasis on obtaining large datasets especially of the known metabolites and a wide exploration of acclaimed effects. Whole plant extracts and combinations of metabolites rather than single ones became a core theme, as became a medicinal plant’s effect on longer term health and preventative medicine. This ignited a resurgence of interest in the analysis of medicinal plants as a source of lead compounds for drug discovery.

The role of medical plants in coronary disease analysis becomes topical during this phase, e.g., long-term studies on elderly demonstrating the reduced risk of death from sustained flavonoids intake via inhibition of the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein ( Hertog et al., 1993 ). More sophisticated quantitative analysis and differentiation appeared during this time such as HPLC of mulberry leaves containing four varieties of flavonoids (including rutin and quercetin), and their antioxidant properties ( Zhishen et al., 1999 ). Flavonoid coronary disease risk prevention and cancer roles were advanced by the characterization and analysis studied in a wide range of fruits, seeds, oils, wines, and tea ( Middleton et al., 2000 ). A greater awareness of the potency and efficacy of drugs and medicinal plants became evident as in the studies and analysis of the effect of fluorine on drug binding and potency ( Purser et al., 2008 ). Cancer research also demonstrated further advances through combining previous findings on receptor binding with advancements in DNA extraction, amplification techniques, and cloning techniques. Resveratrol became a key area of interest for its chemoprotective effects ( Jang et al., 1997 ).

Many of the most cited publications of these two decades were detailed reviews, which brought together the findings of previous research on individual plant research.

21 st Century

China’s growing influence was marked in 2011 with the Chinese State Administration of TCM (SATCM) forming an official relationship with the European Directive on the Quality of Medicines (EDQM) to share expertise and knowledge in addition to raising the standards of testing in China and Europe through cooperation. These include translation of historical TCM documents, information relating to preparation of products, process, and sourcing. Europe, seen as an aggregate, has an approximately 16% representation in the last decades’ research output, higher than the USA. The European Pharmacopoeia (Ph Eur) manages CHM’s by allowing importation of CHM’s to countries who have signed up to the European Pharmacopoeia convention. Currently there are 43 CHMs included in the Ph Eur, 8th edition, 34 from the Ph Eur TCM Working Party, 21 of which have been included as full monographs ( Wang and Franz, 2015 ). New Ph Eur CHM monographs are being developed based, in part, on the ChP. This was facilitated by a working party on TCM (Ph Eur WP) and was officially introduced in 2005. It included 38 member states with a delegation from the EU (a representative from DG Health & Food Safety and the European Medicines Agency). Additional observers are composed of 27 countries/regions/organizations [which include 7 European countries, the Taiwan Food and Drug Administration (TFDA), and World Health Organization (WHO)] ( EDQM, 2017 ). The WHO, through participation in the PhEur, additionally has led efforts to develop a harmonized international pharmacopoeia ( WHO, 2018 ).

The monographs for medicinal plants in Ph Eur have developed from standard western drug monographs with an emphasis on chemical and physical testing, while those in the ChP have formed from revisions of older traditional texts.

As pharmacopoeial monographs expand and develop, so too does the range and complexity of analytical methods and analytical hardware needed to meet the regulatory demands and expectations of quality.

These emerging research trends and pharmacopoeial directives have paved the way for the development of a broad range of analytical techniques, mainly centering around the use of liquid chromatography (LC), GC, MS, and established UV/visible spectrophotometric techniques.

We present a selection of these analytical techniques and give examples of their applications in the analysis of medicinal plants and medicinal plant products.

Analytical Hardware, Attested and Emerging Methods

High-performance liquid chromatography.

HPLC is one of the most developed and widely used analytical techniques. It is built on a historical knowledge base amassed from TLC and optical chemistry experience. HPLC chromatography elements rely on similar principles of TLC/HPTLC, where separation of components is dependent on selective affinities to stationary supports and liquid phases.

Detection employs a photomultiplier system able to detect individual wavelengths of light, a range (spectrum) and/or multiple simultaneous wavelengths in its different iterations, combined in an enclosed automated instrument system with sample injectors; this has significantly increased the precision and reproducibility of the chromatography when compared with older chromatographic methods. The widespread use of HPLC has made it more affordable for laboratories. High operator skill level is not required; it is robust and sensitive to low level detection and is particularly used for the quantification of components (active substances and adulterants).

HPLC applied to herbal products is well developed, and it has been successfully applied to the analysis of complex mixtures of similar compounds, both for the separation of individual compounds and for the differentiation of medicinal plant species. The high resolution of the technique has supported the development of the concept of a characteristic “fingerprint” developed for medicinal plants and herbal products to aid identification and authentication, e.g., Li et al. (2010) demonstrated differentiation of the same type of medicinal plant product from 40 different manufacturers, while simultaneously separating nine marker chemical compounds (berberine, aloe-emodin, rhein, emodin, chryso- phanol, baicalin, baicalein, wogonoside, and wogonin).

High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography

HPTLC has become a common addition to the method section of new monographs, replacing the widely used TLC tests; it has shown to be a reliable and reproducible method of analysis that provides essential information regarding the compositional quality of an herbal substance.

Some advantages of this technique include low cost and a relatively simple test method. It does not require advanced sample preparation methods or high levels of expertise. Sample amounts are relatively small, and it is a more sensitive technique compared with HPLC, well suited to detecting contaminants. However, some disadvantages are that the reproducibility is dependent on a variety of external factors, and although more sensitive than HPLC, it is not able to sufficiently detect compounds at very low concentrations (PPB) where LC-MS (or HPTLC-MS) may be more suitable. HPTLC relies on the same principle as TLC and uses similar TLC plates and mobile phases, although relatively small amounts of solvents are required compared with standard TLC. The process of adding the sample to plates (spotting) has been made more reproducible and precise by spraying the sample onto the plate to form a band of compound rather than a spot. Retention factors for individual compounds are more reproducible due to controlled humidity during development. Derivatizing the analysis plates is completed mainly by machine and the visualization is captured by modern camera systems connected to powerful software. The software allows further manipulation of images to optimize visualization in a way that would be very difficult chemically. Another advantage is that the HPTLC system can be easily linked to a scanning densitometer; this not only allows for more precise quantitative work to be carried out but also the data can be exported for multivariate analysis. It is likely that more of the monographs with TLC requirements will be upgraded to HPTLC in the future.

Gas Chromatography

GC in respect to medicinal plant analysis is mainly used for the analysis of compounds with higher volatility, e.g., compounds found within essential oils, and more volatile adulterants, e.g., pesticides. While single GC column chromatography and its hyphenated derivatives have been use for many years, 1991 saw the introduction of 2D-GC or GC x GC, where the eluents of a standard separation are trapped and recirculated for another round of separation. This allows not only greater resolution and better separation but also the ability to purge undesired or interfering compounds so that more specific areas of the separation can be targeted ( Liu and Philips, 1991 ). This led the way for multidimensional gas chromatography (MDGC) and the advances of the modules and valve systems that trap, control, and divert sample streams. These improvements extend to the thermal control and valve systems allowing greater thermal flow and split streaming ( Bahaghighat et al., 2019 ). One key problem with GC is the introduction of sample into a gas stream. Historically squeezing, boiling, and later distillation of herbal materials were used for the collection and production of volatile compounds such as oils. However, the inherent instability of volatile components and losses as well as the poor recovery of these substances presented difficulties. This situation has somewhat been overcome by advances in extraction techniques such a solvent-free microwave extraction, e.g., for citrus peel oils [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck]. No solvents or water are necessary for high recoveries with this method, and it allows for highly efficient, compatible sample introduction without the need for interfering solvents ( Aboudaou et al., 2018 ). This sample extraction method commonly known as headspace analysis for GC has undergone many iterations ( Gerhardt et al., 2018 ). It has now developed to the stage where it is increasingly used for bacterial and microorganism detection such as in Commiphora species ( Rubegeta et al., 2018 ).

Microextraction techniques are essential for the introduction of small sample volumes into the GC gas stream. Needle-based extraction techniques have the advantage of automation, ease of interface to other instruments, and compatibility with miniaturization. Advances in solid phase dynamic extraction (SPDE), In-tube extraction (ITEX), and needle trap extraction (NTE) have refined the use of these techniques for natural and herbal compounds ( Kędziora-Koch and Wasiak, 2018 ), e.g., SPDE and ITEX for pesticide residues in dried herbs ( Rutkowska et al., 2018 ), herbal mint aromas compounds in commercial wine ( Picard et al., 2018 ), and volatiles in Chinese herbal formula Baizhu Shaoyao San ( Xu et al., 2018 ).

Supercritical Fluid Chromatography

Another liquid-based chromatographic technique based on pressurized low viscosity (supercritical) fluids, often carbon dioxide, is supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC). Since its introduction by Klesper in 1962, it has made large advances mainly due to improvements in its initially troublesome instrumentation ( Desfontaine et al., 2015 ). Its main advantage over other techniques is in its usefulness for separating complex components characteristic of natural compounds. Selection of the correct conditions of SFC mobiles phases and modifiers can be finely tuned across a wide range of polarities from non-polar to polar allowing a broad selection of separations ( Gao et al., 2010 ). Early analysis of natural products with SFC was when it was first hyphenated with gas chromatography ( King, 1990 ). Recently, it has been more fully developed to analyze a range of natural compounds in herbal substances, notably, focusing on terpenes, phenolics, flavonoids, alkaloids, and saponins. This has been achieved with hyphenation to MS, diode array detectors, SFC-ELSD, in addition to the development of novel stationary phases such as cyanopropyl, pentaflouro phenyl (PFP), and imidazolyl. An example of this is with the separation of coumarins in Angelica dahurica (Hoffm.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Franch. & Sav. roots and anthraquinones in rhubarb root ( Pfeifer et al., 2016 ).

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy

Although commonly used within industry since the 1990’s, near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was not the method of choice for medicinal plant analysis mainly due to overlapping peaks making interpretation of data problematic, and consequently, it never became the instrumentation of choice within the quality control laboratory in the same way that HPLC and TLC developed. However, with the addition of new computational software, NIR is re-emerging as an affordable and useful analytical technique used in the analysis of medicinal plants and has been particularly favored by Chinese companies in routine quality control analysis due to its ability to both rapidly differentiate between species and provide quantitative information on metabolite content ( Li et al., 2013 ; Zhang and Su, 2014 ).

As with HPTLC and NMR data, NIR also provides an opportunity for multivariate analysis and it appears capable of resolving very small variations in metabolite content. It is argued that more traditional TLC or HPLC techniques can be more subjective in the data interpretation stage and require a high degree of operator skill and that NIR is more suitable for high volume analysis in the routine quality control laboratory ( Wang and Yu, 2015 ). However, this has partly been addressed by the introduction of the fully automated systems available for HPTLC analysis and the inclusion of scanning densitometry equipment that reduce the need for operator interpretation. The main advantages of NIR appear to be the preservation of sample integrity, little sample preparation needed, and no need for solvents, and it has shown to perform well comparable to HPLC for species differentiation and quantification of metabolites ( Chan et al., 2007 ). Probably the main drawback in NIR compared with other methods, and especially, TLC, HPTC, LC-MS is in its sensitivity and some reports suggest that this technique may only be suitable for detecting compounds that exist at a concentration above 0.1% ( Lau et al., 2009 ). Another consideration is that variation in NIR data is dependent both on the chemical and physical properties of the sample, with the physical properties, e.g., particle size, having greater effects on the variation than the chemical. Therefore, before multivariate analysis can take place some pre-treatment of the spectral data is necessary, e.g., to reduce baseline noise, light scattering, and consequently enhance any chemical variation in the sample set ( Chen et al., 2008 ). Some advantages of NIR certainly are apparent, although it may not be appropriate for all situations and all types of samples. The technology has made a huge leap forward since its first introduction and now it needs to establish itself more widely as a useful tool in the quality analysis of medicinal plants.

Hyphenated Techniques

Combinations of techniques with modern developments in metabolomic analysis and computational pattern recognition programs open up a wider scope of applications to medicinal plant analysis. Tandem combinations of analytical instrumentation such as MS with HPLC has proved a productive route to expanding analytical medicinal plant applications. Not only in identification and fingerprinting but further chemical characterization of individual compounds e.g., Liu et al. (2011) , characterized a spectrum of alkaloid components in the Chinese herb Ku Shen ( Sophora flavescens Aiton). Further combinations and permutations of MS and NMR in combination with HPTLC have been demonstrated, such as the detection of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in galbanum in a search for natural product drug candidates ( Hamid-Reza et al., 2013 ), and mass spectroscopy (MS) HPTLC-MS shown for Ilex vomitoria Aiton with the use of a sampling probe following HPTLC combined with MS with Electrospray Ion Trap ( Ford and Van Berkel., 2004 ) and Hydrastis canadensis L., with HPLTLC-MS atmospheric pressure chemical ionization ( Van Berkel et al., 2007 ).

Analytical combinations including ESI-IT-TOF/MS-HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS have been demonstrated for the analysis of coumarin patterns in Angelica polymorpha Maxim. roots ( Liu et al, 2011 ) and multihyphenated techniques such as SPE-LC-MS/MS-ABI quadrupole trap have been used for the analysis of six major flavones in Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi ( Fong et al., 2014 ) and 38 saponins in the roots of Helleborus niger L. by LC-ESI-IT-MS ( Duckstein et al., 2014 ).

Merging the separation ability of HPTLC or HPLC with the analysis power of NMR and MS has significant benefits for analyzing complex samples in complex matrices such a blood, soil, and plants. However, each technique also possesses its inherent disadvantages. MS being complex, expensive, and time-consuming, requiring high analytical skill levels, it may not be suitable for a general quality assurance laboratory. Though powerful, extensive method development and post analysis data processing is required when applied to natural compounds with broad complex compositions in contrast to simpler synthesized pharmaceutical ingredients. Similarly, NMR is also expensive and sensitive to variations in sample preparation and composition. It is not fully applicable to all natural compound samples and signals generated from NMR analysis often overlap making data analysis for individual compounds problematic. However, the relative speed, rich information output, and insight into the overall composition of medicinal plants from both MS and NMR far outweigh the disadvantages. These techniques allow the detection of compounds into the parts per billion analytical range (MS) and allow a detailed fingerprint of metabolites across differing polarities (NMR) and so for research and for larger companies they are highly applicable analytical hardware.

Metabolomics

Pharmacopoeial methods focus on authentication and quality of herbal materials; however, metabolomics allow us to go a step beyond authentication and look in more detail at a broad range of secondary metabolites. By coupling analytical data to multivariate software, this allows us to develop statistical models to firstly differentiate between species but also to get a better idea of a typical metabolite composition for a particular species. The advantage of this is that it can help to inform any laboratory test or clinical intervention. There has been great emphasis on making sure that any experiment or intervention uses plant material that is authenticated, with a herbarium specimen deposited. However, the requirements do not stipulate that a good representative of the species should be used. This is where metabolomics can provide essential information—by collecting a wide range of samples from different geographical locations, altitudes, growing conditions, it allows us to map their metabolite differences and highlight how diverse or how similar metabolite composition is. When an experiment is performed, we have the choice to use a specimen that may be typical, i.e., contains an average composition or we can look at compositions that are atypical, containing greater amounts of specific metabolites or even different metabolites. Moreover, if a particular experiment produces positive results and we want to reproduce the data, a metabolomic model allows us to choose species that have a similar composition.

This approach has important economic implications as a detailed understanding of metabolomic analysis allows us to inform industry as to how to grow plants that will be of the best composition and so help to support local livelihoods of farmers and primary processors in developing economies, e.g., Chachacoma ( Senecio nutans Sch. Bip. ) cultivation in the high altitude regions of Chile where metabolomics has helped to establish the best altitude for growing plants with the highest content of the anti-inflammatory acetophenone ( Lopez et al., 2015 ).

This strategy also has applications in product development, where metabolomics can help to determine the quality of products based on their metabolite content, e.g., Curcuma longa L. (Turmeric products) ( Booker et al., 2014 ), and also help to provide evidence that can lead to value addition of a product and greater confidence in its quality and safety.

Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles 1–100 nm sized ions or organic/inorganic molecules have proven to be important in the development of new analytical testing ( Tao et al., 2018 ), occupying the analytical regions of space between the ionic dimensions and small molecules.

Recent developments in nanoparticle research has led to an increased focus on chemo-bio sensing, as DNA has become the most used biological molecule to functionalize nanoparticles. Nanoparticles have provided many advantages to more consistent and specific testing including providing a more reproducible stable matrix for research and development, more controllable and reliable basis for designing and conjugating to functional molecules, and a wide rebate of flexibility for purification, selection, and modification of analytes. Nanoparticles have been used in creating a biological bar code for trace analysis of mycotoxins in Chinese herbs e.g. conjugated nanoparticles with DNA fragments to bind and target Chinese medicinal plants, e.g., Jue Ming Zi [Cassia seeds— Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby], Yuan Zhi ( Polygala tenuifolia Willd.), and Bai Zi Ren [ Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco] ( Yu et al., 2018 ).

The next steps in analytical advancement in combination with technological improvements will most likely occur in the realm of artificial intelligence. Neural networks have already shown promise in consumer electronics and online search engine optimization. Self-learning algorithms have been in development for decades, with great potential for the application of self-synthesizing, auto-creating, and auto-adapting algorithms, which can optimally recognize and synthesize analytical data into meaningful and useful patterns. This goes beyond what a single human mind could hope to achieve in lifetimes, now possible in seconds with current and more so with future technology. This extends not only the human potential of thinking and observation but also prediction and design. This could potentially play a role in self-design of analytical instrumentation and its modules, self-optimizing of methods in real-time, saving time that would perhaps take an analyst weeks or months of human work-hours to complete.

The greatest challenge with AI is its opacity and computational complexity. With self-learning systems already self-generating codes and pathways that would take decades for a single human to decode and understand, if ever possible. This presents a great challenge for use in reproducible, validated quality-driven, audit-trailed regulated orientated environments. This is where natural compounds such as herbal substances can play a significant role i.e. data from the same plants species with variable composition can help verify the input and outputs of complex analysis and recognition software. In AI-driven systems, natural substances are ideal candidates for testing the analytical attributes such as accuracy, precision, and robustness of whole AI-instrumentation systems.

Conclusions

As pharmacopoeial requirements continue to develop and instrumental technology advances, it is clear that we will be able to delve further and further into the chemical composition of medicinal plants and develop more advanced techniques for the detection and quantification of adulterants and contaminants. However, it should be considered that although these technological advances give us this opportunity, more traditional organoleptic analysis also provides us with essential sensory information regarding medicinal plant quality.

We have shown the emergence and historical importance of complex analytical techniques used in medicinal plant analysis. However, any analytical approach, can only provide a partial perspective on complex multicomponent preparations. So future improvements in this area may not entirely rely on developing ever more complex analytical techniques, but in implementing best practice throughout all stages of the production and supply of herbal medicines.

Author Contributions

AB wrote the sections on applications of metabolomics, NIR, parts of the introduction, and conclusions. MF wrote most of the instrumentation, trends in publications and history, part of the introduction and conclusions. MH contributed towards the methodological design of the study and assisted with the data analysis.

MF scholarship is funded by Brion Research Group (Sun Ten Pharmaceutical Co) and Herbprime, UK.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: herbal medicine, medicinal plant, analysis, quality, pharmacopoeia, complexity, advances

Citation: Fitzgerald M, Heinrich M and Booker A (2020) Medicinal Plant Analysis: A Historical and Regional Discussion of Emergent Complex Techniques. Front. Pharmacol. 10:1480. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01480

Received: 04 September 2018; Accepted: 14 November 2019; Published: 09 January 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Fitzgerald, Heinrich and Booker. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Anthony Booker, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Biotechnology of Medicinal Plants with Antiallergy Properties

Research Trends and Prospects

© 2024
Saikat Gantait 0 ,
Jayoti Majumder 1 ,
Amit Baran Sharangi 2

Crop Research Unit (Genetics and Plant Breeding), Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, India

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Department of Floriculture & Landscaping, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, India

Department of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, India

Explains biotechnological techniques and tools related to medicinal plants with a view to anti-allergic potential
Addresses top health-related global problems, such as the ongoing COVID pandemic
Uses various phytomedicinal approaches including a plethora of medicinal plant illustrations

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Table of contents (22 chapters)

Front matter, investigating the use of biotechnologically enhanced medicinal plants in allergy treatment.

Raktim Mukherjee, Megha Dave, Jitendriya Panigrahi, Selvaraj Jayaraman

Medicinal Plants, Secondary Metabolites, and Their Antiallergic Activities

Merve Nenni, Secil Karahuseyin

Exploring nature’s Pharmacy: Indigenous Plants of Southern Africa with Antiallergic Properties and their Mechanism of Action

Keletso Lashani, Sonia Malik, Goabaone Gaobotse, Abdullah Makhzoum, Kabo Masisi

Antiallergic Implications of Curcumin During COVID-19: Current Status and Perspectives

Prem Rajak, Aritra Chakraborty, Sohini Dutta, Diyasha Banerjee, Satadal Adhikary, Suchandra Bhattacharya et al.

Plant-Derived Antiallergic Active Ingredients for Food Allergies

Yongqiang Zhao, Bo Qi, Tianxiang Wu, Yanlai Tan

Recent Advances in Saffron ( Crocus sativus L.) Micropropagation: A Potential Plant Species with Antiallergic Properties

Abdelghani Tahiri, Youssef Karra, Naima Ait Aabd, Meriyem Koufan, Redone Qessaoui, Rachid Bouharroud et al.

Antihistaminic Activity of Shikonin from Biotechnologically Grown Echium italicum L.

Melike Tepe

The Anthelmintic Impact of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Leaves: An Antiallergic Plant on Caenorhabditis elegans

Surabhi Usturge, Motilal Panigrahi, Jitendriya Panigrahi

Facile Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Passiflora edulis and Its Efficacy Against the Breast Cancer Cell Line

Pradeep Duraiyarasan, Parthiban Subramaniyan, Arun Melvin, G. Siva, S. Venkatesh, K. Mohamed Rafi

Effect of Sodium Nitroprusside on Morphogenesis, and Genetic Attributes of In Vitro Raised Plantlets of Curcuma longa Var. Lakadong

Lavinia Alexis Kurbah, M Wanlambok Sanglyne, Alvareen Nongsiang, Janardhan Das, Meera Chettri Das

The Power of Citrus : Antiallergic Activity and In Vitro Propagation Techniques

Elizabeth Kairuz, Alán Rivero-Aragón, Geert Angenon

Recent Advances in Micropropagation of Phoenix dactylifera : A Plant with Antiallergic Properties

Maiada M. El-Dawayati, Eman M. Zayed

Cell Suspension Culture-Mediated Secondary Metabolites Production from Medicinal Plants with Antiallergy Properties

Rusha Mitra, Jesika Upadhyay, Nilanjan Chakraborty

In Vitro Plant Regeneration of Agapanthus praecox Alternatives to Silver Nanoparticles Production and Synthesis of Antimicrobial Silver Nanoparticles

Ponnusamy Baskaran

Current Elicitation Strategies for Improving Secondary Metabolites in Medicinal Plants with Antiallergy Properties

Jayachandran Halka, Krishnagowdu Saravanan, Nandakumar Vidya, Kumaresan Kowsalya, T. Senthilvelan, Packiaraj Gurusaravanan et al.

Antiallergic Metabolite Production from Plants via Biotechnological Approaches

Engin Tilkat, Atalay Sökmen

Improvement of the Antiallergic Plants via Whole Genome Duplication

Indranil Santra, Avijit Chakraborty, Biswajit Ghosh

Agrobacterium rhizogenes -Mediated Genetic Transformation: A Potential Approach to Enhance the Antiallergic Potential of Medicinal Plants by Endorsing the Production of Responsible Phytochemicals

Moumita Gangopadhyay, Sayani Sanyamat, Saikat Dewanjee

Production, Storage, and Regeneration of Synthetic Seeds from Selected Medicinal Plants with Antiallergic Property

Tsama Subrahmanyeswari, Manisha Mahanta, Sandipan Bandyopadhyay
Ethnopharmacology
Biopharmaceutical
Gene transfer
Tissue Culture
Germplasm conservation

About this book

This book comprehensively covers critically investigated information on medicinal plants prioritized for their anti-allergy properties. It offers insights into strategies related to the distribution, mechanism of action, and assessment of antiallergic medicinal plants, and also delves into crucial aspects of modern biotechnological tools, addressing their implementation challenges, presenting innovative approaches through case studies, and exploring opportunities for nanotechnologies. These elaborated discussions aim to raise awareness and bridge the gap between human health and the biodiversity of antiallergic medicinal plants. As the book navigates the uncertainties of plant-based medicines in the post-COVID-19 era, it provides real-world applications showcasing the specific utility of medicinal plants through advanced biotechnological insights. This book covers several medicinal plants associated with antiallergy, exploring their modes of action, available secondary metabolites,and estimation methods. It also emphasizes all modern biotechnological interventions aimed at propagating, multiplying, and conserving this unique treasure trove of medicinal plants.

The World Health Organization estimated that 80% of the populations of developing countries rely on traditional medicines, mostly plant drugs, for their primary health care needs. Increasing demand in both developing and developed countries resulted in the expanding trade of medicinal plants and has serious implications for the survival of several plant species, with many under threat of becoming extinct. This book describes various approaches to conserving these genetic resources. It discusses the whole spectrum of biotechnological tools from micro-propagation for large-scale multiplication and cell-culture techniques to the biosynthesis and enhancement of pharmaceutical compounds in plants. It also discusses the genetic transformation as well as short- to long-term conservation of plant genetic resources via synthetic seed production and cryopreservation, respectively. This reference book is useful for researchers in the pharmaceutical and biotechnological industries, medicinal chemists, biochemists, botanists, molecular biologists, academicians, students as well as allergic patients, traditional medicine practitioners, scientists in medicinal and aromatic plants, and other traditional medical practitioners.

Editors and Affiliations

Saikat Gantait

Department of Floriculture & Landscaping, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, India

Jayoti Majumder

Amit Baran Sharangi

About the editors

Dr. Gantait is an Assistant Professor in Genetics & Plant Breeding, at Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya. He gained advanced research experience while working as a Research Associate in Govt. of India-funded project, followed by working as a Post-Doctoral Researcher at Universiti Putra Malaysia. He has guided/co-guided multiple MSc and PhD students. His 17-year research works include molecular markers, plant tissue culture, polyploidy-induction, synthetic seed, and cryopreservation of medicinal and ornamental plant germplasms. He is acting as an Editorial Board Member in multiple journals Springer Nature, Elsevier, and Frontiers. He has reviewed 400+ manuscripts as an ad-hoc reviewer in 70+ eminent journals from Springer, Elsevier, Taylor and Francis, PLoS, Wiley, etc. His name has been included in the list of Top 2% Scientists Worldwide (2023) by Stanford University. To date, he has published 150+ articles/chapters/books in peer-reviewed journals and books (cumulative 300+ Impact Factor, 4000+ Google Scholar citations), mostly as the first/senior author.

Dr. Majumder is an Assistant Professor in Floriculture and Landscaping. She received her MSc (Hort.) and PhD (Hort.) degrees from Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India, and has been working in the field of Floriculture and Landscaping for more than 11 years very effectively and made measurable impact as a passionate floriculturist for all those fields related to flower nutraceuticals, secondary metabolites, edible flowers, floral pigment, flower preservation, application of nanotechnology in floriculture and phytoremediation through aquatic ornamentals. She was initially appointed as a Scientist under ICAR-DFR, New Delhi/Pune, India. She guided multiple M.Sc. and Ph.D. students. Her research works have been published in 30+ articles in National and International journals. She was selected for a trainingprogram in Wuhan, China on Seed production and crop improvement. She is an active member of several science academies and societies IAHS, SPH, and CWSS, and an editorial board member of JCW and SPH.

Dr. Sharangi is a Professor at Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya and has been involved in teaching, research, and extension for about 25 years. He completed his Doctoral degree from BCKV and Post-Doctorate from the University of Melbourne, Australia. He has received his scientific training from IISR, IIHR & ARO (Tel Aviv, Israel). His areas of expertise are herbs, spices & medicinal and aromatic plants. He has done extensive research in laboratories in Australia, the USA, and the UK. He has several international awards including Fulbright (USA), INSA-RSE Visiting Scientist (UK), ENDEAVOUR Award (Australia), Marquis Who’s Who (USA), Young Achievers Award (SADHNA), Higher Education Leadership Award, Outstanding Scientist Award, Bharat Ratna Mother Teresa Gold Medal Award, etc. He has published about 90 peer-reviewed papers, 25 books from Springer Nature, Taylor & Francis, Nova Publisher, CRC Press, etc. He is also associated with 50 journals worldwide as editor-in-chief, editorial board member, and active reviewer.

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Biotechnology of Medicinal Plants with Antiallergy Properties

Book Subtitle : Research Trends and Prospects

Editors : Saikat Gantait, Jayoti Majumder, Amit Baran Sharangi

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-1467-4

Publisher : Springer Singapore

eBook Packages : Biomedical and Life Sciences , Biomedical and Life Sciences (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024

Hardcover ISBN : 978-981-97-1466-7 Published: 31 May 2024

Softcover ISBN : 978-981-97-1469-8 Due: 04 July 2024

eBook ISBN : 978-981-97-1467-4 Published: 30 May 2024

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XXII, 672

Number of Illustrations : 13 b/w illustrations, 86 illustrations in colour

Topics : Biotechnology , Pharmacology/Toxicology , Organic Chemistry , Biochemistry, general , Biomedicine, general , Plant Sciences

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Published: 13 November 2012

People, plants and health: a conceptual framework for assessing changes in medicinal plant consumption

Carsten Smith-Hall 1 ,
Helle Overgaard Larsen 1 &
Mariève Pouliot 1

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine volume 8 , Article number: 43 ( 2012 ) Cite this article

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A large number of people in both developing and developed countries rely on medicinal plant products to maintain their health or treat illnesses. Available evidence suggests that medicinal plant consumption will remain stable or increase in the short to medium term. Knowledge on what factors determine medicinal plant consumption is, however, scattered across many disciplines, impeding, for example, systematic consideration of plant-based traditional medicine in national health care systems. The aim of the paper is to develop a conceptual framework for understanding medicinal plant consumption dynamics. Consumption is employed in the economic sense: use of medicinal plants by consumers or in the production of other goods.

PubMed and Web of Knowledge (formerly Web of Science) were searched using a set of medicinal plant key terms (folk/peasant/rural/traditional/ethno/indigenous/CAM/herbal/botanical/phytotherapy); each search terms was combined with terms related to medicinal plant consumption dynamics (medicinal plants/health care/preference/trade/treatment seeking behavior/domestication/sustainability/conservation/urban/migration/climate change/policy/production systems). To eliminate studies not directly focused on medicinal plant consumption, searches were limited by a number of terms (chemistry/clinical/in vitro/antibacterial/dose/molecular/trial/efficacy/antimicrobial/alkaloid/bioactive/inhibit/antibody/purification/antioxidant/DNA/rat/aqueous). A total of 1940 references were identified; manual screening for relevance reduced this to 645 relevant documents. As the conceptual framework emerged inductively, additional targeted literature searches were undertaken on specific factors and link, bringing the final number of references to 737.

The paper first defines the four main groups of medicinal plant users (1. Hunter-gatherers, 2. Farmers and pastoralists, 3. Urban and peri-urban people, 4. Entrepreneurs) and the three main types of benefits (consumer, producer, society-wide) derived from medicinal plants usage. Then a single unified conceptual framework for understanding the factors influencing medicinal plant consumption in the economic sense is proposed; the framework distinguishes four spatial levels of analysis (international, national, local, household) and identifies and describes 15 factors and their relationships.

Conclusions

The framework provides a basis for increasing our conceptual understanding of medicinal plant consumption dynamics, allows a positioning of existing studies, and can serve to guide future research in the area. This would inform the formation of future health and natural resource management policies.

Medicinal plants, defined as plants used for maintaining health and/or treating specific ailments, are used in a plethora of ways in both allopathic and traditional systems of medicine in countries across the world. Even people using only allopathic medicine throughout their lives are likely to be somewhat medicinal plant reliant as 20-25% of drugs prescribed are plant derived [ 1 ]. There is thus a medicinal plant reliance continuum: from people who consume solely allopathic medicine to users having no alternative to using medicinal plants for a majority of their health care treatments. It is unfortunately not possible to even roughly estimate the absolute number of people, or the frequency of medicinal plant use, at different locations along the medicinal plant reliance continuum. Official statistics on medicinal plant trade and consumption are scant and not very informative as medicinal plant products are often part of the informal economy (the part of the economy not monitored by the government, taxed or included in national statistical estimates such as the gross national product) and thus not recorded, or recording aggregates medicinal plants with other items. Throughout this paper we use the term “consumption” in the economic sense: use of medicinal plants by consumers or in the production of other goods. The term is not used in any medical sense, e.g. to denote oral administration of a drug.

The World Health Organization has estimated that 80% of the world’s population relies solely or largely on traditional remedies for health care [ 2 ] and there is speculation that more than two billion people may be heavily reliant on medicinal plants [ 3 ]. Although considerable uncertainty surrounds these often cited figures, there is no doubt that medicinal plants play an important role in the livelihoods and welfare of a vast number of people in both developed and developing countries. The importance of medicinal plants in health care is increasingly recognized in the health sector as exemplified by discussions of the role of traditional medicine in contributing to achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), three of which are directly health related [ 4 ], and by work towards European harmonized criteria for the assessment of herbal medicinal products [ 5 , 6 ]. When evaluating or developing nominal and functional health policies, it is crucial to understand the current role of medicinal plants and, in order to be able to assess the impacts of policy changes, to understand who is dependent how on medicinal plants. Will consumption increase in some locations and decrease in others? Should care be taken to reach certain groups of people? Health policies are only rarely integrated or coordinated with other sector policies (such as agricultural or environmental policies) with the result that health investments are narrowly confined to the health sector (e.g. [ 7 ]). Increased attention to medicinal plant consumption and its dynamics may contribute to the development of collaboration across the natural resources and health sectors, resulting in more comprehensive and efficient health policies.

Perhaps as a consequence of the ubiquitous worldwide use of medicinal plants, information on medicinal plant consumption is scattered across a wide range of disciplines and sectors, and there is no structured overview of state-of-knowledge. We argue that this impedes the systematic consideration of plant-based traditional medicine in national health care systems in many countries, although some notable examples of integration of herbal medicine into national health legislations exist (e.g. the European Directive on Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products). The objective of this paper is to improve our knowledge of medicinal plant consumption. We argue that there are many reliance dimensions linking humans and medicinal plants, and we use this as the starting point to identify the main groups of medicinal plant users and the main types of benefits they derive from medicinal plant usage. We then proceed to identify the factors determining medicinal plant consumption patterns and structure these in a conceptual framework. In other words, we address the two questions: (i) in what ways and to whom are medicinal plants important, and (ii) what factors determine medicinal plant consumption?

The global peer-reviewed literature on medicinal plant use patterns and factors influencing these provided the foundation for outlining main users and benefit types. The large amount of relevant literature is found across many disciplines, for example ethnobotany, geography, anthropology and medicine, and the initial search was thus broad using search terms that would be most likely to generate studies that included medicinal plant consumption related aspects. We initially focused on the term traditional a medicine and traced its history. This term was initially known as “primitive” medicine studied by anthropologists in third world countries. After World War II the term was succeeded by “peasant” and “folk” medicine, then “rural” medicine [ 8 ], and now the term in vogue is “traditional” (e.g. [ 9 , 10 ]). Traditional medicine is increasingly consumed in western countries, where it is commonly called “alternative/complementary/holistic/herbal/indigenous/integrative/native/natural/non-toxic/oriental/unconventional” and “fringe/non-traditional/unproven/unscientific”. It excludes what has been termed “allopathic/conventional/mainstream/modern/orthodox/western”. In our literature search we focused on the main terms used historically (folk/peasant/rural/traditional), terms that are of recent importance (ethno/indigenous/CAM) with the addition of terms that are entirely medicinal plant based (herbal/botanical/phytotherapy). We searched PubMed and the Thomson Reuters Web of Knowledge, with no language restrictions, and combined each of the search terms with other terms (medicinal plants/health care/preference/trade/treatment seeking behavior/domestication/sustainability/conservation/urban/migration/climate change/policy/production systems) to focus on studies including aspects of medicinal plant use and consumption. To eliminate studies that are not directly focused on medicinal plant use, such as chemical studies on plant constituents or clinical studies, the search was limited by a number of terms (chemistry/clinical/in vitro/antibacterial/dose/molecular/trial/efficacy/antimicrobial/alkaloid/bioactive/inhibit/antibody/purification/antioxidant/DNA/rat/aqueous). The search was last updated in August 2012. Taking into account 203 overlapping references in the two databases, a total of 1940 references were identified. A manual screening of the abstracts further eliminated 1295 references that were ethnobotanical descriptions (446) (only studies containing information directly relevant to the conceptual framework was included, e.g. a study documenting that a particular product from a particular species is used to treat a particular ailment in a particular location does not add to or deduct from the framework), concerned with safety and efficacy (239), veterinary medicine (39) or in other ways not relevant to the topic (574). The key term search thus yielded a total of 645 relevant documents. This formed the basis of the conceptual framework; as this emerged inductively additional targeted literature searches were undertaken to further clarify factors and links at especially the international and national levels. This identified an additional 92 documents. To avoid excessive referencing, the references included in the text are generally peer-reviewed reviews, comparative studies, and illustrative case studies. The full list of references, including how each reference is linked to the conceptual framework, is available in the Additional file 1 : Appendix.

How and to whom are medicinal plants important?

We distinguish three main types of benefits accruing from medicinal plant use: consumer, producer and society-wide benefits. Based on an existing typology [ 11 ], we classify users in four main groups: 1. Hunter-gatherers, 2. Farmers and pastoralists, 3. Urban and peri-urban (residing in areas between suburbs and rural areas) people, and 4. Entrepreneurs.

Types of benefits

Consumer benefits are (typically non-monetary) indirect benefits accruing from consumption of medicinal plant products, either raw or in processed form (e.g. [ 12 , 13 ]). Benefits are derived through both maintenance of health and treatment of illnesses. Quantification of these benefits is difficult but they may constitute the most important type of benefit in value terms. For example, it has been estimated that more than 50% of people facing illness in a rural setting in Burkina Faso consumed traditional medicine [ 14 ]. However, huge variation in the importance of consumer benefits across user groups and countries is to be expected.

Producer benefits are understood as (typically monetary) direct benefits from production of and trade in medicinal plants, plant based medicines, and plant based medicine services such as those provided by traditional medicine therapists (e.g. [ 15 , 16 ]). Benefits include harvester income from sale of medicinal plants and income to economic agents along the marketing chain where value-addition takes place, e.g. through transport and processing. Individual income levels range from marginal to substantial.

Society-wide benefits include employment opportunities in the medicinal plant based trade and industry, from processing to retailers and health care providers, as well as government revenues from medicinal plant related taxes (e.g. harvesting licenses, transport permits, custom duties and value-added tax). Trade may be of national economic importance [ 17 ]. In countries where conventional health care systems fail to reach or under-serve many people (e.g. [ 18 ]), traditional plant based medicines, by making health care (more) available and affordable, may result in a more healthy labour force with economy-wide productivity gains; this could be a major, not yet quantified, benefit.

Main user groups and associated medicinal plant benefits

The huge differences in medicinal plant reliance between user groups [ 19 ] are visualized in the medicinal plant reliance continuum (Figure 1 ). The number of people at either end of the continuum is likely to be small: (i) at one extreme, few people use no medicine at all or only allopathic medicine not derived from plants, and (ii) at the other extreme, people entirely dependent on traditional medicine, such as in isolated hunter-gatherer communities, may have access to treatments based on minerals, animals and rituals (e.g. [ 20 ]).

The medicinal plant reliance continuum and examples of reliance.

Hunter-gatherers have strong cultural attachment to the environment and usually remain relatively isolated, having limited contact with market economies. They primarily rely on hunting and gathering or shifting cultivation and they are among the poorest of the poor (e.g. [ 21 ]). The relative number of people in this group is limited. Consumer benefits are generally very important for this user group. Hunter-gatherer communities are often remote and hence have the least access to public health care (e.g. [ 22 , 23 ]). This, combined with the cultural importance of the environment to those communities, usually leads to a relatively high reliance on medicinal plants for subsistence use.

Farmers and pastoralists typically occupy the landscape between forests and towns/cities and are engaged in subsistence and/or commercial agriculture, including animal husbandry. There is huge variation in this group ranging from landless farmhands to smallholders to large industrial and green revolution farmers [ 24 ]; the relative number of people in the group is high. Producer benefits to most small and medium scale farmers and pastoralists in developing countries from the production or collection of medicinal plants are limited due to a lack of access to technologies and exploitative market structures [ 25 , 26 ]. The degree of consumer benefits will typically vary with physical and economic access to the public health infrastructure [ 11 , 27 – 29 ], e.g. large farmers will have better economic access than landless (but see [ 30 ] for documentation of a positive correlation between wealth and the use of traditional medicine).

Urban and peri-urban people in developing and developed countries exhibit different medicinal plant consumption patterns. In developing countries, where the proportion of people living in urban areas is rising [ 31 ], the group includes a large number of poor that have migrated from rural areas to become part of the informal urban or peri-urban sector, and a smaller middle class with jobs in the formal sector (e.g. [ 32 ]) – though there are important exceptions, e.g. the large and rapidly expanding middle class in China. Medicinal plant consumption varies with factors such as income and access to public health facilities [ 27 , 33 ], ethnicity and gender [ 34 ] and ethnobotanical knowledge [ 35 ]. In developed countries, the main distinction is between the relatively poor and the well-off, where higher income [ 36 ] but also lack of access to modern treatment [ 37 ] predicts use of traditional medicine. The use of traditional medicine to prevent illness is apparently common [ 38 ] and persistent [ 36 ]. Generally, a high frequency of traditional medicine use is reported among migrants in developed countries [ 39 , 40 ].

Entrepreneurs are individuals who seek to capitalize on potentially profitable endeavours often associated with some degree of risk taking. They include actors along the medicinal plant marketing chain (traders, wholesalers, retailers), processors varying from small rural-based distillation units to huge urban based factories serving international markets, and health service providers such as traditional healers and general practitioners (e.g. [ 16 , 22 , 41 – 43 ]). The relative number in this group is limited but their functions are essential to make medicinal plants available to consumers. While producer benefits are intrinsically linked to entrepreneurs, consumer benefits depend on entrepreneurs’ access to public health facilities and levels of income.

Determinants of medicinal plant consumption: A conceptual framework

Analyzing medicinal plant consumption is very complex: there is a huge number of medicinal plant species from a large variety of habitats under different forms of management. They are used by different types of users in a vast number of preventive and curative treatments and offered by discrete types of therapists. To enable a systematic approach to understanding medicinal plant consumption, we here present a conceptual framework (Figure 2 ) focusing on the factors influencing the supply and demand of medicinal plants. There are four spatial levels of analysis: international, national, local, and household. At each level, three to four main factors and links (indicated by arrows) between factors are identified; each link is assigned a unique number (used when describing the links below). Note that arrows do not indicate simple uni-directional causalities, e.g. climate change may result in change in species composition in a forest which may simultaneously diminish the supply of one medicinal plant species while increasing the supply of another (link I1); impact is site and species specific. Also note that there are different types of impacts. Direct impacts are caused by physical or biological factors that influence medicinal plant consumption without interacting with social systems or other mechanisms, e.g. the direct impact of climatic changes on medicinal plant supplies through changed growth conditions. Indirect impacts are effects from economic, socio-political, institutional, demographic, technological and cultural activities that only influence medicinal plant consumption through other mechanisms, e.g. construction of roads into forest areas supplying medicinal plants (N1). Indirect impacts are site specific. Derived impacts are economy-wide and not restricted to particular sites, e.g. the impact of increased budgets for pluralistic national health care systems on health care options (N3). Finally, it should be noted that predicted changes in variables at national level and below are relative, i.e. influenced by the pre-existing situation. For instance, changes in medicinal plant supply are influenced by pre-existing factors such as the reproductive morphology of a species (I1).

Conceptual framework for analyzing changes in medicinal plant consumption.

In the following, each analytical level is explained, including a description of each causal factor and the linkages between factors. We highlight important assumptions and gaps in knowledge.

International level

There is now near unanimous agreement that anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions will change the Earth’s climate [ 44 ]. Climate change will directly affect medicinal plant supply through changes in habitat structure and/or plant species composition (I1) [ 45 ] and may also change terms-of-trade (I3) as the relative cost of producing different items changes between countries. For instance, it has been predicted that climate changes will lead to decreasing average crop yields in developing countries and increased yields in developed countries [ 46 ]. Terms-of-trade are influenced by a large number of factors, including international flows of labour and capital and international commodity prices, which may all impact on the structure of national production systems (I5) (e.g. [ 47 ]). Climate change is also expected to affect human health (I2), mainly adversely, e.g. through an increase in vector-borne infectious diseases and extreme weather events (e.g. [ 48 , 49 ]). Finally, global policies and international multilateral conventions, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, influence national policies, legislation, and budgets (I4) with impacts on both medicinal plant supply and demand. For example, international research on potential herbal medicines may be discouraged by national protectionist policies formulated to prevent biopiracy [ 50 , 51 ].

National level

Policies and budgets influence the supply of medicinal plants through decisions affecting resource management (N1). For example, enhancement of productivity can take place through resource management aiming at increasing the production area, protecting degraded production areas, and introducing more efficient technologies. Conversely, decreases in productivity result from elimination or degradation of production units, e.g. through policies promoting the expansion of agriculture in forests (e.g. [ 52 , 53 ]). Indirect impacts also arise from national allocations to infrastructure development and maintenance, including for roads that may indirectly impact the resource base through deforestation [ 54 – 56 ]. In many developing countries forest areas are presently shrinking and the forest quality deteriorating [ 57 ] leading to a reduction in the medicinal plant resource base. This may be exacerbated by commercialization of medicinal plants (e.g. [ 58 ]). There are presently only few attempts at increasing the production of medicinal plants [ 59 ]. If overexploitation of the natural medicinal plant resource persists higher prices will lead to lower consumption, unless the resource is domesticated [ 60 ].

Production systems refer to the general production structure in a country, including both traded and non-traded production in both urban and rural sectors; this structure determines land use patterns. Policies and budgets may (intentionally or unintentionally) directly influence the type, size and geographical location of production systems (N2). For instance, the 1999 Brazilian currency devaluation combined with an international price increase of soybeans and beef and control of hoof and mouth disease led to large scale replacement of savannah woodland, known to supply medicinal plants [ 61 ], by soybean and cattle in central-west Brazil [ 54 ]. Production systems are constantly changing, e.g. in response to subsidy programs or new or collapsing markets [ 62 ]. Changes in production systems in turn, through both pull and push factors, influence patterns of migration and rates of urbanization (N6). For instance, the collapse of the agricultural sector in El Salvador during the civil war led to large scale internal and international migration, including rapid growth in the capital city [ 47 ]. In the 1960s many Nepalese farmers moved from hill areas to lowlands in response to overcrowding and stagnant agricultural productivity (push) in the hills, and eradication of malaria and agricultural land availability (pull) in the lowlands [ 63 ]. While the global population growth rate has declined since the late 1960s, substantial population increases are still expected in some regions, e.g. in sub-Saharan Africa, and are projected to be concentrated in low-income urban communities [ 64 ].

Households’ livelihood strategies, defined as income generating activities conditioned by assets and mediated by institutional and social relations [ 65 ], result from production related decisions (that, amongst other things, are based on pre-existing characteristics such as land and labour availability). Changes in production systems can directly affect livelihood strategies (N7). For example, the Chinese government’s conservation and development policies have lead to a vast sedentarization movement of Tibetan households and connectedly to a shift from a livestock rearing based livelihood to an agricultural-based livelihood [ 66 ]. The production system structure can also directly influence the type and level of health threats faced locally (N5), e.g. conversion of forest to agricultural production in Northern Thailand led to a decline in malaria threat caused by the Anopheles mosquito, occupying forest habitats [ 67 ].

Policies and budgets also influence medicinal plant demand by defining national health policies and thereby local access to health care options (N3), e.g. through public funding of hospitals and clinics [ 68 – 70 ]. Lastly, policies and budgets directly impact on the types and levels of disease threats faced locally, regionally, and nationally (N4), e.g. through provision of safe drinking water and sanitation or maintenance of disaster management regimes (e.g. [ 71 , 72 ]).

Local level

Medicinal plants are supplied from wild and domesticated vegetation types that can be described by their size, species composition, and quality. The global number of medicinal plant species is estimated at almost 53,000 [ 73 ], corresponding to 10-18% of the world’s vascular plant species [ 74 ]. Except for the few hundred species in cultivation [ 73 ] these are all wild harvested and there is thus a close link between renewable natural resources (forests, meadows, etc.) and human health. However, it should be noted that domestication takes place along a gradient of increasing human energy input per plant and that low energy input supply mechanisms may be important, e.g. households may access weeds [ 75 ] or maintain supplies in house gardens [ 76 ]. As biodiversity is degraded [ 77 ] the opportunities of medicinal plant use for health care will change.

Resource management systems, ranging from open access to complete protection, influence the potential and actual supply of medicinal plants (L1). In the past decades, a growing realization of the inability of central authorities to monitor, let alone manage, distant natural resources has led to increasing decentralization in developing countries [ 78 ]. In consequence, open access regimes give way to collective action with higher potentials for sustainable management and stable supply of products such as medicinal plants [ 79 , 80 ]. A limitation on management is lack of basic information on frequency and growth of most medicinal plant species [ 81 ]. But even in the absence of such information local cultivation may arise when the supply of highly demanded medicinal plants is threatened [ 82 , 83 ].

Health care options cover access to public and private health care choices. Traditionally, public health care systems in most countries are singular [ 84 ], with some notable exceptions such as in China and India, promoting the use of allopathic medicine with no or little public support for traditional medicine in terms of research, medical insurance or other aspects. Increasingly, however, public health care systems are becoming more pluralistic, incorporating traditional medicine practices to supplement allopathic treatment and to more effectively reach the rural population, e.g. in treatment of HIV/AIDS in Africa (e.g. [ 85 – 87 ]). There are also examples of allopathic therapists in developed countries using traditional medicine (e.g. [ 88 , 89 ]). There are very few studies of how increasing pluralistic public health care impacts on the user demand for medicinal plants (L2). Increased budgets for pluralistic public health care in developed countries would probably increase consumption of medicinal plants, whereas in developing countries, where public health care systems often have limited reach, the impact may be less pronounced, in particular outside urban areas.

Users’ demand for medicinal plants is influenced by the type and level of health threats that they are facing (L3) [ 90 ]. Type refers to the category of threat (e.g. infectious diseases) and level to the intensity of the threat (e.g. epidemic). Where a choice between allopathic and traditional medicine exists, e.g. in developed countries and among the better-off in urban areas of developing countries, it appears that allopathic medicines are often recurred to in case of serious (often infectious) diseases, whereas traditional medicine is more often used to counter mild diseases (e.g. [ 34 , 91 ]). For epidemics such as HIV/AIDS traditional medicine is likely to be used as a supplement or a last resort only [ 92 ]. In a number of developing countries, low public health budgets and subsequent lack of access to allopathic medicine lead to recurrence to traditional medicines when dealing with epidemics (e.g. [ 93 ]), especially in rural areas. Furthermore, increased resistance to allopathic drugs means that traditional medicines are sought to treat diseases such as malaria [ 94 ]. The higher frequency of serious diseases and generally higher threat levels expected as a consequence of climate changes will likely mean increased consumption of both allopathic and traditional medicine. It should be noted that different communities may have different adaptation capacities, e.g. in relation to climate changes. Such differences in vulnerability are not well understood [ 7 ].

Urbanization is increasing particularly in the tropics [ 95 ]. Migration and urbanization have been shown to affect the type and level of threats around the world (L4). For example, urbanization in Africa has lead to a profound decrease in morbidity and mortality from malaria due to a detrimental effect of city environments on anopheline species’ diversity, numbers, survival rates and infection rates [ 96 ].

Household level

Medicinal plant consumption is determined by demand and available stocks (H5, H6). As most medicinal plant species are harvested in the wild, the extractivism cycle proposed by Homma [ 60 ] provides a useful starting point for analyzing medicinal plant production over time at the single species level. Generally, as medicinal plant demand is probably growing while the resource base is shrinking, it will be challenging to maintain consumption in the future. While there are good published species level treatments of plant uses and location-specific studies with detailed species level stock and flow information, i.e. studies estimating available harvestable amounts and actual levels of extraction in particular locations (e.g. [ 97 , 98 ]), there are no studies providing stock and flow information for a species across its distribution range.

User demand for medicinal plants, expressed by individual decisions on preventive and curative treatment resorts, are influenced by user characteristics (H2). In developed countries, the use of traditional medicine is positively correlated with income [ 36 , 91 , 99 ], it is mainly used to maintain health [ 36 , 100 , 101 ] and it is related to a positive comparison with allopathic therapists in terms of patient care [ 92 ] and effectiveness [ 91 , 92 , 102 ]. It appears that traditional medicine expense is an additional cost that does not substitute allopathic medicine costs [ 99 , 103 ]. The proportion of the population aged over 60 years in developed countries is predicted to increase from 19% to 32% by 2050 [ 104 ] and it appears reasonable to assume that this will lead to an increased demand for both allopathic and traditional medicines. In developing countries, traditional medicine is resorted to because it is the only option (e.g. [ 69 , 105 ]) or the preferred option, e.g. due to better patient care (e.g. [ 106 , 107 ]). It is increasingly documented that people in developing countries resort to parallel treatments with traditional and allopathic medicine and that the choice is pragmatic rather than cultural (e.g. [ 108 – 111 ]). The increased availability of allopathic medicine in developing countries will therefore likely decrease the use of traditional medicine, but not displace it.

Livelihood strategies of households can be affected by patterns of migration b and urbanization (H4). For example, migration is often a way to increase or diversify income and/or to ensure access to assets for rural populations [ 112 ]. In turn, livelihood strategies influence household and individual medicinal plant user characteristics (H3), e.g. through the physical and human assets available for investing in disease preventive measures such as boiling drinking water [ 72 ] and financial assets available for meeting treatment costs.

User demand for medicinal plants is thus shaped by user characteristics (H2), and determined by available health care options (L3) and perceptions of threats (L4), as well as by medicinal plant supply (H1). Again, note the dual nature of the directional causality, e.g. user preferences can both promote and discourage the consumption of medicinal plants.

Medicinal plants appear to particularly provide poorer people in developing countries with affordable health care options, and well-off people in developed countries with health maintenance options. Current general development trends in developing (population increase, poor coverage of western health care, accessibility of traditional medicines) and developed (aging populations) countries indicate that medicinal plant consumption is not likely to decrease in the short to medium term - consumer, producer and society-wide medicinal plant benefits will persist. Therefore, and regardless of the constraints to the development of a sound evidence base on safety and efficacy for herbal medicines [ 113 ] and related products, we should improve our understanding of what drives medicinal plant consumption. Information on these drivers will constitute important building blocks in designing pluralistic health policies and improved natural resources management interventions to the benefits of hunter-gatherers, farmers and pastoralists, urban and peri-urban people, and entrepreneurs across the globe.

The presented unified conceptual framework offers a first step towards establishing a comprehensive approach to understanding the dynamics of medicinal plant consumption. At present the literature is dominated by studies that are disciplinary or sectoral focused; while many of these are high quality and informative in themselves, the lack of a general conceptual framework makes it difficult to pinpoint what spatial levels and causal factors need attention. The framework presented here fills in this knowledge gap by providing a structured approach to systematically investigate changes in medicinal plant consumption based on changes in key factors. For instance, it emphasizes the importance of assessing the impact caused by changes in land use patterns on medicinal plant consumption. An alternative approach to the presented framework would be to develop a mathematical model that would allow more detailed analysis, e.g. of feed-back loops. However, given existing data gaps and the lack of knowledge on key factors, such models would require a heroic number of assumptions and would be less transparent than the proposed framework.

At present, a systematic endeavour to fill the vast knowledge gaps in our understanding of medicinal plant consumption dynamics is needed to inform future health and natural resource management policies. Apart from increasing our conceptual understanding of medicinal plant consumption dynamics, the proposed framework can serve to guide research towards systematically pursuing this objective. Standardized international or national surveys do not presently include the concept of medicinal plant reliance, and in many cases only limited information on the main causal factors and linkages to medicinal plant consumption will be available at the country level, thus making it difficult to measure the central variables (assessing the strength of factors, linkages and their impacts on future consumption). Therefore, a next step in operationalising the framework could be to develop an analytical framework enabling country-level comparative studies of changes in medicinal plant consumption, e.g. through the identification of a set of generic indicators and a research protocol.

Limitations of the framework

We acknowledge that creating a single unified framework aimed at uncovering the determinants affecting medicinal plant consumption at the international, national, local and household levels is a bold venture; however, this comprehensive approach is necessary to illustrate and understand the multiple and complex factors influencing medicinal plant consumption. A similar approach has been successfully used to create a framework that formed the basis for analytical dissection and understanding of the complexities of tropical deforestation [ 114 ].

It should be noted that the presented conceptual framework does not portray the full complexity of linkages, nor does it depict temporal (bi-directional) linkages, e.g. resource management systems will over time impact on medicinal plant resource productivity. It should also be noted that the factors and linkages constitute a “gross list” of what is potentially important – not all factors and linkages will be important in any particular geographical location and their relative importance may vary across time.

The four medicinal plant user groups depicted in the first part of the paper are based on generalizations (e.g. hunter-gatherer communities are generally seen as remote and poor while farmers are generally seen as wealthier and with access to better infrastructure). While acknowledging the risk of excluding certain communities which do not conform to the general patterns observed from the literature, we consider the four groups a useful structure when reflecting on which types of people and communities are reliant on medicinal plants.

Current evidence indicates that a huge number of people rely on medicinal plant products to maintain their health or treat illnesses, and that this number is unlikely to decrease in the foreseeable future. The paper inductively synthesises available scattered knowledge on medicinal plant production, trade and consumption to propose a conceptual framework identifying the factors, and their interconnectedness, determining medicinal plant consumption. The framework is based on a typology of main medicinal plant user groups (hunter-gatherers, farmers and pastoralists, urban and peri-urban residents, and entrepreneurs) and three basic kinds of benefits (producer, consumer, and society-wide). Factors and linkages in the proposed framework range from international to household levels and, though necessarily broad, it can thus facilitate the construction of internationally comparable knowledge. The proof of success, however, is whether the proposed framework will stimulate research that is empirically and theoretically richer than in the past and whether the resultant outcomes will more effectively contribute to improved human health and better medicinal plant resource management.

a Although it has been argued that the term traditional medicine should only be used for medicine which has been commonly practiced for more than a generation [ 115 , 116 ], we adopt a WHO working definition of traditional medicine: “Health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being” [ 117 ]. A crude distinction can be made between ‘imported’ and ‘native’ traditional medicines. For instance, some traditional medicine practices have been imported to Europe with migrants (e.g. [ 118 ]) and could be termed ‘imported’; however, the distinction becomes blurred over time. Far from all components of traditional medicine include use of medicinal plants. Traditional and allopathic medicine systems may occur side by side in the same location. Allopathic medicine is the term used for industrially produced pure, standardized compounds, which are tested for efficacy and side-effects.

b In analyzing migration, human patterns of spatial mobility, it is useful to distinguish international and domestic migration, and permanent and short-term migration. The latter is also known as circulation. There is no single generally accepted model of migration [ 64 ] and projections are difficult. In the framework, the “Migration and urbanization” factor includes all kinds of migration (the relevant kind of migration will vary with the case being studied).

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David Kaimowitz and Oliver Coomes provided useful comments to earlier versions of the manuscript as did two anonymous reviewers. Funding for finalizing the manuscript was received from the Danish Council for Independent Research (Social Sciences, Grant No. 09–071350).

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The paper is part of the work of the medicinal plant group at theDepartment. It was conceived by CSH and HOL. HOL undertook database searches. Text in all sections and the framework was developed jointly by all authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Smith-Hall, C., Larsen, H.O. & Pouliot, M. People, plants and health: a conceptual framework for assessing changes in medicinal plant consumption. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine 8 , 43 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-8-43

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'Mishmi Tita' research provide an overview of the medicinal herb's uses and conservation

by Xia & He Publishing Inc.

Coptis teeta Wall.: A comprehensive overview of its traditional uses, pharmacological uses, phytochemicals and conservation

Coptis teeta Wall. (C. teeta), commonly known as "Mishmi Tita," is a medicinal herb of considerable value traditionally used for treating various health conditions. This endangered plant, listed in the Red Data Book, is found in India, Nepal, Bhutan, and China.

The present review aims to comprehensively summarize the traditional uses, pharmaceutical applications, and phytochemical properties of C. teeta, thereby providing a foundation for future research, conservation, and cultivation efforts. The findings are published in the journal Future Integrative Medicine .

A thorough literature search was conducted on PubMed, Google Scholar, Research Gate, SciFinder, and the ISI Web of Knowledge using terms such as "Coptis teeta," "Coptis teeta Wall.", "Mishmi tita," "Rhizoma coptidis," "Chinese medicine from Coptis teeta," and "Traditional uses of Coptis teeta." A comprehensive examination of 69 articles published between 1982 and 2023 was performed to explore the properties and traditional applications of C. teeta. The review focused on identifying the range of pharmacological effects, the active compounds within the plant, and traditional medicinal uses.

Various tribes in Arunachal Pradesh, including the Adi, Galo, Memba, Nyishi, and Tagin, utilize C. teeta to treat malaria, stomach ache, diarrhea, skin conditions, eye disorders, and gastrointestinal issues. For instance, the Nyishi people use rhizomes for treating eye disorders and digestive issues, while the Adi community employs leaf and root decoctions for blood clotting and malaria. C. teeta's use in treating gastrointestinal problems and eye disorders is widespread, indicating its significant role in traditional medicine.

In China, the Lhoba people of Tibet and other communities use C. teeta roots to stop bleeding, relieve pain, and treat intestinal diseases, anthrax, and dysentery. Rhizoma coptidis, a dried rhizome used in traditional Chinese medicine, includes C. teeta and is employed to clear heat, dampness, and toxicity, and to treat conditions such as high fever and heartburn. Its wide application in Chinese medicine underscores its therapeutic importance.

In Myanmar, C. teeta is used to relieve constipation, stimulate digestion, lower fever, treat malaria, and boost vitality. When combined with Piper nigrum, it is also used to treat cough and asthma. This highlights the plant's versatile applications in traditional medicine across different cultures.

C. teeta contains several alkaloids such as berberine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, coptisine, columbamine, and epiberberine. Berberine, the main constituent, is well-known for its broad range of pharmacological activities, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. The presence of these compounds underpins the plant's traditional and modern medicinal applications. The identification of 27 compounds in different parts of the plant emphasizes its rich chemical diversity and potential for pharmaceutical development.

Studies have shown that C. teeta significantly suppresses the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and other bacteria. Ethanolic and aqueous extracts of C. teeta have demonstrated substantial antibacterial activity against several strains, including Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus pumilus, and Escherichia coli. This highlights its potential as a natural antibacterial agent.

Traditional use of C. teeta for alleviating diarrhea and lowering blood pressure is supported by modern pharmacological studies indicating its effectiveness in these areas. These properties are particularly valuable for managing common health issues in traditional medicine.

The plant's compounds have been shown to reduce inflammation and manage diabetes, making it a potential candidate for treating these chronic conditions. Its anti-inflammatory properties are particularly beneficial in conditions where inflammation is a key factor.

The antioxidant properties of C. teeta, primarily due to berberine, contribute to its potential in preventing oxidative stress-related diseases. Additionally, some studies suggest its potential in cancer treatment, although more research is needed to fully understand its efficacy and mechanisms.

Due to its endangered status and the rapid loss of its natural habitat, C. teeta faces the risk of extinction. Efforts to conserve this species are crucial, and sustainable cultivation practices must be developed. Raising public awareness and encouraging local cultivation can help preserve this valuable medicinal plant. In Arunachal Pradesh, some local farmers and the Forest Department have initiated cultivation efforts, though these are still on a small scale. The plant's preference for acidic, moist soil and its ability to grow in various soil types make it a viable candidate for expanded cultivation.

To ensure the survival of C. teeta, comprehensive conservation strategies must be implemented. These include in-situ and ex-situ conservation, habitat protection, and the establishment of botanical gardens dedicated to cultivating endangered species. Public awareness campaigns and educational programs can also play a significant role in conservation efforts.

Future research should focus on exploring the full pharmacological potential of C. teeta, particularly its anticancer properties and other lesser-known effects. Detailed studies on its phytochemical constituents can lead to the discovery of new compounds with therapeutic benefits. Additionally, research on sustainable cultivation techniques and habitat restoration is essential to ensure the plant's long-term survival.

Provided by Xia & He Publishing Inc.

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U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
National Institutes of Health

Common Names: green tea

Latin Names: Camellia sinensis

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Green, black, and oolong teas all come from the same plant, Camellia sinensis, but are prepared using different methods. To produce green tea, leaves from the plant are steamed, pan fried, and dried.
Tea has been used for medicinal purposes in China and Japan for thousands of years.
Green tea as a beverage or dietary supplement is promoted for improving mental alertness, relieving digestive symptoms and headaches, and promoting weight loss. Green tea and its components, including epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), have been studied for their possible protective effects against heart disease and cancer.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved a topical ointment, sinecatechins (brand name Veregen), which includes extracted components of green tea leaves and is used for the treatment of genital warts.

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} How Much Do We Know?

Although many studies have been done on green tea and its extracts, definite conclusions cannot yet be reached on whether green tea is helpful for most of the purposes for which it is used.

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} What Have We Learned?

Green tea contains caffeine. Drinking caffeinated beverages throughout the day seems to prevent a decline in alertness. One study looked at the effect of taking only a main component of green tea—EGCG—on mental capabilities. In that study, mental capabilities in adults didn’t improve.
The FDA has approved a specific green tea extract ointment as a prescription drug for treating genital warts.
Studies of green tea and cancer in people have had inconsistent results. The National Cancer Institute does not recommend for or against using green tea to reduce the risk of any type of cancer.
A small number of studies suggests that both green and black tea might have beneficial effects on some heart disease risk factors, including blood pressure and cholesterol. The research has limitations though, including how the data was evaluated and differences in study populations, so no definite conclusions have been reached.
Green tea extracts haven’t been shown to produce a meaningful weight loss in adults who are overweight or obese. They also haven’t been shown to help people maintain a weight loss.
It’s uncertain whether green tea is helpful for other conditions.
The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) is funding research on green tea and its extracts, including studies on new forms of green tea extracts for preventing symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease and for lowering cholesterol.

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} What Do We Know About Safety?

Green tea, when consumed as a beverage, is believed to be safe when used in amounts up to 8 cups per day. Keep in mind that only the amount of added caffeine must be stated on product labels and not the caffeine that naturally occurs in green tea.
Drinking green tea may be safe during pregnancy and while breastfeeding when consumed in amounts up to 6 cups per day (no more than about 300 mg of caffeine). Drinking more than this amount during pregnancy may be unsafe and may increase the risk of negative effects. Green tea may also increase the risk of birth defects associated with folic acid deficiency. Caffeine passes into breast milk and can affect a breastfeeding infant.
Although uncommon, liver problems have been reported in a number of people who took green tea products, primarily green tea extracts in pill form. People with liver disease should consult a health care provider before taking products with green tea extract. People taking green tea extracts, especially those with liver disease, should discontinue use and consult a health care provider if they develop symptoms of liver trouble (such as abdominal pain, dark urine, or jaundice).
Green tea is an ingredient in many over-the-counter weight loss products, some of which have been identified as the likely cause of rare cases of liver injury.
Green tea at high doses has been shown to reduce blood levels and therefore the effectiveness of the drug nadolol, a beta-blocker used for high blood pressure and heart problems. It may also interact with other medicines.

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} Keep in Mind

Take charge of your health—talk with your health care providers about any complementary health approaches you use. Together, you can make shared, well-informed decisions.

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} For More Information

Using Dietary Supplements Wisely

Know the Science: How Medications and Supplements Can Interact

Know the Science: How To Make Sense of a Scientific Journal Article

NCCIH Clearinghouse

The NCCIH Clearinghouse provides information on NCCIH and complementary and integrative health approaches, including publications and searches of Federal databases of scientific and medical literature. The Clearinghouse does not provide medical advice, treatment recommendations, or referrals to practitioners.

Toll-free in the U.S.: 1-888-644-6226

Telecommunications relay service (TRS): 7-1-1

Website: https://www.nccih.nih.gov

Email: [email protected] (link sends email)

A service of the National Library of Medicine, PubMed® contains publication information and (in most cases) brief summaries of articles from scientific and medical journals. For guidance from NCCIH on using PubMed, see How To Find Information About Complementary Health Approaches on PubMed .

Website: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS), National Institutes of Health (NIH)

ODS seeks to strengthen knowledge and understanding of dietary supplements by evaluating scientific information, supporting research, sharing research results, and educating the public. Its resources include publications (such as Dietary Supplements: What You Need To Know ) and fact sheets on a variety of specific supplement ingredients and products (such as vitamin D and multivitamin/mineral supplements).

Website: https://ods.od.nih.gov

Email: [email protected] (link sends email)

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Chung M, Zhao N, Wang D, et al. Dose-response relation between tea consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based studies. Advances in Nutrition. February 19, 2020. [Epub ahead of print].
Filippini T, Malavolti M, Borrelli F, et al. Green tea (Camellia sinensis) for the prevention of cancer. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020;(3):CD005004. Accessed at https://www.cochranelibrary.com on March 21, 2020.
Fujiki H, Watanabe T, Sueoka E, et al. Cancer prevention with green tea and its principal constituent, EGCG: from early investigations to current focus on human cancer stem cells. Molecules and Cells. 2018;41(2):73-82.
Green tea. Natural Medicines website. Accessed at naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com on March 21, 2020. [Database subscription].
Hartley L, Flowers N, Holmes J, et al. Green and black tea for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2013;(6):CD009934. Accessed at https://www.cochranelibrary.com on March 23, 2020.
Khan N, Mukhtar H. Tea polyphenols in promotion of human health. Nutrients. 2018;11(1):pii: E39.
Green tea. LiverTox: clinical and research information on drug-induced liver injury. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2018. Accessed at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547925/ on May 4, 2020.
National Cancer Institute. Tea and Cancer Prevention. National Cancer Institute website. Accessed at https://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/causes-prevention/risk/diet/tea-fact-sheet on March 21, 2020.
Van Baak MA, Mariman ECM. Dietary strategies for weight loss maintenance. Nutrients. 2019;11(8):pii: E1916.

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NCCIH has provided this material for your information. It is not intended to substitute for the medical expertise and advice of your health care provider(s). We encourage you to discuss any decisions about treatment or care with your health care provider. The mention of any product, service, or therapy is not an endorsement by NCCIH.

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Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Current Research Status, Value-Addition to Their Waste, and Agro-Industrial Potential (Vol II) (Sustainable Landscape Planning and Natural Resources Management) 2025th Edition

Due to complex phytochemical components and associated beneficial properties, numerous medicinal and aromatic plants, in whole or parts, have been used for nutritional purposes or the treatment of various diseases and disorders in humans and animals. Essential oils from medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have been exploited for product formulations of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food and beverage, colorants, biopesticides, and several other utility chemicals of industrial importance. There is scientific evidence of many medicinal plant extracts possessing immunomodulatory, immunostimulatory, antidiabetic, anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties, thus demonstrating their traditional use in popular medicine. With the advent of modern technology, the exploitation of natural resources has exponentially increased in order to fulfill the demand of an increased human population with improved quality of life. The traditional agriculture and production-based supply of commodities is inadequate to meet the current demand. Biotechnological approaches are gaining importance to bridge the gaps in demand and supply. In the proposed book, medicinal and aromatic plant-based secondary metabolites have been discussed in terms of their therapeutic potential and industrial relevance. To discuss the qualitative and quantitative analysis of a range of medicinal and aromatic plants-based secondary metabolites (SMs), bioprocess development for their extraction and bioseparation, a brief overview of their industrial relevance, various tissue culturing strategies, biotechnological approaches to enhance production, scale-up strategies, management of residual biomass post extraction of target SMs is central to the idea of the proposed book. A section will explore the verticals mentioned above. In the next section, the book addresses the approaches for conserving and improving medicinal and aromatic plant genetic resources. In the third section, approaches to managing the post-harvest crop residue and secondary metabolites extracted plant biomass will be thoroughly discussed. The recent integration of artificial intelligence to improve medicinal and aromatic plant research at several levels, including the development and employment of computational approaches to enhance secondary metabolite production, tissue culture, drug design and discovery, and disease treatment, will be included in the fourth section. The book summarizes current research status, gaps in knowledge, agro-industrial potential, waste or residual plant biomass management, conservation strategies, and computational approaches in the area of medicinal and aromatic plants with an aim to translate biotechnological interventions into reality.

ISBN-10 3031646002
ISBN-13 978-3031646003
Edition 2025th
Publisher Springer
Publication date October 4, 2024
Language English
Print length 400 pages
See all details

Editorial Reviews

From the back cover, about the author.

Lakhan Kumar works toward Environmental Sustainability. He completed his B.Tech. in Biotechnology from the National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, and his M.Tech. in Industrial Biotechnology from Delhi Technological University, Delhi. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biotechnology from Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India. His areas of interest include bioenergy, bioprocess engineering, algal biorefinery, plant biotechnology, and remediation of environmental pollutants.

Navneeta Bharadvaja is working as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India-110042. She is an accomplished plant biotechnologist. She has more than 16 years of Research and Teaching experience. She has guided 5 Ph.D. students and more than 100 B.Tech./M.Tech./M.Sc Students. She has published more than 60 peer-reviewed scientific articles in the fields of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Algal Biotechnology, Bioremediation, and Biofuels.

Ram Singh is currently working as a Professor at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India-110042. He has extensive experience in organic synthesis, plants, natural product chemistry, biomimetic chemistry, and chemical biology. He has published over 100 research papers in peer-reviewed journals, authored eight books, 20 book chapters, and 31 Modules for ePG-Pathshala, and contributed to more than 100 conferences. He has supervised 6 Ph.D. and 10 M.Tech students. His research has been funded by DST, CSIR, and DRDO, and he has carried out several projects in the area of natural product chemistry. He is on the Editorial Advisory Board of various journals of repute and is a Life Member of various societies.

Raksha Anand works on the development of algal nutraceuticals and waste and biomass valorization. She completed her B.Sc. (Hons.) degree in Biotechnology from the School of Basic Sciences and Research (SBSR), Sharda University, and her Master’s degree in Biotechnology from Delhi Technological University, Delhi. Her areas of interest include Nutraceuticals and Lifestyle Disease Management, Algal Biorefinery, Plant Biotechnology, and Environmental remediation. She has published several peer-reviewed articles and book chapters majorly in Nutraceuticals, Wastewater Treatment, Microbial Fuel Cells, and Bioremediation. She is editing a contributed book on algal-derived nutraceuticals.

Product details

Publisher ‏ : ‎ Springer; 2025th edition (October 4, 2024)
Language ‏ : ‎ English
Hardcover ‏ : ‎ 400 pages
ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 3031646002
ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-3031646003
Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1.74 pounds

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Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture: the role and contribution of crea (italy) within the national program rgv-fao.

1. Introduction

2. cereal crops, 2.1. wheat and triticale, 2.1.1. diploid wheat, 2.1.2. tetraploid wheat, 2.1.3. hexaploid wheat, 2.1.4. triticale, 2.2. barley, 3. fruit crops (including berries, nuts and morus), olive, citrus and grape, 3.2. grapevine, 3.3. citrus, 4. vegetable crops, 5. grain legume crops, 6. forage crops, 7. industrial crops, 8. medicinal and aromatic plants, 9. ornamental crops, 10. forest and woody crops, 11. italian and international issues, 12. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest, abbreviations.

ABS	Access and Benefit Sharing;
AEGIS	A European Genebank Integrated System;
CBD	Convention of Biological Diversity;
CGRFA	Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture;
CNR	National Research Council;
COP	Conference of the Parties;
CPGR	Commission on Plant Genetic Resources;
CPVO	Community Plant Variety Office;
CREA	Council for Agricultural Research and Economics;
DSI	Digital Sequence Information;
ECPGR	European Cooperative Programme for Plant Genetic Resources;
EURISCO	European Cooperative Programme for Plant Genetic Resources;
EVA	European Evaluation Network;
FAIR	Findable/Accessible/Interoperable/Reusable;
GB	Governing Body;
GBS	Genotyping-By-Sequencing;
GDS	Genetic Sequence Data;
GWAS	Genome Wide Association Studies;
ISTAT	Italian National Institute of Statistics;
ITPGRFA	International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture;
IU	International Undertaking;
MAPs	Medicinal and Aromatic Plants;
MASAF	Ministry of Agriculture, Food Sovereignty and Forestry;
MAT	Mutual Agreed Thermes;
MCPD	Multi-Crop Passport Descriptors;
MITE	Ministry of the Environment and Energy Security;
MLS	Multilateral System;
MTA	Material Transfer Agreement;
MUR	Ministry of University and Research;
NGS	Next Generation Sequencing;
NP	Nagoya Protocol;
NPPO	National Plant Protection Organizations;
OWG-EFMLS	Open-ended Working Group to Enhance the Functioning of the Multilateral System;
PBR	Plant Breeders’ Rights;
PIC	Prior Informed Consent;
PNBA	National Plan on Biodiversity of Agricultural Interest;
QTL	Quantitative Trait Locus;
RADseq	Restriction-Site Associated Sequencing;
SNP	Single Nucleotide Polymorphism;
UPOV	Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants.

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1983	Establishment of the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources (CPGR). Adoption of the voluntary International Undertaking (IU) on Plant Genetic Resources.
1989	FAO Resolution 4/89—Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBR) are not in contrast with IU.
1989	FAO Resolution 5/89—Recognition of the farmers’ rights: farmers are entitled as the main actors in preserving Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA).
1991	FAO Resolution 3/91—Nations have sovereign rights on their own genetic resources.
1993	Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) enters into force.
1994	Start of the revision of IU, to harmonize it with CBD, by the First Extraordinary Session of CPGR.
1995	CPGR is extended to include all the Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture—CGRFA.
1996	Leipzig International Technical Conference on PGR. The Leipzig Declaration and the Global Plan of Action are adopted by 150 countries.
2001	6th Contact Group Meeting (Spoleto, Italy) and 6th Extraordinary Session of CGRFA (Rome, Italy)—Revised IU is adopted. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) is adopted by FAO (November).
2004	Italy ratifies the ITPGRFA (April). The ITPGRFA comes into force (June).

Crop Group	N. of Accessions
Cereal crops	17,006
Fruit crops (including nuts, berries, citrus, olive and grape)	11,719
Vegetable crops	521
Forage crops	7643
Industrial crops (including grain legumes)	1950
Medicinal and aromatic plants	9
Ornamental crops	974
Forest and woody crops	733
TOTAL	40,555

Crop Group	Cultivated Species	Crop Wild Relatives (CWR)
Cereal crops	24	33
Fruit crops (including nuts, berries, citrus, olive and grape)	70	108
Vegetable crops	30	9
Forage crops	70	0
Industrial crops (including grain legumes)	19	6
Medicinal and aromatic plants	6	0
Ornamental crops	197	0
Forest and woody crops	2	0
TOTAL	418	156

Crop Group	N. of Accessions Transferred to			N. of Accessions Introduced from
Crop Group	Italy	Abroad	Total	Italy	Abroad	Total
Cereal crops	258	189	447	167	198	365
Fruit crops (including nuts, berries, citrus, olive and grape)	851	92	943	877	142	1019
Vegetable crops	87	0	87	80	152	232
Forage crops	30	50	80	71	98	169
Industrial crops (including grain legumes)	142	53	195	145	774	919
Medicinal and aromatic plants	63	10	73	13	9	22
Ornamental crops	19	1	20	11	0	11
Forest and woody crops	190	137	327	19	29	48
TOTAL	1640	532	2172	1383	1402	2785

Crops	Harvested Area (ha × 1000)	Grain Yield (t × 1000)
Durum wheat	1238	3690
Common wheat	539	2760
Maize	564	4682
Barley	268	1124
Rice	218	1237
Oat	104	242
Other cereals	25	74

Crops	Harvested Area (ha × 1000)	Yield (t × 1000)
Fruit (including berries)	237.64	5342.22
Grape	709.89	8437.97
Olive	1076.52	2160.40
Citrus	145.92	3094.43
Nuts	147.82	199.46

Crops	Harvested Area (ha × 1000)	Yield (t × 1000)
Artichokes	38.17	378.11
Asparagus	7.46	51.55
Beans	76.51	285.08
Cabbages	21.71	403.89
Melons	22.89	590.23
Carrots and turnips	8.34	353.5
Cauliflowers and broccoli	14.73	352.07
Peppers	9.39	232.68
Cucumbers	1.98	61.83
Eggplants	9.6	307.43
Garlic and other alliaceous vegetables	4.07	41.82
Lettuce and chicory	26.21	638.18
Lupins	0.71	0.95
Onions	12.85	402.19
Other legumes	18.99	29.48
Peas	32.46	120.74
Potatoes	47.03	1332.98
Pumpkins	19.05	558.94
Spinach	5.57	96.87
Tomatoes	97.61	6136.38
Watermelons	12.39	656.7

Crops	Harvested Area (ha × 1000)	Yield (t × 1000)
Grain legume crops (grain yield)
Soybean	342	918
Faba bean	50	91
Field pea	10	30
Forage crops (dry-matter yield)
Alfalfa	684	15,550
Clovers	31	426
Other temporary forage species	65	865

Crops	Harvested Area (ha × 1000)	Grain Yield (t × 1000)
Common bean (dry + snapbean + romano type)	20	146
Lentil	5	4
Chickpea	14	23
Potato	45	1265
Sugarbeet	25 *	1110 *
Flax	1	1
Hemp	1	2
Rapeseed	30	82
Sunflower	122	305
Soybean	310	135
Other oil species	1	10

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Vaccino, P.; Antonetti, M.; Balconi, C.; Brandolini, A.; Cappellozza, S.; Caputo, A.R.; Carboni, A.; Caruso, M.; Copetta, A.; de Dato, G.; et al. Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture: The Role and Contribution of CREA (Italy) within the National Program RGV-FAO. Agronomy 2024 , 14 , 1263. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061263

Vaccino P, Antonetti M, Balconi C, Brandolini A, Cappellozza S, Caputo AR, Carboni A, Caruso M, Copetta A, de Dato G, et al. Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture: The Role and Contribution of CREA (Italy) within the National Program RGV-FAO. Agronomy . 2024; 14(6):1263. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061263

Vaccino, Patrizia, Maurizio Antonetti, Carlotta Balconi, Andrea Brandolini, Silvia Cappellozza, Angelo Raffaele Caputo, Andrea Carboni, Marco Caruso, Andrea Copetta, Giovanbattista de Dato, and et al. 2024. "Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture: The Role and Contribution of CREA (Italy) within the National Program RGV-FAO" Agronomy 14, no. 6: 1263. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061263

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Plants (Basel)

Medicinal Plants and Their Traditional Uses in Local Communities around Cherangani Hills, Western Kenya

Yuvenalis m. mbuni.

1 Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China; moc.oohay@araromevuy (Y.M.M.); nc.sacgbw@iewgnehsgnaw (S.W.); moc.liamg@26egorojnnairb (B.N.M.); [email protected] (N.J.M.); nc.sacgbw@uhnawgnaug (G.H.)

2 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China

3 National Museums of Kenya, East African Herbarium, P. O. Box 45166, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; ek.ro.smuesum@ukutump (P.M.M.); moc.oohay@olomaynouw (N.O.W.)

Shengwei Wang

4 Sino-Africa Joint Research Center (SAJOREC), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China

Brian N. Mwangi

Ndungu j. mbari, paul m. musili, nyamolo o. walter, guangwan hu.

5 Center of Conservation Biology, Core Botanical Gardens, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China

Yadong Zhou

Qingfeng wang, associated data.

Medicinal plants are vital sources of easily accessible remedy used in the countryside healthcare system. This study aimed to find and make record of plants that are used for medicinal therapy by three communities living in Cherangani Hills. So far no single study has documented medicinal plants as a whole in the area. Ethnobotanical data were obtained through interviewing informants using semi-structured questionnaires and extracting information from journals and books. Descriptive statistical analysis was applied to describe the data. Overall 296 plant species from 80 families and 191 genera were identified. Asteraceae family was the most dominant, representing 10.7% of the total plant species recorded. Roots (35.9%) represented the most commonly used parts of the plant. The commonly used method of preparation was decoction (54.9%). The reported diseases were classified into 14 diverse ailment groups out of the 81 health conditions on their underlying user reports. Rural communities in Cherangani Hills are rich sources of plants with medicinal properties. Therapeutic uses of the compiled plants provide basic information that can aid scientists to conduct additional research dedicated to conservation of species and pharmacological studies of species with the greatest significance.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants have been a vital source of both curative and preventive medical therapy preparations for human beings, which also has been used for the extraction of important bioactive compounds [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. It is estimated that almost 80% of the world’s total population, regularly, depends on traditional medicine and products for its healthcare needs especially in third world countries. Many sick people in the developing regions combine the conventional medicine with traditional medicine [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Traditional medicines are usually cheaper than modern medicines, and probably the only natural remedies available and accessible in the remote rural communities in developing countries [ 7 ]. Rural dwellers prefer traditional medicines because of their close proximity to the traditional healers and the fact that the healers understand their culture and environment as well as their patients. In rural areas, access to western healthcare is a problem especially in the Sub-Saharan countries, because conventional healthcare is concentrated in towns [ 8 ]. Plant medicine has continuously been practiced for a long period, especially in some African tribes with a long history [ 9 ]. The Kenyan diversified flora with over 7000 plant species is one of the richest in East Africa [ 10 ]. Consequently, the higher number of plant species have led to discovery of many medicinal plants in the region. In Kenya, more than 70% of the people use local home-made remedies as their first source of medicine, while more than 90% use plant related remedies at one time or another [ 11 ]. Phytotherapy is another fundamental part of the native communities of Kenya who have vital indigenous knowledge acquired through generations. However, this practice is often less transferred owing to industrialization and adoption of western life style. Traditional knowledge in many Kenyan ethnic tribes remain untapped since the medicinal plants have not been fully documented as the information is passed orally from one generation to the other posing danger of its loss [ 8 , 10 ].

Indiscriminate trade of plant resources, uncontrolled collecting methods, habitat change, overexploitation, and climate change pose great threats to availability of plant medicine in most third world countries, thus, creating a pressing need for better methods of conservation and viable use of priority plant resources [ 12 ]. In Kenya, research on ethnobotany has been on going after independence and several publication of guides and books have been published [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Recording and preserving the traditional knowledge on medicinal plants has become very important practice in recent times [ 17 ]. Several ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological research studies have been published documenting Kenya’s medicinal plant knowledge and use: Marakwet county [ 11 , 18 ], Northern Kenya [ 19 ], Siaya county [ 20 , 21 ], Tugen [ 22 ], Machakos county [ 23 , 24 ], Samburu county [ 25 , 26 , 27 ], Sekanani Valley, Maasai Mara [ 28 ], Kajiado county [ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ], Embu and Mbeere county [ 34 ], Makueni county [ 35 ], Mount Elgon [ 36 ], Nakuru county [ 37 ], Nandi county [ 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 ], Tharaka Nithi county [ 42 ], Kakamega county [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ], Kitui county [ 48 ], Elgeyo Marakwet county [ 49 ], Kericho county [ 50 ], Machakos county [ 51 ], Narok county [ 52 , 53 , 54 ], Trans-Mara county [ 55 ], Kilifi county [ 56 ]. However, in Kenya, many areas and ethnic societies are yet to be ethno botanically surveyed.

This study focused on three communities in Cherangani Hills and the medicinal plants used to treat different ailments. The documentation of the natural resources is key as it will assist in the conservation of residual and remaining forests [ 38 ]. The databases obtained in this research forms a foundation for potential development of new medicines [ 10 ]. Ethnobotanical investigations are vital in preserving traditional medicine through suitable documentation of plants, which also assist in its sustainability [ 7 ]. Previous studies have been carried out in sections of Cherangani hills hence this research aimed to cover medicinal plants in the entire study region.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. study area.

This study covered the human settlement areas around and adjacent to the Cherangani Hills forest ecosystem found in the western side of Kenya ( Figure 1 ). Cherangani Hills reserve (35°26′ E, 1°16′ N), cuts across three counties, namely Trans Nzoia (1551 Ha), Elgeyo-Marakwet (74,249 Ha), and West Pokot (34,380 Ha), totaling 110,181 Ha, and is occupied by three ethnic groups comprising Luhya, Marakwet, and Pokot people respectively. The hills comprise 12 forest blocks where medicinal plant resources were collected and include Kipkunurr, Kapolet, Sogotio, Chemurkoi, Kaisungor, Cheboyit, Embobut, Kererr, Kiptaberr, Kapkanyar, Toropket, and Lelan [ 57 ].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is plants-09-00331-g001.jpg

Cherangani hills forest Ecosystem. ( a ) Map of Kenya ( b ) the distribution of Cherangani hills.

2.2. Selection of Respondents

Purposive sampling was applied in the field investigation, where traditional therapists and elders helped to pin point medicinal plant practitioners and emphasis was laid on both women and men [ 58 , 59 ]. Seventy-eight practitioners (38 women and 40 men) were sampled near each of the 12 forest block locations. Selected group of respondents were distinguished in the region because of their long tradition in providing services allied to traditional health remedies. Fifty-one practitioners were traditional healers and the remaining number were village elders who had acquired familiarity on medicinal healing skills of plants from their parents and close relatives.

2.3. Ethnobotanical Data Collection and Plant Identification

Ethnobotanical information were gathered between September 2017 and January 2019 by interviewing, using methodological ways designed in ethnopharmacological in field data collection. The local chiefs were informed afore about the initiation of the survey and permission was allowed. Interviews, discussions, formal and informal conversations, as well as field visits were conducted [ 60 ]. More information was sourced from literature studies including journal articles and books [ 61 ]. Botanical names, local names, diseases treated, method of preparation, dosage, and modes of administration were recorded. An interview was carried in the local dialect and translated to English. Data on habit, habitat, and plant parts used were recorded. For each described plant species, a specimen was taken and preliminary identification was performed in the field. The specimens were pressed, dried, and the identification results were confirmed at the East African herbarium. A specimen voucher number was given and prepared for each collected herbarium specimen and deposited in the East African Herbarium ( Supplementary material Table S1 ). Authentication of identified plant specimens was verified using the Flora of East African by comparisons with authenticated specimens at the East African Herbarium (EA), Nairobi, Kenya. The scientific names indicated in Supplementary material 1 , in this research work are the recognized names according to “The plant List” database.

2.4. Data Analysis

2.4.1. informant consensus factor.

Informant consensus factor (ICF) was computed using a mathematical expression: ICF = (N ur − N t )/(N ur − 1), where N ur refers to the summed up number of citations for each disease group and N t is the number of plant species used in that category [ 62 , 63 ]. The lowest ICF value is 0.00 and the highest is 1.00. Low ICF values indicates that informants do not agree on which plant medicine to use in a particular ailment, while high ICF values indicate that a limited number of plant species are known to be administered by a large number of informants to treat a specific disease. High ICF values can further be investigated and used to find species of important bioactive compounds [ 64 ].

2.4.2. Fidelity Level (FL)

Fidelity level (FL) is the total number of informants who referenced the consumption of some medicinal plants to treat a specific disease in the region and is calculated by the following formula: FL = Np/N × 100, where Np represents total number of informants citing the use of the plant to be administered to a particular disease and N denotes the total number of informants who utilized the plants as a medicine group [ 63 , 65 ]. Plant species with a higher percentage of FL shows the frequency and high usage in healing a specific disease by the informants in the community and vice versa when the percentage is low.

2.4.3. Jaccard’s Coefficient of Similarity (JCS)

Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity (JCS) was computed to compare the medicinal plant composition and their similarity with other counties in Kenya. Similarity values were computed between other areas already studied by other researchers in different regions in comparison with the present study area. JCS, was calculated as: JCS = c/(a + b + c), a representing the total number of medicinal plant species obtained in area A, b is the total number of medicinal plant species discovered only in area B, and c is the total number of common plant species occurring in areas A and B [ 66 ].

3.1. Demographic Profile of Respondents

A total of 40 (51.2%) males and 38 females (48.7%) were interviewed. The results between male and female informants were almost equal. The lowest age of informants was 15 and the highest 85 years, with the highest modal class being (66–75) years, representing 30.8%. The frequency of other age class include, 15–25 (1.3%), 26–35 (3.9%), 36–45 (6.4%), 46–55 (12.8%), 56–65 (19.2%), 66–75 (30.8%), >76–85 (25.6%) ( Table 1 ). Illiterate (42.1%), Primary (33.3%), Secondary (21.8%), Tertiary (2.7%) ( Table 1 ).

Demographic data of the informants around Cherangani Hills.

	Count	%	Expected Mean Observation	Statistics
Gender				value 0.820847
Male	40	51.28	39
Female	38	48.72	39
Age *		%		value < 0.001
15–25	1	1.28	13
26–30	3	3.85	13
36–45	5	6.41	13
46–55	10	12.82	13
56–65	15	19.23	13
66–75	24	30.77	13
76–85	20	25.64	13
Educational status *		%		value < 0.001
illiterate	33	42.31	19.5
primary	26	33.33	19.5
secondary	17	21.79	19.5
tertiary	2	2.7	19.5

* Significant difference ( p < 0.05) between the averages of paired categories.

3.2. Diversity of Medicinal Plant Use

This study compiled 296 medicinal plants traditionally managing various human diseases ( Supplementary material Table S1 ) resulting to 80 families and 191 genera. The largest percentage of medicinal plants obtained belonged to the family Asteraceae (32 species), followed by Leguminosae (28), Lamiaceae (18), Rubiaceae (14), Euphorbiaceae (12), Apocynaceae (10), Malvaceae (10), and Anacardiaceae (8). The result revealed that species in Leguminosae family contained the highest percentage (8.7%) in treating different ailments. This was followed by Asteraceae (7.7%), Lamiaceae (6.1%), Rutaceae, Anacardiaceae (4.6% each), and with the rest of the families treated less than 4.2% of the ailments ( Table 2 ).

Highest families and genera of medicinal plants.

Family	Species	Genera	Genera	Family	Species
Asteraceae	32	21	Acacia	Leguminosae	7
Leguminosae	28	15	Vernonia	Vernonia	6
Lamiaceae	18	11	Crotalaria	Leguminosae	5
Rubiaceae	14	9	Rhus	Anacardiaceae	5
Euphorbiaceae	12	8	Maytenus	Celastraceae	5
Apocynaceae	10	8	Solanum	Solanaceae	5
Malvaceae	10	6	Helichrysum	Asteraceae	4
Anacardiaceae	8	4	Dombeya	Malvaceae	4
Amaranthaceae	6	4	Ficus	Moraceae	4
Celastraceae	6	2	Polygonum	Polygonaceae	4
Solanaceae	6	2

3.3. The Habitat for Medicinal Plants

The most common plant habitat identified was bushland 20.0%, followed by escarpment 17.9%, highland forest 14.8%, grassland forest 13.8%, woodland 9.5%, riverine 7.4%, valley 6.2%, cultivated 4.8%, wooded grassland 2.9% and forest margins at 2%. Figure 2 constitutes the habitats of medicinal plant species, of Cherangani hills, consequently a high plant diversity for the production of roots, bark, leaves, fruits, and flowers as medicinal resources.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is plants-09-00331-g002.jpg

Plant habitats for medicinal plants of Cherangani Hills.

3.4. Habit, Parts Used for Medicine and Methods of Preparation

Growth habit of shrubs have the highest percentage of 35.1% of the total medicinal plants in this study. Total of 27.5% of trees are represented by the total number plant species ( Figure 3 a), followed by herbs (26.5%), climbers (10%), epiphytes, and parasites with 0.3% each. The plant parts used include roots (35.9%), leaves (34.9%), bark (15.0%), fruits (5.2%), branches (5.0%), whole plant (1.9%), flowers (1.1%), seeds (0.2%), and barks of roots (0.2%) ( Figure 3 b). People living in the study area use different methods to prepare different medicines for treatment of different ailments. Decoction (boiling) proved to be used more commonly as the mode of preparation (53.3%), followed by pounding/crushing (24.5%), and chewing (9.3%). Other preparation methods represented less than 5% ( Figure 4 ).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is plants-09-00331-g003.jpg

( a ) Medicinal plant habit, ( b ) plant parts for herbal preparation around Cherangani Hills.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is plants-09-00331-g004.jpg

Preparation methods for medicinal plants.

3.5. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)

To obtain the accurate ICF, the reported diseases were grouped into 14 different ailment groups out of the 81 health conditions based on their use reports ( Table 3 ). The results of the reported ailments are as follows; digestive system disorders (25.2%), respiratory tract infections (18.3%), parasitic diseases (17.9%) ( Table 3 ). Stomachache (8.9%), malaria (6.7%), aphrodisiac (6%), coughing (4.8%), and abdominal pains (3.4%) were the most common disease mentioned. Within the three major disease groups, digestive system disorders had 139 use-reports, followed by respiratory tract infections (101) and parasitic diseases and other infections (99) use-reports. The greatest ICF (0.79) was mostly for metabolic disorders, followed by gynecological issues (0.76). Respiratory tract infections, erectile dysfunctions, and impotence were less frequently and had the lowest IFC of 0.27 and 0.18 respectively.

Informant consensus factors for categorized ailments.

Ailment Categories	Specific Conditions	Number of Used Reports	% of Total Species	No. of Taxa	ICF
Digestive system disorders	Ulcers, diarrhea, stomachache, dysentery, constipation, low appetite, nausea, purgative, intestinal worms, gastrointestinal disorders, amoeba.	139	25.18	108	0.22
Respiratory tract infections	Cold, cough, respiratory infections, asthma, bronchitis, flue, sore throat, tuberculosis	101	18.30	74	0.27
Parasitic diseases and other infections	Malaria, fever, measles, headache, yellow fever, ear, conjunctivitis, toothache, mouth blisters eye infections	99	17.93	61	0.62
Erectile dysfunctions and importance	Male sexual vitality, aphrodisiac	12	7.07	10	0.18
Gynecological issues	Fertility enhancer, heavy menstrual flows, uterine cleansing, weakness during pregnancy, induction of labor, sterility in women, induce pregnancy, removing placenta, regulation of monthly periods, abortion, after birth pains, menstrual pains	31	5.98	8	0.76
Skin infections	Wounds, burns, smallpox, ringworms, warts, skin rashes, leprosy, astringent, boils	33	5.62	9	0.75
Circulatory system diseases	Hypertension, anemia, cuts, hemorrhoids, blood cleanser, hemorrhage, heart attack reduce bleeding, edema.	22	3.99	8	0.67
Blood and Urinary system disorders	Urinary infections, kidney inflammations.	11	3.8	4	0.70
Poisonous and animal bites	Snake, centipede and insect bites	16	2.89	8	0.53
Muscular-skeletal problems inflammation	Backache, joint pains, rheumatism, fractures, joints inflammation, swollen body parts.	21	2.72	10	0.50
Neurological and nervous System disorders	Convulsions, epilepsy, memory and neurological disorders, madness reduction.	5	2.17	4	0.50
Genital apparatus diseases	Genital organs infection, sterility, infertility, prostate infections, syphilis, and gonorrhea	39	1.99	12	0.71
Metabolic disorders	Liver diseases, hepatic.	15	1.45	6	0.79
Cancers	Breast cancer, prostate cancer, skin cancer	8	0.91	4	0.57

3.6. Fidelity Level (FL)

The calculated fidelity level (FL) of 18 important plant species varied from 36.2 to 90.9% ( Table 4 ). Carissa spinarum L. and Warburgia ugandensis Sprague depicted 90.5% and 90.9% FL respectively against malaria and respiratory disorders as the most utilized plants. Asparagus racemosus Willd. and Tragia brevipes Pax. registered FL of (36.2%) and (38.5%) treating kidney diseases and rheumatism respectively. Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f. ex Benth. at 60% FL proved to treat heart diseases according to user reports in the study area. Respondents also preferred using Basella alba L. as a vegetable and in the study area it stood at 85.7% FL.

Medicinal plants highly utilized in Cherangani.

Frequently Used Species	Local Name	Part Used	Popular Use	N	N	FL%	References
(A.Rich.) Hochst.	Arolwa (M), Roluwo (P)	R, B	Enlarged spleen and liver	32	59	54.3	[ ]
L.	Loketetwo (P) Eshikata (L)	R, L	Malaria	38	42	90.5	[ , , , ]
(Hochst.) R.Br. ex Vatke	Chebobet (M), Shikuma (L)	R	Chest pains	16	25	64.0	[ , , , , , , ]
Engl.	Cherotwo (M), Tolkos (P), Linakha (L)	L	Pneumonia	24	27	88.9	[ , , , , , , ]
(Hook.f.) Skeels	Mukombelo (L)	R	Aphrodisiac	24	36	66.7	[ , , ]
(L.) Lam.	Kipkeres (M), Katamwa (P)	R, Fr, B	Coughs, Colds	35	47	74.5	[ , , , , , , , , , ]
(Willd.) DC.	Lamaiwo (M), Cheptimanwa (P)	B, Fr	Abdominal pains	13	17	76.5	[ , , , , ]
L.	Kimonwo (M), Pondon (P) Libono (L)	R, L	Diarrhea	20	28	71.4	[ , , , , , , , , ]
DC.	Gorgorwa (P), Korkorwo (M) Omurembe (L)	B, L	Indigestion	23	34	67.6	[ , , , , , , , , , , ]
(Hook.f.) Kalkman	Tendwo (M)	B, L	Prostate cancer	9	14	64.3	[ , , , , , , , , , ]
Willd.	Kabungai (M)	R	Kidney diseases	17	47	36.2	[ , , , , ]
Sprague	Sokwo (M)	B, L	Respiratory disorders	20	22	90.9	[ , ]
(L.) Dunal	Tarkukai (M), Akakagh (P)	R, L	Relives labor pains	21	29	72.4	[ , , , , , , , ]
L.	Inderema (L),	L	Regulates monthly periods	24	28	85.7	[ , , , , , , , ]
(Willd.) Hook.f. ex Benth.	Cheboinoiywa (M), Kisimbari (L)	R, B, Br	Heart diseases	6	10	60.0	[ , , , , , ]
Quart.-Dill. and A.Rich.	Sinindet (M), Sinendet (P)	Br, L	Syphilis and Gonorrhea	32	43	74.4	[ , , , , , ]
Mildbr.	Kimelei (M)	R, L	Ulcers	27	31	87.0	[ , , , ]
Pax	Kimelei (M), Chemelei (P)	Br, L, R	Rheumatism	5	13	38.5	[ , , , , , , , ]

Key: Local name: Marakwet = (M), Pokot = (P), Luhya = (L); Parts used (PU): L—leaves, R—roots, B—bark, Fr—fruit, Br—branches; N P = represents the number of people mentioning a particular disease treated by a particular plant; N = represents the informants who used the local plants as a medicine group; FL = fidelity level.

3.7. Jaccard’s Coefficient of Similarity

This study represents the first scientific documentation of ethnobotanical uses of 296 medicinal plant used by the three communities in Cherangani hills. The current report on the ethnomedicinal uses of plants was compared to those of previous studies done in other regions of Kenya ( Table 5 ). It was found that Marakwet (18%), Sungurur (16%), and Keiyo (14%) had the highest Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity in the makeup of medicinal plant species whereas the degree of similarity was lower in areas like Nandi (0.05%) and Kitui (0.06%) ( Table 5 ).

A comparison of medicinal plants within the study area and those in other extents.

Study Area (County)	Year of Study	Species No. (x and y)	Common Species (z)	Jaccard’s Coefficient	% Similarity	References
Cherangani	2019	286				This review
Machakos	2018	51	23	0.06	6	[ ]
Kakamega	2018	250	66	0.13	13	[ ]
Kakamega	2018	94	54	0.12	12	[ ]
Sungurur	2017	99	72	0.16	16	[ ]
Makueni	2017	42	21	0.06	6	[ ]
Nandi	2015	56	34	0.09	9	[ ]
Tharaka Nithi	2015	72	21	0.06	6	[ ]
Marakwet	1978	111	86	0.18	18	[ ]
Kakamega	2014	65	25	0.07	7	[ ]
Keiyo	2014	73	59	0.14	14	[ ]
Mt. Elgon	2010	107	52	0.12	12	[ ]
Nandi	2008	40	19	0.05	5	[ ]
Embu and Mbeere	2007	86	45	0.11	11	[ ]

3.8. Threats to Medicinal Plants

Informants’ responses showed that many factors have contributed to the threats faced by plants of medicinal importance in the study area. ( Table 6 ). Agricultural expansion (38.5%) was the main threat to important medicinal species, followed by overgrazing (20.5%), overharvesting (17.9%), firewood and Charcoal production (10.3%), environmental degradation (7.7%). Some respondents pointed out that other threats exist within the study area that are a result of deforestation and loss of habitat (5.1%).

Threats to medicinal plants in Cherangani Hills.

Threats	Frequency (N = 78)	Percentage (%)
Agricultural expansion	30	38.5
Overgrazing	16	20.5
Overharvesting	14	17.9
Firewood and Charcoal production	8	10.3
Environmental degradation	6	7.7
Others	4	5.1

4. Discussion

The communities around Cherangani hills forest reserve use a large diversity of flora in the treatment of a myriad of diseases and the native people have a broad traditional knowledge on plants of medicinal importance. The higher percentage of people that rely on medicinal plants could be attributed to the high cost of western medicine and inaccessibility of government medical facilities [ 33 , 74 ]. There was an insignificant difference between men and women in the knowledge of medicinal plants. Comparing with other study area in Kenya [ 51 ], there was no gender preference in the passing of medicinal plants knowledge from the parents to their offspring across local communities around Cherangani Hills. Informants in the age group above 45 years appeared to know more medicinal plants perhaps as a result of having more experience interacting with medicinal plants in their ecosystem. Additionally, fewer medicinal plants were known to those who attended tertiary levels of education compared to illiterate informants. The insignificant use of the plants of medicinal importance by the literates in the community can be attributed to lack of general preparation procedures and scientific information on their efficiency as well as their toxicity levels. Additionally, the collection as well as storage methods were identified as essential considerations by the literate members in the community. This indicates that there exists a generational disjunction in the passage of traditional medicinal plant knowledge. This can be linked to the influence of formal education as it was observed that illiterate informants had an upper hand in medicinal plants knowledge as compared to their tertiary level counterparts. Exposure of younger people to modern education and lifestyle has led them to prefer western medical treatment over traditional medicine hence despising medicinal plant treatments compared to those unexposed and uneducated [ 70 ].

Out of the 296 medicinal plants recorded, shrubs are commonly used because of their relatively higher resistance to drought, hence preferred as they are available for harvesting all year round [ 75 ]. Roots are most preferred compared to other parts of the plant as they are traditionally considered to have a higher strength of medicine and are readily available in all the seasons of the year [ 33 , 76 , 77 , 78 ]. Leaves are also highly utilized because they are obtained easily in large quantities in contrast to other plant parts. Moreover, a majority of traditional healers prefer to use leaves as they are considered to accumulate active ingredients by photosynthetic pigments such as alkaloids and tannins [ 79 , 80 ].

A myriad of methods of preparation are used within the three communities of Cherangani Hills and Kenya as a whole. In the study area it was uncovered that decoction was the most widely used method of preparation mainly because of the ease of using water to prepare them. Such a large variety of preparation methods that have been studied has been highlighted in some parts of Kenya and in other countries [ 36 , 48 , 51 , 61 , 76 , 81 ]. It has been established that more than one method is used in preparing many of the medicinal plants studied. However, the type of plant species, condition of ailment being treated, and plant parts used determined the method of preparation. Within the Marakwet, Luhya, and Pokot communities, the common way of administration of the prepared medicine was through drinking, which is in line with many other studies [ 36 , 48 , 51 ].

Gastrointestinal ailments were the most frequently treated using medicinal plant followed by sensory-neuron diseases. In similar fashion, disorders of the gastrointestinal system and parasitic infections were the commonly treated ailments and similar results have been reported in Kenya and Zegie peninsula [ 33 , 77 , 82 ]. Stomachache and diseases related to digestive system could be attributed to poor sanitation as a result of high levels of poverty within the study region as in the case cited by other studies [ 47 , 77 , 78 , 83 ]. High FL of a species in the scope of this study shows the extensive use of a particular plant species to treat certain diseases by the inhabitants because of its ease of accessibility and its effectiveness to treat the diseases. Such information may lead to the efficacy of these plants and their chemical and pharmacological components of the reported activity against various diseases. For example, Carissa spinarum L. with FL = 90.5 is good for treating malaria. The plant contains important bioactive constituents including glycosides, acids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, and alkaloids which have medicinal value [ 79 , 84 ]. Within the area studied, Carissa spinarum L. is mainly used in treating malaria, chest pains, epilepsy, diarrhea, coughs, breast cancer, arthritis, and gonorrhea.

Different ecological climatic conditions have been characterized with different plant diversity, hence pointing to some of the probable reasons for similarities and differences of plants of medicinal value found in our study area and other extents. Data collected and analyzed from the region of study reveal remarkable differences in parts of the plant used, preparation mode of herbal medicine and their use as has been documented in other regions. However, 82% of medicinal applications were new and unique to the study at hand.

The use of medicinal plant species recorded in the same study area had 14%, 16%, and 18% JCS respectively and the neighboring areas like Kakamega [ 44 , 46 , 47 ] showed remarkable similarity at, 12%, 12%, and 13% JCS respectively. There was close resemblance in terms of the usage of medicinal plants because of close proximity to the research area.

Threatened medicinal plant species recorded in this study include Warburgia ugandensis Sprague. (VU) and Ansellia africana Lindl. (VU). The rest of the medicinal plants are either data deficient (DD), not evaluated (NE), or of least concern (LC), by IUCN. Many factors have been associated with the dangers faced by the medicinal plants in the study region. Informants’ insights show that the main threats to plants of medicinal value were forest encroachment for agricultural expansion, overharvesting, overgrazing, and environmental degradation ( Table 6 ). Majority of the respondents indicated that agricultural activity (38.5%) was a significant danger to the existence of medicinal plants and their conservation because of an increase in human population. Some respondents pointed out that medicinal plants within the area of study had other threats as a result of deforestation and loss of habitat. A study by Mutwiwa [ 51 ] also listed overgrazing, charcoal burning, and environmental degradation as some of the threats faced by the plants of medicinal value in Machakos County, Mwala sub-county, Kenya. From our assessment in the course the field investigations, it was further noted that none of the listed medicinal plants were cultivated by the communities.

5. Conclusions

Planting fast-growing plant species for the production of charcoal would greatly help in lowering the harvesting of medicinal plants and enhance the conservation of vulnerable plant species. Proper grazing management of domestic animals should be enforced by the authorities in the forest reserves to reduce overgrazing especially in the areas of the forest that are more susceptible to overgrazing like the forest periphery. Proper harvesting regulations should be implemented and followed to reduce overharvesting and overexploitation of medicinal plants especially those species that are used more frequently to treat common ailments. This study provides a detailed report and an appreciation of medicinal knowledge among the three communities around the Cherangani Hills. The awareness of the importance of medicinal plants in human healthcare is important as scientific evaluation promises their future use in the development of new drugs for emerging diseases. The information on medicinal plants, dosages, and the ailments treated might be heavily eroded in the days to come because of the observed poor record keeping and the increasing use of western medication. This inventory therefore can be used as a source of information for the conservation agencies to enable proper management of plant biodiversity and its resources.

Acknowledgments

We are in gratitude to the Kenya Forest Service and National Environment and Management Authority for enabling the access to permits that empowered us to take on botanical investigations in the Cherangani Hills Forest. Our appreciation also goes to the research interviewees for generously sharing the information with us. We are indebted to the participating students and staff of University of Chinese Academy of Sciences and talented staff of the East African Herbarium, botany department, Nairobi, who helped in the data collection and identification.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/9/3/331/s1 . Table S1: Medicinal plants of Cherangani hills, their habit, habitat, part used, method of preparation and administration, and references. Abbreviations for voucher specimens: FOKP- Flora of Kenya Project; SAJIT- Sino Africa Joint Investigation Team; YMM = Yuvenalis Morara Mbuni; IR = Interview results [ 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 ].

Author Contributions

Y.M.M. designed and conceptualized the study. Y.M.M., S.W., B.N.M., N.O.W., N.J.M., P.M.M. and G.H. carried out the ethno-botanical survey, investigation, data curation. Y.M.M. and S.W. drafted the manuscript and analyzed the data. G.H., Y.Z. and Q.W. administered the project, supervised and reviewed the analyzed data, and gave constructive comments. All authors have read and agree to the published version of the manuscript.

This work obtained funding through grants from Sino-Africa Joint Research Center, CAS, China (Y323771W07 and SAJC201322), and National Natural Science Foundation of China (31800176).

Conflicts of Interest

No conflict of interest.

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Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and aromatic plants used in the treatment of skin burns in the province of sefrou of morocco, mohamed a. mahraz, m. amine idrissi, hajar el mrayej, abdelouahad lfatouhi, rajae salim, el hassania loukili, mohamed jghaoui, mustapha taleb.

The inhabitants of Morocco and particularly of the province of Sefrou use traditional medicine based on aromatic and medicinal plants to treat many diseases such as digestive and respiratory problems, and skin burns Unfortunately, there are very few botanical studies on medicinal and aromatic plants used to treat skin burns in Morocco, especially in the province of Sefrou. This study describes the traditional practice of treating skin burns with medicinal plants in six cities of the province of Sefrou for future pharmacological validation. The survey was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire in the province of Sefrou in the period of September 2020 and October 2022 which contains information on the plant, their family, and the method of preparation, and method of use. It was found that Lamiaceae and Asteraceae were the two most preferred families by the participants surveyed for the treatment of dermatological problems. The most used medicinal plants are Allium cepa, Curcuma longa, Eryngium tricuspidatum, Ricinus communis, Mentha pelugium, Origanum compactum . It was found that the leaves are the most frequently used part of the plant with a percentage of 52%, followed by the whole plant with 26%. In most treatments, the powder is sprinkled directly on the burn. The study has documented the plants that are found in the province of Sefrou use to treat skin burns.

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Introduction

Publication Trends

Regional Trends—Last 10 Years

Regulation and a Changing Analytical Landscape

Pharmacopoeia Monographs—Their Influences and Challenges

Chronology of Pharmacopoeial Developments in China

1950–1969

Regulatory and Pharmacopoeial Developments

Medicinal Plant Research and Analytical Development

1970–1989

Medicinal Plant Research and Analytical Developments

1990–2008

21 st Century

Analytical Hardware, Attested and Emerging Methods

High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography

Gas Chromatography

Supercritical Fluid Chromatography

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy

Hyphenated Techniques

Metabolomics

Nanoparticles

Conclusions

Author Contributions

Conflict of Interest

Biotechnology of Medicinal Plants with Antiallergy Properties

Crop Research Unit (Genetics and Plant Breeding), Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, India

Department of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, India

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Table of contents (22 chapters)

Medicinal Plants, Secondary Metabolites, and Their Antiallergic Activities

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Antiallergic Implications of Curcumin During COVID-19: Current Status and Perspectives

Plant-Derived Antiallergic Active Ingredients for Food Allergies

Recent Advances in Saffron ( Crocus sativus L.) Micropropagation: A Potential Plant Species with Antiallergic Properties

Antihistaminic Activity of Shikonin from Biotechnologically Grown Echium italicum L.

The Anthelmintic Impact of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Leaves: An Antiallergic Plant on Caenorhabditis elegans

Facile Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Passiflora edulis and Its Efficacy Against the Breast Cancer Cell Line

Effect of Sodium Nitroprusside on Morphogenesis, and Genetic Attributes of In Vitro Raised Plantlets of Curcuma longa Var. Lakadong

The Power of Citrus : Antiallergic Activity and In Vitro Propagation Techniques

Recent Advances in Micropropagation of Phoenix dactylifera : A Plant with Antiallergic Properties

Cell Suspension Culture-Mediated Secondary Metabolites Production from Medicinal Plants with Antiallergy Properties

In Vitro Plant Regeneration of Agapanthus praecox Alternatives to Silver Nanoparticles Production and Synthesis of Antimicrobial Silver Nanoparticles

Current Elicitation Strategies for Improving Secondary Metabolites in Medicinal Plants with Antiallergy Properties

Antiallergic Metabolite Production from Plants via Biotechnological Approaches

Improvement of the Antiallergic Plants via Whole Genome Duplication

Agrobacterium rhizogenes -Mediated Genetic Transformation: A Potential Approach to Enhance the Antiallergic Potential of Medicinal Plants by Endorsing the Production of Responsible Phytochemicals

Production, Storage, and Regeneration of Synthetic Seeds from Selected Medicinal Plants with Antiallergic Property

About this book

Editors and Affiliations

Department of Floriculture & Landscaping, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, India

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Bibliographic Information

People, plants and health: a conceptual framework for assessing changes in medicinal plant consumption

Conclusions

How and to whom are medicinal plants important?

Types of benefits

Main user groups and associated medicinal plant benefits

Determinants of medicinal plant consumption: A conceptual framework

International level

National level

Local level

Household level

Limitations of the framework

Acknowledgments

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