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Theoretical Framework Example for a Thesis or Dissertation

Published on October 14, 2015 by Sarah Vinz . Revised on July 18, 2023 by Tegan George.

Your theoretical framework defines the key concepts in your research, suggests relationships between them, and discusses relevant theories based on your literature review .

A strong theoretical framework gives your research direction. It allows you to convincingly interpret, explain, and generalize from your findings and show the relevance of your thesis or dissertation topic in your field.

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Sample problem statement and research questions, sample theoretical framework, your theoretical framework, other interesting articles.

Your theoretical framework is based on:

Your problem statement
Your research questions
Your literature review

A new boutique downtown is struggling with the fact that many of their online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases. This is a big issue for the otherwise fast-growing store.Management wants to increase customer loyalty. They believe that improved customer satisfaction will play a major role in achieving their goal of increased return customers.

To investigate this problem, you have zeroed in on the following problem statement, objective, and research questions:

Problem : Many online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases.
Objective : To increase the quantity of return customers.
Research question : How can the satisfaction of the boutique’s online customers be improved in order to increase the quantity of return customers?

The concepts of “customer loyalty” and “customer satisfaction” are clearly central to this study, along with their relationship to the likelihood that a customer will return. Your theoretical framework should define these concepts and discuss theories about the relationship between these variables.

Some sub-questions could include:

What is the relationship between customer loyalty and customer satisfaction?
How satisfied and loyal are the boutique’s online customers currently?
What factors affect the satisfaction and loyalty of the boutique’s online customers?

As the concepts of “loyalty” and “customer satisfaction” play a major role in the investigation and will later be measured, they are essential concepts to define within your theoretical framework .

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Below is a simplified example showing how you can describe and compare theories in your thesis or dissertation . In this example, we focus on the concept of customer satisfaction introduced above.

Customer satisfaction

Thomassen (2003, p. 69) defines customer satisfaction as “the perception of the customer as a result of consciously or unconsciously comparing their experiences with their expectations.” Kotler & Keller (2008, p. 80) build on this definition, stating that customer satisfaction is determined by “the degree to which someone is happy or disappointed with the observed performance of a product in relation to his or her expectations.”

Performance that is below expectations leads to a dissatisfied customer, while performance that satisfies expectations produces satisfied customers (Kotler & Keller, 2003, p. 80).

The definition of Zeithaml and Bitner (2003, p. 86) is slightly different from that of Thomassen. They posit that “satisfaction is the consumer fulfillment response. It is a judgement that a product or service feature, or the product of service itself, provides a pleasurable level of consumption-related fulfillment.” Zeithaml and Bitner’s emphasis is thus on obtaining a certain satisfaction in relation to purchasing.

Thomassen’s definition is the most relevant to the aims of this study, given the emphasis it places on unconscious perception. Although Zeithaml and Bitner, like Thomassen, say that customer satisfaction is a reaction to the experience gained, there is no distinction between conscious and unconscious comparisons in their definition.

The boutique claims in its mission statement that it wants to sell not only a product, but also a feeling. As a result, unconscious comparison will play an important role in the satisfaction of its customers. Thomassen’s definition is therefore more relevant.

Thomassen’s Customer Satisfaction Model

According to Thomassen, both the so-called “value proposition” and other influences have an impact on final customer satisfaction. In his satisfaction model (Fig. 1), Thomassen shows that word-of-mouth, personal needs, past experiences, and marketing and public relations determine customers’ needs and expectations.

These factors are compared to their experiences, with the interplay between expectations and experiences determining a customer’s satisfaction level. Thomassen’s model is important for this study as it allows us to determine both the extent to which the boutique’s customers are satisfied, as well as where improvements can be made.

Figure 1 Customer satisfaction creation

Of course, you could analyze the concepts more thoroughly and compare additional definitions to each other. You could also discuss the theories and ideas of key authors in greater detail and provide several models to illustrate different concepts.

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The theoretical framework you select for your DNP scholarly project sets the backbone, tone, and process for your project, but you cannot usually simply search the literature for 'nursing frameworks' to select one. The framework you select should be based on how well it will work for your project - does it aid in assessing what you want it to? is it easy to implement? does it work within your timeframe? To find one, return to any course readings that discussed potential frameworks. Also look at studies that are similar to your own for the researcher's process. Searching for frameworks be field and type of research. Below are a few links to spark your thinking, but by no means an exhaustive list of options.

How to I select a theoretical framework? This USC guide outlines the purpose of a theoretical framework for your research, and how to go about selecting one.
Commonly used frameworks for quality improvement in health care This article from Pediatric Investigation, outlines some common Conceptual Frameworks for Quality Improvement
Examples of theoretical frameworks This guide from SUNY Buffalo lists some commonly used frameworks.
Frameworks organized by type of research University of Washington's Implementation Science Resource hub
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Nursing and Allied Health: Theories & Frameworks

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Using a Framework

Most scholarly nursing literature is grounded in one or more existing theories or models (these are ways of explaining a phenomena or interaction). This is often done using a theoretical framework (sometimes called a conceptual framework). Such a framework helps to situate your topic, the concepts, theories or models involved, and your own ideas, into the existing knowledge (see tutorial: Difference Between Concepts, Models, and Theories ) of that topic. Some of your research assignments will task you with locating theories and using a framework to help "frame" what you write. Below are materials that can help you with that process.

How to quickly search CINAHL Plus with Full-Text for articles that use a framework, model or theory :

Go to this set of search results in CINAHL database [it does the following search using Subject Headings: ((MH "Nursing Theory+") or (MH "Conceptual Framework") ]
In the search box (you'll see the search words above), click to place your cursor after the existing search words and then type in AND followed by a word or exact phrase that describes your topic. Example : ((MH "Nursing Theory+") or (MH "Conceptual Framework") AND staffing
Use the options on the left side of the results page to limit by date, etc. (don't use the "Full-text" limit option unless needed as you can access many articles not available in CINAHL, but available in other databases or via inter-library loan, using the Full-Text Finder link).

Resources for Identifying Nursing Theories and Models

Theoretical Frameworks: Help
Dictionary of Nursing Theory & Research (4th ed)
Models and Frameworks for Implementing Evidence-Based Practice
Middle Range Theory for Nursing
More E-Books on nursing theory
Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice, 4th Edition
Nursing Theories and Nursing Practice
Nursing Theory.org A collection of page about nursing theories and theorist biographies throughout the world
Nursing Theories: Conceptual and Philosophical Foundations (2nd ed)
Theorising in Everyday Nursing Practice: A Critical Analysis
Vital Notes for Nurses: Nursing Models, Theories and Practice
Vital Notes for Nurses: Principles of Care
Vital Notes for Nurses: Research for Evidence-Based Practice in Healthcare
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Conceptual Models and Theories

Developing a research framework.

Premkumar, Beulah M.Sc (N)., M.Phil * ; David, Shirley M.Sc (N)., Ph.D (N) ** ; Ravindran, Vinitha M.Sc (N)., Ph.D (N) ***

* Professor, College of Nursing, CMC, Vettore

** Professor, College of Nursing, CMC, Vettore

*** Professor, College of Nursing, CMC, Vettore

Conceptual models and theories provide structure for research. Research without a theoretical base provides isolated information which may not be used or applied effectively. The challenge for nurse researchers is to identify a model or theory that would a best fit for their area of study interest. In this research series article the authors unravel the simple steps that can be followed in identifying, choosing, and applying the constructs and concepts in the models or theories to develop a research framework. A research framework guides the researcher in developing research questions, refining their hypotheses, selecting interventions, defining and measuring variables. Roy's adaptation model and a study intending to assess the effectiveness of grief counseling on adaptation to spousal loss are used as an example in this article to depict the theory- research congruence.

Introduction

The history of professional Nursing started with Florence Nightingale who envisioned nurses as a knowledgeable force who can bring positive changes in health care delivery (Alligood, 2014). It was 100 years later, during 1950s, a need to develop nursing knowledge apart from medical knowledge was felt to guide nursing practice. This beginning led to the awareness of the need to develop nursing theories (Alligood, 2010). Until then, nursing practice was based on principles and traditions that were handed down through apprenticeship model of education and individual hospital procedure manuals. It reflected the vocational heritage more than a professional vision. This transition from vocation to profession involves successive eras of history in nursing: the curriculum era, research emphasis era, research era, graduate education era, and the theory era (Alligood, 2014).

The theory era was a natural outcome of research era and graduate education era, where an understanding oí research and knowledge development increased. It became obvious that research without conceptual and theoretical framework produced isolated information. This awareness and acceptance paved way to another era, the theory utilization era, which placed emphasis on theory application in nursing practice, education, administration, and research (Alligood, 2014). Conceptual models and theories are structures that provide nurses with a perspective of the patient and the professional practice. Conceptual models provide structure for a phenomenon, direct thinking, observations, and interpretations and further provide direction for actions (Fawcett & Desanto-Madeya, 2005). In research, a framework is the underpinning of the study and if a framework is based on a theory it is called as theoretica framework and if it represents a conceptual model then it is generally called the conceptual framework. More often it is known as a research framework. However the terms conceptual framework, conceptual model theoretica framework, and research framework are often usee interchangeably (Polit & Beck, 2014).

Definitions of Terminologies

When nurse researchers are making decisions about theories and models for their study, it is important to understand the definitions of different related terminology. According Grove, Burns and Gray (2013) conceptual models are examples of grand theories and are highly abstract with related constructs. “A conceptual model broadly explains phenomenon of interest, expresses assumption, and reflects a philosophical stance” (Grove et al., 2013). A conceptual model is an image of a phenomenon. A theory in contrast represents a set of defined concepts that offers a systematic explanation about how two or more concepts are interrelated. Theories can be used to describe, explain, predict, or control the phenomenon that is of interest to a researcher (Grove et al., 2013).

Constructs are abstract descriptions of a phenomenon or the experiences or the contextual factors. Concepts are the terms or names given to a phenomena or idea or an object and are often considered as the building blocks of a theory (Grove et al., 2013). Many conceptual models are made of constructs. Concepts are derived from constructs or vice versa. For example, in the Transactional model of Stress and Coping by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) the constructs included are stressors, mediating processes, moderators and the outcomes. The examples of related concepts to these constructs are shown in Figure 1 .

Conceptual Framework in Research

Conceptual models and theories serve as the foundation on which a study can be developed or as a map to aid in the design of the study (Fawcett, 1989). When concepts related to the study are integrated and formulated into a workable model for the specific study it is generally known as a research framework (Grove, Gray & Burns, 2015). When concepts or constructs in the models or theory are converted into measurable terms they are known as variables (Grove et al., 2013). According to the purposes explicated by Sharma (2014) and Polit and Beck (2014) the use of conceptual/research framework m research can be summarized as follows:

- It provides a structure for the study which helps the researcher to organize the process of investigation
- It helps in formulating hypothesis, developing a research question and defining the variables
- It guides development, use, and testing of interventions and selection of data collection instruments
- It provides direction for explaining the study results and situate the findings in the gaps identified in the literature

Nurse researchers regularly select and use conceptual frameworks for carrying out their studies. Conceptual models and theories explicitly or implicitly guide research (Radwin & Fawcett, 2002). Researchers use both nursing and non- nursing models to provide a framework for their studies. There are however, two challenges for researchers and students in relation to using conceptual frameworks in their investigations. The first is to identify the conceptual model or a theory that will be the best fit and will be useful in guiding their research and the second is to incorporate and clearly articulate the model in relation to their study variables, interventions and the outcomes to convert it into their research framework (Radwin & Fawcett, 2002). A few essential steps need to be followed to choose a conceptual model and to incorporate it into the individual studies. Let us consider the steps with an example of a study intending “ to assess the effectiveness of grief counseling intervention in helping individuals cope and adapt after the loss of their spouse”.

1. The Purpose of the Study

The choice of conceptual model to guide the research first and foremost depends on the purpose of one's research. It can be educating staff/patient/families, improving academic and clinical teaching, changing practice by translating research evidence into practice, implementing a quality improvement strategy, encouraging behavior change, supporting individuals during crisis, assisting to cope etc. The researcher should look for a model or a theory that addresses similar purpose. It would be useful to identify and select the key concept in which the researcher is interested in at this stage (Sharma, 2014). In the example mentioned above the key concept of interest is ‘adaptation’ after a loss which is a traumatic life event.

2. Study Variables

The second step is to identify general variables that are included or may be included in the study. The variables are related to the constructs/concepts of interest in the study. The concepts and variables may be based on previous research findings, experiential knowledge or hunches and intuitions (Sharma, 2014). In the adaptation to spousal loss study in addition to the main concept of adaptation, other variables such as grief, coping, quality of life, and demographic and social factors that may influence adaptation may be included in the objectives.

3. Gathering Relevant Information

Once the researcher has identified the concepts and variables of interest, the next step involves in-depth study of existing models and theories to gather information about the relevant concepts and variables. The researcher can quickly skim through the literature to seek a few models that relate to the concepts and variables of interest in the study. The researcher must then read about them from primary sources to obtain comprehensive evidence about each model or theory (Sharma, 2014). When choosing a model for the study the researcher needs to analyze and evaluate the models she /he considers to understand its most important features (Fawcett, 1989). Some questions that need to be asked are: What is the historical evolution of the model? What methods are indicated for nursing knowledge development? What are the assumptions listed? How are the concepts person, environment, health, and nursing defined? How are these metaparadigm concepts linked and how is nursing process described? What is the major area of concern in the care identified in the model?

The researcher's previous experience and knowledge about theories and models greatly assist in quick decisions on choosing a model that would best fit their study purpose. Nurse researchers who have an interdisciplinary knowledge and experience may choose an overarching model or theory to develop their research framework for their study. It is the novice researchers who often find it difficult to decide on a model and have confusions regarding explicating their research framework. The above listed questions, if carefully considered will help them in choosing an appropriate model. Once a theory or conceptual model is identified the researcher need to studv it in-depth to understand each concent and propositions so that it can appropriately be integrated into the study (Sharma, 2014).

In the study example in this paper the researcher intends to assess how people adjust after the death of their spouse and how grief counseling will help in their adjustment to life after their loss. As the process of interest, as indicated already, is adaptation to traumatic life event, adaptation model that is purported by Sr. Callista Roy (1976) is chosen as the best fit as Roy's adaptation model focuses on how individuals cope after a stimuli and manifest adaptive behaviors (see Figure 2 ).

4. Understanding the Premises and Principles of the Selected Model: Roy's Conceptual Model

Once a model that is relevant to the study is selected the underlying premises and philosophy of the model or theory have to be explicated. The definitions of the concepts in the model have to be understood to enable the researcher to formulate her/his study framework which can be integrated with the chosen model (Mock et al., 2007). An in-depth review of literature on how the conceptual model was developed and refined, background information about the theorist or author, and the definitions of concepts included in the model is mandatory to examine how the researcher's study can be designed and executed. In Roy's adaptation model (Fawcett, 1989), Roy considers human being as an open system who is in constant interaction with the environment. She explains health as a process of being or becoming an integrated whole person. The goal of nursing is to assist individuals in positively adapting to environmental changes or what she terms ‘stimuli’. Three types of stimuli are explained in the model: 1. ‘Focal’ which is the life event itself, 2. ‘contextual’ which are the factors associated and contributing to or opposing the stimuli and 3.‘residual’ which are present innately which may not be altered, explained, or reasoned. The adaptation occurs through coping process at the regulator and cognator subsystem levels. The regulator subsystem refers to the automatic response that occurs naturally in the chemical, neural, and endocrine systems. The cognator subsystem respond through four cognitive emotional channels: perceptual and information processing, learning, judgment, and emotion. Adaptation in Roy's model is explained as conscious choice of individuals to create successful human and environmental integration which can be manifested as integrated adaptation in four adaptive behavioural modes. The four adaptive modes are the physical/physiological, self-concept, role functioning, and interdependence. If integrated adaptation did not happen it can result in compensatory or compromised adaptation.

5. Finalizing the Study Design, Variables, Tool, and Intervention

In a nursing theory or a conceptual model how a theorist defines nursing action and what is expected as outcomes helps the researcher to choose the research design and intervention (Mock et al., 2007). Further the concepts in the model guides the researcher to choose variables that would be of interest to nursing. In Roy's adaptation theory, nursing assessment and interventions that promote adaption is purported. On the basis of this premise the investigator can choose a specific intervention that would enhance integrated adaptation of an individual after a crisis (stimuli). The investigator then can measure whether the intervention has been effective in promoting adaptation by looking at the four modes of adaptive behavior (physical/physiological, self- concept, role functioning, and interdependence). The congruence of the constructs of Roy's adaptation model and the study variables is depicted in Figure 3 .

In the example being discussed the focal stimuli is the death of a spouse. The contextual stimuli are the grief reaction, social and spiritual support systems available for the person who has experienced loss and her or his economic status. The residual stimuli include variables such as the age, gender, years spent with spouse, race, or ethnic background. The researcher has chosen grief counseling as the intervention in the study. This is based on Roy's model which explains that when interventions are aimed at how contextual stimuli can be addressed it will result in better coping process and this will facilitate adaptation (Fawcett, 1989). When choosing the intervention it is vital to know that there is established evidence for the intervention (Mock et al., 2007). In this study grief counseling is chosen because of its established evidence on the effect on person's adjustment (Neimeyer & Currier, 2009). Other variables which relate to the adaptation model include coping with grief and the outcome variables as adaptive behaviours in physiological, interpersonal, role functioning, and self-concept domains (see Figure 3 ).

Once there is clarity about the variables of interest and the intervention, it becomes relatively simpler to decide on the study design and the instruments/tools which can be used to measure the variables. As shown in Figure 4 , the contextual variables can be measured using a socio-demographic data profile. Grief which is another contextual stimuli will be measured by the grief scale (Fireman, 2010). The grief scale measures the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of people who are in the grieving process after a loss. A part of the demographic profile will measure the influence of the residual variables. The intervention which is the grief counseling will be administered by the researcher who has had special training in this method of counseling. How individuals cope to loss can be measured by the Ways of Coping Scale (Folkman & Lazarus, 1988). This scale consists of coping in eight domains namely problem focused coping, wishful thinking, distancing, seeking social support emphasizing the positive, self-blame, tension reduction, and self-isolation. The coping and the adaptation behaviors may be measured using the “Coping and Adaptation Processing Scale” (CAPS Short form, 2015) which is developed by Roy herself. CAPS is a tool which can be used to measure coping and adaptation in people suffering with chronic or acute health issues and can be used when the stimuli is an acute loss.

As the researcher intends to use grief counseling as an intervention, the research design will be an experimental design and the coping and adaptation process can be measured prior to and after the counseling sessions using both ways of coping and CAPS scales. As there may not be adequate number of samples available to represent the phenomenon of interest the study can be designed as a one group pretest posttest quasi experimental design instead a true experimental design with a control group. The research framework that is developed from the adaptation model may be modified as follows based on the research design (see Figure 4 ).

6. Using the Research Framework for Analysis and Interpretation of the Results

The framework that is developed for the study can guidi the analysis and will also help in interpretation of the finding The research report can easily incorporate the concepts in th(original model and also the developed framework and can b< discussed in relation to current study findings. As th(researcher's background knowledge that is gained in th(framework development process is elaborate, the concepts o: the model can guide the researcher to situate the findings wit! in the theoretical literature (Mock et al., 2007).

Choosing and applying a conceptual model or theory to develop a research frame work is a challenging but an educative process. It also involves an iterative process of moving back and forth between what is the phenomenon and variables of interest to the researcher and what and how the theorists explain and define concepts in their models. The first and foremost step to be remembered is to identify the core concept that the researcher is interested in which will pave way for searching the literature on the model that will match the researcher's interest. The researcher must understand that all variables in a given model may not be of interest to him or her or variables from more than one model may apply to the areas of interest to be studied. Both are acceptable. Researchers need to be creative in developing the research framework based on the model/models that is/are of interest. The nursing conceptual models serve as guides for articulating, reporting and recording nursing thought anc action in research. Further, the models also ultimately assist researchers in applying findings in clinical practice.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors have declared no conflicts of interest.

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conceptual model; theory; research framework; Roy's adaptation model; spousal loss; grief

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What is a theoretical framework?

A theoretical framework is an idea or a group of ideas that provide structure to a theory in a research study. Researchers may use theoretical frameworks to guide their studies, discover or analyze new perspectives, or find connections between seemingly unrelated concepts. Theoretical frameworks are often used in science, economics, and many other fields of study. Researchers may choose among an almost limitless variety of theoretical frameworks, but should choose one appropriate to the topic being studied and the goal of the study.

Source: Dziak, M. (2016). Theoretical framework. Salem Press Encyclopedia Research Starters .

Norma T. Mertz Discusses Theoretical Frameworks

eBook Chapter: Theoretical Frameworks in The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods Although the term does not have a clear and consistent definition, theoretical framework is defined as any empirical or quasi-empirical theory of social and/or psychological processes, at a variety of levels (e.g., grand, mid-range, and explanatory), that can be applied to the understanding of phenomena. Qualitative research has often been criticized for not being guided by theory in its development and conduct. Additionally, students as well as experienced researchers who employ qualitative methods frequently have trouble identifying and using theoretical frameworks in their research (i.e., understanding how and what it affects in the process of conducting the research).
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Using Framework Analysis in nursing research: a worked example

Affiliation.

1 School of Nursing, Midwifery & Social Work, University of Manchester, UK.
PMID: 23517523
DOI: 10.1111/jan.12127

Aims: To demonstrate Framework Analysis using a worked example and to illustrate how criticisms of qualitative data analysis including issues of clarity and transparency can be addressed.

Background: Critics of the analysis of qualitative data sometimes cite lack of clarity and transparency about analytical procedures; this can deter nurse researchers from undertaking qualitative studies. Framework Analysis is flexible, systematic, and rigorous, offering clarity, transparency, an audit trail, an option for theme-based and case-based analysis and for readily retrievable data. This paper offers further explanation of the process undertaken which is illustrated with a worked example.

Data source and research design: Data were collected from 31 nursing students in 2009 using semi-structured interviews.

Discussion: The data collected are not reported directly here but used as a worked example for the five steps of Framework Analysis. Suggestions are provided to guide researchers through essential steps in undertaking Framework Analysis. The benefits and limitations of Framework Analysis are discussed.

Implications for nursing: Nurses increasingly use qualitative research methods and need to use an analysis approach that offers transparency and rigour which Framework Analysis can provide. Nurse researchers may find the detailed critique of Framework Analysis presented in this paper a useful resource when designing and conducting qualitative studies.

Conclusion: Qualitative data analysis presents challenges in relation to the volume and complexity of data obtained and the need to present an 'audit trail' for those using the research findings. Framework Analysis is an appropriate, rigorous and systematic method for undertaking qualitative analysis.

Keywords: Framework Analysis; nursing; qualitative data analysis.

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Nursing Theories and Theorists: The Definitive Guide for Nurses

Nursing Theory and Theorist Definitive Guide for Nurses

In this guide for nursing theories and nursing theorists , we aim to help you understand what comprises a nursing theory and its importance, purpose, history, types, or classifications, and give you an overview through summaries of selected nursing theories.

What are Nursing Theories?

Defining Terms

History of nursing theories, environment, definitions, relational statements, assumptions, why are nursing theories important, in academic discipline, in research, in the profession, grand nursing theories, middle-range nursing theories, practice-level nursing theories, factor-isolating theory, explanatory theory, prescriptive theories, other ways of classifying nursing theories, florence nightingale, hildegard e. peplau, virginia henderson, faye glenn abdellah, ernestine wiedenbach, lydia e. hall, joyce travelbee, kathryn e. barnard, evelyn adam, nancy roper, winifred logan, and alison j. tierney, ida jean orlando, jean watson.

Marilyn Anne Ray

Patricia Benner

Kari martinsen, katie eriksson, myra estrin levine, martha e. rogers, dorothea e. orem, imogene m. king, betty neuman, sister callista roy, dorothy e. johnson, anne boykin and savina o. schoenhofer, afaf ibrahim meleis, nola j. pender, madeleine m. leininger, margaret a. newman, rosemarie rizzo parse, helen c. erickson, evelyn m. tomlin, and mary ann p. swain, gladys l. husted and james h. husted, ramona t. mercer, merle h. mishel, pamela g. reed, carolyn l. wiener and marylin j. dodd, georgene gaskill eakes, mary lermann burke, and margaret a. hainsworth, phil barker, katharine kolcaba, cheryl tatano beck, kristen m. swanson, cornelia m. ruland and shirley m. moore, wanda de aguiar horta, recommended resources, what are nursing theories.

Nursing theories are organized bodies of knowledge to define what nursing is, what nurses do, and why they do it. Nursing theories provide a way to define nursing as a unique discipline that is separate from other disciplines (e.g., medicine). It is a framework of concepts and purposes intended to guide nursing practice at a more concrete and specific level.

Nursing, as a profession, is committed to recognizing its own unparalleled body of knowledge vital to nursing practice—nursing science. To distinguish this foundation of knowledge, nurses need to identify, develop, and understand concepts and theories in line with nursing. As a science, nursing is based on the theory of what nursing is, what nurses do, and why. Nursing is a unique discipline and is separate from medicine. It has its own body of knowledge on which delivery of care is based.

The development of nursing theory demands an understanding of selected terminologies, definitions, and assumptions.

Philosophy. These are beliefs and values that define a way of thinking and are generally known and understood by a group or discipline.
Theory . A belief, policy, or procedure proposed or followed as the basis of action. It refers to a logical group of general propositions used as principles of explanation. Theories are also used to describe, predict, or control phenomena.
Concept. Concepts are often called the building blocks of theories. They are primarily the vehicles of thought that involve images.
Models. Models are representations of the interaction among and between the concepts showing patterns. They present an overview of the theory’s thinking and may demonstrate how theory can be introduced into practice.
Conceptual framework. A conceptual framework is a group of related ideas, statements, or concepts. It is often used interchangeably with the conceptual model and with grand theories .
Proposition. Propositions are statements that describe the relationship between the concepts.
Domain . The domain is the perspective or territory of a profession or discipline.
Process. Processes are organized steps, changes, or functions intended to bring about the desired result.
Paradigm. A paradigm refers to a pattern of shared understanding and assumptions about reality and the world, worldview, or widely accepted value system.
Metaparadigm. A metaparadigm is the most general statement of discipline and functions as a framework in which the more restricted structures of conceptual models develop. Much of the theoretical work in nursing focused on articulating relationships among four major concepts: person, environment, health, and nursing.

The first nursing theories appeared in the late 1800s when a strong emphasis was placed on nursing education.

In 1860, Florence Nightingale defined nursing in her “ Environmental Theory ” as “the act of utilizing the patient’s environment to assist him in his recovery.”
In the 1950s, there is a consensus among nursing scholars that nursing needed to validate itself through the production of its own scientifically tested body of knowledge.
In 1952, Hildegard Peplau introduced her Theory of Interpersonal Relations that emphasizes the nurse -client relationship as the foundation of nursing practice.
In 1955, Virginia Henderson conceptualized the nurse’s role as assisting sick or healthy individuals to gain independence in meeting 14 fundamental needs. Thus her Nursing Need Theory was developed.
In 1960, Faye Abdellah published her work “Typology of 21 Nursing Problems,” which shifted the focus of nursing from a disease-centered approach to a patient-centered approach.
In 1962, Ida Jean Orlando emphasized the reciprocal relationship between patient and nurse and viewed nursing’s professional function as finding out and meeting the patient’s immediate need for help.
In 1968, Dorothy Johnson pioneered the Behavioral System Model and upheld the fostering of efficient and effective behavioral functioning in the patient to prevent illness.
In 1970, Martha Rogers viewed nursing as both a science and an art as it provides a way to view the unitary human being, who is integral with the universe.
In 1971, Dorothea Orem stated in her theory that nursing care is required if the client is unable to fulfill biological, psychological, developmental, or social needs.
In 1971, Imogene King ‘s Theory of Goal attainment stated that the nurse is considered part of the patient’s environment and the nurse-patient relationship is for meeting goals towards good health.
In 1972, Betty Neuman , in her theory, states that many needs exist, and each may disrupt client balance or stability. Stress reduction is the goal of the system model of nursing practice.
In 1979, Sr. Callista Roy viewed the individual as a set of interrelated systems that maintain the balance between these various stimuli.
In 1979, Jean Watson developed the philosophy of caring, highlighted humanistic aspects of nursing as they intertwine with scientific knowledge and nursing practice.

The Nursing Metaparadigm

Four major concepts are frequently interrelated and fundamental to nursing theory: person, environment, health, and nursing. These four are collectively referred to as metaparadigm for nursing .

Nursing Metaparadigm in Nursing Theories

Person (also referred to as Client or Human Beings) is the recipient of nursing care and may include individuals, patients, groups, families, and communities.

Environment (or situation) is defined as the internal and external surroundings that affect the client. It includes all positive or negative conditions that affect the patient, the physical environment, such as families, friends, and significant others, and the setting for where they go for their healthcare.

Health is defined as the degree of wellness or well-being that the client experiences. It may have different meanings for each patient, the clinical setting, and the health care provider.

The nurse’s attributes, characteristics, and actions provide care on behalf of or in conjunction with the client. There are numerous definitions of nursing, though nursing scholars may have difficulty agreeing on its exact definition. The ultimate goal of nursing theories is to improve patient care .

You’ll find that these four concepts are used frequently and defined differently throughout different nursing theories. Each nurse theorist’s definition varies by their orientation, nursing experience , and different factors that affect the theorist’s nursing view. The person is the main focus, but how each theorist defines the nursing metaparadigm gives a unique take specific to a particular theory. To give you an example, below are the different definitions of various theorists on the nursing metaparadigm:

Nursing Metaparadigm of Different Nursing Theories

Components of Nursing Theories

For a theory to be a theory, it has to contain concepts, definitions, relational statements, and assumptions that explain a phenomenon. It should also explain how these components relate to each other.

A term given to describe an idea or response about an event, a situation, a process, a group of events, or a group of situations. Phenomena may be temporary or permanent. Nursing theories focus on the phenomena of nursing.

Interrelated concepts define a theory. Concepts are used to help describe or label a phenomenon. They are words or phrases that identify, define, and establish structure and boundaries for ideas generated about a particular phenomenon. Concepts may be abstract or concrete.

Abstract Concepts . Defined as mentally constructed independently of a specific time or place.
Concrete Concepts . Are directly experienced and related to a particular time or place.

Definitions are used to convey the general meaning of the concepts of the theory. Definitions can be theoretical or operational.

Theoretical Definitions . Define a particular concept based on the theorist’s perspective.
Operational Definitions . States how concepts are measured.

Relational statements define the relationships between two or more concepts. They are the chains that link concepts to one another.

Assumptions are accepted as truths and are based on values and beliefs. These statements explain the nature of concepts, definitions, purpose, relationships, and structure of a theory.

Nursing theories are the basis of nursing practice today. In many cases, nursing theory guides knowledge development and directs education, research, and practice. Historically, nursing was not recognized as an academic discipline or as a profession we view today. Before nursing theories were developed, nursing was considered to be a task-oriented occupation. The training and function of nurses were under the direction and control of the medical profession. Let’s take a look at the importance of nursing theory and its significance to nursing practice:

Nursing theories help recognize what should set the foundation of practice by explicitly describing nursing.
By defining nursing, a nursing theory also helps nurses understand their purpose and role in the healthcare setting.
Theories serve as a rationale or scientific reasons for nursing interventions and give nurses the knowledge base necessary for acting and responding appropriately in nursing care situations.
Nursing theories provide the foundations of nursing practice, generate further knowledge, and indicate which direction nursing should develop in the future (Brown, 1964).
By providing nurses a sense of identity, nursing theory can help patients, managers, and other healthcare professionals to acknowledge and understand the unique contribution that nurses make to the healthcare service (Draper, 1990).
Nursing theories prepare the nurses to reflect on the assumptions and question the nursing values, thus further defining nursing and increasing the knowledge base.
Nursing theories aim to define, predict, and demonstrate nursing phenomenon (Chinn and Jacobs, 1978).
It can be regarded as an attempt by the nursing profession to maintain and preserve its professional limits and boundaries.
Nursing theories can help guide research and informing evidence-based practice.
Provide a common language and terminology for nurses to use in communication and practice.
Serves as a basis for the development of nursing education and training programs.
In many cases, nursing theories guide knowledge development and directs education, research, and practice, although each influences the others. (Fitzpatrick and Whall, 2005).

Purposes of Nursing Theories

The primary purpose of theory in nursing is to improve practice by positively influencing the health and quality of life of patients. Nursing theories are essential for the development and advancement of the nursing profession. Nursing theories are also developed to define and describe nursing care, guide nursing practice, and provide a basis for clinical decision-making . In the past, the accomplishments of nursing led to the recognition of nursing in an academic discipline, research, and profession.

Much of the earlier nursing programs identified the major concepts in one or two nursing models, organized the concepts, and build an entire nursing curriculum around the created framework. These models’ unique language was typically introduced into program objectives, course objectives, course descriptions, and clinical performance criteria. The purpose was to explain the fundamental implications of the profession and enhance the profession’s status.

The development of theory is fundamental to the research process, where it is necessary to use theory as a framework to provide perspective and guidance to the research study. Theory can also be used to guide the research process by creating and testing phenomena of interest. To improve the nursing profession’s ability to meet societal duties and responsibilities, there needs to be a continuous reciprocal and cyclical connection with theory, practice, and research. This will help connect the perceived “gap” between theory and practice and promote the theory-guided practice.

Clinical practice generates research questions and knowledge for theory. In a clinical setting, its primary contribution has been the facilitation of reflecting, questioning, and thinking about what nurses do. Because nurses and nursing practice are often subordinate to powerful institutional forces and traditions, introducing any framework that encourages nurses to reflect on, question, and think about what they do provide an invaluable service.

Classification of Nursing Theories

There are different ways to categorize nursing theories. They are classified depending on their function, levels of abstraction, or goal orientation.

By Abstraction

There are three major categories when classifying nursing theories based on their level of abstraction: grand theory, middle-range theory, and practice-level theory.

Levels of Nursing Theory According to Abstraction

Grand theories are abstract, broad in scope, and complex, therefore requiring further research for clarification.
Grand nursing theories do not guide specific nursing interventions but rather provide a general framework and nursing ideas.
Grand nursing theorists develop their works based on their own experiences and their time, explaining why there is so much variation among theories.
Address the nursing metaparadigm components of person, nursing, health, and environment.
More limited in scope (compared to grand theories) and present concepts and propositions at a lower level of abstraction. They address a specific phenomenon in nursing.
Due to the difficulty of testing grand theories, nursing scholars proposed using this level of theory.
Most middle-range theories are based on a grand theorist’s works, but they can be conceived from research, nursing practice, or the theories of other disciplines.
Practice nursing theories are situation-specific theories that are narrow in scope and focuses on a specific patient population at a specific time.
Practice-level nursing theories provide frameworks for nursing interventions and suggest outcomes or the effect of nursing practice.
Theories developed at this level have a more direct effect on nursing practice than more abstract theories.
These theories are interrelated with concepts from middle-range theories or grand theories.

By Goal Orientation

Theories can also be classified based on their goals. They can be descriptive or prescriptive .

Descriptive Theories

Descriptive theories are the first level of theory development. They describe the phenomena and identify its properties and components in which it occurs.
Descriptive theories are not action-oriented or attempt to produce or change a situation.
There are two types of descriptive theories: factor-isolating theory and explanatory theory .
Also known as category-formulating or labeling theory.
Theories under this category describe the properties and dimensions of phenomena.
Explanatory theories describe and explain the nature of relationships of certain phenomena to other phenomena.
Address the nursing interventions for a phenomenon, guide practice change, and predict consequences.
Includes propositions that call for change.
In nursing, prescriptive theories are used to anticipate the outcomes of nursing interventions.

Classification According to Meleis

Afaf Ibrahim Meleis (2011), in her book Theoretical Nursing: Development and Progress , organizes the major nurse theories and models using the following headings: needs theories, interaction theories, and outcome theories. These categories indicate the basic philosophical underpinnings of the theories.

Needs-Based Theories. The needs theorists were the first group of nurses who thought of giving nursing care a conceptual order. Theories under this group are based on helping individuals to fulfill their physical and mental needs. Theories of Orem, Henderson, and Abdella are categorized under this group. Need theories are criticized for relying too much on the medical model of health and placing the patient in an overtly dependent position.
Interaction Theories. These theories emphasized nursing on the establishment and maintenance of relationships. They highlighted the impact of nursing on patients and how they interact with the environment, people, and situations. Theories of King, Orlando, and Travelbee are grouped under this category.
Outcome Theories . These theories describe the nurse as controlling and directing patient care using their knowledge of the human physiological and behavioral systems. The nursing theories of Johnson , Levine , Rogers , and Roy belong to this group.

Classification According to Alligood

In her book, Nursing Theorists and Their Work, Raile Alligood (2017) categorized nursing theories into four headings: nursing philosophy, nursing conceptual models, nursing theories and grand theories, and middle-range nursing theories.

Nursing Philosophy . It is the most abstract type and sets forth the meaning of nursing phenomena through analysis, reasoning, and logical presentation. Works of Nightingale, Watson, Ray, and Benner are categorized under this group.
Nursing Conceptual Models . These are comprehensive nursing theories that are regarded by some as pioneers in nursing. These theories address the nursing metaparadigm and explain the relationship between them. Conceptual models of Levine, Rogers, Roy, King, and Orem are under this group.
Grand Nursing Theories. Are works derived from nursing philosophies, conceptual models, and other grand theories that are generally not as specific as middle-range theories. Works of Levine, Rogers, Orem, and King are some of the theories under this category.
Middle-Range Theories. Are precise and answer specific nursing practice questions . They address the specifics of nursing situations within the model’s perspective or theory from which they are derived. Examples of Middle-Range theories are that of Mercer, Reed, Mishel, and Barker.

List of Nursing Theories and Theorists

You’ve learned from the previous sections the definition of nursing theory, its significance in nursing, and its purpose in generating a nursing knowledge base. This section will give you an overview and summary of the various published works in nursing theory (in chronological order). Deep dive into learning about the theory by clicking on the links provided for their biography and comprehensive review of their work.

See Also: Florence Nightingale: Environmental Theory and Biography

Founder of Modern Nursing and Pioneer of the Environmental Theory.
Defined Nursing as “the act of utilizing the environment of the patient to assist him in his recovery.”
Stated that nursing “ought to signify the proper use of fresh air, light, warmth, cleanliness, quiet, and the proper selection and administration of diet – all at the least expense of vital power to the patient.”
Identified five (5) environmental factors: fresh air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness or sanitation, and light or direct sunlight.

See Also: Hildegard Peplau: Interpersonal Relations Theory

Pioneered the Theory of Interpersonal Relations
Peplau’s theory defined Nursing as “An interpersonal process of therapeutic interactions between an individual who is sick or in need of health services and a nurse specially educated to recognize, respond to the need for help.”
Her work is influenced by Henry Stack Sullivan, Percival Symonds, Abraham Maslow , and Neal Elgar Miller.
It helps nurses and healthcare providers develop more therapeutic interventions in the clinical setting.

See Also: Virginia Henderson: Nursing Need Theory

Developed the Nursing Need Theory
Focuses on the importance of increasing the patient’s independence to hasten their progress in the hospital.
Emphasizes the basic human needs and how nurses can assist in meeting those needs.
“The nurse is expected to carry out a physician’s therapeutic plan, but individualized care is the result of the nurse’s creativity in planning for care.”

See Also: Faye Glenn Abdellah: 21 Nursing Problems Theory

Developed the 21 Nursing Problems Theory
“Nursing is based on an art and science that molds the attitudes, intellectual competencies, and technical skills of the individual nurse into the desire and ability to help people, sick or well, cope with their health needs.”
Changed the focus of nursing from disease-centered to patient-centered and began to include families and the elderly in nursing care.
The nursing model is intended to guide care in hospital institutions but can also be applied to community health nursing, as well.
Developed The Helping Art of Clinical Nursing conceptual model.
Definition of nursing reflects on nurse-midwife experience as “People may differ in their concept of nursing, but few would disagree that nursing is nurturing or caring for someone in a motherly fashion.”
Guides the nurse action in the art of nursing and specified four elements of clinical nursing: philosophy, purpose, practice, and art.
Clinical nursing is focused on meeting the patient’s perceived need for help in a vision of nursing that indicates considerable importance on the art of nursing.

See Also: Lydia Hall: Care, Cure, Core Theory

Developed the Care, Cure, Core Theory is also known as the “ Three Cs of Lydia Hall . “
Hall defined Nursing as the “participation in care, core and cure aspects of patient care , where CARE is the sole function of nurses, whereas the CORE and CURE are shared with other members of the health team.”
The major purpose of care is to achieve an interpersonal relationship with the individual to facilitate the development of the core.
The “care” circle defines a professional nurse’s primary role, such as providing bodily care for the patient. The “core” is the patient receiving nursing care. The “cure” is the aspect of nursing that involves the administration of medications and treatments.
States in her Human-to-Human Relationship Model that the purpose of nursing was to help and support an individual, family, or community to prevent or cope with the struggles of illness and suffering and, if necessary, to find significance in these occurrences, with the ultimate goal being the presence of hope.
Nursing was accomplished through human-to-human relationships.
Extended the interpersonal relationship theories of Peplau and Orlando.
Developed the Child Health Assessment Model .
Concerns improving the health of infants and their families.
Her findings on parent-child interaction as an important predictor of cognitive development helped shape public policy.
She is the founder of the Nursing Child Assessment Satellite Training Project (NCAST), which produces and develops research-based products, assessment , and training programs to teach professionals, parents, and other caregivers the skills to provide nurturing environments for young children.
Borrows from psychology and human development and focuses on mother-infant interaction with the environment.
Contributed a close link to practice that has modified the way health care providers assess children in light of the parent-child relationship.
Focuses on the development of models and theories on the concept of nursing.
Includes the profession’s goal, the beneficiary of the professional service, the role of the professional, the source of the beneficiary’s difficulty, the intervention of the professional, and the consequences.
A good example of using a unique basis of nursing for further expansion.
A Model for Nursing Based on a Model of Living
Logan produced a simple theory, “which actually helped bedside nurses.”
The trio collaborated in the fourth edition of The Elements of Nursing: A Model for Nursing Based on a Model of Living and prepared a monograph entitled The Roper-Logan-Tierney Model of Nursing: Based on Activities of Daily Living.
Includes maintaining a safe environment, communicating, breathing, eating and drinking, eliminating, personal cleansing and dressing , controlling body temperature, mobilizing, working and playing, expressing sexuality, sleeping , and dying .

See Also: Ida Jean Orlando: Nursing Process Theory

She developed the Nursing Process Theory.
“Patients have their own meanings and interpretations of situations, and therefore nurses must validate their inferences and analyses with patients before drawing conclusions.”
Allows nurses to formulate an effective nursing care plan that can also be easily adapted when and if any complexity comes up with the patient.
According to her, persons become patients requiring nursing care when they have needs for help that cannot be met independently because of their physical limitations, negative reactions to an environment, or experience that prevents them from communicating their needs.
The role of the nurse is to find out and meet the patient’s immediate needs for help.

See Also: Jean Watson: Theory of Human Caring

She pioneered the Philosophy and Theory of Transpersonal Caring .
“Nursing is concerned with promoting health, preventing illness, caring for the sick, and restoring health.”
Mainly concerns with how nurses care for their patients and how that caring progresses into better plans to promote health and wellness, prevent illness and restore health.
Focuses on health promotion , as well as the treatment of diseases.
Caring is central to nursing practice and promotes health better than a simple medical cure.

Marilyn Anne Ray

Developed the Theory of Bureaucratic Caring
“Improved patient safety , infection control, reduction in medication errors , and overall quality of care in complex bureaucratic health care systems cannot occur without knowledge and understanding of complex organizations, such as the political and economic systems, and spiritual-ethical caring, compassion and right action for all patients and professionals.”
Challenges participants in nursing to think beyond their usual frame of reference and envision the world holistically while considering the universe as a hologram.
Presents a different view of how health care organizations and nursing phenomena interrelate as wholes and parts in the system.
Caring, Clinical Wisdom, and Ethics in Nursing Practice
“The nurse-patient relationship is not a uniform, professionalized blueprint but rather a kaleidoscope of intimacy and distance in some of the most dramatic, poignant, and mundane moments of life.”
Attempts to assert and reestablish nurses’ caring practices when nurses are rewarded more for efficiency, technical skills, and measurable outcomes.
States that caring practices are instilled with knowledge and skill regarding everyday human needs.
Philosophy of Caring
“Nursing is founded on caring for life, on neighborly love, […]At the same time, the nurse must be professionally educated.”
Human beings are created and are beings for whom we may have administrative responsibility.
Caring, solidarity, and moral practice are unavoidable realities.
Theory of Carative Caring
“Caritative nursing means that we take ‘caritas’ into use when caring for the human being in health and suffering […] Caritative caring is a manifestation of the love that ‘just exists’ […] Caring communion, true caring, occurs when the one caring in a spirit of caritas alleviates the suffering of the patient.”
The ultimate goal of caring is to lighten suffering and serve life and health.
Inspired many in the Nordic countries and used it as the basis of research, education, and clinical practice.

See Also: Myra Estrin Levine: Conservation Model for Nursing

According to the Conservation Model , “Nursing is human interaction.”
Provides a framework within which to teach beginning nursing students.
Logically congruent, externally and internally consistent, has breadth and depth, and is understood, with few exceptions, by professionals and consumers of health care.

See Also: Martha Rogers: Theory of Unitary Human Beings

In Roger’s Theory of Human Beings , she defined Nursing as “an art and science that is humanistic and humanitarian.
The Science of Unitary Human Beings contains two dimensions: the science of nursing, which is the knowledge specific to the field of nursing that comes from scientific research; and the art of nursing, which involves using nursing creatively to help better the lives of the patient.
A patient can’t be separated from his or her environment when addressing health and treatment.

See Also: Dorothea E. Orem: Self-Care Theory

In her Self-Care Theory , she defined Nursing as “The act of assisting others in the provision and management of self-care to maintain or improve human functioning at the home level of effectiveness.”
Focuses on each individual’s ability to perform self-care .
Composed of three interrelated theories: (1) the theory of self-care , (2) the self-care deficit theory, and (3) the theory of nursing systems, which is further classified into wholly compensatory, partially compensatory, and supportive-educative.

See Also: Imogene M. King: Theory of Goal Attainment

Conceptual System and Middle-Range Theory of Goal Attainment
“Nursing is a process of action, reaction and interaction by which nurse and client share information about their perception in a nursing situation” and “a process of human interactions between nurse and client whereby each perceives the other and the situation, and through communication , they set goals, explore means, and agree on means to achieve goals.”
Focuses on this process to guide and direct nurses in the nurse-patient relationship, going hand-in-hand with their patients to meet good health goals.
Explains that the nurse and patient go hand-in-hand in communicating information, set goals together, and then take actions to achieve those goals.

See Also: Betty Neuman: Neuman’s Systems Model

In Neuman’s System Model , she defined nursing as a “unique profession in that is concerned with all of the variables affecting an individual’s response to stress.”
The focus is on the client as a system (which may be an individual, family, group, or community) and on the client’s responses to stressors.
The client system includes five variables (physiological, psychological, sociocultural, developmental, and spiritual). It is conceptualized as an inner core (basic energy resources) surrounded by concentric circles that include lines of resistance, a normal defense line, and a flexible line of defense.

See Also: Sister Callista Roy: Adaptation Model of Nursing

In Adaptation Model , Roy defined nursing as a “health care profession that focuses on human life processes and patterns and emphasizes the promotion of health for individuals, families, groups, and society as a whole.”
Views the individual as a set of interrelated systems that strives to maintain a balance between various stimuli.
Inspired the development of many middle-range nursing theories and adaptation instruments.

See Also: Dorothy E. Johnson: Behavioral Systems Model

The Behavioral System Model defined Nursing as “an external regulatory force that acts to preserve the organization and integrate the patients’ behaviors at an optimum level under those conditions in which the behavior constitutes a threat to the physical or social health or in which illness is found.”
Advocates to foster efficient and effective behavioral functioning in the patient to prevent illness and stresses the importance of research-based knowledge about the effect of nursing care on patients.
Describes the person as a behavioral system with seven subsystems: the achievement, attachment-affiliative, aggressive-protective, dependency, ingestive, eliminative, and sexual subsystems.
The Theory of Nursing as Caring: A Model for Transforming Practice
Nursing is an “exquisitely interwoven” unity of aspects of the discipline and profession of nursing.
Nursing’s focus and aim as a discipline of knowledge and a professional service are “nurturing persons living to care and growing in caring.”
Caring in nursing is “an altruistic, active expression of love, and is the intentional and embodied recognition of value and connectedness.”
Transitions Theory
It began with observations of experiences faced as people deal with changes related to health, well-being, and the ability to care for themselves.
Types of transitions include developmental, health and illness, situational, and organizational.
Acknowledges the role of nurses as they help people go through health/illness and life transitions.
Focuses on assisting nurses in facilitating patients’, families’, and communities’ healthy transitions.

See Also: Nola Pender: Health Promotion Model

Health Promotion Model
Describes the interaction between the nurse and the consumer while considering the role of the health promotion environment.
It focuses on three areas: individual characteristics and experiences, behavior-specific cognitions and affect, and behavioral outcomes.
Describes the multidimensional nature of persons as they interact within their environment to pursue health.

See Also: Madeleine M. Leininger: Transcultural Nursing Theory

Culture Care Theory of Diversity and Universality
Defined transcultural nursing as “a substantive area of study and practice focused on comparative cultural care (caring) values, beliefs, and practices of individuals or groups of similar or different cultures to provide culture-specific and universal nursing care practices in promoting health or well-being or to help people to face unfavorable human conditions, illness, or death in culturally meaningful ways.”
Involves learning and understanding various cultures regarding nursing and health-illness caring practices, beliefs, and values to implement significant and efficient nursing care services to people according to their cultural values and health-illness context.
It focuses on the fact that various cultures have different and unique caring behaviors and different health and illness values, beliefs, and patterns of behaviors.
Health as Expanding Consciousness
“Nursing is the process of recognizing the patient in relation to the environment, and it is the process of the understanding of consciousness.”
“The theory of health as expanding consciousness was stimulated by concern for those for whom health as the absence of disease or disability is not possible . . . “
Nursing is regarded as a connection between the nurse and patient, and both grow in the sense of higher levels of consciousness.
Human Becoming Theory
“Nursing is a science, and the performing art of nursing is practiced in relationships with persons (individuals, groups, and communities) in their processes of becoming.”
Explains that a person is more than the sum of the parts, the environment, and the person is inseparable and that nursing is a human science and art that uses an abstract body of knowledge to help people.
It centered around three themes: meaning, rhythmicity, and transcendence.
Modeling and Role-Modeling
“Nursing is the holistic helping of persons with their self-care activities in relation to their health . . . The goal is to achieve a state of perceived optimum health and contentment.”
Modeling is a process that allows nurses to understand the unique perspective of a client and learn to appreciate its importance.
Role-modeling occurs when the nurse plans and implements interventions that are unique for the client.
Created the Symphonological Bioethical Theory
“Symphonology (from ‘ symphonia ,’ a Greek word meaning agreement) is a system of ethics based on the terms and preconditions of an agreement.”
Nursing cannot occur without both nurse and patient. “A nurse takes no actions that are not interactions.”
Founded on the singular concept of human rights, the essential agreement of non-aggression among rational people forms the foundation of all human interaction.
Maternal Role Attainment—Becoming a Mother
“Nursing is a dynamic profession with three major foci: health promotion and prevention of illness, providing care for those who need professional assistance to achieve their optimal level of health and functioning, and research to enhance the knowledge base for providing excellent nursing care.”
“Nurses are the health professionals having the most sustained and intense interaction with women in the maternity cycle.”
Maternal role attainment is an interactional and developmental process occurring over time. The mother becomes attached to her infant, acquires competence in the caretaking tasks involved in the role, and expresses pleasure and gratification. (Mercer, 1986).
Provides proper health care interventions for nontraditional mothers for them to favorably adopt a strong maternal identity.
Uncertainty in Illness Theory
Presents a comprehensive structure to view the experience of acute and chronic illness and organize nursing interventions to promote optimal adjustment.
Describes how individuals form meaning from illness-related situations.
The original theory’s concepts were organized in a linear model around the following three major themes: Antecedents of uncertainty, Process of uncertainty appraisal, and Coping with uncertainty.
Self-Transcendence Theory
Self-transcendence refers to the fluctuation of perceived boundaries that extend the person (or self) beyond the immediate and constricted views of self and the world (Reed, 1997).
Has three basic concepts: vulnerability, self-transcendence, and well-being.
Gives insight into the developmental nature of humans associated with health circumstances connected to nursing care.
Theory of Illness Trajectory
“The uncertainty surrounding a chronic illness like cancer is the uncertainty of life writ large. By listening to those who are tolerating this exaggerated uncertainty, we can learn much about the trajectory of living.”
Provides a framework for nurses to understand how cancer patients stand uncertainty manifested as a loss of control.
Provides new knowledge on how patients and families endure uncertainty and work strategically to reduce uncertainty through a dynamic flow of illness events, treatment situations, and varied players involved in care organization.
Theory of Chronic Sorrow
“Chronic sorrow is the presence of pervasive grief -related feelings that have been found to occur periodically throughout the lives of individuals with chronic health conditions, their family caregivers and the bereaved.”
This middle-range theory defines the aspect of chronic sorrow as a normal response to the ongoing disparity created by the loss.
Barker’s Tidal Model of Mental Health Recovery is widely used in mental health nursing.
It focuses on nursing’s fundamental care processes, is universally applicable, and is a practical guide for psychiatry and mental health nursing.
Draws on values about relating to people and help others in their moments of distress. The values of the Tidal Model are revealed in the Ten Commitments: Value the voice, Respect the language, Develop genuine curiosity, Become the apprentice, Use the available toolkit, Craft the step beyond, Give the gift of time, Reveal personal wisdom, Know that change is constant, and Be transparent.
Theory of Comfort
“Comfort is an antidote to the stressors inherent in health care situations today, and when comfort is enhanced, patients and families are strengthened for the tasks ahead. Also, nurses feel more satisfied with the care they are giving.”
Patient comfort exists in three forms: relief, ease, and transcendence. These comforts can occur in four contexts: physical, psychospiritual, environmental, and sociocultural.
As a patient’s comfort needs change, the nurse’s interventions change, as well.
Postpartum Depression Theory
“The birth of a baby is an occasion for joy—or so the saying goes […] But for some women, joy is not an option.”
Described nursing as a caring profession with caring obligations to persons we care for, students, and each other.
Provides evidence to understand and prevent postpartum depression .
Theory of Caring
“Caring is a nurturing way of relating to a valued other toward whom one feels a personal sense of commitment and responsibility.”
Defines nursing as informed caring for the well-being of others.
Offers a structure for improving up-to-date nursing practice, education, and research while bringing the discipline to its traditional values and caring-healing roots.
Peaceful End-of-Life Theory
The focus was not on death itself but on providing a peaceful and meaningful living in the time that remained for patients and their significant others.
The purpose was to reflect the complexity involved in caring for terminally ill patients.
Also known as Wanda Horta, she introduced the concepts of nursing that are accepted in Brazil.
Wrote the book Nursing Process which presents relevance to the various fields of Nursing practice for providing a holistic view of the patient.
Her work was recognized in all the teaching institutions called the Theory of Basic Human Needs . It is based on Maslow’s Theory of Human Motivation, whose primary concept is the hierarchy of Basic Human Needs (BHN).
Horta’s Theory of Basic Human Needs is considered the highest point of her work, and the summary of all her research concludes sickness as a science and art of assisting a human being in meeting basic human needs, making the patient independent of this assistance through education in recovery, maintenance, and health promotion .
Classified basic human needs into three main dimensions – psychobiological, psychosocial and psychospiritual – and establishes a relationship between the concepts of human being, environment, and nursing.
The theory describes nursing as an element of a healthcare team and states that it can function efficiently through a scientific method. Horta referred this method as the nursing process .
She defined the nursing process as the dynamics of systematic and interrelated actions to assist human beings. It is characterized by six phases: nursing history, nursing diagnosis , assistance plan, care plan or nursing prescription, evolution, and prognosis.

Recommended books and resources to learn more about nursing theory:

Disclosure: Included below are affiliate links from Amazon at no additional cost from you. We may earn a small commission from your purchase. For more information, check out our privacy policy .

Nursing Theorists and Their Work (10th Edition) by Alligood Nursing Theorists and Their Work, 10th Edition provides a clear, in-depth look at nursing theories of historical and international significance. Each chapter presents a key nursing theory or philosophy, showing how systematic theoretical evidence can enhance decision making, professionalism, and quality of care.
Knowledge Development in Nursing: Theory and Process (11th Edition) Use the five patterns of knowing to help you develop sound clinical judgment. This edition reflects the latest thinking in nursing knowledge development and adds emphasis to real-world application. The content in this edition aligns with the new 2021 AACN Essentials for Nursing Education.
Nursing Knowledge and Theory Innovation, Second Edition: Advancing the Science of Practice (2nd Edition) This text for graduate-level nursing students focuses on the science and philosophy of nursing knowledge development. It is distinguished by its focus on practical applications of theory for scholarly, evidence-based approaches. The second edition features important updates and a reorganization of information to better highlight the roles of theory and major philosophical perspectives.
Nursing Theories and Nursing Practice (5th Edition) The only nursing research and theory book with primary works by the original theorists. Explore the historical and contemporary theories that are the foundation of nursing practice today. The 5th Edition, continues to meet the needs of today’s students with an expanded focus on the middle range theories and practice models.
Strategies for Theory Construction in Nursing (6th Edition) The clearest, most useful introduction to theory development methods. Reflecting vast changes in nursing practice, it covers advances both in theory development and in strategies for concept, statement, and theory development. It also builds further connections between nursing theory and evidence-based practice.
Middle Range Theory for Nursing (4th Edition) This nursing book’s ability to break down complex ideas is part of what made this book a three-time recipient of the AJN Book of the Year award. This edition includes five completely new chapters of content essential for nursing books. New exemplars linking middle range theory to advanced nursing practice make it even more useful and expand the content to make it better.
Nursing Research: Methods and Critical Appraisal for Evidence-Based Practice This book offers balanced coverage of both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. This edition features new content on trending topics, including the Next-Generation NCLEX® Exam (NGN).
Nursing Research (11th Edition) AJN award-winning authors Denise Polit and Cheryl Beck detail the latest methodologic innovations in nursing, medicine, and the social sciences. The updated 11th Edition adds two new chapters designed to help students ensure the accuracy and effectiveness of research methods. Extensively revised content throughout strengthens students’ ability to locate and rank clinical evidence.

Recommended site resources related to nursing theory:

Nursing Theories and Theorists: The Definitive Guide for Nurses MUST READ! In this guide for nursing theories, we aim to help you understand what comprises a nursing theory and its importance, purpose, history, types or classifications, and give you an overview through summaries of selected nursing theories.

Other resources related to nursing theory:

Betty Neuman: Neuman Systems Model
Dorothea Orem: Self-Care Deficit Theory
Dorothy Johnson: Behavioral System Model
Faye Abdellah: 21 Nursing Problems Theory
Florence Nightingale: Environmental Theory
Hildegard Peplau: Interpersonal Relations Theory
Ida Jean Orlando: Deliberative Nursing Process Theory
Imogene King: Theory of Goal Attainment
Jean Watson: Theory of Human Caring
Lydia Hall: Care, Cure, Core Nursing Theory
Madeleine Leininger: Transcultural Nursing Theory
Martha Rogers: Science of Unitary Human Beings
Myra Estrin Levine: The Conservation Model of Nursing
Nola Pender: Health Promotion Model
Sister Callista Roy: Adaptation Model of Nursing
Virginia Henderson: Nursing Need Theory

Suggested readings and resources for this study guide :

Alligood, M., & Tomey, A. (2010). Nursing theorists and their work, seventh edition (No ed.). Maryland Heights: Mosby-Elsevier.
Alligood, M. R. (2017). Nursing Theorists and Their Work-E-Book . Elsevier Health Sciences.
Barnard, K. E. (1984). Nursing research related to infants and young children. In Annual review of nursing research (pp. 3-25). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Brown, H. I. (1979). Perception, theory, and commitment: The new philosophy of science . University of Chicago Press. [ Link ]
Brown M (1964) Research in the development of nursing theory: the importance of a theoretical framework in nursing research. Nursing Research.
Camacho, A. C. L. F., & Joaquim, F. L. (2017). Reflections based on Wanda Horta on the basic instruments of nursing. Rev Enferm UFPE [Internet], 11(12), 5432-8.
Chinn, P. L., & Jacobs, M. K. (1978). A model for theory development in nursing. Advances in Nursing Science , 1 (1), 1-12. [ Link ]
Colley, S. (2003). Nursing theory: its importance to practice. Nursing Standard (through 2013), 17(46), 33. [ Link ]
Fawcett, J. (2005). Criteria for evaluation of theory. Nursing science quarterly, 18(2), 131-135. [ Link ]
Fitzpatrick, J. J., & Whall, A. L. (Eds.). (1996). Conceptual models of nursing: Analysis and application . Connecticut, Norwalk: Appleton & Lange.
Kaplan, A. (2017). The conduct of inquiry: Methodology for behavioural science . Routledge. [ Link ]
Meleis, A. I. (2011). Theoretical nursing: Development and progress . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Neuman, B. M., & Fawcett, J. (2002). The Neuman systems model .
Nightingale F (1860) Notes on Nursing. New York NY, Appleton.
Perão, O. F., Zandonadi, G. C., Rodríguez, A. H., Fontes, M. S., Nascimento, E. L. P., & Santos, E. K. A. (2017). Patient safety in an intensive care unit according to Wanda Horta’s theory. Cogitare Enfermagem, 22(3), e45657.
Peplau H (1988) The art and science of nursing: similarities, differences, and relations. Nursing Science Quarterly
Rogers M (1970) An Introduction to the Theoretical Basis of Nursing. Philadelphia PA, FA Davis.

52 thoughts on “Nursing Theories and Theorists: The Definitive Guide for Nurses”

Great work indeed

Amazing and simple post I have ever come across about nursing theories.

Thank you for the simplicity

where do i find the reference page in apa format?

The reference listed below the article is in APA format.

i love this. insightful. Comprehensive ,Well researched .

Thank you for these theories they are a life saver and simplified. My school require us to write about 2 nursing theorist from memory for a Comprehensive exam in which if you do not pass it you are required to wait for a year to retake the exam.

Merci beaucoup, puisque je suis très satisfait.

I’m pleased to congratulate you about your work! I really appreciate it! From: Cameroon

An entire’s semester worth of a nursing theory class, expertly and succinctly summarized in one paper. I wish my instructor were as easy to understand. Good work.

I thought this was in a chronological order based on their published works date? Then why Orlando’s theory comes at the later part? Can someone englighten me please because I am making a timeline for our project.

Great job. Very clear and succinct.

I like it. Well explained!

easy to understand and very helpful

thankyou very much.

The article was beneficial to me to understand nursing theories

This is amazing and I love it so enriching!

Thanks for the article may God bless you more Plus More Power and Protection

Thanks so much

Please can someone help me with a nursing theory related to “teamwork” please

Thank you so much !

I loved the text and saw that the nursing theorist Wanda Aguiar Horta, a Brazilian nurse and great theorist regarding basic human needs, was not included.

I suggest reviewing and including it to be more complete.

If you need, I can help with inclusion!

Best Regards

Hi João Carlos, we’d love to hear about her work. Please send us the details via our contact page: https://nurseslabs.com/contact/

Excellent study guide! Detailed, Informative and Valued! Thank you!

hi can someone help me which theorist can relate in Ear, Nose, Throat nursing care.

Wonderful contribution of shared knowledge- now how do we get the word out for nurses that are not able to afford a BSN?

Thanks for the work. It’s very helpful

This has helped me understand theories a bit better, however, there is one that is eluding me. Where does the normative theory fit in?

very educative.I have understood theories more than before.Thanks

hard work. great work in deed

I love reading your material, plain concise and easy

Very informative, more knowledgeable about the theorist

Thank you for your information. This material is great and when I have looked for material for nursing theory. I got is material with complete

A big hand of applause 👏🏿 This is a treasure for nurses of the world. Thank you so much

Hi G. ALex,

Wow, thanks for the awesome feedback! 😊 Super glad you found it to be a treasure. Just curious, was there a particular section that stood out to you or something you’d love to see more of? Always keen to hear what resonates with fellow nurses!

This is really hard work put together in a very easy to understand way.Thank you so much.It came handy

Hi Sigala, Thanks a ton for noticing the effort! 😊 Super happy to hear it came in handy for you. If you ever have suggestions or topics you’d like to see, give me a shout. Cheers to making things understandable!

Absolutely helpful. Thank you.

So glad to hear the nursing theories guide was a hit for you! 😊 If you have any other topics or questions in mind, just give a shout. Always here to help. Keep rocking your studies! Thanks Ishe!

Am happy, to read these theories, very educating. Am going to make use of it when caring for my patients. GREAT NURSES GREAT! I LOVE YOU ALL.

Hi Eboh, I’m thrilled to hear you’re excited about applying these nursing theories in practice! They can really enhance the care we provide. It’s all about putting that knowledge to good use. By the way, which theory resonated with you the most, or which do you see being most applicable in your day-to-day patient care?

How do I relate one of the theories to effective management of intravenous lines? Which theory and how to relate to the above?

Hi wanted to ask you who wrote this page who is the autor because i need to write them on footnotes and i can’t find autor of the page,neither the year it was published. Thank you. Btw this article was really helpful i never understood nursing theories this good.

Hey there Innaya, I’m glad to hear the article on nursing theories was so helpful to you! Here’s how you can cite it in APA format:

Vera, M. (2019, September 11). Nursing Theories and Theorists: The Definitive Guide for Nurses Nurseslabs. https://nurseslabs.com/nursing-theories/

If you need any more help with citations or have other questions, feel free to ask. Happy to assist!

Please is there an app I could download all these from?

Hi Felicia, Thanks for your interest! As of now, we don’t have a dedicated app for downloading our content. However, our website is mobile-friendly, so you can easily access all our resources from your smartphone or tablet browser.

wonderful insights, and very precise and easy to understand, I even got to know and learn about other new theorists of Nursing I didn’t know before.

Thank you so much for this wonderful work.

Its so amazing and very helpful. Please how can I cite any of these theory using Vancouver?

thanls for good informatiom need to explain example

Great!. Useful information to the lecturers, and educators toward delivery info to our young generation nursing.

So detailed 👌🏽 I love it

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What Is Nursing Theory?

3 min read • July, 05 2023

Nursing theories provide a foundation for clinical decision-making. These theoretical models in nursing shape nursing research and create conceptual blueprints, ultimately determining the how and why that drive nurse-patient interactions.

Nurse researchers and scholars naturally develop these theories with the input and influence of other professionals in the field.

Why Is Nursing Theory Important?

Nursing theory concepts are essential to the present and future of the profession. The first nursing theory — Florence Nightingale's Environmental Theory — dates back to the 19th century. Nightingale identified a clear link between a patient's environment (such as clean water, sunlight, and fresh air) and their ability to recover. Her discoveries remain relevant for today's practitioners. As health care continues to develop, new types of nursing theories may evolve to reflect new medicines and technologies.

Education and training showcase the importance of nursing theory. Nurse researchers and scholars share established ideas to ensure industry-wide best practices and patient outcomes, and nurse educators shape their curricula based on this research. When nurses learn these theories, they gain the data to explain the reasoning behind their clinical decision-making. Nurses position themselves to provide the best care by familiarizing themselves with time-tested theories. Recognizing their place in the history of nursing provides a validating sense of belonging within the greater health care system. That helps patients and other health care providers better understand and appreciate nurses’ contributions.

Types of Nursing Theories

Nursing theories fall under three tiers: grand nursing, middle-range, and practical-level theories . Inherent to each is the nursing metaparadigm , which focuses on four components:

The person (sometimes referred to as the patient or client)
Their environment (physical and emotional)
Their health while receiving treatment
The nurse's approach and attributes

Each of these four elements factors into a specific nursing theory.

Grand Nursing Theories

Grand theories are the broadest of the three theory classifications. They offer wide-ranging perspectives focused on abstract concepts, often stemming from a nurse theorist’s lived experiences or nursing philosophies. Grand nursing theories help to guide research in the field, with studies aiming to explore proposed ideas further.

Hildegard Peplau's Theory of Interpersonal Relations is an excellent example of a grand nursing theory. The theory suggests that for a nurse-patient relationship to be successful, it must go through three phases: orientation, working, and termination. This grand theory is broad in scope and widely applicable to different environments.

Middle-Range Nursing Theories

As the name suggests, middle-range theories lie somewhere between the sweeping scope of grand nursing and a minute focus on practice-level theories. These theories are often phenomena-driven, attempting to explain or predict certain trends in clinical practice. They’re also testable or verifiable through research.

Nurse researchers have applied the concept of Dorothea E. Orem's Self-Care Deficit Theory to patients dealing with various conditions, ranging from hepatitis to diabetes. This grand theory suggests that patients recover most effectively if they actively and autonomously perform self-care.

Practice-Level Nursing Theories

Practice-level theories are more specific to a patient’s needs or goals. These theories guide the treatment of health conditions and situations requiring nursing intervention. Because they’re so specific, these types of nursing theories directly impact daily practices more than other theory classifications. From patient education to practicing active compassion, bedside nurses use these theories in their everyday responsibilities.

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Nursing Theory in Practice

Theory and practice inform each other. Nursing theories determine research that shapes policies and procedures. Nurses constantly apply theories to patient interactions, consciously or due to training. For example, a nurse who aims to provide culturally competent care — through a commitment to ongoing education and open-mindedness — puts Madeleine Leininger's Transcultural Nursing Theory into effect. Because nursing is multifaceted, nurses can draw from multiple theories to ensure the best course of action for a patient.

Applying theory in nursing practice develops nursing knowledge and supports evidence-based practice. A nursing theoretical framework is essential to understand decision-making processes and to promote quality patient care.

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Evolution of Theoretical Frameworks in Nursing Research Paper

Sample Evolution of Theoretical Frameworks in Nursing Research Paper. Browse other research paper examples and check the list of nursing research paper topics for more inspiration. iResearchNet offers academic assignment help for students all over the world: writing from scratch, editing, proofreading, problem solving, from essays to dissertations, from humanities to STEM. We offer full confidentiality, safe payment, originality, and money-back guarantee. Secure your academic success with our risk-free services.

This research paper explores the dynamic evolution of theoretical frameworks in nursing, tracing their historical development from seminal theories such as Florence Nightingale’s Environmental Theory to contemporary models like Parse’s Human Becoming Theory. The paper provides a comprehensive analysis of key nursing theories, examining their foundational principles, contributions, and impacts on nursing practice. Delving into the mid-20th century to the present, the study investigates emerging theoretical frameworks, including those proposed by Sister Callista Roy, Betty Neuman, and Madeleine Leininger. Furthermore, the research critically examines the critiques and challenges facing nursing theories, exploring limitations, controversies, and difficulties in application. The comparative analysis of selected nursing theories highlights commonalities, differences, and their relevance in modern healthcare settings. The paper concludes by exploring contemporary trends, interdisciplinary approaches, and future directions in nursing theoretical development, emphasizing the need for ongoing research and innovation in this crucial aspect of nursing scholarship.

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Nursing theory, as a conceptual foundation for the profession, has undergone a remarkable evolution over the decades. Rooted in the historical context of nursing pioneers like Florence Nightingale, whose Environmental Theory laid the groundwork for understanding the impact of the environment on health, these early frameworks paved the way for subsequent theoretical developments. As the field progressed, theorists such as Hildegard Peplau, Virginia Henderson, and Imogene King contributed significantly, introducing interpersonal relations, basic human needs, and goal attainment as central tenets, respectively. These foundational theories not only shaped nursing practice but also influenced education, research, and policy formulation within the healthcare landscape.

The significance of theoretical frameworks in nursing cannot be overstated. These frameworks provide a structured lens through which nurses comprehend, analyze, and address the complex and multifaceted nature of patient care. Nursing theories offer a systematic approach to understanding the various dimensions of healthcare, guiding clinical decision-making, and fostering a holistic understanding of patient needs. Additionally, they contribute to the professional identity of nurses, helping to articulate the unique role they play within the healthcare system. By providing a theoretical foundation, nursing frameworks empower practitioners to navigate the intricate challenges of healthcare delivery, promoting evidence-based and patient-centered care.

This research paper aims to comprehensively explore the evolution of theoretical frameworks in nursing, offering an in-depth examination of historical milestones and contemporary developments. By synthesizing existing literature, the paper seeks to provide a nuanced understanding of how nursing theories have shaped and continue to shape the profession. Through critical analysis, the paper will address the limitations and challenges inherent in these theoretical frameworks, as well as their practical applications in diverse healthcare settings. Moreover, the research will explore emerging trends and future directions, fostering a dialogue on the evolving nature of nursing theory in response to the dynamic healthcare landscape.

To guide this exploration, the research paper poses several key questions: How have historical nursing theories influenced contemporary frameworks? What are the commonalities and differences among selected nursing theories, and how do they impact current nursing practice? What critiques and challenges do nursing theories face in application, and how have these been addressed over time? Additionally, the research will investigate the role of nursing theories in education and their implications for interdisciplinary collaboration. These questions aim to provide a structured and comprehensive analysis of the evolution, impact, and future trajectory of theoretical frameworks in nursing.

Historical Overview of Nursing Theories

Florence nightingale’s environmental theory.

Florence Nightingale, often regarded as the pioneer of modern nursing, introduced the Environmental Theory in the mid-19th century. Grounded in her experiences during the Crimean War, Nightingale emphasized the profound impact of the environment on health outcomes. Central to her theory was the notion that a clean, well-ventilated, and aesthetically pleasing environment significantly contributed to patient recovery. Nightingale’s approach went beyond the physical environment, encompassing social and psychological factors, highlighting the importance of holistic care.

Nightingale’s Environmental Theory laid the groundwork for the broader understanding of the nursing profession. By emphasizing the role of the environment in health, she not only transformed healthcare practices during her time but also set the stage for future theorists. Her focus on sanitation and hygiene remains relevant in contemporary nursing, influencing infection control measures and the design of healthcare facilities.

Hildegard Peplau’s Interpersonal Relations Theory

Hildegard Peplau, a nursing theorist of the mid-20th century, introduced the Interpersonal Relations Theory, emphasizing the significance of nurse-patient relationships. Peplau conceptualized nursing as an interpersonal process with phases such as orientation, identification, and resolution. Her theory emphasized the nurse’s role in facilitating the patient’s understanding of their healthcare needs and promoting active participation in care decisions.

Peplau’s theory revolutionized the perception of nursing as a dynamic and interpersonal profession. Her emphasis on communication and therapeutic relationships has become integral to contemporary nursing practice, influencing patient-centered care models and the development of communication skills in nursing education.

Virginia Henderson’s Need Theory

Virginia Henderson, a 20th-century nursing theorist, developed the Need Theory, focusing on the fundamental needs of individuals to achieve health and independence. Henderson’s model delineated 14 basic human needs, ranging from physiological to psychosocial, with the nurse’s role being to assist the individual in meeting these needs.

Henderson’s Need Theory has had a profound impact on nursing education and practice. By identifying specific needs, her model provides a structured approach to holistic patient care, influencing care plans and nursing assessments. Henderson’s work laid the foundation for subsequent nursing theories that expanded on the concept of holistic care.

Imogene King’s Goal Attainment Theory

Imogene King, a mid-20th-century nursing theorist, introduced the Goal Attainment Theory, focusing on the dynamic interactions between nurses and patients. Central to her model is the concept of goal-setting and the collaborative process between the nurse and the patient to achieve optimal health outcomes.

King’s Goal Attainment Theory has significantly influenced nursing practice, particularly in the realm of patient-centered care planning and interdisciplinary collaboration. By emphasizing mutual goal-setting, King’s model promotes patient empowerment and active participation in their healthcare journey.

Mid-20th Century to Present: Emerging Theoretical Frameworks

Sister callista roy’s adaptation model.

Sister Callista Roy introduced the Adaptation Model in the 1970s, offering a unique perspective on the individual’s response to environmental stimuli. Central to Roy’s model is the concept of adaptation, where individuals strive to maintain balance by adapting to internal and external challenges. The model delineates four adaptive modes—physiological, self-concept, role function, and interdependence—illustrating the dynamic nature of human adaptation.

Roy’s Adaptation Model has made significant contributions to nursing practice, education, and research. By emphasizing the interconnectedness of the individual and their environment, the model provides a framework for holistic care planning. Roy’s work has influenced the development of nursing assessment tools and interventions that prioritize individualized and adaptive care strategies.

Betty Neuman’s Systems Model

Betty Neuman’s Systems Model, introduced in the 1970s, conceptualizes individuals as open systems interacting with their environment. Neuman’s model identifies stressors that can disrupt the stability of the system and lead to illness. The model comprises several concentric circles representing different levels of influence, including the individual, family, community, and global factors, illustrating the interconnectedness of these elements.

Neuman’s Systems Model has had a profound impact on nursing practice, particularly in the fields of community health and holistic care. By emphasizing the prevention of illness through the identification and management of stressors, Neuman’s model has informed health promotion initiatives and the development of comprehensive nursing care plans.

Madeleine Leininger’s Cultural Care Theory

Madeleine Leininger’s Cultural Care Theory, developed in the 1950s, centers on the importance of cultural competence in nursing care. Leininger posited that understanding and integrating cultural beliefs and practices into nursing care is essential for promoting health and well-being. The model emphasizes the provision of culturally congruent care to enhance the patient’s overall health outcomes.

Leininger’s Cultural Care Theory has significantly influenced transcultural nursing, fostering an awareness of the impact of cultural factors on health. Her work has informed cultural competency training for healthcare professionals, influencing nursing curricula and contributing to the development of policies that promote culturally sensitive care.

Parse’s Human Becoming Theory

Rosemarie Rizzo Parse’s Human Becoming Theory, introduced in the 1980s, diverges from traditional nursing theories by focusing on the individual’s experience of becoming rather than the process of being. Parse’s model emphasizes the dynamic nature of human experience and the importance of understanding each person’s unique journey toward self-discovery and actualization.

Parse’s Human Becoming Theory has contributed to the exploration of the subjective and existential dimensions of nursing practice. By highlighting the individual’s perspective on health and well-being, Parse’s work has influenced the development of patient-centered care models, encouraging nurses to engage with patients in a manner that respects and values their personal experiences.

Critiques and Challenges in Nursing Theoretical Development

Limitations of existing theories.

Nursing theories, despite their significant contributions, are not without limitations. One recurrent criticism lies in the overarching tendency of some theories to be too broad, making them challenging to apply universally. For instance, grand theories like those proposed by Nightingale or Peplau may lack specificity, making it difficult for practitioners to translate theoretical concepts into practical, patient-centered interventions. Additionally, the static nature of some early theories contrasts with the dynamic and evolving nature of contemporary healthcare, raising questions about their relevance in the face of rapidly advancing medical technologies and shifting patient demographics.

Criticisms and Controversies

Nursing theories have faced criticism and controversy, both within and outside the profession. Some scholars argue that certain theories are overly deterministic, reducing nursing practice to a set of predetermined actions and responses. Critics also contend that some theories lack empirical support, questioning the scientific rigor of certain conceptual frameworks. Controversies arise when theorists themselves have differing interpretations of their own work or when competing theories offer conflicting perspectives on fundamental nursing concepts. These disagreements contribute to a dynamic discourse within the nursing community about the validity and applicability of various theoretical frameworks.

Challenges in Applying Theoretical Frameworks in Practice

The translation of nursing theories into everyday practice encounters several challenges. One notable challenge is the potential disconnect between the theoretical knowledge acquired in academic settings and the practical demands of the clinical environment. Nurses may find it challenging to integrate complex theoretical concepts into their daily routines, leading to a gap between theory and practice. Additionally, the diversity of healthcare settings and patient populations poses a challenge in the application of universal theories. What may be effective in one context may not seamlessly transfer to another, emphasizing the need for flexibility and adaptability in the utilization of nursing theories.

Addressing these critiques and challenges is essential for the continued development and relevance of nursing theories. Scholars and practitioners alike must engage in ongoing dialogue and critical evaluation to refine existing frameworks and create new ones that align with the complexities of modern healthcare delivery. These critiques, controversies, and challenges serve as catalysts for growth, encouraging the nursing community to evolve its theoretical foundations in tandem with advancements in clinical practice and scientific knowledge.

Contemporary Trends in Nursing Theory

Integration of nursing theories in education.

Contemporary nursing education has witnessed a growing emphasis on integrating nursing theories into curricula to provide students with a solid theoretical foundation for practice. Nurse educators recognize the value of introducing students to diverse theoretical frameworks early in their education, fostering critical thinking and a deeper understanding of the complexities within the profession. The integration of nursing theories not only prepares students for the challenges of clinical practice but also encourages a reflective approach, empowering future nurses to adapt and contribute to the ongoing evolution of nursing theory.

Application of Theories in Diverse Healthcare Settings

In contemporary healthcare, the application of nursing theories extends beyond traditional hospital settings. Nurses are increasingly employing theoretical frameworks in diverse environments, including community health, primary care, and outpatient services. For instance, the holistic approach of theorists like Betty Neuman finds application in community health initiatives, where understanding the broader systemic factors influencing health is essential. The adaptability of nursing theories allows practitioners to tailor interventions to the unique needs of various populations, contributing to the provision of patient-centered and culturally competent care.

Interdisciplinary Approaches and Collaborations

Contemporary nursing recognizes the interconnectedness of healthcare disciplines, leading to increased collaboration between nurses and professionals from other fields. Theories such as Imogene King’s Goal Attainment Theory, which emphasizes interdisciplinary communication and collaboration, have gained relevance. Nurses, alongside professionals from medicine, psychology, and social work, are exploring innovative approaches to patient care, drawing from diverse theoretical perspectives. This interdisciplinary collaboration not only enriches the healthcare experience for patients but also contributes to the evolution of nursing theories as they integrate insights from various disciplines.

Contemporary trends underscore the dynamic nature of nursing theories, positioning them as crucial tools for navigating the complexities of modern healthcare. The integration of theories into education, their application across diverse settings, and interdisciplinary collaborations signal a recognition of the need for adaptable, evidence-based frameworks that can guide nursing practice in an ever-evolving healthcare landscape. As nursing continues to respond to emerging challenges, these trends emphasize the ongoing relevance and significance of nursing theories in shaping the future of the profession.

Comparative Analysis of Selected Nursing Theories

Commonalities and differences.

Comparative analysis of selected nursing theories reveals both commonalities and distinctive features that contribute to the rich tapestry of nursing knowledge. For instance, while Florence Nightingale’s Environmental Theory and Betty Neuman’s Systems Model differ in their focus—Nightgale emphasizing the impact of the environment, and Neuman considering the individual as an open system—they share a fundamental concern for the influence of external factors on health. On the other hand, Imogene King’s Goal Attainment Theory and Madeleine Leininger’s Cultural Care Theory, while distinct in their emphasis on goal-setting and cultural competence, respectively, both underscore the importance of individualized and patient-centered care.

Relevance in Modern Healthcare Practices

The relevance of nursing theories in modern healthcare practices is underscored by their ability to adapt to the dynamic nature of healthcare delivery. Sister Callista Roy’s Adaptation Model, with its focus on individuals striving for balance, finds contemporary application in understanding patients’ adaptive responses to complex health challenges. Additionally, theories like Virginia Henderson’s Need Theory, emphasizing fundamental human needs, remain relevant in guiding holistic and patient-centered care practices. The adaptability of these theories highlights their resilience in addressing the evolving needs of diverse patient populations and healthcare settings.

Impact on Patient Care and Outcomes

The impact of nursing theories on patient care and outcomes is evident in the way they shape nursing practice and guide decision-making. For instance, Parse’s Human Becoming Theory, with its emphasis on the subjective experience of individuals, contributes to a more patient-centered approach in care planning. The Goal Attainment Theory by Imogene King has been associated with improved patient engagement and collaboration in goal-setting, contributing to positive healthcare outcomes. These theories, by providing frameworks for understanding patient needs and experiences, play a pivotal role in enhancing the quality of care and influencing patient satisfaction and overall health outcomes.

The comparative analysis of nursing theories not only illuminates the diversity within the field but also highlights the interconnectedness of their fundamental principles. By identifying commonalities and differences, nursing scholars and practitioners can draw from a rich theoretical repertoire to inform their practice. The ongoing impact of these theories on patient care underscores their enduring relevance and significance in shaping the trajectory of nursing as a dynamic and evolving profession.

Future Directions in Nursing Theoretical Development

Emerging trends and innovations.

The future of nursing theoretical development is poised to embrace emerging trends and innovations that reflect the evolving landscape of healthcare. One prominent trend is the integration of complexity science into nursing theories. Scholars are exploring how principles from complexity science, such as nonlinear dynamics and self-organization, can enhance our understanding of the intricacies within healthcare systems. This approach acknowledges the nonlinear relationships between various components, offering a more nuanced perspective on the dynamic nature of patient care and health outcomes.

Another emerging trend involves the exploration of global health perspectives within nursing theories. As healthcare becomes increasingly interconnected on a global scale, nursing theories that consider cultural diversity, socioeconomic disparities, and international collaborations are gaining prominence. This trend reflects the need for nursing theories to address the complexities of providing effective and equitable care in a world characterized by diverse health systems and patient populations.

Incorporation of Technology and Evidence-Based Practices

The future development of nursing theories will inevitably be shaped by the integration of technology and the growing emphasis on evidence-based practices. The advent of digital health technologies, artificial intelligence, and telehealth introduces new dimensions to patient care. Nursing theories need to evolve to incorporate these technological advancements, addressing issues such as data privacy, the ethical use of technology, and the impact of virtual care on patient-provider relationships.

Additionally, the emphasis on evidence-based practices continues to guide the development of nursing theories. Future theories will likely be increasingly informed by robust research findings, fostering a stronger connection between theory and practice. The integration of evidence-based approaches ensures that nursing theories not only reflect the best available evidence but also contribute to the generation of new knowledge through ongoing research initiatives.

The Role of Nursing Research in Theory Development

The future of nursing theoretical development relies heavily on the ongoing contributions of nursing research. Nursing scholars are encouraged to engage in rigorous research endeavors that not only validate existing theories but also propel the development of new conceptual frameworks. Research methodologies, such as mixed methods and participatory action research, offer avenues for exploring the complexities of nursing practice and refining theoretical foundations.

Furthermore, collaborative efforts between nurse researchers and practitioners are essential for ensuring that theoretical developments align with the practical realities of healthcare delivery. The future role of nursing research in theory development involves fostering a symbiotic relationship between academia and clinical practice, where research findings directly inform the refinement and expansion of nursing theories to address the contemporary challenges and needs of the profession.

As nursing continues to advance, the future of theoretical development holds the promise of embracing emerging trends, leveraging technological innovations, and maintaining a strong foundation in evidence-based practices. Through ongoing research efforts and a commitment to staying at the forefront of healthcare advancements, nursing theories will evolve to guide the profession toward a future marked by innovation, effectiveness, and enhanced patient outcomes.

Summary of Key Findings

The exploration of the evolution, critiques, comparative analysis, and future directions of nursing theories has revealed a dynamic landscape that reflects the multifaceted nature of the nursing profession. From the foundational theories of Florence Nightingale to the contemporary perspectives of Rosemarie Rizzo Parse, the journey of nursing theories showcases both the enduring principles that form the bedrock of nursing practice and the adaptability required to meet the ever-evolving challenges of healthcare.

Implications for Nursing Practice and Education

The insights gained from this exploration have significant implications for nursing practice and education. The integration of nursing theories into educational curricula provides students with a solid foundation for critical thinking, clinical reasoning, and a holistic approach to patient care. By understanding the historical context and critiques of nursing theories, practitioners can navigate the challenges and limitations while appreciating the continued relevance of these conceptual frameworks in shaping patient-centered care.

Furthermore, the comparative analysis has illuminated the diversity within nursing theories, emphasizing the need for practitioners to draw from various frameworks to meet the unique needs of diverse patient populations. This understanding informs a more tailored and nuanced approach to care, fostering a deeper connection between healthcare providers and patients.

Call to Action for Further Research and Development

As we envision the future of nursing theoretical development, there is a clear call to action for further research and innovation. The emerging trends of complexity science, global health perspectives, and the integration of technology demand rigorous exploration to expand the theoretical foundations of nursing. The incorporation of evidence-based practices and ongoing collaboration between researchers and practitioners will be pivotal in ensuring that nursing theories remain dynamic, relevant, and responsive to the evolving needs of healthcare.

Moreover, this call to action extends to the academic and clinical communities, urging for continued dialogue, collaboration, and the cultivation of environments that support the development and application of nursing theories. By fostering a culture of inquiry and innovation, the nursing profession can contribute meaningfully to the advancement of healthcare and the improvement of patient outcomes.

In conclusion, the journey through the evolution, critiques, comparative analysis, and future directions of nursing theories underscores the resilience and adaptability of the nursing profession. As we stand at the intersection of tradition and innovation, it is our collective responsibility to embrace the challenges, build upon the foundations laid by nursing theorists, and propel the field forward with a commitment to excellence, inquiry, and the enduring pursuit of optimal patient care.

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CBE Life Sci Educ
v.21(3); Fall 2022

Literature Reviews, Theoretical Frameworks, and Conceptual Frameworks: An Introduction for New Biology Education Researchers

Julie a. luft.

† Department of Mathematics, Social Studies, and Science Education, Mary Frances Early College of Education, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-7124

Sophia Jeong

‡ Department of Teaching & Learning, College of Education & Human Ecology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210

Robert Idsardi

§ Department of Biology, Eastern Washington University, Cheney, WA 99004

Grant Gardner

∥ Department of Biology, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN 37132

Associated Data

To frame their work, biology education researchers need to consider the role of literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks as critical elements of the research and writing process. However, these elements can be confusing for scholars new to education research. This Research Methods article is designed to provide an overview of each of these elements and delineate the purpose of each in the educational research process. We describe what biology education researchers should consider as they conduct literature reviews, identify theoretical frameworks, and construct conceptual frameworks. Clarifying these different components of educational research studies can be helpful to new biology education researchers and the biology education research community at large in situating their work in the broader scholarly literature.

INTRODUCTION

Discipline-based education research (DBER) involves the purposeful and situated study of teaching and learning in specific disciplinary areas ( Singer et al. , 2012 ). Studies in DBER are guided by research questions that reflect disciplines’ priorities and worldviews. Researchers can use quantitative data, qualitative data, or both to answer these research questions through a variety of methodological traditions. Across all methodologies, there are different methods associated with planning and conducting educational research studies that include the use of surveys, interviews, observations, artifacts, or instruments. Ensuring the coherence of these elements to the discipline’s perspective also involves situating the work in the broader scholarly literature. The tools for doing this include literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks. However, the purpose and function of each of these elements is often confusing to new education researchers. The goal of this article is to introduce new biology education researchers to these three important elements important in DBER scholarship and the broader educational literature.

The first element we discuss is a review of research (literature reviews), which highlights the need for a specific research question, study problem, or topic of investigation. Literature reviews situate the relevance of the study within a topic and a field. The process may seem familiar to science researchers entering DBER fields, but new researchers may still struggle in conducting the review. Booth et al. (2016b) highlight some of the challenges novice education researchers face when conducting a review of literature. They point out that novice researchers struggle in deciding how to focus the review, determining the scope of articles needed in the review, and knowing how to be critical of the articles in the review. Overcoming these challenges (and others) can help novice researchers construct a sound literature review that can inform the design of the study and help ensure the work makes a contribution to the field.

The second and third highlighted elements are theoretical and conceptual frameworks. These guide biology education research (BER) studies, and may be less familiar to science researchers. These elements are important in shaping the construction of new knowledge. Theoretical frameworks offer a way to explain and interpret the studied phenomenon, while conceptual frameworks clarify assumptions about the studied phenomenon. Despite the importance of these constructs in educational research, biology educational researchers have noted the limited use of theoretical or conceptual frameworks in published work ( DeHaan, 2011 ; Dirks, 2011 ; Lo et al. , 2019 ). In reviewing articles published in CBE—Life Sciences Education ( LSE ) between 2015 and 2019, we found that fewer than 25% of the research articles had a theoretical or conceptual framework (see the Supplemental Information), and at times there was an inconsistent use of theoretical and conceptual frameworks. Clearly, these frameworks are challenging for published biology education researchers, which suggests the importance of providing some initial guidance to new biology education researchers.

Fortunately, educational researchers have increased their explicit use of these frameworks over time, and this is influencing educational research in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. For instance, a quick search for theoretical or conceptual frameworks in the abstracts of articles in Educational Research Complete (a common database for educational research) in STEM fields demonstrates a dramatic change over the last 20 years: from only 778 articles published between 2000 and 2010 to 5703 articles published between 2010 and 2020, a more than sevenfold increase. Greater recognition of the importance of these frameworks is contributing to DBER authors being more explicit about such frameworks in their studies.

Collectively, literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks work to guide methodological decisions and the elucidation of important findings. Each offers a different perspective on the problem of study and is an essential element in all forms of educational research. As new researchers seek to learn about these elements, they will find different resources, a variety of perspectives, and many suggestions about the construction and use of these elements. The wide range of available information can overwhelm the new researcher who just wants to learn the distinction between these elements or how to craft them adequately.

Our goal in writing this paper is not to offer specific advice about how to write these sections in scholarly work. Instead, we wanted to introduce these elements to those who are new to BER and who are interested in better distinguishing one from the other. In this paper, we share the purpose of each element in BER scholarship, along with important points on its construction. We also provide references for additional resources that may be beneficial to better understanding each element. Table 1 summarizes the key distinctions among these elements.

Comparison of literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual reviews

	Literature reviews	Theoretical frameworks	Conceptual frameworks
Purpose	To point out the need for the study in BER and connection to the field.	To state the assumptions and orientations of the researcher regarding the topic of study	To describe the researcher’s understanding of the main concepts under investigation
Aims	A literature review examines current and relevant research associated with the study question. It is comprehensive, critical, and purposeful.	A theoretical framework illuminates the phenomenon of study and the corresponding assumptions adopted by the researcher. Frameworks can take on different orientations.	The conceptual framework is created by the researcher(s), includes the presumed relationships among concepts, and addresses needed areas of study discovered in literature reviews.
Connection to the manuscript	A literature review should connect to the study question, guide the study methodology, and be central in the discussion by indicating how the analyzed data advances what is known in the field.	A theoretical framework drives the question, guides the types of methods for data collection and analysis, informs the discussion of the findings, and reveals the subjectivities of the researcher.	The conceptual framework is informed by literature reviews, experiences, or experiments. It may include emergent ideas that are not yet grounded in the literature. It should be coherent with the paper’s theoretical framing.
Additional points	A literature review may reach beyond BER and include other education research fields.	A theoretical framework does not rationalize the need for the study, and a theoretical framework can come from different fields.	A conceptual framework articulates the phenomenon under study through written descriptions and/or visual representations.

This article is written for the new biology education researcher who is just learning about these different elements or for scientists looking to become more involved in BER. It is a result of our own work as science education and biology education researchers, whether as graduate students and postdoctoral scholars or newly hired and established faculty members. This is the article we wish had been available as we started to learn about these elements or discussed them with new educational researchers in biology.

LITERATURE REVIEWS

Purpose of a literature review.

A literature review is foundational to any research study in education or science. In education, a well-conceptualized and well-executed review provides a summary of the research that has already been done on a specific topic and identifies questions that remain to be answered, thus illustrating the current research project’s potential contribution to the field and the reasoning behind the methodological approach selected for the study ( Maxwell, 2012 ). BER is an evolving disciplinary area that is redefining areas of conceptual emphasis as well as orientations toward teaching and learning (e.g., Labov et al. , 2010 ; American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2011 ; Nehm, 2019 ). As a result, building comprehensive, critical, purposeful, and concise literature reviews can be a challenge for new biology education researchers.

Building Literature Reviews

There are different ways to approach and construct a literature review. Booth et al. (2016a) provide an overview that includes, for example, scoping reviews, which are focused only on notable studies and use a basic method of analysis, and integrative reviews, which are the result of exhaustive literature searches across different genres. Underlying each of these different review processes are attention to the s earch process, a ppraisa l of articles, s ynthesis of the literature, and a nalysis: SALSA ( Booth et al. , 2016a ). This useful acronym can help the researcher focus on the process while building a specific type of review.

However, new educational researchers often have questions about literature reviews that are foundational to SALSA or other approaches. Common questions concern determining which literature pertains to the topic of study or the role of the literature review in the design of the study. This section addresses such questions broadly while providing general guidance for writing a narrative literature review that evaluates the most pertinent studies.

The literature review process should begin before the research is conducted. As Boote and Beile (2005 , p. 3) suggested, researchers should be “scholars before researchers.” They point out that having a good working knowledge of the proposed topic helps illuminate avenues of study. Some subject areas have a deep body of work to read and reflect upon, providing a strong foundation for developing the research question(s). For instance, the teaching and learning of evolution is an area of long-standing interest in the BER community, generating many studies (e.g., Perry et al. , 2008 ; Barnes and Brownell, 2016 ) and reviews of research (e.g., Sickel and Friedrichsen, 2013 ; Ziadie and Andrews, 2018 ). Emerging areas of BER include the affective domain, issues of transfer, and metacognition ( Singer et al. , 2012 ). Many studies in these areas are transdisciplinary and not always specific to biology education (e.g., Rodrigo-Peiris et al. , 2018 ; Kolpikova et al. , 2019 ). These newer areas may require reading outside BER; fortunately, summaries of some of these topics can be found in the Current Insights section of the LSE website.

In focusing on a specific problem within a broader research strand, a new researcher will likely need to examine research outside BER. Depending upon the area of study, the expanded reading list might involve a mix of BER, DBER, and educational research studies. Determining the scope of the reading is not always straightforward. A simple way to focus one’s reading is to create a “summary phrase” or “research nugget,” which is a very brief descriptive statement about the study. It should focus on the essence of the study, for example, “first-year nonmajor students’ understanding of evolution,” “metacognitive prompts to enhance learning during biochemistry,” or “instructors’ inquiry-based instructional practices after professional development programming.” This type of phrase should help a new researcher identify two or more areas to review that pertain to the study. Focusing on recent research in the last 5 years is a good first step. Additional studies can be identified by reading relevant works referenced in those articles. It is also important to read seminal studies that are more than 5 years old. Reading a range of studies should give the researcher the necessary command of the subject in order to suggest a research question.

Given that the research question(s) arise from the literature review, the review should also substantiate the selected methodological approach. The review and research question(s) guide the researcher in determining how to collect and analyze data. Often the methodological approach used in a study is selected to contribute knowledge that expands upon what has been published previously about the topic (see Institute of Education Sciences and National Science Foundation, 2013 ). An emerging topic of study may need an exploratory approach that allows for a description of the phenomenon and development of a potential theory. This could, but not necessarily, require a methodological approach that uses interviews, observations, surveys, or other instruments. An extensively studied topic may call for the additional understanding of specific factors or variables; this type of study would be well suited to a verification or a causal research design. These could entail a methodological approach that uses valid and reliable instruments, observations, or interviews to determine an effect in the studied event. In either of these examples, the researcher(s) may use a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods methodological approach.

Even with a good research question, there is still more reading to be done. The complexity and focus of the research question dictates the depth and breadth of the literature to be examined. Questions that connect multiple topics can require broad literature reviews. For instance, a study that explores the impact of a biology faculty learning community on the inquiry instruction of faculty could have the following review areas: learning communities among biology faculty, inquiry instruction among biology faculty, and inquiry instruction among biology faculty as a result of professional learning. Biology education researchers need to consider whether their literature review requires studies from different disciplines within or outside DBER. For the example given, it would be fruitful to look at research focused on learning communities with faculty in STEM fields or in general education fields that result in instructional change. It is important not to be too narrow or too broad when reading. When the conclusions of articles start to sound similar or no new insights are gained, the researcher likely has a good foundation for a literature review. This level of reading should allow the researcher to demonstrate a mastery in understanding the researched topic, explain the suitability of the proposed research approach, and point to the need for the refined research question(s).

The literature review should include the researcher’s evaluation and critique of the selected studies. A researcher may have a large collection of studies, but not all of the studies will follow standards important in the reporting of empirical work in the social sciences. The American Educational Research Association ( Duran et al. , 2006 ), for example, offers a general discussion about standards for such work: an adequate review of research informing the study, the existence of sound and appropriate data collection and analysis methods, and appropriate conclusions that do not overstep or underexplore the analyzed data. The Institute of Education Sciences and National Science Foundation (2013) also offer Common Guidelines for Education Research and Development that can be used to evaluate collected studies.

Because not all journals adhere to such standards, it is important that a researcher review each study to determine the quality of published research, per the guidelines suggested earlier. In some instances, the research may be fatally flawed. Examples of such flaws include data that do not pertain to the question, a lack of discussion about the data collection, poorly constructed instruments, or an inadequate analysis. These types of errors result in studies that are incomplete, error-laden, or inaccurate and should be excluded from the review. Most studies have limitations, and the author(s) often make them explicit. For instance, there may be an instructor effect, recognized bias in the analysis, or issues with the sample population. Limitations are usually addressed by the research team in some way to ensure a sound and acceptable research process. Occasionally, the limitations associated with the study can be significant and not addressed adequately, which leaves a consequential decision in the hands of the researcher. Providing critiques of studies in the literature review process gives the reader confidence that the researcher has carefully examined relevant work in preparation for the study and, ultimately, the manuscript.

A solid literature review clearly anchors the proposed study in the field and connects the research question(s), the methodological approach, and the discussion. Reviewing extant research leads to research questions that will contribute to what is known in the field. By summarizing what is known, the literature review points to what needs to be known, which in turn guides decisions about methodology. Finally, notable findings of the new study are discussed in reference to those described in the literature review.

Within published BER studies, literature reviews can be placed in different locations in an article. When included in the introductory section of the study, the first few paragraphs of the manuscript set the stage, with the literature review following the opening paragraphs. Cooper et al. (2019) illustrate this approach in their study of course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs). An introduction discussing the potential of CURES is followed by an analysis of the existing literature relevant to the design of CUREs that allows for novel student discoveries. Within this review, the authors point out contradictory findings among research on novel student discoveries. This clarifies the need for their study, which is described and highlighted through specific research aims.

A literature reviews can also make up a separate section in a paper. For example, the introduction to Todd et al. (2019) illustrates the need for their research topic by highlighting the potential of learning progressions (LPs) and suggesting that LPs may help mitigate learning loss in genetics. At the end of the introduction, the authors state their specific research questions. The review of literature following this opening section comprises two subsections. One focuses on learning loss in general and examines a variety of studies and meta-analyses from the disciplines of medical education, mathematics, and reading. The second section focuses specifically on LPs in genetics and highlights student learning in the midst of LPs. These separate reviews provide insights into the stated research question.

Suggestions and Advice

A well-conceptualized, comprehensive, and critical literature review reveals the understanding of the topic that the researcher brings to the study. Literature reviews should not be so big that there is no clear area of focus; nor should they be so narrow that no real research question arises. The task for a researcher is to craft an efficient literature review that offers a critical analysis of published work, articulates the need for the study, guides the methodological approach to the topic of study, and provides an adequate foundation for the discussion of the findings.

In our own writing of literature reviews, there are often many drafts. An early draft may seem well suited to the study because the need for and approach to the study are well described. However, as the results of the study are analyzed and findings begin to emerge, the existing literature review may be inadequate and need revision. The need for an expanded discussion about the research area can result in the inclusion of new studies that support the explanation of a potential finding. The literature review may also prove to be too broad. Refocusing on a specific area allows for more contemplation of a finding.

It should be noted that there are different types of literature reviews, and many books and articles have been written about the different ways to embark on these types of reviews. Among these different resources, the following may be helpful in considering how to refine the review process for scholarly journals:

Booth, A., Sutton, A., & Papaioannou, D. (2016a). Systemic approaches to a successful literature review (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. This book addresses different types of literature reviews and offers important suggestions pertaining to defining the scope of the literature review and assessing extant studies.
Booth, W. C., Colomb, G. G., Williams, J. M., Bizup, J., & Fitzgerald, W. T. (2016b). The craft of research (4th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. This book can help the novice consider how to make the case for an area of study. While this book is not specifically about literature reviews, it offers suggestions about making the case for your study.
Galvan, J. L., & Galvan, M. C. (2017). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral sciences (7th ed.). Routledge. This book offers guidance on writing different types of literature reviews. For the novice researcher, there are useful suggestions for creating coherent literature reviews.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

Purpose of theoretical frameworks.

As new education researchers may be less familiar with theoretical frameworks than with literature reviews, this discussion begins with an analogy. Envision a biologist, chemist, and physicist examining together the dramatic effect of a fog tsunami over the ocean. A biologist gazing at this phenomenon may be concerned with the effect of fog on various species. A chemist may be interested in the chemical composition of the fog as water vapor condenses around bits of salt. A physicist may be focused on the refraction of light to make fog appear to be “sitting” above the ocean. While observing the same “objective event,” the scientists are operating under different theoretical frameworks that provide a particular perspective or “lens” for the interpretation of the phenomenon. Each of these scientists brings specialized knowledge, experiences, and values to this phenomenon, and these influence the interpretation of the phenomenon. The scientists’ theoretical frameworks influence how they design and carry out their studies and interpret their data.

Within an educational study, a theoretical framework helps to explain a phenomenon through a particular lens and challenges and extends existing knowledge within the limitations of that lens. Theoretical frameworks are explicitly stated by an educational researcher in the paper’s framework, theory, or relevant literature section. The framework shapes the types of questions asked, guides the method by which data are collected and analyzed, and informs the discussion of the results of the study. It also reveals the researcher’s subjectivities, for example, values, social experience, and viewpoint ( Allen, 2017 ). It is essential that a novice researcher learn to explicitly state a theoretical framework, because all research questions are being asked from the researcher’s implicit or explicit assumptions of a phenomenon of interest ( Schwandt, 2000 ).

Selecting Theoretical Frameworks

Theoretical frameworks are one of the most contemplated elements in our work in educational research. In this section, we share three important considerations for new scholars selecting a theoretical framework.

The first step in identifying a theoretical framework involves reflecting on the phenomenon within the study and the assumptions aligned with the phenomenon. The phenomenon involves the studied event. There are many possibilities, for example, student learning, instructional approach, or group organization. A researcher holds assumptions about how the phenomenon will be effected, influenced, changed, or portrayed. It is ultimately the researcher’s assumption(s) about the phenomenon that aligns with a theoretical framework. An example can help illustrate how a researcher’s reflection on the phenomenon and acknowledgment of assumptions can result in the identification of a theoretical framework.

In our example, a biology education researcher may be interested in exploring how students’ learning of difficult biological concepts can be supported by the interactions of group members. The phenomenon of interest is the interactions among the peers, and the researcher assumes that more knowledgeable students are important in supporting the learning of the group. As a result, the researcher may draw on Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory of learning and development that is focused on the phenomenon of student learning in a social setting. This theory posits the critical nature of interactions among students and between students and teachers in the process of building knowledge. A researcher drawing upon this framework holds the assumption that learning is a dynamic social process involving questions and explanations among students in the classroom and that more knowledgeable peers play an important part in the process of building conceptual knowledge.

It is important to state at this point that there are many different theoretical frameworks. Some frameworks focus on learning and knowing, while other theoretical frameworks focus on equity, empowerment, or discourse. Some frameworks are well articulated, and others are still being refined. For a new researcher, it can be challenging to find a theoretical framework. Two of the best ways to look for theoretical frameworks is through published works that highlight different frameworks.

When a theoretical framework is selected, it should clearly connect to all parts of the study. The framework should augment the study by adding a perspective that provides greater insights into the phenomenon. It should clearly align with the studies described in the literature review. For instance, a framework focused on learning would correspond to research that reported different learning outcomes for similar studies. The methods for data collection and analysis should also correspond to the framework. For instance, a study about instructional interventions could use a theoretical framework concerned with learning and could collect data about the effect of the intervention on what is learned. When the data are analyzed, the theoretical framework should provide added meaning to the findings, and the findings should align with the theoretical framework.

A study by Jensen and Lawson (2011) provides an example of how a theoretical framework connects different parts of the study. They compared undergraduate biology students in heterogeneous and homogeneous groups over the course of a semester. Jensen and Lawson (2011) assumed that learning involved collaboration and more knowledgeable peers, which made Vygotsky’s (1978) theory a good fit for their study. They predicted that students in heterogeneous groups would experience greater improvement in their reasoning abilities and science achievements with much of the learning guided by the more knowledgeable peers.

In the enactment of the study, they collected data about the instruction in traditional and inquiry-oriented classes, while the students worked in homogeneous or heterogeneous groups. To determine the effect of working in groups, the authors also measured students’ reasoning abilities and achievement. Each data-collection and analysis decision connected to understanding the influence of collaborative work.

Their findings highlighted aspects of Vygotsky’s (1978) theory of learning. One finding, for instance, posited that inquiry instruction, as a whole, resulted in reasoning and achievement gains. This links to Vygotsky (1978) , because inquiry instruction involves interactions among group members. A more nuanced finding was that group composition had a conditional effect. Heterogeneous groups performed better with more traditional and didactic instruction, regardless of the reasoning ability of the group members. Homogeneous groups worked better during interaction-rich activities for students with low reasoning ability. The authors attributed the variation to the different types of helping behaviors of students. High-performing students provided the answers, while students with low reasoning ability had to work collectively through the material. In terms of Vygotsky (1978) , this finding provided new insights into the learning context in which productive interactions can occur for students.

Another consideration in the selection and use of a theoretical framework pertains to its orientation to the study. This can result in the theoretical framework prioritizing individuals, institutions, and/or policies ( Anfara and Mertz, 2014 ). Frameworks that connect to individuals, for instance, could contribute to understanding their actions, learning, or knowledge. Institutional frameworks, on the other hand, offer insights into how institutions, organizations, or groups can influence individuals or materials. Policy theories provide ways to understand how national or local policies can dictate an emphasis on outcomes or instructional design. These different types of frameworks highlight different aspects in an educational setting, which influences the design of the study and the collection of data. In addition, these different frameworks offer a way to make sense of the data. Aligning the data collection and analysis with the framework ensures that a study is coherent and can contribute to the field.

New understandings emerge when different theoretical frameworks are used. For instance, Ebert-May et al. (2015) prioritized the individual level within conceptual change theory (see Posner et al. , 1982 ). In this theory, an individual’s knowledge changes when it no longer fits the phenomenon. Ebert-May et al. (2015) designed a professional development program challenging biology postdoctoral scholars’ existing conceptions of teaching. The authors reported that the biology postdoctoral scholars’ teaching practices became more student-centered as they were challenged to explain their instructional decision making. According to the theory, the biology postdoctoral scholars’ dissatisfaction in their descriptions of teaching and learning initiated change in their knowledge and instruction. These results reveal how conceptual change theory can explain the learning of participants and guide the design of professional development programming.

The communities of practice (CoP) theoretical framework ( Lave, 1988 ; Wenger, 1998 ) prioritizes the institutional level , suggesting that learning occurs when individuals learn from and contribute to the communities in which they reside. Grounded in the assumption of community learning, the literature on CoP suggests that, as individuals interact regularly with the other members of their group, they learn about the rules, roles, and goals of the community ( Allee, 2000 ). A study conducted by Gehrke and Kezar (2017) used the CoP framework to understand organizational change by examining the involvement of individual faculty engaged in a cross-institutional CoP focused on changing the instructional practice of faculty at each institution. In the CoP, faculty members were involved in enhancing instructional materials within their department, which aligned with an overarching goal of instituting instruction that embraced active learning. Not surprisingly, Gehrke and Kezar (2017) revealed that faculty who perceived the community culture as important in their work cultivated institutional change. Furthermore, they found that institutional change was sustained when key leaders served as mentors and provided support for faculty, and as faculty themselves developed into leaders. This study reveals the complexity of individual roles in a COP in order to support institutional instructional change.

It is important to explicitly state the theoretical framework used in a study, but elucidating a theoretical framework can be challenging for a new educational researcher. The literature review can help to identify an applicable theoretical framework. Focal areas of the review or central terms often connect to assumptions and assertions associated with the framework that pertain to the phenomenon of interest. Another way to identify a theoretical framework is self-reflection by the researcher on personal beliefs and understandings about the nature of knowledge the researcher brings to the study ( Lysaght, 2011 ). In stating one’s beliefs and understandings related to the study (e.g., students construct their knowledge, instructional materials support learning), an orientation becomes evident that will suggest a particular theoretical framework. Theoretical frameworks are not arbitrary , but purposefully selected.

With experience, a researcher may find expanded roles for theoretical frameworks. Researchers may revise an existing framework that has limited explanatory power, or they may decide there is a need to develop a new theoretical framework. These frameworks can emerge from a current study or the need to explain a phenomenon in a new way. Researchers may also find that multiple theoretical frameworks are necessary to frame and explore a problem, as different frameworks can provide different insights into a problem.

Finally, it is important to recognize that choosing “x” theoretical framework does not necessarily mean a researcher chooses “y” methodology and so on, nor is there a clear-cut, linear process in selecting a theoretical framework for one’s study. In part, the nonlinear process of identifying a theoretical framework is what makes understanding and using theoretical frameworks challenging. For the novice scholar, contemplating and understanding theoretical frameworks is essential. Fortunately, there are articles and books that can help:

Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. This book provides an overview of theoretical frameworks in general educational research.
Ding, L. (2019). Theoretical perspectives of quantitative physics education research. Physical Review Physics Education Research , 15 (2), 020101-1–020101-13. This paper illustrates how a DBER field can use theoretical frameworks.
Nehm, R. (2019). Biology education research: Building integrative frameworks for teaching and learning about living systems. Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research , 1 , ar15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43031-019-0017-6 . This paper articulates the need for studies in BER to explicitly state theoretical frameworks and provides examples of potential studies.
Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice . Sage. This book also provides an overview of theoretical frameworks, but for both research and evaluation.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

Purpose of a conceptual framework.

A conceptual framework is a description of the way a researcher understands the factors and/or variables that are involved in the study and their relationships to one another. The purpose of a conceptual framework is to articulate the concepts under study using relevant literature ( Rocco and Plakhotnik, 2009 ) and to clarify the presumed relationships among those concepts ( Rocco and Plakhotnik, 2009 ; Anfara and Mertz, 2014 ). Conceptual frameworks are different from theoretical frameworks in both their breadth and grounding in established findings. Whereas a theoretical framework articulates the lens through which a researcher views the work, the conceptual framework is often more mechanistic and malleable.

Conceptual frameworks are broader, encompassing both established theories (i.e., theoretical frameworks) and the researchers’ own emergent ideas. Emergent ideas, for example, may be rooted in informal and/or unpublished observations from experience. These emergent ideas would not be considered a “theory” if they are not yet tested, supported by systematically collected evidence, and peer reviewed. However, they do still play an important role in the way researchers approach their studies. The conceptual framework allows authors to clearly describe their emergent ideas so that connections among ideas in the study and the significance of the study are apparent to readers.

Constructing Conceptual Frameworks

Including a conceptual framework in a research study is important, but researchers often opt to include either a conceptual or a theoretical framework. Either may be adequate, but both provide greater insight into the research approach. For instance, a research team plans to test a novel component of an existing theory. In their study, they describe the existing theoretical framework that informs their work and then present their own conceptual framework. Within this conceptual framework, specific topics portray emergent ideas that are related to the theory. Describing both frameworks allows readers to better understand the researchers’ assumptions, orientations, and understanding of concepts being investigated. For example, Connolly et al. (2018) included a conceptual framework that described how they applied a theoretical framework of social cognitive career theory (SCCT) to their study on teaching programs for doctoral students. In their conceptual framework, the authors described SCCT, explained how it applied to the investigation, and drew upon results from previous studies to justify the proposed connections between the theory and their emergent ideas.

In some cases, authors may be able to sufficiently describe their conceptualization of the phenomenon under study in an introduction alone, without a separate conceptual framework section. However, incomplete descriptions of how the researchers conceptualize the components of the study may limit the significance of the study by making the research less intelligible to readers. This is especially problematic when studying topics in which researchers use the same terms for different constructs or different terms for similar and overlapping constructs (e.g., inquiry, teacher beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, or active learning). Authors must describe their conceptualization of a construct if the research is to be understandable and useful.

There are some key areas to consider regarding the inclusion of a conceptual framework in a study. To begin with, it is important to recognize that conceptual frameworks are constructed by the researchers conducting the study ( Rocco and Plakhotnik, 2009 ; Maxwell, 2012 ). This is different from theoretical frameworks that are often taken from established literature. Researchers should bring together ideas from the literature, but they may be influenced by their own experiences as a student and/or instructor, the shared experiences of others, or thought experiments as they construct a description, model, or representation of their understanding of the phenomenon under study. This is an exercise in intellectual organization and clarity that often considers what is learned, known, and experienced. The conceptual framework makes these constructs explicitly visible to readers, who may have different understandings of the phenomenon based on their prior knowledge and experience. There is no single method to go about this intellectual work.

Reeves et al. (2016) is an example of an article that proposed a conceptual framework about graduate teaching assistant professional development evaluation and research. The authors used existing literature to create a novel framework that filled a gap in current research and practice related to the training of graduate teaching assistants. This conceptual framework can guide the systematic collection of data by other researchers because the framework describes the relationships among various factors that influence teaching and learning. The Reeves et al. (2016) conceptual framework may be modified as additional data are collected and analyzed by other researchers. This is not uncommon, as conceptual frameworks can serve as catalysts for concerted research efforts that systematically explore a phenomenon (e.g., Reynolds et al. , 2012 ; Brownell and Kloser, 2015 ).

Sabel et al. (2017) used a conceptual framework in their exploration of how scaffolds, an external factor, interact with internal factors to support student learning. Their conceptual framework integrated principles from two theoretical frameworks, self-regulated learning and metacognition, to illustrate how the research team conceptualized students’ use of scaffolds in their learning ( Figure 1 ). Sabel et al. (2017) created this model using their interpretations of these two frameworks in the context of their teaching.

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Conceptual framework from Sabel et al. (2017) .

A conceptual framework should describe the relationship among components of the investigation ( Anfara and Mertz, 2014 ). These relationships should guide the researcher’s methods of approaching the study ( Miles et al. , 2014 ) and inform both the data to be collected and how those data should be analyzed. Explicitly describing the connections among the ideas allows the researcher to justify the importance of the study and the rigor of the research design. Just as importantly, these frameworks help readers understand why certain components of a system were not explored in the study. This is a challenge in education research, which is rooted in complex environments with many variables that are difficult to control.

For example, Sabel et al. (2017) stated: “Scaffolds, such as enhanced answer keys and reflection questions, can help students and instructors bridge the external and internal factors and support learning” (p. 3). They connected the scaffolds in the study to the three dimensions of metacognition and the eventual transformation of existing ideas into new or revised ideas. Their framework provides a rationale for focusing on how students use two different scaffolds, and not on other factors that may influence a student’s success (self-efficacy, use of active learning, exam format, etc.).

In constructing conceptual frameworks, researchers should address needed areas of study and/or contradictions discovered in literature reviews. By attending to these areas, researchers can strengthen their arguments for the importance of a study. For instance, conceptual frameworks can address how the current study will fill gaps in the research, resolve contradictions in existing literature, or suggest a new area of study. While a literature review describes what is known and not known about the phenomenon, the conceptual framework leverages these gaps in describing the current study ( Maxwell, 2012 ). In the example of Sabel et al. (2017) , the authors indicated there was a gap in the literature regarding how scaffolds engage students in metacognition to promote learning in large classes. Their study helps fill that gap by describing how scaffolds can support students in the three dimensions of metacognition: intelligibility, plausibility, and wide applicability. In another example, Lane (2016) integrated research from science identity, the ethic of care, the sense of belonging, and an expertise model of student success to form a conceptual framework that addressed the critiques of other frameworks. In a more recent example, Sbeglia et al. (2021) illustrated how a conceptual framework influences the methodological choices and inferences in studies by educational researchers.

Sometimes researchers draw upon the conceptual frameworks of other researchers. When a researcher’s conceptual framework closely aligns with an existing framework, the discussion may be brief. For example, Ghee et al. (2016) referred to portions of SCCT as their conceptual framework to explain the significance of their work on students’ self-efficacy and career interests. Because the authors’ conceptualization of this phenomenon aligned with a previously described framework, they briefly mentioned the conceptual framework and provided additional citations that provided more detail for the readers.

Within both the BER and the broader DBER communities, conceptual frameworks have been used to describe different constructs. For example, some researchers have used the term “conceptual framework” to describe students’ conceptual understandings of a biological phenomenon. This is distinct from a researcher’s conceptual framework of the educational phenomenon under investigation, which may also need to be explicitly described in the article. Other studies have presented a research logic model or flowchart of the research design as a conceptual framework. These constructions can be quite valuable in helping readers understand the data-collection and analysis process. However, a model depicting the study design does not serve the same role as a conceptual framework. Researchers need to avoid conflating these constructs by differentiating the researchers’ conceptual framework that guides the study from the research design, when applicable.

Explicitly describing conceptual frameworks is essential in depicting the focus of the study. We have found that being explicit in a conceptual framework means using accepted terminology, referencing prior work, and clearly noting connections between terms. This description can also highlight gaps in the literature or suggest potential contributions to the field of study. A well-elucidated conceptual framework can suggest additional studies that may be warranted. This can also spur other researchers to consider how they would approach the examination of a phenomenon and could result in a revised conceptual framework.

It can be challenging to create conceptual frameworks, but they are important. Below are two resources that could be helpful in constructing and presenting conceptual frameworks in educational research:

Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Chapter 3 in this book describes how to construct conceptual frameworks.
Ravitch, S. M., & Riggan, M. (2016). Reason & rigor: How conceptual frameworks guide research . Los Angeles, CA: Sage. This book explains how conceptual frameworks guide the research questions, data collection, data analyses, and interpretation of results.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

Literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks are all important in DBER and BER. Robust literature reviews reinforce the importance of a study. Theoretical frameworks connect the study to the base of knowledge in educational theory and specify the researcher’s assumptions. Conceptual frameworks allow researchers to explicitly describe their conceptualization of the relationships among the components of the phenomenon under study. Table 1 provides a general overview of these components in order to assist biology education researchers in thinking about these elements.

It is important to emphasize that these different elements are intertwined. When these elements are aligned and complement one another, the study is coherent, and the study findings contribute to knowledge in the field. When literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks are disconnected from one another, the study suffers. The point of the study is lost, suggested findings are unsupported, or important conclusions are invisible to the researcher. In addition, this misalignment may be costly in terms of time and money.

Conducting a literature review, selecting a theoretical framework, and building a conceptual framework are some of the most difficult elements of a research study. It takes time to understand the relevant research, identify a theoretical framework that provides important insights into the study, and formulate a conceptual framework that organizes the finding. In the research process, there is often a constant back and forth among these elements as the study evolves. With an ongoing refinement of the review of literature, clarification of the theoretical framework, and articulation of a conceptual framework, a sound study can emerge that makes a contribution to the field. This is the goal of BER and education research.

Supplementary Material

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Theoretical Framework of Nursing Practice

As by the INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF NURSES (ICN, 1973) as written by Virginia Henderson: The unique function of the nurse is to assist the individual, sick or well, in the performance of those activities contributing to health. Its recovery, or to a peaceful death that the client would perform unaided if he had the necessary strength, will or knowledge.
Help the client gain independence as rapidly as possible.

Conceptual and Theoretical Models of Nursing Practice


	in order to put the patient in the best possible conditions for nature to act.
	in which the nurse serves as a resource person, counselor and surrogate.
	, with key nursing problems related to health needs of people; developed list 21 nursing problem areas



	. She asserted that human beings are more than different from the sum of their parts; the distinctive properties of the whole are significantly different from those of its parts.
	; nursing care becomes necessary when client is unable to fulfill biological, psychological, developmental or social needs.
	between nurse, client and health care system.
	is a goal of system model of nursing practice. Nursing actions are in primary, secondary or tertiary level of prevention
	. She viewed each person as in constant interaction with a changing environment. The goal of nursing is to help the person adapt to changes in physiological needs, self-concept, role function and interdependent relations during health and illness.
	.
	She emphasized that nursing is the application of the art and human science through transpersonal caring transactions to help persons achieve mind-body-soul harmony, which generates self-knowledge, self-control, self-care and self-healing.
	. She emphasized free choice of personal meaning in relating to value priorities, co-creating of rhythmical patterns, in exchange with the environment and contranscending in many dimensions as possibilities unfold.
	. She advocated that nursing is a humanistic and scientific mode of helping a client through specific cultural caring processes (cultural values, beliefs and practices) to improve or maintain a health condition

End-of-life issues, wound cleaning and dressing, d5w (dextrose 5% water) iv fluid.

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Ch 1 Theoretical Framework
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Theoretical Framework

COMMENTS

Selecting a theoretical framework to guide research on the COVID-19 pandemic impacts on nursing care delivery and the critical care work system (using Reed's Intermodern approach to theory critique)
Selecting a theoretical framework to guide research on the ...
Integration of a theoretical framework into your research study
Integration of a theoretical framework into your research ...
Theory-Based Advanced Nursing Practice: A Practice Update on the
Theory-Based Advanced Nursing Practice
Theoretical Framework Example for a Thesis or Dissertation
Theoretical Framework Example for a Thesis or Dissertation
Determining a Theoretical Framework
Determining a Theoretical Framework - Graduate Nursing ...
Applying Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks to Health Professions
Applying Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks to ...
Nursing and Allied Health: Theories & Frameworks
Nursing and Allied Health: Theories & Frameworks - LibGuides
PDF Integration of a theoretical framework into your research study
A theoretical framework should be logically presented and represent the concepts, variables and relationships related to your research study, in order to clearly iden-tify what will be examined, described or measured. It involves reading the literature and identifying a research question(s) while clearly defining and identifying the existing ...
PDF Theoretical Frameworks and Philosophies of Care
Theoretical Frameworks and Philosophies of Care
Indian Journal of Continuing Nursing Education
Conceptual Models and Theories: Developing a Research ...
DOC Theoretical Frameworks for Nursing Research
Consider this example. Researchers at the Johns Hopkins University School of Nursing wanted to study fatigue in cancer patients and the effects of an exercise program on fatigue (Mock et al., 2007). They decided the Levin Conservation Model provided a useful framework because cancer and its treatment produce a threat to the well being and ...
Theoretical Framework
Theoretical Framework - NUR 506 - Evidence Based Practice
Using Framework Analysis in nursing research: a worked example
Implications for nursing. Nurses increasingly use qualitative research methods and need to use an analysis approach that offers transparency and rigour which Framework Analysis can provide. Nurse researchers may find the detailed critique of Framework Analysis presented in this paper a useful resource when designing and conducting qualitative ...
Why a Theoretical Framework in Nursing Research
Brodbeck May, ed. Pp. 363-398. New York: Macmillan. Brown Myrtle Irene 1964 The Theoretical Framework: An Essential Characteristic of Research. Nursing Research 13:109-112. Cleland Virginia S. 1967 The Use of Existing Theories. Nursing Research 16:118. Downs Florence S., Newman Margaret A. 1973 A Source Book of Nursing Research.
Expanding the theoretical understanding in Advanced Practice Nursing
Expanding the theoretical understanding in Advanced ...
Using Framework Analysis in nursing research: a worked example
Framework Analysis is flexible, systematic, and rigorous, offering clarity, transparency, an audit trail, an option for theme-based and case-based analysis and for readily retrievable data. This paper offers further explanation of the process undertaken which is illustrated with a worked example. Data source and research design: Data were ...
Nursing Theories and Theorists: The Definitive Guide for Nurses
Nursing Theories & Theorists: The Definitive Guide for ...
What Is Nursing Theory and Why Is It Important for Nurses?
What Is Nursing Theory?
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework: Mandatory Ingredients of A
(PDF) THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Evolution of Theoretical Frameworks in Nursing Research Paper
Introduction. Nursing theory, as a conceptual foundation for the profession, has undergone a remarkable evolution over the decades. Rooted in the historical context of nursing pioneers like Florence Nightingale, whose Environmental Theory laid the groundwork for understanding the impact of the environment on health, these early frameworks paved the way for subsequent theoretical developments.
Theoretical Frameworks
Evaluating the Quality of Medical Care. Health Services Research I. A Series of Papers Commissioned by the Health Services Research Study Section of the United States Public Health Service. Discussed at a Conference Held in Chicago, October 15-16, 1965, The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, Vol. 44, No. 3, July, pp. 166-206.
Literature Reviews, Theoretical Frameworks, and Conceptual Frameworks
Literature Reviews, Theoretical Frameworks, and ...
Theoretical Framework of Nursing Practice
Theoretical Framework of Nursing Practice