case study of energy efficient residential buildings in india

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Case Studies of Energy-Efficient Buildings in India: Successful Examples and Best Practices

Team kaarwan.

Energy-efficient buildings are at the forefront of India's sustainable development. With growing concerns about climate change and resource depletion, the demand for energy-efficient buildings in India is rising. 

These buildings combine advanced technology, sustainable materials, and innovative design to minimize energy use while maximizing comfort and cost-effectiveness. This blog explores case studies of successful energy-efficient buildings in India, detailing the technologies and best practices that make them models for sustainable construction.

Energy-Efficient Buildings in India: An Overview

Energy-efficient buildings in India are designed to reduce energy consumption, lower operational costs, and minimize environmental impact. These buildings use innovative technologies such as solar panels, energy-efficient lighting, and high-performance insulation to achieve their goals. 

By focusing on sustainability, these structures contribute to India's efforts to combat climate change and promote resource conservation.

In recent years, the government has also played a significant role in promoting energy-efficient buildings, providing incentives and setting standards to encourage the adoption of green architecture across the country.

Case Studies of Energy-Efficient Buildings in India

1. cisco's energy-efficient campus in bangalore.

Cisco's campus in Bangalore is a prime example of how multinational corporations can lead by example in sustainable building practices. The campus is designed to be energy-efficient, with a focus on reducing its carbon footprint while maintaining a productive work environment.

Design Philosophy: The design of Cisco's Bangalore campus emphasizes sustainability through the integration of natural elements and advanced technology. The building's orientation maximizes natural light, reducing the need for artificial lighting. Additionally, green spaces are incorporated throughout the campus, enhancing both aesthetics and environmental benefits.

Energy-Efficient Technologies: Cisco's campus utilizes a range of energy-efficient technologies, including solar panels that generate a significant portion of the building's electricity needs. The use of energy-efficient lighting and an advanced building management system further optimize energy consumption, making the campus a model for corporate sustainability in India.

Image source - Ashwin Kumar from Bangalore, India, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

2. Olympia Tech Park, Chennai

Olympia Tech Park in Chennai is another exemplary energy-efficient building in India. As one of the largest and most prominent IT parks in the country, it sets a high standard for sustainability in commercial infrastructure.

Sustainable Design Practices: Olympia Tech Park is designed with a focus on reducing energy consumption through the use of energy-efficient lighting, extensive natural light, and high-performance insulation. The building's design also includes features like rainwater harvesting and waste management systems that contribute to its overall sustainability.

Energy Conservation Measures: The park's energy conservation measures include advanced HVAC systems that optimize heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. Additionally, the integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar panels, has significantly reduced the building's dependence on non-renewable energy, making it one of the most energy-efficient IT parks in India.

Image source - olympiagroup.in

3. Patni Knowledge Centre, Noida

The Patni Knowledge Centre in Noida is a standout example of energy-efficient design in the commercial sector. This IT facility is recognized for its innovative approach to sustainability, combining cutting-edge technology with thoughtful design.

Innovative Technologies and Strategies: Patni Knowledge Centre employs advanced HVAC systems, energy-efficient lighting, and a building management system that monitors and optimizes energy use. The building is designed to take advantage of natural light and ventilation, significantly reducing its reliance on artificial systems and lowering its overall energy consumption.

Achievements in Energy Reduction: Through these technologies and strategies, Patni Knowledge Centre has achieved substantial energy savings, reducing operational costs and minimizing its environmental impact. This building exemplifies how commercial structures can adopt energy-efficient practices to contribute to a more sustainable future.

Image source - Intap2007, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Best Practices in Designing Energy-Efficient Buildings

Designing energy-efficient buildings requires a comprehensive approach that integrates various strategies and technologies. Some of the best practices in this field include:

Integrating renewable energy sources: Solar panels, wind turbines, and geothermal systems can significantly reduce a building’s reliance on non-renewable energy.

Optimizing building orientation and layout: Proper orientation and layout can maximize natural light and ventilation, reducing the need for artificial lighting and HVAC systems.

Incorporating energy-efficient materials: High-performance insulation, energy-efficient windows, and sustainable building materials can enhance a building’s energy efficiency.

Government's Key Role in Promoting Energy Efficiency

The Indian government has been a strong advocate for energy-efficient buildings, implementing a dual strategy of incentives and regulations. Financial benefits like tax breaks and subsidies encourage green building adoption, while the ECBC and NMEEE set clear standards to ensure energy performance. These combined efforts are accelerating the transition towards sustainable architecture in India.

Challenges in Implementing Energy-Efficient Practices

Implementing energy-efficient building practices in India faces two primary challenges: cost and technology. The initial investment for green construction is often higher, making it less attractive for budget-conscious developers and homeowners. Additionally, the availability and affordability of energy-efficient technologies still need to be improved to facilitate broader adoption.

Upcoming Projects and Innovations

India's green building sector is rapidly advancing with several key projects set to reshape the nation's energy landscape. Reliance Industries Ltd. is launching a 10 GW solar photovoltaic factory in Jamnagar, Gujarat, by 2024, as part of the Dhirubhai Ambani Green Energy Giga Complex, contributing significantly to renewable energy production. 

Total Environment is developing eco-friendly luxury properties in Bengaluru, Hyderabad, and Pune, featuring green roofs and energy-saving technologies like heat pumps. Additionally, the IFC is supporting various projects aimed at decarbonizing India's building sector through energy-efficient appliances and sustainable materials​

Empowering the Public for a Greener Future

Public awareness and engagement are essential for the success of energy-efficient buildings. By educating the public about the benefits of green buildings and involving communities in the decision-making process, India can accelerate the adoption of sustainable practices. This collaborative approach ensures that energy-efficient buildings not only reduce environmental impact but also meet the needs and preferences of the people who will use them.

Energy-efficient buildings are playing a pivotal role in shaping the future of India’s building sector. Through the adoption of best practices, innovative technologies, and supportive government policies, these buildings are helping to create a more sustainable and energy-efficient future for the country. As India continues to develop, energy-efficient buildings will remain a key component of its strategy to combat climate change and promote sustainable development.

The future of architecture is bright, but are your skills keeping pace? Kaarwan's architecture-specific courses provide you with the knowledge and tools to confidently navigate the AEC industry. Gain valuable insights, master in-demand software, and stand out with designs that impress!

Q.1 Which is the first energy efficient building in India?

The CII Sohrabji Godrej Green Building in Hyderabad is considered India's first platinum-rated green building, marking the beginning of the green building movement in India.

Q.2 What is an energy efficient building?

An energy-efficient building is designed to reduce energy consumption, lower operational costs, and minimize environmental impact.

It uses innovative technologies and sustainable practices to optimize energy use.

Q.3 Which buildings are zero energy in India?

India's first zero energy building is Indira Paryavaran Bhawan in New Delhi. It uses 70% less energy compared to a conventional building.

Q.4 Why is Infosys Mysore a green building?

The Infosys Mysore campus is renowned for its sustainable management, which include the proper handling of waste, water conservation, and energy efficiency. It incorporates renewable energy sources and has achieved significant energy savings.

Q.5 What is the conclusion of energy efficient buildings?

Energy-efficient buildings are crucial for India's sustainable future. They minimize the impact on the environment, cut costs, and consume less energy. With government support and public awareness, these buildings can become the norm in India's construction industry.

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Indira Paryavaran Bhawan Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF)

Energy Efficient Design Features

Introduction

Indira Paryavaran Bhawan, the new office building for Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) sets is a radical change from a conventional building design.

The project team put special emphasis on strategies for reducing  energy demand by providing adequate natural light, shading,  landscape to reduce ambient temperature, and energy efficient active building systems. Several energy conservation measures were adopted to reduce the energy loads of the building and the remaining demand was met by producing energy from on-site installed high efficiency solar panels to achieve net zero criteria. Indira Paryavaran Bhawan uses 70% less energy compared a conventional building. The project adopted green building concepts including conservation and optimization of water by recyclingwaste water from the site.

Indira Paryavaran Bhawan is now India’s highest green rated building. The project has received GRIHA 5 Star and LEED Platinum. The building has already won awards such as the Adarsh/GRIHA of MNRE for exemplary demonstration of Integration of Renewable Energy Technologies.

Passive Design Strategies

• Orientation:  Building is north south oriented, with separate blocks connected through corridors and a huge central court yard. Orientation minimizes heat ingress. Optimal window to wall ratio.
• Landscaping:  More than 50% area outside the building is covered with plantation.Circulation roads and pathways are  soft paved to enable ground water recharge.
• Daylighting:  75% of building floor space is day lit, thus reducing dependence on artificial sources for lighting. Inner courtyard serves as a light well.
• Ventilation:  Central courtyard helps in air movement as natural ventilation happens due to stack effect. Windows and jaalis add to cross ventilation.
• Optimized Building Envelope – Window assembly (U-Value 0.049 W/m 2 K),VLT 0.59, SHGC 0.32
• uPVC windows with hermetically sealed double glazed using low heat transmittance index glass
• Rock wool insulation
• High efficiency glass
• Cool roofs: Use of high reflectance terrace tiles for heat ingress, high strength, hard wearing.
• AAC blocks with fly ash
• Fly ash based plaster & mortar
• Stone and Ferro cement jaalis
• Local stone flooring
• Bamboo jute composite doors, frames and flooring
• High efficiency glass, high VLT, low SHGC & Low U-value, optimized by appropriate shading
• Light shelves for diffused sunlight

Active Strategies

Lighting Design

• Energy efficient lighting system ( LPD = 5 W/m 2 ) , nearly 50% more efficient than Energy Conservation Building Code 2007 requirements ( LPD = 11 W/m 2 )  reduces energy demand further.
• Remaining lighting load supplied by building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV).
• Use of energy efficient lighting fixtures (T5 lamps).
• Use of lux level sensor to optimize operation of artificial lighting.

Optimized Energy Systems / HVAC system

Chilled beam system/ VFD/ Screw Chillers

• 160 TR of air conditioning load of the building is met through Chilled beam system. Chilled beam are used from second to sixth floor. This reduces energy use by 50 % compared to a conventional system.
• HVAC load of the buildings is 40 m 2 /TR, about 50% more efficient than ECBC requirements (20 m 2 /TR)
• Chilled water is supplied at 16° C and return temperature is 20° C.
• Drain pans are provided with the chilled beams to drain out water droplets due to condensation during monsoon.
• Water cooled chillers, double skin air handling units with variable frequency drivers(VFD)
• Chilled beams save AHU/FCU fan power consumption by approximate 50 kW.
• VFDs provided in chilled water pumping system, cooling tower fans and AHUs.
• Fresh supply air is pre cooled from toilet exhaust air through sensible & latent heat energy recovery wheel.
• Control of HVAC equipment & monitoring of all systems through integrated building management system.
• Functional zoning to reduce air conditioning loads.
• Room temperature is maintained at 26 ±1 ° C

Geothermal heat exchange system

• There are 180 vertical bores to the depth of 80 meter all along the building premises. Minimum 3 meter distance is maintained between any two bores.
• Each bore has HDPE pipe U-loop (32mm outer diameter) and grouted with Bentonite Slurry. Each U-Loop is connected to the condenser water pipe system in the central air conditioning plant room.
• One U-Loop has 0.9 TR heat rejection capacity. Combined together, 160 TR of heat rejection is obtained without using a cooling tower.

Renewable Energy

• Solar PV System of 930 kW capacity
• Total Area: 6,000 m 2
• Total Area of panels: 4,650 m 2
• No of panels: 2,844
• Annual Energy Generation: 14.3 lakh unit

ACTUAL GENERATION ON SITE ( as on 25.01.2014)

• Power supply to grid started on 19.11.2013
• Power generation achieved: 300 kWh per day
• Total generation: 2.0 kWh
• Sustainable Architectural Built Environment

Disclaimer: This website is made possible by the support of the American People through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents of this website are the sole responsibility of Environmental Design Solutions and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

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Article Contents

Introduction, 1 overview: energy conservation in india, 2 literature survey, 3 research and collection of data, 4 material and methods, 5 conclusion, conflict of interest.

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Bridging the energy gap of India’s residential buildings by using rooftop solar PV systems for higher energy stars

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Rakesh Dalal, Kamal Bansal, Sapan Thapar, Bridging the energy gap of India’s residential buildings by using rooftop solar PV systems for higher energy stars, Clean Energy , Volume 5, Issue 3, September 2021, Pages 423–432, https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkab017

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The residential-building sector in India consumes >25% of the total electricity and is the third-largest consumer of electricity; consumption increased by 26% between 2014 and 2017. India has introduced a star-labelling programme for residential buildings that is applicable for all single- and multiple-dwelling units in the country for residential purposes. The Energy Performance Index (EPI) of a building (annual energy consumption in kilowatt-hours per square metre of the building) is taken as an indicator for awarding the star label for residential buildings. For gauging the EPI status of existing buildings, the electricity consumption of residential buildings (in kWh/m 2 /year) is established through a case study of the residential society. Two years of electricity bills are collected for an Indian residential society located in Palam, Delhi, analysed and benchmarked with the Indian residential star-labelling programme. A wide EPI gap is observed for existing buildings for five-star energy labels. Based on existing electricity tariffs, the energy consumption of residential consumers and the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)’s proposed building ENERGY STAR labelling, a grid-integrated rooftop solar photovoltaic (PV) system is considered for achieving a higher star label. This research study establishes the potential of grid-connected rooftop solar PV systems for residential buildings in Indian cities through a case study of Delhi. Techno-economic analysis of a grid-integrated 3-kWp rooftop solar PV plant is analysed by using RETScreen software. The study establishes that an additional two stars can be achieved by existing buildings by using a grid-integrated rooftop solar PV plant. Payback for retrofit of a 3-kWp rooftop solar PV plant for Indian cites varies from 3 to 7 years.

A case study in Delhi, India establishes the potential of grid-connected rooftop solar PV systems for residential buildings. Techno-economic analysis of grid integrated, 3 kWp rooftop solar systems estimates a payback period from 3 to 7 years.

India, with a population of >1.3 billion, is the second-most populous country in the world and the third-largest economy in terms of Purchasing Power Parity. India has set a target economy of USD5 trillion by the year 2024–25 with an annual growth rate of 9%. India’s sustained economic growth in this period will require an enormous energy supply. Key indicators of the economy, population and energy between the years 2001 and 2017 are shown in Fig. 1 . India intends to reduce the emissions intensity of its gross domestic product by 33–35% by 2030 from the 2005 level [ 1 ]. For achieving this target, improvement in energy efficiency is required in all sectors, especially in the building sector, as the building sector in India consumes >30% of the total electricity [ 2 ].

Trend in the economy, population and energy [ 29 ]

The gross electricity consumption in residential buildings has been rising sharply over the years. Building energy-consumption figures rose to ~260 TWh in 2016–17, which was ~55 TWh in 1996–97 [ 3 ]. It is estimated that this will further increase in the range of 630–940 TWh by 2032 [ 4 ].

To address energy efficiency in the commercial building sector, the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) was launched in 2007 [ 5 ]. The code applies to buildings with a connected load of ≥500 kW or a contact demand of ≥600 kVA. In 2017, ECBC 2007 was modified to ECBC 2017 and applies to buildings or building complexes that have a connected load of ≥100 kW or a contract demand of 120 kVA. The ECBC provides minimum requirements for the energy-efficient design and construction of buildings. The code was extended to the residential buildings through ECBC 2018-R (Eco-Home guidelines) and it applies to all the residential-use buildings built on a plot area of ≥500 m 2 .

The star-labelling programme for all single- and multiple-dwelling residential units has been initiated by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) [ 6 ]. There is no minimum requirement for the area or connected load (kW) for a building dwelling unit to be covered under this labelling programme. The Energy Performance Index (EPI) of a building (annual energy consumption in kilowatt-hours per square metre of the building) is taken as an indicator for the star label of the building. The EPI includes three components, namely E1, E2 and E3. E1 and E2 include building envelope characteristics, lighting systems and comfort systems (air conditioners (ACs)). The calculation is made with the assumption that 25% of the space in the building is air-conditioned with 24°C as the set point (E1) and the remaining 75% of the space is naturally ventilated (E2). The EPI (E3) for other building appliances such as microwave ovens, grinders, refrigerators, TVs, water pumps, washing machines, etc. is considered to be in the range of 7–9. The EPI required for star labelling for different climate regions is tabulated in Table 1 considering the value of E2 as 8.

Residential-building EPI (X) for star labelling [ 6 ]

The objective of this research study is to calculate the energy potential of grid-connected photovoltaic arrays on residential-building roofs for achieving the desired five-star energy labelling. The primary data come from a survey of the energy consumption of urban households located in Delhi and consumers are categorized based on their annual energy consumption. For the selection of appropriate rooftop solar PV plants, the energy consumption of the buildings, the electricity tariffs for the residential sector, the government subsidy on rooftop solar PV and the BEE’s proposed star labelling for residential buildings were considered. We were thus able to estimate the economic potential of rooftop solar PV systems by utilizing the unused roof area of the building. The final section of the article presents the conclusions that can be derived from this study.

This is probably the first such study to have explored the star labelling of existing residential buildings in India; it was searched in Google Scholar with different combinations of words and no such study was found that covered this problem statement. The findings of the study may be considered for fine-tuning policies and developing relevant intervention tools for existing building occupants for achieving the building star label through government rooftop solar PV subsidies.

India’s basic framework for electricity generation and supply was provided by the Electricity Act, 1910. After independence in 1947, social progress and development were given impetus and policies were directed for ensuring the supply of energy to all stakeholders. Energy-conservation measures were started in the year 1970 when the primary focus was to reduce the consumption of petroleum. In 1981, the Inter-Ministerial Working Group on Energy Conservation (IMWG), through 200 energy audits, predicted energy savings of Rs 19.25 billion by investing in energy-saving technologies. In 2001, the Energy Conservation Bill was passed and the Energy Management Centre was reconstituted as the BEE in 2002 [ 7 ].

The increasing population, energy shortage and awareness of environment-related issues (such as greenhouse-gas emissions) have raised concerns worldwide about current trends in energy consumption. In India, the estimated electricity consumption in the last 10 years increased from 612 645 GWh (2009–10) to 1 158 310 GWh (2018–19), which corresponds to a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.58%. The per-capita energy consumption increased from 19 669 Megajoules in 2011–12 to 24 453 Megajoules in 2018–19 with a CAGR of 3.67% [ 8 ]. Electricity consumption by different sectors of India in 2018–19 is given in Fig. 2 and the domestic sector consumes 24% of the total energy [ 9 ].

Consumption of electricity by sectors during 2018–19 [ 9 ]

The BEE started the Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT) programme, which is a regulatory instrument for reducing specific energy consumption in energy-intensive designated consumers (DCs). It also dovetailed with a market mechanism to enhance the cost-effectiveness through the certification of excess energy saving that can be traded in energy exchanges. The first PAT cycle, which was completed in March 2015, achieved an energy saving of 8.67 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe), which was ~30% more than the target. The second PAT cycle (2016–19) included three industries in addition to eight industries of the PAT–I cycle and seeks to achieve an energy-saving target of 8.86 Mtoe [ 10 ].

Standard and Labeling (S&L) in India works on a model in which the vendor provides information related to the energy efficiency of the product on the label as prescribed by the BEE. A star rating, ranging from one to five in ascending order of energy efficiency, is provided for products registered. An endorsement label is also provided for 23 products, of which 10 are mandatory and 13 are voluntary. The impact of this programme is visible from the sale of star-label ACs in the market, as shown in Fig. 3 . The weighted average of the Indian seasonal energy-efficiency ratio of ACs increased from 2.80 (in FY 2011) to 3.70 (in FY 2017–18) [ 11 ]. Forty percent of the energy consumed by room ACs could be saved cost-effectively by enhancing their efficiency. This translates into a potential energy saving of 118 TWh at busbars or a peak-demand saving of 60 GW by 2030 [ 12 ].

Star-label AC distribution 2017–18 [ 11 ]

The British Petroleum report has indicated that the global energy demand has grown in the 10 years from 2007 to 2017 [ 13 ]. Oil consumption will grow by 30% from 2007 to 2035, while coal and natural-gas consumption will increase by 50%. The International Energy Agency predicts that with a business-as-usual scenario, the energy-related emissions of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) will double by 2050 [ 14 ]. Globally, the building sector is responsible for consuming >40% of the total energy consumption [ 15 ]. Poor energy performance of existing buildings is observed around the world [ 16 ]. A mix of technologies can enhance the energy performance of buildings [ 17 ]. Green buildings have proven their performance but still they have not percolated into the market [ 18 ].

As per the US Energy Information Administration, by the implementation of energy codes and updated efficiency standards for appliances, the USA could save 3.79 trillion joules [ 19 ]. Hong Kong’s building energy code has improved energy efficiency and also reduced air pollution [ 20 ]. Enforcement of Chinese national building standards led to a 62% energy saving in public buildings and the building code of the UK revealed energy savings of ≤75% [ 21 ]. Florida’s residential energy code has resulted in a decrease in electricity consumption and a 6% decrease in natural-gas consumption [ 22 ]. Energy savings of 31.4% and peak savings of 36.8% were recorded for high-rise apartments in Hong Kong by adopting passive energy-efficient strategies [ 23 ]. In Greece, the thermal insulation of walls, roofs and floors, and low-infiltration strategies reduced energy consumption by 20–40% and 20%, respectively [ 24 ]. A study in Arizona of energy-star buildings before and after the buildings’ certification showed that the occupants’ consumed 8% less energy on a monthly basis after certification [ 25 ]. The effectiveness of the ENERGY STAR programme for residences in Alachua County, Florida, was analysed using monthly residential energy-consumption data between 2000 and 2013; energy savings of 10.9% were found under Florida Building Code (FBC) 1997 and 18.6% under FBC 2001 [ 26 ]. For the top 25 percentile of buildings in Singapore that are eligible for the star label in terms of an energy-efficiency label, the energy-usage intensity of 178 kWh/m 2 is comparable to the US ENERGY STAR buildings’ best practice in Californian office buildings [ 27 ]. Office buildings with ENERGY STAR or Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) eco-labels get rental premiums of ~3–5%. Dual certification fetches an estimated rental premium of 9%. The sale-price premium for ENERGY STAR- and LEED-labelled office buildings are 18% and 25%, respectively [ 28 ].

In 2005, India’s residential and commercial floor area was estimated to be 1.6 and 0.5 billion m 2 , respectively, which increased to 3.5 and 1 billion m 2 in 2012. It is also estimated that, by 2030, residential and commercial floor space will increase to 7.0 and 1.5 billion m 2 [ 18 ]. The residential sector is the third-largest consumer of electricity and increased by 26% between 2014 and 2017 as shown in Fig. 4 [ 29 ].

Electricity consumption in different sectors (IEA India Report, 2020) [ 29 ]

By implementing energy-conservation measures recommended by the ECBC, small buildings can save ≤40% of the energy used as compared to present buildings in India [ 30 ]. The ECBC could generate a saving of 419 800 GWh in the Gujarat state between 2010 and 2050. Extending the ECBC beyond the commercial sector could achieve additional savings of 193 700 GWh between 2010 and 2050 [ 31 ]. A study of six categories of commercial buildings in Jaipur city (India) has established that the implementation of the ECBC can conserve energy by ≤42% [ 32 ]. ECBC compliance in hotel buildings in Jaipur results in saving energy in the range of 18.42–37.2% [ 33 ]. Another study estimates that buildings in Ahmedabad city (India) could reduce their cooling load by 31% by using the ECBC code for envelope design [ 34 ].

India has a renewable-energy target of 175 GW by 2022. Solar energy will contribute 100 GW; of this, 40 GW would be from rooftop solar PV systems. India had already installed 28 GW of solar capacity as of March 2019 [ 35 ]. The progress of installation from 2010 to March 2019 is shown in Fig. 5 . Rooftop solar PV installation reached 5.4 GW in December 2019 and installation is predominately in industrial and commercial buildings. The distribution of rooftop solar PV systems in the different sectors is shown in Fig. 6 .

Grid-integrated solar PV rooftop installations in India (2010–19) [ 35 ]

Distribution of installed rooftop solar PV systems up to December 2019 [ 49 ]

A study of Andalusia (Spain) suggests that rooftop solar PV systems would satisfy 78.89% of the residential energy demand [ 36 ]. In the USA (2015), with residential solar incentives, 18 of the 51 target cities could reach the break-even point [ 37 ]. A study of the city of Al-Khobar in Saudi Arabia suggests that villas and apartment buildings can offset 19% of their electricity demand by utilizing rooftop solar PV systems, when 25% of the building roof for solar PV systems and cooling loads also reduces by 2% due to the shading effect of panels [ 38 ]. In the USA, with subsidies, six states have reached socket parity, yet widespread parity has still not been achieved [ 39 ]. In Malaysia, a grid-connected residential solar PV system is found to be feasible for installation [ 40 ]. A study shows that a 5-kWp PV system in Egypt can provide 67.5% of the energy requirement for residential consumers [ 41 ].

A study of the rooftop solar photovoltaic potential for Mumbai (India) suggests that it can meet 12.8–20% of the daily energy demand [ 42 ]. Simulation of a 6.4-kW rooftop solar PV plant for Ujjain (India) demonstrated that it not only meets building energy demand, but also feeds surplus energy of 8450 kWh annually into the grid [ 43 ]. Computer simulation of the installation of the rooftop PV system at five locations in India shows that the energy required for a roof-induced cooling load decreased by between 73% and 90% [ 44 ]. Energy simulation of a 110-kWp stand-alone rooftop solar PV system for Bhopal (India) demonstrated a payback period of 8.2 years [ 45 ]. A grid-connected solar PV system net present cost becomes 0 at ~1.8 and 3.4 kW, and the cost of energy decreased with an increase in the capacity addition for the household [ 46 ].

The present work is a study on the star labelling of residential buildings in India that investigates the residential-building energy consumption and existing gap for star labelling promulgated by the BEE. This study also aims to estimate the overall impact of rooftop solar PV system application in a hot-dry climate in achieving a higher star label. The key objectives of the study are to:

quantify the residential-building energy consumption (kWh/m 2 /year) through a case study;

estimate the energy gap for star labelling and bridging this gap through rooftop solar PV systems;

establish the economics of rooftop solar PV systems for residential buildings.

The study has been undertaken for residential buildings in the Palam area of New Delhi, India. The details of the location are given in Table 2 . The distribution of flats as per the RETScreen version 8 (a software program developed by Natural Resource Canada [ 47 ]) location module is given in Fig. 7 .

Location details (obtained from RETScreen location tab)

RETScreen software representation and distribution in the flats

The residential block is a two-storey structure consisting of four houses with two basements for parking. The ground coverage of the building block is 314 m 2 and the carpet area is 628 m 2 . The campus has 81 such blocks, accommodating 324 houses.

4.1 Step 1: energy-consumption estimation

Electricity-consumption data for all of the buildings were collected for the period April 2017 to March 2019 from the society management office. The annual energy-consumption distribution of these houses is shown in Fig. 8 .

Distribution of houses based on annual energy consumption (analysis based on a survey of households)

The average annual residential energy consumption for the year 2017–18 was 7236.72 kWh, which increased to 8101.34 kWh in the year 2018–19. The sole source of energy for the buildings is electricity supplied by BSES Rajdhani Power Limited (BRPL), a distributor for south and west Delhi, and no other source of energy is deployed by the society or building occupants. The electricity tariff for the residential building in Delhi is based on energy consumption. The electricity price rates for the year 2019–20 for consumption are categorized into five stages and the same is tabulated in Table 3 .

Electricity tariff for Delhi residential houses 2019–20 [ 51 ]

Based on the residential energy consumption, consumers are classified into four groups, which are tabulated in Table 4 .

Consumer categorization based on energy consumption per annum

Distribution of the consumers based on energy consumption in 2017–18 and 2018–19 is given in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 , respectively, and it is evident that the majority (>75%) of the end users are moderate energy consumers and that, by taking suitable energy substitutions, the desired star label can be achieved.

Distribution of consumer-based electricity consumption 2017–18 (author analysis based on a survey of select households)

Distribution of consumer-based electricity consumption 2018–19 (analysis based on a survey of select households)

The energy consumption of the residential consumers under study increased from 2017–18 to 2018–19 and, as a result, the moderate and low energy consumer category percentage reduced from 75% and 14% to 65% and 10%, respectively, whereas the high energy consumer category increased from 8% to 23%.

4.2 Step 2: calculation of the technical performance of rooftop solar PV systems

Three rooftop solar scenarios are considered for residential buildings based on the present energy consumption and available area on the rooftop. The calculation for these three scenarios is carried out using a solar rooftop financial calculator hosted on the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) website ( https://mnre.gov.in/ ) and is tabulated in Table 5 .

Residential solar rooftop PV evaluation [ 47 ]

The cost of the proposed solar PV plant is based on the MNRE benchmark cost that also includes subsidies extended by the MNRE. The MNRE gives a flat 40% subsidy on solar PV plants rating ≤3 kW and a 20% subsidy for solar PV plants rating >3 kW up to 10 kW. The selected site receives an average of 5.06 kWh/m 2 /day solar radiation horizontal and its monthly availability is given in Fig. 11 .

Monthly solar radiation horizontal availability at the site (analysis based on RETScreen simulation) [ 48 ]

4.3 Step 3: simulation and economic analysis of solar rooftop PV plants

The electricity generated from the PV system that was calculated in Table 5 was validated by using RETScreen version 8 [ 48 ]. The energy output obtained from RETScreen is within a tolerance of 5% as compared to results obtained from the MNRE solar PV rooftop calculator ( Table 6 ).

Technical evaluation of residential solar PV rooftop using RETScreen energy module

Analysing the residential electricity tariff ( Table 3 ), a flat 40% subsidy extended up to a 3-kW rooftop solar PV system, the distribution of consumers based on energy consumption ( Figs 10 and 11 ) and the energy gap for the star label by solar power ( Tables 1 and 7 ) of a 3-kW rooftop solar PV are considered for the case study. Eighty to 90% of the houses could achieve a five-star label by employing a 3-kW rooftop solar PV. The distribution of star labels for 2017–18 and 2018–19 for the buildings as per consumption is shown in Figs 12 and 13 , respectively.

Financial parameters considered for the viability of a solar PV rooftop system

Distribution of star buildings employing rooftop solar PV systems (2017–18)

Distribution of star buildings employing rooftop solar PV systems (2018–19)

Low and moderate energy consumers ( Table 4 ) could achieve a high five-star label by employing a rooftop solar PV system whereas high energy consumers could achieve an additional two-star label by this measure.

The economic viability of a rooftop solar PV system for the buildings under consideration was also ascertained by using RETScreen. The net present value (NPV) based on discounted cash flow was used as an analysis approach using the RETScreen cost and finance module. The analysis period was assumed to be 25 years based on the useful life and warranty period of solar PV panels. Financial parameters used in the RETScreen finance module for ascertaining the economic viability of the two scenarios are given in Table 7 and the simulation results obtained are tabulated in Table 8 .

Economics of a 3-kW rooftop solar PV system at the study site

To explore rooftop solar PV systems for other climatic zones, an exercise akin to that undertaken in Delhi was carried out for other cities of India, which are tabulated in Table 9 . RETScreen simulation results for these cities are tabulated in Table 10 .

Electricity tariff and solar-radiation availability in Indian cities

RETScreen simulation of 3-kWp solar rooftop PV systems for selected cities of India

Rooftop grid-integrated 3-kW p solar PV systems can bridge a building’s existing energy gap for the five-star label. The study indicates that a grid-connected 3-kWp solar PV system is suitable for rooftop residential installation in most Indian cities and this retrofit improves the EPI of a building and thus provides two additional energy stars to the building. The payback period of grid-connected rooftop solar PV systems varies from 3 to 7 years. However, the payback period varies widely for different Indian cities; for Pune and Ahmedabad, despite having the same annual solar radiation, the payback period is 3 and 9 years, respectively. This is primarily due to different residential electricity tariff rates in the states of India and it is the most important factor to affect the finances of rooftop solar PV systems. Therefore, rooftop solar PV systems are not recommended as an instrument for achieving a higher star label for the states like Gujarat where the residential electricity tariff is low. The installation of a 3-kWp grid-integrated rooftop solar PV by low and moderate energy consumers is sufficient for achieving the five-star energy label for the building whereas high and very high energy consumers need to take additional measures for getting five-star energy labels for their buildings. The reduction in energy purchases from the grid increases the saving of energy for end consumers and thus reduces emissions because grid electricity in India is predominately coal-based. This study can be further extended for the normalization of rooftop solar PV subsidies for different states so that this energy substitution can match the grid parity in respective Indian states. Further passive retrofit measures, which include improvement in the envelopes of existing residential buildings and active retrofit measures, such as the installation of grid-integrated rooftop solar PV systems, can be optimized for a building based on life-cycle costing so that the cost of energy stars is minimized.

Study is not funded by any agency/organization. Data gathered by self for the study undertaken. Other sources cited as applicable.

None declared.

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Policy Evidence Library

Evidence Library

[Report] Residential Buildings in India: Energy Use Projections and Savings Potentials

This new GBPN report jointly developed with the Centre for Environmental Planning and Technology ( CEPT ) University, provides a first attempt to document energy saving potentials that could be achieved in India by 2050 in the residential sector. Four energy scenarios have been developed to identify the potential energy savings, each relating to a level of ambition of building performance policies and market efforts. With direct policy action, it is possible to substantially reduce future energy demand in the residential sector and help India address current challenges posed by the population growth, higher comfort expectations and the increased use of appliances.

To achieve the potentials, the report identifies the following recommendations for action:

• Better Data:  Introduction of a residential baseline energy data programme using a large survey to provide a detailed picture of current residential energy consumption patterns;
• Policy Roadmaps:  Elaboration of policy roadmaps that can support the implementation of energy efficiency measures for residential buildings;
• Residential Building Energy Code:  Development of a specific code focussing on residential building envelope efficiency adapted to the different climate zones to realise the saving potentials of all building envelope components to address the rising demand for thermal comfort.

The report fils the current knowledge and data gap in the residential sector in India. A high quality field survey of 800 households was conducted by CEPT University in order to map current penetration rate of appliances and better understand electricity consumption patterns for different sizes of residential units with varying occupancy rates, appliances and for four different climate zones of the country. Based on the building energy modelling, comfort benefits and energy savings potentials of better-performing building envelopes were quantified using the “Energy Conservation Building Code” (ECBC) envelope characteristics.

The report was released on 23 September at the occasion of the Conclave on Green Architecture – “Building Sense: Towards Sustainable Buildings and Habitat” – organised by the Centre for Science and Environment in New Delhi ( www.cseindia.org ).

Related News

• [Infographic] With Direct Policy Action in the Residential Sector in India, it is Possible to Realize 57% of Energy Savings by 2050 Compared to Business as Usual

Related Report Bundles

• Residential Buildings in India: Energy Use Projections and Savings Potentials
• 印度的居住建筑： 能耗预测和节能潜力

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E4 Country Profile: Energy Efficiency in India

Energy Efficiency in Emerging Economies (E4) programme findings and work

India’s final energy consumption increased by 50% from 2007 to 2017, with growth across all sectors, but with the largest increases in the industrial and transport sectors. It has seen the highest growth of primary energy among G20 countries, but still has the lowest GDP per capita. The Government of India has made impressive progress in recent years in increasing citizens’ access to electricity and clean cooking. The priority is now shifting towards energy security and affordability as demonstrated by India’s successful energy market reforms. Energy efficiency will remain important in order to realise these priorities as India continues to develop economically. 

Improvements in energy efficiency

Due to the growth of the Indian economy, energy use has continued to increase. Structural factors such as movement towards more energy-intensive transport modes, increased appliance ownership and building floor areas have added to increased energy use between 2010 and 2018. Fortunately, energy efficiency improvements in India since 2010 prevented 12% of additional energy use in 2018. 

Decomposition of energy use in India between 2010-2014 and 2014-2018

Between 2014 and 2018, efficiency gains were mainly achieved in the industrial sector. These gains were more than five times the efficiency gains in transport and buildings over the same period.

Savings from energy efficiency in India, 2014-2018

In 2018, 24.5% of India’s total energy use was covered by mandatory energy efficiency policies. The main contributor being the Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme, the key policy driving efficiency gains in the industrial sector.

Percentage of energy use covered by mandatory energy efficiency policies in India, 2010-2018

The adoption of appliance standards and building codes in some states, coupled with growing energy access and new construction, resulted in policy coverage in the buildings sector of 13% in 2018.

In the transport sector, the implementation of passenger car and heavy-duty vehicle standards increased the policy coverage to 6% in 2018. Ambitious plans have also been developed to increase the penetration of electric vehicles.

Energy efficiency opportunities

Under the Efficient World Scenario, the increase in energy demand could be limited to just 82% between now and 2040, as opposed to more than doubling in the NPS. This would avoid 10 EJ of additional energy use. Savings would mainly come from industry (45%) and buildings (30%), followed by the transport sector.

Energy savings by sector in India in the Efficient World Scenario vs the New Policies Scenario, 2012-2040

Emissions saved under the EWS compared to the NPS would amount to 985 Mt CO 2 -eq, more than the emissions of Australia and Canada combined.

Avoided CO2 emissions in India in the Efficient World Scenario vs the New Policies Scenario, 2012-2040

The opportunities to increase energy efficiency based on the Efficient World Scenario are:

• In industry, the PAT scheme is currently the key policy to drive efficiency gains. It has been extended to a 4 th cycle, increasing coverage of industrial energy use. Further expansion of PAT to less energy-intensive sectors paves the way for obtaining the largest energy saving potential, which has been identified in the EWS to be in the less intensive industry sectors. Electric motor-driven systems could also make an important contribution to efficiency gains. India has recently implemented minimum energy performance standards for electric motors at the IE2 level. Making them mandatory is likely to increase the effectiveness of these measures.
• In buildings, rising demand for space cooling will greatly increase energy use in India’s buildings sector. In the EWS, space cooling energy demand could more than quadruple to 2040 as living standards improve and purchasing power rises. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has revised the Energy Conservation Building Code for commercial buildings, launched the EcoNiwas Samhita code for the building envelope of residential buildings, and further expanded its standards and labelling programme starting with stronger MEPS for air conditioners.
• In transport, the adoption of electric vehicles will allow India to unlock additional efficiency gains beyond the savings it will get from its recently introduced fuel economy standards for light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles 

Our work in India

The E4 programme has been working on several cross-sectoral initiatives involving country-wide analytical reports, capacity building, and data collection methodologies. It contributed to the Energy Efficiency Outlook for India in 2017 and the first IEA Review of Energy Policies in India , developed institutional relationships with the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) to provide policy guidance  and help align energy efficiency indicators with IEA standards, and conducted India-wide energy efficiency policy training and capacity building.

In buildings, the E4 programme provided analytical support to the National Cooling Action Plan (NCAP) using IEA’s Future of Cooling analysis and through convening key stakeholders. E4 also worked with Indian stakeholders to develop case studies such as the Ujala Story – Energy Efficient Prosperity , to highlight the multiple benefits of the successful UJALA lighting scheme, thereby increasing the profile of the scheme.

In transport, the E4 programme supported the development of India’s Heavy Duty Vehicle standards through convening workshops with peer countries. It also supported the capacity building and analysis for the deployment of electric vehicles in India, through international workshops with other members of the IEA family.

The E4 programme is currently working with the Bureau of Energy Efficiency on a roadmap for mainstreaming energy efficiency in residential buildings, policy recommendations for unlocking energy efficiency gains from the textiles sector and industrial benchmarking.

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Case Studies & Resources

Building policy, methodology for retv formula development for ens 2018, document type: research paper, december 2018.

Eco-Niwas Samhita 2018 (ENS) is the new Energy Conservation Building Code for Residential Buildings (ECBC-R). Among different code provisions, a maximum Residential Envelope Transmittance Value (RETV) is defined for cooling dominated climates. RETV gives a quantitative measure of heat gains through the building envelope (excluding roof), calculated by a simple formula. This paper describes detailed methodology followed for the development of the RETV formula.

Eco-Niwas Samhita 2018(ECBC-R Part I: Building Envelope)

Document type: code.

Given the pace at which building stock is growing in India, the Eco-Niwas Samhita for Building Envelope is a landmark policy ushering energy efficiency into the building sector, relevant for all contributors to the construction process. Read the details of the policy here.

Eco-Niwas Samhita 2018 Film

Document type: video.

Eco-Niwas Samhita for Building Envelope is an important step towards ensuring that all new buildings being constructed in the sector are energy efficient. This video delves into the highlights of this simple Code and what each stakeholder needs to do to adhere to it.

Eco-Niwas Samhita 2018 Compliance Tool

Document type: tool.

The Eco-Niwas Samhita is a residential code designed in an easy-to-use format, and requires only simple calculations based on inputs from architectural design drawings of the buildings. This online tool further aids in the calculations and compliance check.

Eco-Niwas Samhita 2018 Brochure

Document type: brochure.

Given the pace at which building stock is growing in India, the Eco-Niwas Samhita is a landmark policy ushering energy efficiency into the building sector, relevant for all contributors to the construction process. Read the details of the code here.

Design Guidelines for Energy-Efficient Multi-Storey Residential Buildings: Warm-Humid Climate

Document type: design guidelines, november 2016.

The design guideline provides 14 recommendations on energy-efficiency features for consideration at the design stage of multi-storey residential buildings. Mr Piyush Goyal, Honourable Minister of State (IC) for Power, Coal, New and Renewable Energy and Mines, launched this document in November 2016 at the BEEP International Conference on Energy Efficient Building Design.

Design Guidelines for Energy-Efficient Multi-Storey Residential Buildings: Composite and Hot-Dry Climate

September 2014.

The Design Guidelines for Energy-efficient Multi-storey Residential Buildings for Composite and Hot-dry Climates has been developed under component-3 of BEEP’s technical assistance mandate. The design guidelines provide 15 recommendations on energy-efficiency features for consideration at the design stage of multi-storey residential buildings. The guidelines are helpful for builders, developers, architects, and other building-sector professionals involved in the design and construction of multi-storey residential buildings.

Energy Efficient Homes

Document type: presentation.

With the exponential rise in residential complexes being developed in the country, there is a need to ensure that these homes are thermally comfortable and energy efficient. Read on to understand the key factors that need to be considered while designing residential buildings.

Position paper on Low Carbon Resource-Efficient Affordable Housing

Document type: published paper.

The position paper was developed under the capaCITIES programme of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) in India. As BEEP has been working in this area since 2011, it made a significant contribution in the development of this paper.

Guidelines for Energy-Efficient and Thermally Comfortable Public Buildings in Karnataka

September 2016.

BEEP and Public Works Department, Karnataka, have collaborated on various aspects of energy-efficient building design. Several design workshops were conducted to develop energy-efficient designs for specific public buildings, including the District Court and other district office buildings. The knowledge gained through these collaborative efforts is compiled and presented in this document. The guidelines have been developed keeping in view different climatic regions found in Karnataka and provides a step-by-step approach to designing energy-efficient buildings. The content of the guidelines covers details on the integrated design process, climate analysis for Karnataka, climate-responsive design, efficient cooling systems, and solar energy integration.  The guidelines will be useful for architects, engineers, and building project managers.

Mainstreaming Energy Efficient Building Design Practices in State Public Works Departments

Document type: published paper, december 2017.

The paper is based on the experience of working with the public works departments (PWDs) and other state departments responsible for the construction of public buildings in Karnataka, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh. State PWDs and other similar government departments responsible for the construction of public buildings in the states have an important role not only in making the public buildings energy-efficient and thermally comfortable but also in the implementation of the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC). The paper presents the various approaches and lessons gained in this process, along with ideas for more effective engagement with the state PWDs to mainstream energy-efficient building design practices within the department.

Energy Performance of Indian Commercial Buildings

How much electricity does Indian commercial buildings consume? It is essential that there is measured performance data of buildings, to ensure that it is performing as expected during the design stage.

Building Design

Energy efficency in hvac system: case study of a hospital building camparing predicted and actual performance and showing improvements through performance monitoring, february 2020.

The Jupiter Hospital in Pune is a 350-bed multi-speciality hospital. This paper focuses on the Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system performance of Jupiter Hospital. The Jupiter Hospital was designed as an energy efficient building in order to harness the potential to save energy by incorporating energy efficiency measures in the HVAC systems. The measures in this case include building envelope measures to reduce cooling load, optimum size of the chillier with good part load performance, and other technologies such as recovery through enthalpy wheel for fresh air and the innovative use of condensers.

ASSESSING THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF BUILDING ENVELOPE OF NEW RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS USING RETV

The Eco-Niwas Samhita was launched in 2018 to set energy efficiency standards for residential buildings. The building code uses a parameter called Residential Envelope Transmittance Value (RETV) to define thermal performance of the building envelope (excluding roof) for cooling dominated climates. This paper presents evaluation of RETV of sample residential projects located in composite and warm-humid climate regions, after studying both individual and multi storey apartments.

A CASE STUDY ON DESIGN OF THERMALLY COMFORTABLE AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN COMPOSITE CLIMATE: SIMULATION RESULTS AND MONITORED PERFORMANCE

With the growing urbanization that India is seeing, affordable housing has been a priority for the building sector and the government. The focus of current affordable housing projects should be on an acceptable level of thermal comfort for the occupant without the use of air conditioning. This paper presents a case study of integrating energy efficient envelope and ventilation strategies in Smart Ghar, the Pradhan Mantri Awaz Yojana (PMAY) affordable housing project in Rajkot, Gujarat.

Smart Ghar III, Rajkot

September 2019.

Affordable thermally comfortable housing is the need of the hour, given growing urbanisation in India and the effect this shift is having on the environment. Smart GHAR III is an affordable homes project in Rajkot, Gujarat under the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) Untenable Slum Redevelopment and executed by the Rajkot Municipal Corporation (RMC). The project employees simple, yet highly effective mechanisms and strategies as part of its energy efficient building design. This ensures thermal comfort for residents without the need for external heating and/or cooling devices to keep energy bills to the minimum.

Charrette Film

Many factors contribute to energy consumption in a building. And many stakeholders are involved in the design and construction of a building. To design a high energy-performance and thermally comfortable building, all the factors must be considered; and all the stakeholders must be on-board. The integrated design charrette of BEEP is an interactive workshop, held over four days, which brings together the building design team and senior Swiss experts to develop the energy concept of a building during the early phase of building design. Learn more about the BEEP Integrated Design Charrette in this video.

Smart GHAR III, Rajkot

Document type: case study.

Smart GHAR III (Green Homes at Affordable Rate) is an affordable housing project in Rajkot under the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) Untenable Slum Redevelopment, executed by the Rajkot Municipal Corporation (RMC). The charrette for this project was held in September 2016. Built on 57,408 m2, the building has been designed for composite climate. The strategies recommended during the charrette included reducing heat gains through walls and roofs; improved window design; and improved ventilation through common service shaft.

Energy Efficient Building Envelope and Ventilation Strategies for Multi-Storey Residential Buildings in India

This paper is based on research on energy use in dwellings and energy modeling of typical spaces in dwellings. The paper presents key strategies for designing energy-efficient multi-storey residential buildings based on the results obtained by integrating energy-efficient envelope and ventilation strategies in sample bedrooms of three multi-storey residential projects: Indore (composite climate); Chennai (warm and humid climate); and Rajkot (composite climate). The experience from these three projects shows that a reduction in peak operative temperatures in the range of 4–7 °C is possible by implementing these strategies.

Aranya Bhawan, Jaipur

Aranya Bhawan, the office building of the Rajasthan Forest Department in Jaipur, was one of the first projects selected for the BEEP Integrated Design Charrette. The charrete was held in December 2012. The project was carried out by the Rajasthan State Road Development and Construction Corporation Limited (RSRDC) and was inaugurated on 23 March 2015 by the Smt. Vasundhara Raje, Honorable Chief Minister of Rajasthan.

Case Study of An Energy Efficient Commercial Building: Validating Design Intent & Energy Simulation Results with Monitored Performance Data

The paper presents case study of an energy efficient day-use public office building, Aranya Bhawan, the headquarters of the Rajasthan Forest Department in composite climate (Jaipur). The paper provides details about:

• Energy efficiency measures adopted in the building.
• Results of the building energy simulation during the building design.
• Methodology and results of the performance monitoring of the fully functional building for one-year period.
• Results of checking compliance with ECBC

IIIDEM, Dwarka

The India International Institute of Democracy and Election Management (IIIDEM), set up in 2011, is an advanced resource centre for learning, research, training, and extension for participatory democracy and election management. IIIDEM used to be function from Nirvachan Sadan, but due to the space constraints the Election Commission of India (ECI) decided to develop an independent campus for IIIDEM. A charrette was organized in July 2014 when the new campus in Dwarka was proposed.

Jupiter Hospital, Pune

Jupiter Hospital in Pune is a 350-bed multi-specialty hospital and the second project under Jupiter Lifeline Hospitals Ltd. This was the 8th project selected for the BEEP Integrated Design Charrette, which was held in February 2014. The project was completed in December 2016.

BEEP Integrated Design Charrette

The BEEP integrated design charrette is an interactive workshop, held over four days. It brings together the building design team and senior Swiss experts to develop the energy concept of a building during the early phase of building design.

Passive Measures for Energy Efficiency

Before we start using air-conditioners, fans, heaters, artificial lights, etc. to make our buildings comfortable and well-lit, we need to design our building and the building envelope to control comfort and daylight to the maximum extent possible. This is called passive design. Passive design takes climate into consideration and lessens our dependence on electricity and other fuels.

Tools & Technologies

Insulation for buildings.

A thermos flask preserves the temperature of hot or cold drinks by reducing the heat loss or heat gain. In a similar manner, insulating materials for buildings can help in keeping the building cooled or heated by reducing the heat gain or heat loss to ambient. Here you have a knowledge package on insulating materials for building that includes the fundamentals of insulation, information on all types of insulating materials for buildings, their application in buildings, energy saving potential, and case studies.

Booklet on Thermal Insulation of Buildings for Energy Efficiency

The publication, Thermal Insulation of Buildings for Energy Efficiency, outlines various important aspects related to building insulation materials, ranging from the principles of building science to the application of materials in buildings. It carries the specifications and testing standards of building insulation materials developed by the Bureau of Indian Standards and the prescriptive compliance requirements for using insulation in commercial buildings covered under the Energy Conservation Building Code (2007), Ministry of Power. It also addresses several important issues related to insulation materials and the salient initiatives undertaken by BEEP. It provides practice-oriented background information for building designers, architects, and various other stakeholders in the building construction industry.

Training Manual on Measuring the Characteristics of Thermal Properties of Building Insulation Materials

Document type: training manual.

Prof. Claud-Alain Roulet, a senior Swiss expert, has developed a training manual on testing the thermal properties of building insulation, which is a critical component of the technical assistance that BEEP provides towards developing building material testing infrastructure. Launched in June 2015 by H.E. Dr Linus von Castelmur, Ambassador of Switzerland to India and Bhutan in New Delhi, this manual is meant for training professionals working in lab facilities.

Energy Efficiency in District Cooling System

The setting up of new districts and neighbourhoods has led to a demand for centralized district cooling systems. However, designing such systems keeping energy efficiency as the prime objective is a difficult task. The presentation helps in addressing these issues.

Earth Air Tunnel (EAT)

The deep soil temperature of the earth remains almost the same as the average annual air temperature. By laying an underground pipe and passing the air through it, you can cool or heat the space. Sounds interesting? Here, you have a comprehensive knowledge package on EAT, which includes the basic principles, design basics, numerical tools with user manual, case studies, and the design exercise.

Radiant Cooling System

Human beings normally feel the average temperature of the surrounding surfaces such as wall, roof, floor, and air. Not just the air temperature as perceived. Radiant cooling system works on the principle of cooling the surrounding surface to do the space cooling. These systems can easily save 20%–40% energy as compared to a conventional cooling system. Want to know more about it? Here, you have a training module on radiant cooling systems that covers the basic principles of heat exchange, radiant cooling system types, working principle, its application, sizing calculations, moisture handling, integration with overall HVA system, design and performance evaluation, a tutorial on modelling these systems in ‘DesignBuilder’, and a few case studies.

Energy Simulation Tools

Energy simulation tools are useful for designing and calculating the performance of various design and system alternatives. They help in quantifying the performance parameters ‘and thereby in decision making. However, the selection of an appropriate energy simulation tool and its use in the best possible way always remain a challenge. The package here gives you a list of energy simulation tools, their capabilities and suitability, guidelines for quality assurance, and guidelines to simulate selected technology sets along with examples.

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• Skip to main content मुख्य सामग्री पर जाएं

The building sector in India is experiencing unprecedented growth. This sector alone accounts for over thirty per cent of India’s total electricity consumption. It is estimated that India is building 3,00,000 square feet of commercial floor space every day and will see one of the largest commercial and residential building construction boom over the next two decades. India is at an inflection point where forty per cent of the building stock that will exist in the next twenty years is yet to be built. This would generate greater demand for energy and hence there is an urgent need to optimise building energy demand in upcoming as well as existing building stock.

In 2001, the EC Act was enacted with the primary objective of providing a necessary legal framework for promoting energy conservation measures (BEE, 2017). The key directives of the act included standards 4 and labelling for appliances, identification of the energy intensive establishments to be notified as Designated Consumers (DC) and their inspection, energy audits by accredited energy auditors, among these were energy efficiency improvement in building sector and amendment of energy conservation building codes to suit local conditions.

BEE is working on Energy Efficiency of Buildings through support of State Designated Agencies. BEE has worked in cooperation with many international experts and agencies. Learning from their experiences and best practices and adopting them as suited. The Indo-US PACE-D programme, Indo-Swiss BEEP project, GIZ, UNDP and Indo-EU programme are some of the noteworthy programs.

Smt. Manasi Sahay Thakur , IAS

• Directorate of Energy (GoHP),
• Phase-III, Sectror-VI, New Shimla,
• Himachal Pradesh – 171009.

Shri Navjot Pal Singh Randhawa, IAS

• Chief Executive
• Punjab Energy Development Agency (PEDA)
• Solar Passive Complex,
• Plot No. 1-2, Sector 33-D,
• Chandigarh (U.T.) – 160 034.

Dr. Hanif Qureshi, IPS

• Director General
• Renewable Energy Department, Haryana & HAREDA,
• Akshay Urja Bhawan, Institutional Plot No.1, Sector 17,
• Panchkula – 134109, Haryana.

Shri Ajit Barnard

• Superintending Engineer
• Andaman & Nicobar SDA
• Office of Executive Engineer,
• NRSE Division (Behind Ganesh Temple)
• Electricity Department Pratrapur
• Port Blair - 744105.
• Read More अधिक पढ़ें

Shri A.Chandra Sekhara Reddy

• Chief Executive Officer
• State Energy Conservation Mission (SECM)
• 2nd Floor, 33/11 kV Indoor Substation, Museum Road,
• Governerpet,
• Vijayawada – 520 002, Andhra Pradesh.

Shri Marki Loya

• Arunachal Pradesh Renewable Energy Development Agency
• Urja Bhawan, Post Box-124
• Tadar Tang Marg, VIP Road
• Niti Vihar,Itanagar - 791 111

Shri Akhil Chandra Khataniar

• Chief Electrical Inspector –cum- Adviser
• Government of Assam
• 1st floor, West End Block, Housefed Complex,
• Basistha Road, Dispur,
• Guwahati – 781 003, Assam.

Shri Alok Kumar, IES

• Bihar Renewable Energy Development Agency (BREDA),
• 2nd Floor, Vidhyut Bhawan-II,
• Bailey Road, Patna – 800001

Shri Alok Katiyar, IFS

• Chhattisgarh State Renewable Energy Development Agency (CREDA)
• VIP Road (Airport Road), Near Energy Education Park,
• Raipur – 492 015, Chhattisgarh.

Shri M.R. Ingle

• Electricity Department,
• 4th Floor, Vidyut Bhavan, Near 66/11 KV Kachigam Sub-Station,
• Somnath - Kachigam Road,
• Kachigam – 396 210, Daman.

Shri Ashok Kumar Jha

• Executive Officer
• Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Management Centre
• 2nd Floor, E-Block, Vikas Bhawan - II, Near GPO Building,
• Civil Lines, New Delhi – 110 055.

Shri Raghuvir Keni

• Chief Electrical Engineer
• Electricity Department, Government of Goa
• 2nd floor, Vidyut Bhawan,
• Panaji – 403001, Goa.

Shri B. A. Shah, I.A.S.

• Gujarat Energy Development Agency (GEDA)
• 4th floor, Block No. 11 & 12,
• Udyog Bhavan, Sector-11, Gandhinagar – 382017,Gujarat
• Chief Engineer, Commercial and Survey
• Power Development Department Complex
• Bemina, Srinagar – 190 008,
• Jammu & Kashmir.

Shri Ashok Kumar, IFS

• Jharkhand Renewable Energy Development Agency (JREDA)
• 3rd Floor, SLDC Building, Kusai Colony, Doranda,
• Ranchi – 834 002, Jharkhand.

Dr. H.B. Budeppa, KAS.

• Managing Director
• Karnataka Renewable Energy Development Limited (KREDL)
• 39, Shanthi Gruha, Bharath Scouts & Guides Building,
• Palace Road, Bengaluru – 560 001, Karnataka.

Dr. R. Harikumar

• Director (In-charge)
• Energy Management Centre (EMC) - Kerala,
• Sreekrishna Nagar, Sreekaryam,
• Thiruvananthapuram – 695 017, Kerala.
• Chief Engineer
• Distribution Wing, Power Development Department (PDD Distribution),
• Administration of Union Territory of Ladakh,
• Ladakh (Kargil).

Shri C. N. Shajahan

• Electricity Division Office
• Lakshadweep Electricity Department
• Kavaratti Island, UT of Lakshadweep – 682 555.

Shri Rajeev Ranjan Meena, IAS

• Madhya Pradesh Urja Vikas Nigam
• “URJA BHAWAN”, Main Road No.02, Shivaji Nagar,
• Bhopal-462016 (M.P).

Shri Subhash S Dumbare, IAS

• Maharashtra Energy Development Agency (MEDA)
• MHADA Commercial Complex, 2nd Floor, Opp. Tridal Nagar,
• Yerwada, Pune – 411 006, Maharashtra.

Shri L. Priyokumar Singh

• Manipur State Power Distribution Company Limited (MSPDCL),
• 3rd Floor, New Directorate Building (Near 2nd M.R. Gate)
• Imphal-Dimapur Road,
• Imphal – 795 001, Manipur.

Shri C S Thangkhiew

• Senior Electrical Inspector
• Inspectorate of Electricity, Government of Meghalaya,
• Horse Shoe Building,Lower Lachumiere,
• Shillong – 793 001, Meghalaya.

Er. R. Romawia

• Chief Electrical Inspector
• Power & Electricity Department, Electrical Inspectorate
• Government of Mizoram, Zuangtui,
• Aizawl – 796 017, Mizoram.

Shri T.K. Halder

• Electrical Inspector
• Old Assembly Secretariat
• Near Old Assembly Hostel,
• Kohima – 797 001, Nagaland.

Shri Santosh Das

• Engineer- In-Chief (Electricity) – cum – Principal Chief Electrical Inspector
• State Designated Agency Odisha, Department of Energy
• Government of Odisha, Power House Square, Bidyut Marg,
• Bhubaneswar – 751 001, Odisha.

Thiru A.S.P.S Ravi Prakash

• Managing Director,
• Renewable Energy Agency Puducherry(REAP)
• Bungalow No.2, AFT Premises, Cuddalore Main Road,
• Mudaliarpet, Puducherry-605004.

Shri. Anil Gupta, IAS

• Rajasthan Renewable Energy Corporation Ltd (RRECL)
• E-166, Yudhishthir Marg,C-Scheme,
• Jaipur – 302 005, Rajasthan.

Shri Dilip Kumar Sharma

• Additional Chief Engineer (IPP) cum Nodal Officer Sikkim SDA
• Energy & Power Department, Government of Sikkim
• Power Secretariat, Kazi Road,
• Gangtok – 737 101, Sikkim.

Shri Er. S. Stephen Arokiyaraj

• Demand side Management.
• Tamil Nadu Generation & Distribution Corporation Limited
• 5th Floor, Eastern Wing,
• 144, Anna Salai, Chennai- 600002

Shri N Janaiah

• Vice Chairman & Managing Director
• Telangana State Renewable Energy Development Corporation (TSREDCO) Ltd.
• D.No. 6-2-910, Visvesvaraya Bhavan,
• The Institution of Engineers Building, Khairatabad,
• Hyderabad – 500 001, Telangana.

Dr. M.S. Kele

• Chairman-cum-Managing Director
• Tripura State Electricity Corporation Limited
• Bidyut Bhawan, North Banamalipur,
• Agartala, Tripura (West)-799001

Shri Bhawani Singh Khangarot, IAS

• Uttar Pradesh New and Renewable Energy Development Agency (UPNEDA)
• Vibhuti Khand, Gomti Nagar,
• Lucknow – 226010, Uttar Pradesh.

Capt. Alok Shekhar Tiwari, IAS

• Director & Additional Secretary (Energy), GoUK
• Uttarakhand Renewable Energy Development Agency (UREDA)
• Urja Park Campus, Industrial Area, Patel Nagar,
• Dehradun – 248 001, Uttarakhand.

Shri Amitava Sen

• Chief Engineer, Planning, Investigation & Design Department
• & Nodal Officer of WBSDA.
• Vidyut Bhavan, 5th Floor, B-Black, Bidhannagar,
• Block - DJ, Sector - II, Kolkata - 700091

Achievements in Commercial Buildings Sector :

Achievements in Residential Buildings Sector :

• Eco-Niwas Samhita 2018 (Part 1: Building Envelope) was developed and launched by Hon’ble Lok Sabha Speaker and Hon’ble Minister of Power on National Energy Conservation Day on 14th December, 2018.
• “Energy Efficiency Label for Residential Buildings” was launched by Hon’ble Minister of State (IC) for Power and Renewable during the conference of Ministers for Power, New & Renewable Energy of States & Union Territories held at Gurugram, Haryana on 26th February, 2019.
• A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed between Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) and Central Public Works Department (CPWD) for “Energy Efficiency in CPWD Managed Buildings”, on 10th January, 2019. Under this an awareness workshop on ECBC was conducted at CPWD officials in January, 2020.
• Eco-Niwas Samhita (ENS) Cells were established in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Karnataka and Maharashtra for implementation of the Residential Code.
• A Memorandum of Understanding was signed between UPNEDA and Lucknow Development Authority (LDA) on 2nd December, 2020, for cooperation and support in providing star rating and monitoring of energy efficient buildings, construction of ECBC compliant buildings and capacity building of LDA officials.
• 3rd Indo-Swiss BEEP Student Camp was organized online from 12th – 27th of December, 2020, with 60 participants from architecture and engineering backgrounds.
• 25No of Building Cells established, covering all states and UTs.
• 5No. building projects have been supported in 5 different states to showcase SuperECBC compliant buildings.
• The National Training Programme on ECBC and ENS was conducted on 19th July, 2021 for architects, building professionals, field officials and other stakeholders. 1113 participants attended the training programme.

Important Information for Consumers/Stackholders & Useful Links (Energy Efficiency In Buildings)

• Handbook for replicable designs for energy efficient residential buildings  ( Size:  14.4 MB,  Format:  PDF,  Language:  English)
• Eco Niwas Replicable designs for energy efficient residential buildings
• Design tool for building performance analysis
• Energy efficiency building materials directory
• Star label for energy efficiency Homes

Target Beneficiaries:

CPWD, Town and Country Planning, State PWDs, State Designated Agencies, UDD, Municipal corporations/ULBs, DISCOMs, Electrical Inspectorate, Architect, Engineers, Institutions/organizations, Builders, Developers, Homeowners, etc.

Contact Details of Concerned Officials of BEE: 

© Copyright © 2023, Bureau of Energy Efficiency

• Last Updated On: 19-09-2024 12:09:54

Towering Possibilities in India: Efficient Buildings

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Residential and commercial buildings account for nearly 30% of total electricity consumption in India today. This share is expected to increase to 48%—nearly half of electricity consumption—by 2042. Implementing strategies to reduce energy consumption through efficiency is a central topic of discussion during the ANGAN workshop hosted by India’s Bureau of Energy Efficiency.

Advancing energy efficiency in buildings across India’s cities is critical to saving energy, increasing energy access, combating pollution, and strengthening prosperity. Constructing more efficient buildings is also a central strategy to achieve India’s climate target and is important for the country to meet its targets on reducing cooling loads, an important focus of the India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP) released in March 2019.

Building energy codes are effective tools for achieving energy efficiency in construction and operation of buildings. Working with the state and national government agencies as well as local and international experts, the Ministry of Power’s BEE developed the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) for the commercial buildings in 2007 and amended in 2017. Several states and cities have made strong progress in adopting the ECBC, working with State Designated Agencies (SDAs), Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), leading real estate developers and other stakeholders.

A How-to-Manual: Towering Possibilities in India: Scaling up the Implementation of the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) Across States , a new report (draft) by NRDC and partners Administrative Staff College of India (ASCI), analyzes the latest in implementation of the building energy code in states across India. The purpose of this issue brief is to spur action to save energy through state-wide ECBC implementation across India as part of the country’s domestic goals and international targets. The report also includes five recommendations for states to follow to effectively adopt and implement the ECBC as well as a how-to-manual designed for states to advance energy efficiency implementation.

States that have notified the code include Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Odisha, Puducherry UT, Punjab, Rajasthan, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, West Bengal. The states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh have implemented mandatory codes with an online compliance system. Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh are the only two states that have amended, revised and notified the state code to adopt ECBC 2017. The state of Uttar Pradesh notified the ECBC 2017 version and is enforcing the code by incorporating it in the building bylaws. Most other states are working towards ECBC 2017 adoption and awaiting final approvals.

ASCI and NRDC have worked on increasing energy efficiency in India as well as sharing international best practices with real estate developers and the market stakeholders. ASCI and NRDC are knowledge partners to the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh in implementing policy while working with business and stakeholder towards market transformation.

Based on discussions with key state officials, experts and stakeholders, report includes five key recommendations for fast-tracking ECBC implementation at the state level in India. 

• Timely notification with high-level steering committees . To advance code notification, stakeholders should engage government officials at the highest levels and create steering and technical committees to champion energy efficient buildings and a clean energy future .
• Clear government agency roles . For each state, stakeholders should map and clearly identify the responsibilities of key government agencies, including state and city level divisions of urban development department, the energy department, and the municipal corporations .
• Strengthen real estate developer engagement . Stakeholders should strengthen engagement with real estate developers at each step, including formal consultations, steering committees, peer-to-peer education, case studies, and more. To accelerate code adoption, stakeholders should deepen engagement with real estate developers by coordinating with the national, state and local real estate developer associations to develop a set of state-specific activities towards advancing energy efficient buildings .
• Deepen capacity building for local experts . Specifically, training and materials to support code implementation and enforcement systems are critical to the compliance infrastructure. Working with BEE and others, stakeholders should develop programs to increase capacity among local architects, engineers and builders to support energy efficient building in their state .   
• Expand online compliance tools for building permissions . Several states, such as Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan, are in the process of adopting online building compliance tools. Including energy efficiency certification as a requirement of the online application needed prior to receiving building permissions is an effective method to ensuring compliance. To advance efficient buildings, stakeholders should work with the states and software companies developing the online government platforms for building permissions to integrate energy efficiency as a required component .

Scaling implementation and strengthening compliance of building energy codes was a main topic of discussion at the ANGAN in New Delhi hosted by Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) this week. NRDC and partners discussed the important lessons from implementation of the energy codes and the potential to scale up. Global experience in implementation of energy efficiency policies for buildings was also a part of the discussions at ANGAN.

Looking ahead, state action is the key to advancing energy efficiency in India. Energy efficiency is a major opportunity for the Indian economy to save energy and costs. It is also a key strategy to achieve India’s climate targets. NRDC and ASCI and a coalition of partners stand ready to work with states and stakeholders to advance energy efficiency in India.   

Highlighted Additional Resources

• Getting Cities Climate Ready
• Online Compliance System For Energy Conservation Building Code (Ecbc) For Hyderabad
• Building a Better Future: Implementing the Energy-Saving Building Code in Hyderabad
• Transforming Cities: Building Efficiency Lessons from Hyderabad
• Taking Energy Efficiency to New Heights: Analysis and Recommendations for the Buildings Sector from the Hyderabad Experience
• Retrofitting Mahindra Towers: How an Innovative ESCO Model Lowers Energy Bills With No Upfront Cost
• Building Smart from the Start: Spotlight on Energy-Saving Commercial Office Building in Noida, India
• Saving Money and Energy: Case Study of the Energy-Efficiency Retrofit of the Godrej Bhavan Building in Mumbai
• Building Efficient Cities: Strengthening the Indian Real Estate Market Through Codes and Incentives
• Greener Construction Saves Money: Incentives for Energy Efficient Buildings Across India

This is a guest blog by Prima Madan, lead energy efficiency expert consultant with NRDC based in New Delhi.

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• Open access
• Published: 28 April 2021

Resilience of vernacular and modernising dwellings in three climatic zones to climate change

• Khadeeja Henna 1 ,
• Aysha Saifudeen 1 , 2 &
• Monto Mani 1  

Scientific Reports volume  11 , Article number:  9172 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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• Energy science and technology
• Engineering

Climate change impacts buildings in multiple ways, including extreme weather events and thermal stresses. Rural India comprising 65% of the population is characterised by vernacular dwellings evolved over time to passively regulate and maintain comfortable indoors. Increasing modernization in rural habitations (transitions) evident from the ingress of modern materials and electro-mechanical appliances undermines the ability of building envelopes to passively regulate and maintain comfortable indoors. While such trends are deemed good for the economy, their underlying implications in terms of climate change have not been adequately examined. The current study evaluates the climate-resilience of vernacular dwellings and those undergoing transitions in response to three climate-change scenarios, viz, A1B (rapid economic growth fuelled by balanced use of energy sources), A2 (regionally sensitive economic development) and B1 (structured economic growth and adoption of clean and resource efficient technologies). The study examines dwellings characteristic to three rural settlements representing three major climate zones in India and involves both real-time monitoring and simulation-based investigation. The study is novel in investigating the impact of climate change on indoor thermal comfort in rural dwellings, adopting vernacular and modern materials. The study revealed higher resilience of vernacular dwellings in response to climate change.

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Introduction.

Climate change and its effect on human health, economy and environment is one of the most widely researched topics in the twenty-first century. Building and construction industry, the highest contributor to global emissions and climate change, is responsible for 39% of the global energy- and process-related emissions, with 17% from residential sector 1 . However, buildings are also the most vulnerable to climate change, especially in progressive and developing regions. Climate change could involve gradual/abrupt changes in temperatures to unprecedented rains, floods and cyclones. It impacts building thermal comfort, alters operating conditions and energy demands while rendering existing appliances inadequate 2 . This impact is evident as altered comfortable temperature conditions and increased heating/cooling energy demand. In 2018, 22% of the global final energy was consumed by residential buildings 1 , with 40% of energy utilization on space conditioning. This is projected to increase by 40% by 2050 over 2010 levels based on International Energy Agency’s (IEA) 6 ºC (6DS) scenario 3 . The energy consumed by buildings varies depending on the climate, lifestyle and building typology. Per capita energy consumed by buildings in prosperous countries in a cold climate zone like the United States or Canada, could be 5–10 times that of low-income countries in a warm climate zone in Africa or Latin America 4 . In 2018, India’s per capita residential energy consumption was less than 0.6 MWh while that of the US was over 10 MWh 5 . While 66% of India’s population resides in rural areas, only 18% of US population is rural 6 . However, unlike in westernised regions, the disparity in energy consumption between rural and urban India is huge (96 kWh in rural areas, 288 kWh in urban areas as in 2009) 7 . A 4 × increase in embodied energy (EE) and a 40 × increase in operational energy (OE) respectively has been observed with buildings transitioning from vernacular to modern 8 . If rural life in India rapidly transitions towards global urban lifestyles, the ecological stresses (resource extraction and greenhouse gas emissions) could exasperate global efforts to mitigate climate change. The national statistics indicate rapid transition from traditional climate-responsive houses constructed using locally available materials towards an urban-like dwellings adopting industry manufactured, energy-intensive materials, disregarding the local climate. In 2001, clay tiles roofs (32.5%) had given way to concrete (29%) by 2011 9 . A growth of 89% in the use of concrete and 76% increase in metal/asbestos roofing sheets has been witnessed between 2001 and 2011.

While vernacular dwellings have evolved to passively maintain comfortable indoors, modern dwellings inevitably rely on energy-intensive appliances for comfort. Modern buildings tend to be energy-intensive and result in huge emissions through their lifecycle. Residential energy consumption in India in 2014 was 50 times that in 1971 10 . Such increase could cripple global efforts to mitigate climate change. On the other hand, vernacular dwellings could hold key solutions for mitigation and adaptation to climate change, given their capability to withstand wider temperature variations with lower lifecycle energy-resource intensity 11 . This study attempts to assess the thermal performance of vernacular dwellings in three climate zones in India and the effect of material transitions on the thermal performance of these dwellings. The study also investigates the impact of climate change on their performance.

Literature review

The effect and severity of climate change on thermal comfort in dwellings can be measured as change in heating and/or cooling demand and resulting energy consumption. Severe cold climates are expected to witness reduction in heating demands, while warmer climates are expected to witness considerable increase in cooling demand 12 . The impact of climate change also varies according to building type. Wang and Chen 13 , studied impact of climate change on seven commercial buildings and two residential buildings in different climate zones across the US and found a net increase in energy consumption in warm and moderate climates while a net decrease in energy consumption in colder climates. Karimpour et al. 14 investigated the impact of different building envelope (insulation and glazing) configurations in mild Australian temperate climate on energy consumption in current and future climates and recommended higher insulation, double glazing and low emittance glass in response to increased cooling energy demand. Huang and Gurney 15 studied US building stock, focusing on commercial building types, across three building age classes- pre-1980, post-1980 and new-2004, to understand their performance under climate change. The buildings equipped with the newest technology with more energy efficient equipment and better insulation exhibited higher efficiency in maintaining comfortable indoor environment.

Naturally ventilated (NV) vernacular dwellings constructed using local materials have lower embodied energy and ecological footprint. Mani et al. 16 estimated the ecological footprint of conventional dwellings to be 2.5 times that of traditional dwellings in West Bengal, India. Vernacular buildings also tend to be resilient in wider range of temperatures in providing comfort when compared to conventional buildings 17 , 18 , 19 . Dili et al. 20 studied vernacular and conventional dwellings in Kerala, India, with warm-humid climate, and confirmed that vernacular dwellings outperformed conventional dwellings in maintaining indoor comfort across seasons. Shastry et al. 21 studied the impact of modern transitions on rural dwellings in West Bengal, India, and found an increase in average indoor temperatures from 7 to 10 °C. Given the lower EE and OE energy and higher resilience to maintain indoor thermal comfort in response to wider variations in weather conditions, vernacular dwellings could hold important insights for mitigation and adaptation to climate change.

Methodology

India is broadly classified into five climatic zones- hot-dry, warm-humid, composite, temperate and cold 22 . In this study, three distinct villages belonging to warm-humid, temperate and cold climate zones have been selected to represent warm, moderate and cold climatic conditions in India, respectively. A typical vernacular dwelling from each village was selected for detailed investigation into climate-resilience. Real-time indoor air temperatures at different locations in the dwellings were recorded at 30-min intervals using calibrated Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) data loggers (0.05 °C resolution and ± 1 °C accuracy). Real-time measurement of indoor parameters proceeded according to Class III level of detail as defined in 23 , widely adopted in thermal comfort field study research. It was important to prevent the loggers from interfering with the daily lives of the inhabitants as these loggers were being installed in occupied houses for almost a year. Calibrated simulation models of the vernacular dwellings were developed using DesignBuilder (v 3.4), an integrated building performance simulation package 24 . The model calibration essentially involved a correlation with real-time climatic-performance data (see Sect.  4 ). In order to examine performance of vernacular dwellings in response to climate change, weather files for both typical and future climate scenarios were generated using Meteonorm . Meteonorm is a global climatological tool, that derives data from weather stations between 1991 and 2010 and integrates IPCC AR4 (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change- Fourth Assessment Report) emission scenarios 25 . Three future scenarios, namely, A1B (rapid economic growth fuelled by balanced fossil/non-fossil energy use), A2 (regionally oriented economic development characterised by less innovation) and B1 (structured economic growth and adoption of clean and resource efficient technologies) are explored in this paper. Both A1B and A2 are high emission scenarios, with A2 resulting in higher global surface warming in the second half of the twenty-first century. B1 on the other hand is one of the scenarios with lowest emissions and global surface warming 26 . Modern transitions in each of the habitations were studied based on trends revealed through satellite imagery, field visits and government reports, and were incorporated in the simulation models to examine the impact of future climate change scenarios.

This study comprises three agrarian rural settlements (Fig.  1 ) namely Suggenahalli, Karnataka (12.816° N, 76.993° E), Dasenahalli, Karnataka (13.146° N, 77.465° E) and Bisoi, Uttarakhand (30.971° N, 77.928° E) belonging to warm-humid, temperate and cold climate zones respectively. In addition to the willingness of the inhabitants, these settlements were identified for unique vernacular architecture (Table 1 ) and an evident trend of modern transitions. The vernacular dwellings in these villages are naturally ventilated and constructed using locally available materials with local traditional know-how passed over generations.

(Adapted from National Building Code of India, 2005 22 ) and selected rural settlements: Figure shows the location of the rural settlements studied in this paper on the climate zone map of India. Suggenahalli lies in Warm-humid zone, Dasenahalli in Temperate zone and Bisoi in Cold zone. The authors used Autodesk AutoCAD 2018 (Product version: O.49.0.0 AutoCAD 2018) https://www.autodesk.com/products/autocad/overview?support=ADVANCED&plc=ACDIST&term=1-YEAR&quantity=1 to draw the map and mark the rural settlements on it.

Climatic zones in India.

The proximity and improved connectivity of Suggenahalli and Dasenahalli to Bengaluru city and Bisoi to Dehradun has helped spur modern lifestyles. Access to electricity and modern construction materials is evident as transitions in the dwellings. These transitions that mimic urban habitations are characteristic to many rural habitation and involve traditional local materials giving way to energy-intensive exotic materials 8 , 27 , 28 .

Transitions in vernacular dwellings were characterised by progressive inclusion of modern materials, while retaining the original form. Newer constructions adopted modern construction materials, seldom carrying a semblance of traditional form and indoor spaces. In Suggenahalli (Fig.  2 a–c), the thick rubble walls were increasingly being replaced by slender brick masonry, the pitched clay-tile roofs were replaced by flat AC sheet roofing and then by reinforced cement concrete (RCC) slabs, and the cool earthen floors have made way to cement flooring. In Dasenahalli (Fig.  2 d–f), clay from the agricultural fields were moulded into mud blocks to construct walls. These walls were increasingly being replaced by cement blocks, pitched clay tiled roof by tin/AC sheets and ultimately by flat RCC roof and the mud flooring by cement and tiles. Bisoi, which once depended on forest-harvested timber for houses, is faced with state regulations restricting the use of forest produce. This also has forced villagers to look for alternate building materials, with the older generation preferring vernacular dwellings, and the younger city-educated/employed generation preferring conventional dwellings. The geographic isolation by mountain ranges has moderated the rate of transitions and helped in higher retention of vernacular dwellings. The transitions in Bisoi (Fig.  2 g–i) mostly involve replacing of timber walls on the first floor by brick walls while retaining the ground floor stone and timber wall construction, the slate roof by metal sheets and pitched RCC roof and mud/timber flooring by cement flooring. Flat RCC roofs originally constructed revealed cracks under heavy snow load and were eventually replaced by sloping RCC roof. In all the three villages, material transitions remained the most prominent and evident type of transition. The current study examines the primary material transition in vernacular dwellings retaining their form and orientation for their thermal performance and resilience to climate change. Table 2 summarises the vernacular and conventional building materials used in constructing the simulation models for the three case studies.

Stages of material transition (from left to right) in vernacular dwellings in the three villages: Stages of transition in the use of construction materials for each rural settlement is shown in the figure. Images in each row from left to right shows transition from traditional materials to conventional materials. ( a ), ( d ) and ( g ) represents the typical vernacular construction using traditional materials in Suggenahalli, Dasenahalli and Bisoi, respectively. ( b ), ( e ) and ( h ) represent a common intermediate stage in the process of transition using conventional but mostly temporary materials in the three villages. ( c ), ( f ) and ( i ) are the final products of transitions in the three villages using conventional factory-made materials which are more permanent in nature.

Studies focusing on naturally ventilated buildings rely on adaptive thermal comfort models to assess building climatic performance. These models more precisely accommodate the natural physiological ability to adapt indoor comfort requirements in response to external climatic (temperature) conditions. The performance of dwellings in this study adopts Adaptive Heating and Cooling Degree Days (AHDD and ACDD) calculated based on the Adaptive thermal comfort model (ATCM) incorporated in the ASHRAE 55 standard, 2010 29 . ATCM takes into account the acceptability of wider range of temperatures by occupants in naturally ventilated buildings, especially in tropical climates 30 . It illustrates a linear dependence of indoor operative temperatures on mean monthly outdoor temperatures and also describes a 90% and 80% acceptability limits indicating the percentage of occupants expressing comfort 31 . The days when indoor temperatures exceed acceptability limits, the corresponding ACDD and AHDD are computed as a measure of the augmented cooling or heating need (see Fig.  3 ):

Representation of ACDD and AHDD based on Adaptive Thermal comfort model, ASHRAE 55: The plot shown in the figure represents the Adaptive thermal comfort model defined in ASHRAE 55. Solid line indicates 80% acceptability limits and dotted line indicates 90% acceptability limits. Figure depicts the method adopted for calculating Adaptive Heating Degree Days (AHDD) and Adaptive Cooling Degree Days (ACDD). Indoor operative temperatures falling above or below the 80% acceptability limits multiplied by the duration for which the temperature lasts are used to calculate ACDD and AHDD, respectively. Duration for which the indoor operative temperatures fall above the 80% acceptability limit will require active cooling to attain comfort. Similarly, duration for which the indoor operative temperatures fall below the 80% acceptability limit will require active heating for comfort.

where \(T_{op.i}\) is the daily operative temperatures and \(T_{b.m}^{ul}\) and \(T_{b.m}^{ll}\) are the upper and lower limits of the monthly base temperature above and below which cooling and heating requirements surface. \(T_{b.m}^{ul}\) and \(T_{b.m}^{ll}\) are calculated based on ATCM for each month using the relation:

where T mm is the mean monthly outdoor temperature and x is the variability based on acceptability limit, which is 3.5 for 80% acceptability and 2.5 for 90% acceptability 31 , 32 .

Model calibration

ASHRAE Guideline 14 suggest use of Mean Bias Error (MBE) and Coefficient of Variation of Root Mean Square Error (CV RMSE) for calibration of simulation model based on measured performance data 33 , 34 , 35 . MBE and CV RMSE indicate the relative and accumulated divergences between measured and simulated value, respectively. According to the guideline, for an acceptable calibrated simulation model, MBE hourly data should lie within ± 10% and CV RMSE hourly data should not exceed 30%. For this study, the simulated indoor air temperatures were calibrated based on real time measurements. Royapoor and Roskilly 36 in their study on performance of an office building had validated their EnergyPlus virtual building model by calculating MBE and CV RMSE. For better reliability, ASHRAE recommends using both statistical and graphical approaches to model calibration 33 , 37 , which has been adopted in this study: firstly, by graphically comparing the measured and simulated indoor air temperatures, and secondly, by calculating the MBE and CV RMSE. Figure  4 illustrates the concurrence between measured and simulated weeklong summer and winter temperatures for the three case studies. Since summer data for Bisoi was not accessible, a warm week in October was relied on as representative for summer. A one-on-one match between real-time and simulated temperature is rarely feasible given the variability in the external climatic data between the simulation model and on-site conditions. Also, variations attributed to non-routine indoor occupancy are difficult to precisely predict and include in the simulation model 38 , 39 . This approach to calibration has been adopted for reliable building performance studies 36 , 37 , 39 , 40 . Figure  5 illustrates the MBE and CV RMSE for the three simulation models being well within recommended favourable limits for calibration. Moreover, the lower error values indicate improved reliability of the simulation results 33 , 35 . MBE and CV RMSE between measured and simulation data are calculated using Eqs. ( 5 ) and ( 6 ):

where m i and s i are measured and simulated data points for i th hour, \(\overline{m}\) is the average of measured data points and N is the total number of data points.

Comparison of simulated and measured temperature data for a representative week-long period in Summer and Winter for the dwellings studied in the three settlements: Figure shows comparison of measured and simulated hourly indoor air temperatures (in °C) for a representative week in winter and summer for the three dwellings to understand how the simulation model has been able to represent the actual indoor operating conditions prevailing in the dwellings. Solid blue line shows the real-time temperature measurements recorded by the loggers, while the dotted orange line shows the simulated data. The simulation models tend to closely imitate real-time operating conditions, suggesting that the models are representative enough to be used for studying the behaviour of the original dwellings.

MBE and CV RMSE between measured and simulated temperature data for the dwellings in the three settlements: Figure shows the Mean Bias Error (MBE) and Coefficient of Variation of Root Mean Square Error (CV RMSE) in percentage calculated between the measured and simulated indoor air temperature data for the dwellings studied in each of the three settlements. The blue coloured solid bar shows MBE, while orange coloured bar with diagonal stripes shows CV RMSE. Both MBE and CV RMSE for all the three settlements are within the limits prescribed by ASHRAE 14 guideline.

With regards to climate change scenarios, for both Dasenahalli and Suggenahalli, the likely outdoor temperatures are much higher than the prevalent trends for all the three scenarios, with a steady decadal increase (see Fig.  6 a, b, d and e). A1B witnesses the highest increase in temperature across the years while B1 had the lowest. Notably, increase in summer (March–May) temperatures are higher than increase in winter (December–February) temperatures. In Bisoi (Fig.  6 c and f), the prevalent mean monthly temperatures ranging from 6 to 22 °C narrowed to 8–21 °C in the future years, while also registering a decadal increase. Here, while future winter temperatures are likely to increase, summer temperatures are likely to decrease.

( a )–( c ) Mean monthly outdoor air temperatures for typical and A1B scenario for 2030, 2040 and 2050 and ( d ), ( e ) the range of daily outdoor air temperatures for the three settlements for typical scenario and all future scenarios: ( a ), ( b ) and ( c ) shows the mean monthly outdoor air temperature (in °C) for typical scenario and A1B scenario for the years 2030, 2040 and 2050 for the rural settlements Suggenahalli, Dasenahalli and Bisoi, respectively. The same is not shown for A2 and B1 scenarios but they show similar trend with increasing temperatures with each passing decade. ( d ), ( e ) and ( f ) show the range of outdoor air temperatures (in °C) for typical and all three scenarios for future years 2030, 2040 and 2050 for the rural settlements Suggenahalli, Dasenahalli and Bisoi, respectively. The temperatures tend to increase with each decade with the highest increase in A1B scenario and lowest in B1 scenario for both Suggenahalli and Dasenahalli. In case of Bisoi winters tend to get warmer than typical conditions while summers tend to get cooler than typical conditions. The decadal increase in temperature can be witnessed here as well.

Figure  7 shows daily indoor temperature distribution in the vernacular and conventional dwelling in both typical and future A1B climate scenario for the three cases. The graphs reveal the % days/year with an average daily temperature greater than the value on the abscissa. In the vernacular dwelling in Suggenahalli (Fig.  7 a), climate change tends to increase indoor temperatures in the future. When the indoor temperatures exceeded 30 °C for only 2% of days in a normal year, in 2030, 16% of the days revealed temperature above 30 °C. A similar trend can also be noted in the conventional dwelling (Fig.  7 b). In typical climate the indoor temperatures in conventional dwelling exceeded 30 °C for 24% of the days and 34 °C for 2% of the days. By 2030, indoor temperatures exceeded 30 °C for 34% of the days and 34 °C for 8% of the days. The persistence of higher temperatures in conventional dwelling shows the effect of material transitions. Dasenahalli (Fig.  7 c and d) also shows a similar trend, though the difference between vernacular and conventional dwelling is not as high. In typical climate, average daily indoor temperatures exceed 26 °C, 17% of the days in vernacular dwelling and 18% in conventional dwelling. Climate change does influence the thermal environment in the dwellings and tends to increase the daily indoor temperatures as is evident from the figure. The temperature in both the dwellings does not exceed 32 °C in any case. Bisoi (Fig.  7 e and f) recorded a wider temperature range from 8 to 28 °C. Even though there is a general increase in temperatures due to climate change, at higher temperatures the trend reverses. Future years does not witness an increase in higher temperatures compared to typical climate. The daily indoor temperature in both the dwellings does not exceed 28 °C. Bisoi being in cold climate zone, the concern should be on the persistence of lower temperatures. In vernacular dwelling, temperature falls below 16 °C, 24% of the time in typical climate while in 2030 A1B scenario it falls below 16 °C for 22% of the time. While in conventional dwelling, temperature falls below 16 °C, 13% of the time in typical climate while in 2030 A1B scenario it falls below 16 °C for 23% of the time. Transitions and climate change seem to maintain comfortable temperature range indoors.

Percentage of days above a daily temperature given on abscissa for vernacular and conventional dwelling in the three settlements for typical scenario and future years under A1B scenario: Each bar in the plot shows the percentage of days in a year for which the mean daily indoor air temperature (in °C) is greater than the corresponding temperature (in °C) given on the abscissa. The plot helps to understand the range of temperatures and extent to which those temperatures prevail inside a dwelling throughout the year. This is shown for typical scenario and future years for A1B scenario. ( a ) and ( b ) shows the same for vernacular and conventional dwelling in Suggenahalli, ( c ) and ( d ) for dwellings in Dasenahalli and ( e ) and ( f ) for dwellings in Bisoi. Higher temperatures tend to persist in the dwellings in future years compared to typical conditions especially for conventional dwelling in case of both Suggenahalli and Dasenahalli. This is more evident in Suggenahalli than Dasenahalli. In the case of Bisoi, the frequency of lower temperatures in higher in the future compared to typical conditions, while frequency of higher temperature is higher in typical conditions than future years.

In Fig.  8 , the daily operative temperatures for each dwelling in the three villages are plotted against mean monthly daily temperatures for typical climate and future years for A1B scenario. It also shows the 80% acceptability limits as prescribed by ASHRAE 55. This figure forms the basis for the calculation of ACDD and AHDD. The vernacular dwelling in Suggenahalli (Fig.  8 a) maintains an indoor operative temperature within the acceptability limits for most part of the year for typical climate but exceeds the upper limit for future years at higher outdoor temperatures. On the other hand, the conventional dwelling (Fig.  8 b) fails to maintain indoor temperatures within the acceptability limits for both typical as well as future years for large part of the year. This shows that transitions hugely impact the indoor operative conditions in the dwelling. In the case of Dasenahalli (Fig.  8 c and d), the indoor operative temperatures are maintained within the acceptability limits for both vernacular and conventional dwellings for typical climate and future years. In Bisoi (Fig.  8 e and f), for both the dwellings, the temperatures fall below the lower acceptability limit for a large part of the year for typical climate and future years.

Indoor operative temperature against mean monthly outdoor air temperature for vernacular and conventional dwellings in the three settlements in typical and future climate for A1B scenario: Each plot shows the daily indoor operative temperatures (in °C) inside the dwelling throughout a year plotted against mean outdoor air temperature (in °C) for the corresponding month. The two dotted lines shown in each figure indicates the 80% acceptability limits prescribed by ASHRAE 55 Adaptive thermal comfort model. The points lying within the 80% acceptability limit band are considered to be comfortable by at least 80% of the inhabitants, while those lying outside indicate thermal discomfort. Higher number of points lying outside the band indicate higher discomfort in the given dwelling. Comparing ( a ) and ( b ), conventional dwelling tends to be highly uncomfortable throughout the year for typical as well as future scenarios. Comparing ( c ) and ( d ), there is only marginal difference between vernacular and conventional dwelling in Dasenahalli. Comparing ( e ) and ( f ), though both vernacular and conventional dwelling tend to be uncomfortable at lower outdoor temperatures, vernacular dwelling seems to be warmer than conventional dwelling providing better comfort in cold weather.

As followed in the comparative evaluation of vernacular buildings under climate change, AHDD and ACDD were computed for the material transitions in dwellings under typical and future (A1B, A2 and B1) climate scenarios. The dwelling in Suggenahalli (Fig.  9 a–c), being in a warm-humid climate zone, do not require any heating throughout the year for all scenarios alike. For the vernacular dwelling, ACDD tend to be quite low in typical climate with small increase in future years. Both climate change and transitions tend to have a serious effect on thermal comfort inside the dwelling in warm-humid climate zone. When the building materials changed from vernacular to modern, ACDD increased from 4 to 246 in typical climate condition (4 to 167 in summer and 0 to 36 in winter). This high difference in degree days between vernacular and conventional dwelling is evident from Fig.  8 a and b shows that a large number of data points lie above the acceptability limit in conventional dwelling compared to vernacular dwelling. Climate change further increased ACDD in the future years with highest increase in A1B scenario and lowest in A2 scenario. Cooling requirement increases considerably due to climate change and transitions especially in summer. In the case of Dasenahalli (Fig.  9 d–f), both AHDD and ACDD are very low in both vernacular and conventional dwelling in typical climate. ACDD is zero in all future years while AHDD, though small, steadily increases in future years, especially for A1B scenario. Transition also affects the thermal comfort in the dwellings where transitions increased both ACDD and AHDD in typical climate, marking an increase in cooling as well as heating demand. In all future years across scenarios, transitions increase ACDD in the dwelling. In Dasenahalli, ACDD and AHDD are not severe enough to require cooling or heating appliances. Bisoi (Fig.  9 g–i) being in cold climate zone, does not require cooling throughout the year for both typical as well as future climatic conditions. The warming climate in Bisoi tend to decrease heating demand in the dwelling in both vernacular and conventional dwelling. Transitions have an adverse effect on the thermal comfort in the dwelling as it increases heating demand in the dwelling by an average of 25% compared to the vernacular dwelling in winter. This shows the effectiveness of insulation provided by the timber walls and the timber and slate roofing in vernacular dwelling over conventional materials.

All year, summer and winter AHDD and ACDD for the dwellings in the three villages for typical and future climate scenarios: Each plot depicts the Adaptive heating degree days (AHDD) and Adaptive cooling degree days (ACDD) calculated for vernacular and conventional dwelling for typical scenario and future years 2030, 2040 and 2050 for A1B, A2 and B1 scenarios. Plots from left to right shows typical and future ACDD and AHDD calculated for the entire year, for summer and winter for each rural settlement for both vernacular and conventional dwelling. From ( a ), ( b ) and ( c ) conventional dwelling in Suggenahalli tend to demand active cooling for most part of the year compared to vernacular dwelling. In case of Dasenahalli ( d ), ( e ) and ( f ), it can be seen that demand for heating or cooling is fairly low, cooling demand is slightly higher in conventional dwelling. From ( g ), ( h ) and ( i ), heating demand is high in both dwellings in Bisoi, especially in winter, with heating demand higher in conventional dwelling than vernacular dwelling.

The study investigated the effect of climate change and material transitions (replacing local traditional materials with conventional materials) on vernacular dwellings in three villages in India across three different climate zones. The impact of climate change on the dwellings were examined for the years 2030, 2040 and 2050 under the IPCC SRES scenarios A1B, A2 and B1 and compared with typical climate which is an average of 20 years of recorded weather data. In both Suggenahalli and Dasenahalli, climate change increased the outdoor temperatures throughout the year affecting the indoor environment as well. The effect of climate change was more pronounced in the case of Suggenahalli located in warm-humid climate zone, making the indoors warmer than the typical, climate demanding the use of cooling appliances. Due to climate change, winter outdoor temperatures increased while summer temperatures decreased in Bisoi. Summer temperatures can be expected to increase further in the second half of the century. Climate change has helped increase indoor temperatures which reduced heating demand in the dwellings. In warm climates, A1B scenario had the worst impact on the weather and the indoor temperatures, while B1 scenario which was a low emission scenario had comparatively lower impact on the temperatures. On the other hand, in cold climates A1B helped reduce the heating demand much better than A2 and B1 scenarios.

For both Suggenahalli and Dasenahalli, the vernacular dwelling maintained comfortable indoor operating conditions for most part of the year. The conventional dwelling in Dasenahalli also was able to maintain comfortable indoor conditions. Transitions in Suggenahalli led to warmer indoor environment pushing it beyond the acceptability limits. In case of Bisoi, indoor temperatures fall below acceptability limit for both vernacular and conventional dwelling. The thermal insulation provided by the traditional materials in the vernacular dwelling helped it to perform better than the conventional dwelling in maintaining warmer indoors. Vernacular dwellings seem to perform better than the conventional dwellings in all the three cases for typical as well as future climate. Conventional dwelling that replaced the traditional materials with modern materials failed to adequately respond to changes in climate, compromising indoor thermal comfort and necessitating dependence on active space conditioning.

Modern material transitions in dwellings compromised the thermal comfort in the dwellings across all climate zones, though the effect was not severe in Temperate climate as it was in Warm-humid and  Cold climates. Climate change further exasperated the thermal comfort in dwellings in warm climates but seemed favourable in cold climates. The study helps to verify the climate-resilience of vernacular dwellings to perform in the context of much imminent climate change and shows that modern dwellings constructed using modern industry manufactured materials, to meet the modern aspirations of inhabitants may not perform in the event of climate change. This confirms the need for reinterpretation in design of houses that meet the modern aspirations of the people and perform in the future climate scenarios. The study indicates that vernacular dwellings hold key answers in the direction of mitigation and adaptation strategies in response to climate change and advocates designers to understand the present and future climatic conditions and future demands in the local context, to appreciate and scientifically validate traditional wisdom while designing buildings for the future. Designers must ensure that the dwellings they construct not only meet the aspirations of the modern inhabitant but also perform under future climatic pressures.

Limitations of the study and scope for future work

A country like India is home to diverse vernacular architecture which varies with climate, culture, customs, and available resources. This paper studies three rural settlements with unique vernacular architecture and evident transitions in three different climate zones in India. The authors have selected the settlements such that the vernacular architecture is representative of the climate zone they are in. Inclusion of more case studies and other climate zones would increase the scope of the paper and present a better estimate on the nature of transitions and their ramifications on resource and energy requirement and vulnerabilities to climate change. The current study is a step in this direction and is also a methodological contribution for such studies, tested for three diverse settlements. The selection of settlements for the study was difficult as it required a combination of both vernacular and modern dwellings and those that are in transition. Overcoming scepticism of villagers and gaining their trust was an important requirement to ensure the corporation of the villagers as the study extended for more than a year in each of the villages. Extending this study to cover the diversity of habitations in India, would require networking with local academic institutions, a larger group and a longer time to identify appropriate interventions/mitigation measures in response to climate change.

Understanding the contribution of each stage of transition on the thermal performance of the dwelling is also important to identify critical stages of transition and adopt preventive or adaptive strategies to improve thermal comfort in the dwelling without compromising the requirements of the inhabitants. Future work will involve investigation of individual stages of transitions and their effects on thermal comfort in the dwelling to assess the contribution of each transition on the performance of the dwellings. The study could subsequently evolve into regional building codes and recommendations for interventions in response to climate change, and the revalidation of vernacular building typologies for their relevance in the modern world. Further, the study could promote dependence on local decentralized circular economies that rely on local resources and skill, thereby lowering the global carbon footprint.

The current study is limited to understanding the thermal performance of the dwellings to changing climate. Studies have reported increased discomfort among occupants due to transitions 20 , 21 as well as climate change 2 . The response of the occupants to changing climate and performance of dwellings should shed light on possible adaptation strategies since rural population tend to be proactive in responding to change. Research reveals increased dependence on electro-mechanical equipment for thermal comfort, clothing adjustments and window operation as some of the major adaptation strategies 41 , 42 . Future work should aim to explore adaptation and mitigation strategies adopted in form, materials, or surface treatments in the dwelling elements and in clothing, window operation and use of spaces by the occupants.

However, understanding how people are going to change as climate warms, would involve intergenerational attitude and physiological studies, as current forecasts rely on thermal comfort responses valid for the current (adult) generation. Attitude is a critical determinant of sustainablity in human settlements and determines how the built environment evolves, with forcasting models relying on current generation attitudes 45 . In 2050, the present-day infants and youth would be the adults responsible for affecting changes or responses to climate change vulnerabilities. Given the diversity in ethnicity and other physiological differences, such studies on human exposure to climatic variations are extremely challenging in providing the causal basis required for forecasting 43 , 44 .

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Acknowledgements

We thank the Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science for providing the unwavering academic support and freedom to purse this valuable research. The current work has relied on and continued the sustained research by our SuDesi (Sustainability and Design) Lab in studying diverse building typologies. Thanks also to the SPARC (Scheme for Promotion of Academic and Research Collaboration) initiative, which has been instrumental in our access to the dwellings in Bisoi.

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K.H., A.S., M.M., All authors were part of the conception of the paper, data collection, and real-time monitoring of the houses. K.H. and A.S. built the simulation models. K.H. performed the simulation, calibration, and analysis. K.H. wrote the main manuscript and prepared the figures and tables. M.M. further edited the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Henna, K., Saifudeen, A. & Mani, M. Resilience of vernacular and modernising dwellings in three climatic zones to climate change. Sci Rep 11 , 9172 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87772-0

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Case Study: India’s First Net-zero Energy Building- Indira Paryavaran Bhavan

2020, International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research

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A new method for simulation-based sensitivity analysis of building efficiency for optimal building energy planning: a case study of Iran

• Correspondence
• Published: 17 September 2024

Cite this article

• Masoud Nasouri 1 &
• Navid Delgarm 2  

This work provides a Simulation-Based Sensitivity Analysis (SBSA) framework for optimal building energy planning during the conceptual design phase. The innovative approach integrates EnergyPlus with local sensitivity analysis (LSA) and global sensitivity analysis (GSA) algorithms, thereby facilitating direct sensitivity analysis (SA) capabilities without reliance on external plugins or third-party tools. The effectiveness of this approach is exemplified through its application to a residential building situated in a hot semi-arid climate region of Iran. The efficacy of the developed approach is demonstrated by applying it to a residential building located in a hot semi-arid climate region in Iran. The study utilizes four primary building performance criteria as output variables: annual heating energy consumption (AHC), annual cooling energy consumption (ACC), annual lighting energy consumption (ALC), and the predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD). The study employs one-at-a-time (OAT) analysis for LSA and Sobol’s analysis for GSA to investigate the behavior of output variables in response to changes in building design parameters. In the LSA approach, a newly developed sensitivity indicator, termed the Dispersion Index (DI), is introduced to precisely measure the overall sensitivity of outputs to inputs ( \({S}_{T}\) ). Results indicate that annual AHC is most sensitive to the heating setpoint ( \({S}_{T}\) = 80%) and solar absorptance of exterior walls ( S T = 79%), while annual cooling consumption (ACC) is primarily influenced by the cooling setpoint ( \({S}_{T}\) = 72%) and solar absorptance of exterior walls ( S T = 63%). Additionally, window-to-wall ratio (WWR), visible transmittance of window glass, and building rotation significantly affect annual lighting consumption (ALC) ( S T = 33%, 25%, and 21% respectively). Furthermore, cooling and heating setpoints, solar absorptance of exterior walls, and WWR play crucial roles in PPD ( S T = 81%, 40%, 36%, and 21% respectively). Notably, ALC shows no dependence on variable air volume (VAV) setpoint temperatures and thermophysical properties of walls and windows. Besides, the proposed DI in OAT-based LSA shows strong alignment with the results achieved by the Sobol-based GSA. This systematic approach, termed SBSA, empowers building designers and decision-makers to pinpoint critical design parameters early in the conceptual phase, ensuring optimal building performance. The flexibility of the SBSA framework accommodates diverse building configurations, facilitating comprehensive SA without constraints.

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Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Abbreviations

Annual cooling energy consumption

Annual heating energy consumption

Annual lighting energy consumption

Annual total energy consumption

Building facade

Building performance analysis

Building rotation

Building technologies office

Cooling degree-day

Cooling setpoint temperature

Dispersion index

Department of energy

Global sensitivity analysis

Heating degree-day

Heating setpoint temperature

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

Local sensitivity analysis

Mixed-integer programming

One-at-a-time

Phase change material

Predicted mean vote

Predicted percentage of dissatisfied

• Sensitivity analysis

Sensitivity analysis library

Depth of shading device

Sensitivity index

Simulation-based sensitivity analysis

Variable air volume

Window-to-wall ratio

Solar absorptance of the exterior wall

Solar absorptance of the interior wall

Total-order sensitivity index

Solar transmittance of window glass

Thickness of wall

Thickness of gas in window

Thickness of window glass

Visible transmittance of window glass

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Nasouri, M., Delgarm, N. A new method for simulation-based sensitivity analysis of building efficiency for optimal building energy planning: a case study of Iran. Energ. Ecol. Environ. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-024-00338-4

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Received : 02 December 2023

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Published : 17 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-024-00338-4

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The use of energy simulations in residential design: a systematic literature review.

1. Introduction

• RQ: “What is the range of applications for energy simulations in residential design?”

2. Materials and Methods

• Studies conducted in the field of architectural design;
• Studies on residential buildings;
• Studies that used computer simulation in energy analysis;
• Studies published in the Web of Science database and written in English.

3. Findings

4. discussion, 4.1. cluster i, 4.2. cluster ii, 4.3. cluster iii, 4.4. cluster iv, 4.5. cluster v, 4.6. cluster vi, 4.7. theme 1 energy efficiency, 4.8. theme 2 architectural design strategies, 4.9. section summary, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Sağdıçoğlu, M.S.; Yenice, M.S.; Tel, M.Z. The Use of Energy Simulations in Residential Design: A Systematic Literature Review. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 8138. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188138

Sağdıçoğlu MS, Yenice MS, Tel MZ. The Use of Energy Simulations in Residential Design: A Systematic Literature Review. Sustainability . 2024; 16(18):8138. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188138

Sağdıçoğlu, Mert Sercan, M. Serhat Yenice, and M. Zübeyr Tel. 2024. "The Use of Energy Simulations in Residential Design: A Systematic Literature Review" Sustainability 16, no. 18: 8138. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188138

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