definition of appendices in research paper

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An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text itself but which may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem. An appendix may also contain information that is too cumbersome to be included in the body of the paper. A separate appendix should be used for each distinct topic or set of data and always have a title descriptive of its contents [e.g., Appendix 1: Interview Protocol].

Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of...

Appendices are always supplementary to the research paper. As such, your study must be able to stand alone without the appendices, and the paper must contain all information including tables, diagrams, and results necessary to understand the research problem. The key point to remember when including an appendix or appendices is that the information is non-essential to understanding the research problem being investigated. In other words, if it were removed, the reader would still be able to  comprehend the significance, validity , and implications of your research even if that additional data was missing.

It is appropriate to include appendices for the following reasons:

• Including this material in the body of the paper that would render it poorly structured or interrupt the narrative flow;
• Information is too lengthy and detailed to be easily summarized in the body of the paper;
• Inclusion of helpful, supporting, or useful material would otherwise distract the reader from the main content of the paper;
• Provides relevant information or data that is more easily understood or analyzed in a self-contained section of the paper;
• Can be used when there are constraints placed on the length of your paper; and,
• Provides a place to further demonstrate your understanding of the research problem by giving additional details about a new or innovative method, technical details, or design protocols.

Appendices. Academic Skills Office, University of New England; Chapter 12, "Use of Appendices." In Guide to Effective Grant Writing: How to Write a Successful NIH Grant . Otto O. Yang. (New York: Kluwer Academic, 2005), pp. 55-57; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Points to Consider

When considering whether to include content in an appendix, keep in mind the following:

• It is usually good practice to include your raw data in an appendix, laying it out in a clear format so the reader can re-check your results. Another option if you have a large amount of raw data is to consider placing it online [e.g., on a Google drive] and note that this is the appendix to your research paper.
• Any tables and figures included in the appendix should be numbered as a separate sequence from the main paper . Remember that appendices contain non-essential information that, if removed, would not diminish a reader's ability to understand the research problem being investigated. This is why non-textual elements should not carry over the sequential numbering of non-textual elements in the body of your paper.
• If you have more than three appendices, consider listing them on a separate page in the table of contents . This will help the reader know what information is included in the appendices. Note that some works list appendices in the table of contents before the first chapter while other styles list the appendices after the conclusion but before your references. Consult with your professor to confirm if there is a preferred approach.
• The appendix can be a good place to put maps, photographs, diagrams, and other images , if you feel that it will help the reader to understand the content of your paper, while keeping in mind the study should be understood without them.
• An appendix should be streamlined and not loaded with a lot information . If you have a very long and complex appendix, it is a good idea to break it down into separate appendices, allowing the reader to find relevant information quickly as the information is covered in the body of the paper.

II.  Content

Never include an appendix that isn’t referred to in the text . All appendices should be summarized in your paper where it is relevant to the content. Appendices should also be arranged sequentially by the order they were first referenced in the text [i.e., Appendix 1 should not refer to text on page eight of your paper and Appendix 2 relate to text on page six].

There are few rules regarding what type of material can be included in an appendix, but here are some common examples:

• Correspondence -- if your research included collaborations with others or outreach to others, then correspondence in the form of letters, memorandums, or copies of emails from those you interacted with could be included.
• Interview Transcripts -- in qualitative research, interviewing respondents is often used to gather information. The full transcript from an interview is important so the reader can read the entire dialog between researcher and respondent. The interview protocol [list of questions] should also be included.
• Non-textual elements -- as noted above, if there are a lot of non-textual items, such as, figures, tables, maps, charts, photographs, drawings, or graphs, think about highlighting examples in the text of the paper but include the remainder in an appendix.
• Questionnaires or surveys -- this is a common form of data gathering. Always include the survey instrument or questionnaires in an appendix so the reader understands not only the questions asked but the sequence in which they were asked. Include all variations of the instruments as well if different items were sent to different groups [e.g., those given to teachers and those given to administrators] .
• Raw statistical data – this can include any numerical data that is too lengthy to include in charts or tables in its entirety within the text. This is important because the entire source of data should be included even if you are referring to only certain parts of a chart or table in the text of your paper.
• Research instruments -- if you used a camera, or a recorder, or some other device to gather information and it is important for the reader to understand how, when, and/or where that device was used.
• Sample calculations – this can include quantitative research formulas or detailed descriptions of how calculations were used to determine relationships and significance.

NOTE:   Appendices should not be a dumping ground for information. Do not include vague or irrelevant information in an appendix; this additional information will not help the reader’s overall understanding and interpretation of your research and may only distract the reader from understanding the significance of your overall study.

ANOTHER NOTE:   Appendices are intended to provide supplementary information that you have gathered or created; it is not intended to replicate or provide a copy of the work of others. For example, if you need to contrast the techniques of analysis used by other authors with your own method of analysis, summarize that information, and cite to the original work. In this case, a citation to the original work is sufficient enough to lead the reader to where you got the information. You do not need to provide a copy of this in an appendix.

III.  Format

Here are some general guideline on how to format appendices . If needed, consult the writing style guide [e.g., APA, MLS, Chicago] your professor wants you to use for more detail or choose the style you are most familiar with:

• Appendices may precede or follow your list of references.
• Each appendix begins on a new page.
• The order they are presented is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of your research paper.
• The heading should be "Appendix," followed by a letter or number [e.g., "Appendix A" or "Appendix 1"], centered and written in bold type.
• If there is a table of contents, the appendices must be listed.
• Depending on the type of information, the content can be presented in landscape format rather than regular portrait format.
• The page number(s) of the appendix/appendices will continue on with the numbering from the last page of the text.

Appendices. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College;  Appendices. Academic Skills Office, University of New England; Appendices. Writing Center, Walden University; Chapter 12, "Use of Appendices." In Guide to Effective Grant Writing: How to Write a Successful NIH Grant . Otto O. Yang. (New York: Kluwer Academic, 2005), pp. 55-57 ; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; What To Know About The Purpose And Format Of A Research Paper Appendix. LoyolaCollegeCulion.com.

Writing Tip

Consider Putting Your Appendices Online

Appendices are useful because they provide the reader with information that supports your study without breaking up the narrative or distracting from the main purpose of your paper. If you have a lot of raw data or information that is difficult to present in textual form, consider uploading it to an online site. This prevents your paper from having a large and unwieldy set of appendices and it supports a growing movement within academe to make data more freely available for re-analysis. If you do create an online portal to your data, note it prominently in your paper with the correct URL and access procedures if it is a secured site, or if needed, with clear directions on how to contact the author to obtain access.

Piwowar, Heather A., Roger S. Day, and Douglas B. Fridsma. “Sharing Detailed Research Data Is Associated with Increased Citation Rate.” PloS ONE (March 21, 2007); Wicherts, Jelte M., Marjan Bakker, and Dylan Molenaar. “Willingness to Share Research Data Is Related to the Strength of the Evidence and the Quality of Reporting of Statistical Results.” PLoS ONE (November 2, 2011).

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Home » Appendix in Research Paper – Examples and Writing Guide

Appendix in Research Paper – Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Appendix in Research Paper

Appendix in a research paper is a section located at the end of the document that contains supplementary material that is not essential to the main body of the research paper but is helpful to the reader in understanding the research study.

This supplementary material can include raw data, statistical analyses, graphs, charts, questionnaires , maps, and other supporting documents or evidence that are referred to in the main body of the paper or that are necessary for the reader to have a complete understanding of the research study.

How to Write Appendix in Research Paper

Here are the steps on how to write an appendix in a research paper:

• Determine what material you need to include in the appendix. This can include charts, graphs, images, tables, raw data, survey questionnaires, and any other material that supports your research but is not included in the main body of the paper.
• Organize the material in a logical and coherent manner . If you have multiple items to include, it is helpful to number them or use lettered headings (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B) to make it easier for readers to find specific information.
• Title the appendix section appropriately. The title should reflect the content of the appendix and be descriptive enough for readers to understand what is included.
• If necessary, provide a brief introduction or explanation for the material in the appendix. This can help readers understand why the information is relevant to your research.
• Place the appendix section after the main body of the paper and before the reference section.
• Make sure to refer to the appendix in the main body of the paper . This can be done by including a parenthetical reference (e.g., see Appendix A) or by including a reference in the text (e.g., refer to Table 1 in Appendix A).
• Ensure that the formatting of the appendix is consistent with the rest of the paper, including font size and style, margins, and spacing.
• If you have multiple appendices, provide a table of contents at the beginning of the appendix section to make it easier for readers to navigate.

Types of Appendix in Research Paper

In a research paper, there are two types of appendix:

Supplementary material

This type of appendix includes additional information that supports the main content of the research paper, but which is not essential to understanding the main argument. Supplementary material may include graphs, tables, figures, or lengthy data sets.

This type of appendix includes raw data that has been collected for the research study. It provides readers with the opportunity to analyze and verify the data used in the research paper. Raw data can be presented in various formats such as spreadsheets, tables, and graphs.

Example of Appendix in Research Paper

Here’s an example of an appendix for a research paper on the topic of “The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health”:

Appendix A: Survey Questionnaire

This questionnaire was administered to participants in the study “The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health.”

Section 1: Demographic Information

• Age: __________
• Gender: __________
• Ethnicity: __________
• Education level: __________
• Employment status: __________
• Annual income: __________

Section 2: Exercise Habits

• How often do you exercise? __________
• What type(s) of exercise do you engage in? __________
• How long do you typically exercise for? __________

Section 3: Mental Health

• Have you ever been diagnosed with a mental health disorder? __________
• Have you ever sought treatment for a mental health disorder? __________
• How often do you experience symptoms of depression? __________
• How often do you experience symptoms of anxiety? __________

Section 4: Additional Information

• Is there anything else you would like to share about your exercise habits or mental health?

Appendix B: Consent Form

This form was used to obtain informed consent from participants in the study “The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health.”

Title : Informed Consent Form

Study Title : The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health

Introduction :

You are being asked to participate in a research study conducted by [Researcher’s Name] at [Institution Name]. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between exercise and mental health.

Procedures :

You will be asked to complete a survey questionnaire about your exercise habits and mental health. The questionnaire will take approximately 15-20 minutes to complete.

Risks and Benefits:

There are no known risks associated with participation in this study. However, there may be benefits to participating, such as increased awareness of the relationship between exercise and mental health.

Confidentiality:

Your responses will be kept confidential and anonymous. Your data will be stored securely and will only be accessible to the research team.

Voluntary Participation:

Participation in this study is voluntary. You may choose not to participate or to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

Contact Information:

If you have any questions or concerns about this study, please contact [Researcher’s Name] at [Researcher’s Email Address].

By signing below, I acknowledge that I have read and understand the above information and voluntarily agree to participate in this study.

Signature: __________ Date: __________

Purpose of Appendix in Research Paper

• Supplementary Data: The appendix can be used to include additional data that is relevant to the research but is too extensive or detailed to be included in the main text. This can include tables, graphs, and other types of data that support the research findings.
• Methodological Details: Researchers may include detailed descriptions of their research methods in the appendix to provide additional information for readers who are interested in the research process. This can include descriptions of data collection procedures, sampling techniques, and statistical analyses.
• Supporting Documents : The appendix can be used to include supporting documents, such as survey instruments, interview protocols, or consent forms that were used during the research process.
• Technical Details: In some cases, the appendix may be used to include technical details that are necessary to understand the research findings. For example, researchers may include information on the algorithms used to analyze data or the specific equipment used in the study.
• Additional Resources : Finally, the appendix can be used to provide readers with additional resources, such as a bibliography of relevant literature or a list of websites that provide additional information on the research topic.
• Verification of Results : The appendix can be used to provide readers with additional information that verifies the accuracy of the research findings. For example, researchers may include a list of all the data sources used in the study or copies of original documents that were analyzed.
• Replication: Researchers may also use the appendix to provide detailed instructions on how to replicate the study, which can be particularly helpful for other researchers who are interested in building upon the findings.
• Ethics and Legal Compliance: In some cases, researchers may include information on ethical and legal compliance in the appendix. This can include documentation of the institutional review board (IRB) approval process, copies of consent forms, or other relevant legal or ethical documentation.

When to Write Appendix in Research Paper

You should include an appendix in your research paper if:

• Your research paper is long and includes a lot of supporting material: If your paper includes a lot of data, tables, or other supplementary material, it may be helpful to include an appendix to keep the main text focused and easy to read.
• You want to provide additional information that supports your research: If you have data or information that supports your research but is not essential to the main text, you can include it in an appendix.
• You want to provide technical details: If your research involves technical details that may not be of interest to all readers, you can include them in an appendix.

Advantages of Appendix in Research Paper

The appendix in a research paper can provide several advantages, including:

• Supplemental information : The appendix allows you to include additional information that is relevant to your research but may not be necessary to include in the main body of your paper. This can include data tables, graphs, diagrams, questionnaires, or any other material that supports your research.
• Organization: Including supplementary material in the appendix can help you to keep the main body of your paper focused and organized. It allows you to present all the relevant information without cluttering the main text.
• Transparency: The appendix can help to improve the transparency of your research by allowing readers to see the raw data that supports your conclusions. This can help to build trust and credibility with your audience.
• Avoiding repetition : Including detailed information in the appendix can help you to avoid repeating the same information in the main body of your paper. This can help to keep your paper concise and focused.
• Accessibility: The appendix can also provide a place to include information that might be useful for readers who want to delve deeper into the subject matter. This can include technical details, background information, or additional references.

About the author

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: Appendices

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• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
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• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
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• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text itself but which may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem and/or is information which is too cumbersome to be included in the body of the paper. A separate appendix should be used for each distinct topic or set of data and always have a title descriptive of its contents .

Importance of...

Your research paper must be complete without the appendices, and it must contain all information including tables, diagrams, and results necessary to address the research problem. The key point to remember when you are writing an appendix is that the information is non-essential; if it were removed, the paper would still be understandable.

It is appropriate to include appendices...

• When the incorporation of material in the body of the work would make it poorly structured or it would be too long and detailed and
• To ensure inclusion of helpful, supporting, or essential material that would otherwise clutter or break up the narrative flow of the paper, or it would be distracting to the reader.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Points to Consider

When considering whether to include content in an appendix, keep in mind the following points:

• It is usually good practice to include your raw data in an appendix, laying it out in a clear format so the reader can re-check your results. Another option if you have a large amount of raw data is to consider placing it online and note this as the appendix to your research paper.
• Any tables and figures included in the appendix should be numbered as a separate sequence from the main paper . Remember that appendices contain non-essential information that, if removed, would not diminish a reader's understanding of the overall research problem being investigated. This is why non-textual elements should not carry over the sequential numbering of elements in the paper.
• If you have more than three appendices, consider listing them on a separate page at the beginning of your paper . This will help the reader know before reading the paper what information is included in the appendices [always list the appendix or appendices in a table of contents].
• The appendix can be a good place to put maps, photographs, diagrams, and other non-textual elements , if you feel that it will help the reader to understand the content of your paper, but remembering that the paper should be understandable without them.
• An appendix should be streamlined and not loaded with a lot information . If you have a very long and complex appendix, it is a good idea to break it down into separate appendices, allowing the reader to find relevant information quickly.

II.  Contents

Appendices may include some of the following, all of which should be referred to or summarized in the text of your paper:

• Supporting evidence [e.g. raw data]
• Contributory facts or specialized data [raw data appear in the appendix, but with summarized data appearing in the body of the text].
• Sample calculations
• Technical figures, graphs, tables, statistics
• Detailed description of research instruments
• Maps, charts, photographs, drawings
• Letters, emails, and other copies of correspondance
• Questionnaire/survey instruments, with the results appearing in the text
• Complete transcripts of interviews
• Complete field notes from observations
• Specification or data sheets

NOTE:   Do not include vague or irrelevant information in an appendix; this additional information will not help the reader’s overall understanding and interpretation of your research and may only succeed in distracting the reader from understanding your research study.

III.  Format

Here are some general guideline on how to format appendices, but consult the writing style guide [e.g., APA] your professor wants you to use for the class, if needed:

• Appendices may precede or follow your list of references.
• Each appendix begins on a new page.
• The order they are presented is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of your research paper.
• The heading should be "Appendix," followed by a letter or number [e.g., "Appendix A" or "Appendix 1"], centered and written in bold.
• Appendices must be listed in the table of contents [if used].
• The page number(s) of the appendix/appendices will continue on with the numbering from the last page of the text.

Appendices . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989.

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What is an appendix in a paper

What is an appendix?

What type of information includes an appendix, the format of an appendix, frequently asked questions about appendices in papers, related articles.

An appendix is a section of a paper that features supporting information not included in the main text.

The appendix of a paper consists of supporting information for the research that is not necessary to include in the text. This section provides further insight into the topic of research but happens to be too complex or too broad to add to the body of the paper. A paper can have more than one appendix, as it is recommended to divide them according to topic.

➡️ Read more about  what is a research paper?

An appendix can take many types of forms. Here are some examples:

• Surveys. Since many researchers base their methodology on surveys, these are commonly found attached as appendices. Surveys must be included exactly as they were presented to the respondents, and exactly how they were answered so the reader can get a real picture of the findings.
• Interviews . Whether it’s a transcript or a recording, interviews are usually included as an appendix. The list of questions and the real answers must be presented for complete transparency.
• Correspondence . All types of communication with collaborators regarding the research should be included as an appendix. These can be emails, text messages, letters, transcripts of audio messages, etc.
• Research tools . Any instrument used to perform the research should be acknowledged in an appendix to give the reader insight into the process. For instance, audio recorders, cameras, special software, etc.
• Non-textual items . If the research includes too many graphs, tables, figures, illustrations, photos or charts, these should be added as an appendix.
• Statistical data . When raw data is too long, it should be attached to the research as an appendix. Even if only one part of the data was used, the complete data must be given.

➡️ Learn more about surveys, interviews, and other research methodologies .

The format of an appendix will vary based on the type of citation style you’re using, as well as the guidelines of the journal or class for which the paper is being written. Here are some general appendix formatting rules:

• Appendices should be divided by topic or by set of data.
• Appendices are included in the table of contents.

The most common heading for an appendix is Appendix A or 1, centered, in bold, followed by a title describing its content.

• An appendix should be located before or after the list of references.
• Each appendix should start on a new page.
• Each page includes a page number.
• Appendices follow a sequential order, meaning they appear in the order in which they are referred to throughout the paper.

An appendix is usually added before or after the list of references.

There is no specific space limit to an appendix, but make sure to consult the guidelines of the citation format you are using.

Yes, all appendices must be included in the table of contents.

Appendices feature different types of material, for instance interviews, research tools, surveys, raw statistical data, etc.

Welcome to the new OASIS website! We have academic skills, library skills, math and statistics support, and writing resources all together in one new home.

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General Research Paper Guidelines: Appendices

If you have some information you would like to include in your research but it could potentially be distracting to readers or inappropriate within the body of your research paper, you can always include supplemental information as an appendix to your work. An appendix or appendices should always be inserted after your Reference List; however, the appropriateness of appendix content really depends on the nature and scope of your research paper.

For a more in-depth review of what supplemental materials might be included in a social science appendix, be sure to review Section 2.14 “Appendices” (pp. 41-42) of your 7 th edition APA manual.

Appendices Formatting

APA 7 addresses appendices and supplemental materials in Section 2.14 and on page 41:

• The appendices follow the reference list.
• They are lettered "Appendix A," "Appendix B," "Appendix C," and so forth. If you have only one appendix, however, simply label it Appendix.
• Put figures and tables in separate appendices. The appendix title serves as the title for a table if it is the only table in the appendix.
• If you decide that certain figures and tables should appear in the same appendix, number them A1, A2, A3, and so forth, according to the appendix in which they appear.
• The materials in the appendix must not extend beyond the margins of the rest of the paper: Reduce the appendix materials as needed.

As a general guide, appendices are appropriate for any material that, if presented in the main body of the document, would unnecessarily interrupt the flow of the writing. Note that it is unlikely that you will use appendices in Walden course papers. For doctoral capstone studies, you might include some appendices with supplementary information.

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Guide to What is an Appendix in a Research Paper: Structure and Format

Updated 09 Jul 2024

Completing academic assignments requires understanding the basic concepts. One of the questions students often ask is, “What is an appendix in a paper?” This part of the text improves a reader's understanding of a research paper without adding excessive length to the final result. It also provides detailed information about your topic without interrupting the flow of your thoughts with too many tables and figures. 

To learn more about writing an appendix in a research paper according to specific formatting styles, such as APA, Chicago, or MLA, read this article from Edubirdie.

What is an appendix in a research paper?

The definition of this term is simple.

An appendix is an academic work section that contains additional information (statistics, references, tables, figures, etc.) that cannot be included in the main text.

This component is usually placed after the reference list at the end of a research paper or dissertation. The purpose of this text component is to provide additional information that may need to be explained fully in the main body. It’s a useful tool for giving context and clarity to the reader about the subject matter analyzed in the paper.

The length of an appendix can vary depending on the type of research, the amount of data collected, and the academic institution’s requirements. Generally, it should be as long as necessary to provide important and relevant information to support arguments and answer the research question . This element should not be too long or contain irrelevant data, as it can distract the audience. Usually, the appendix doesn’t exceed 10-15% of the total research pages.

What type of information does a research paper appendix include? 

An appendix is a means of providing additional data that can further illustrate the research topic. As a result, the information included in an appendix section of a research paper can take various forms. Let’s see them in detail.

Surveys are frequently used in research methodology and are often included in appendices. To provide readers with a clear understanding of the findings, you should add surveys precisely as given to the respondents, along with their exact answers.

Whether transcribed or recorded, interviews are typically included in appendices. To ensure transparency, you should include the full list of questions and the corresponding answers.

• Correspondence

Researchers often add correspondence with collaborators related to the research subject in their papers as an appendix. These can include text messages, emails, transcripts of audio messages, letters, and other forms of communication.

• Research Tools

Cameras, audio recorders, specialized software, and other research tools should be acknowledged in an appendix to provide readers with insight into the research process.

• Non-Textual Items

Non-textual items such as tables, graphs, illustrations, figures, charts, or excessively numerous photos should be included as appendices.

• Statistical Data

Statistical data that is too extensive should be added to the research as an appendix, even if only a portion of the data was used. It’s also necessary to provide complete data.

How to structure an appendix

When you understand a research paper definition learning its writing style and structure is crucial. Maintaining the academic writing style and presenting information concisely and scientifically enhance the work's credibility. It applies to raw information and public discussion results, interview transcripts, summarized evaluation results, and copies of private letters. To ensure a smooth and effective organization of the appendix, it is recommended to learn expert tips on writing a research paper outline and create a separate appendix for each part of the paper. 

Appendices can include tables, text, footnotes, and other supporting items that may be useful for readers, and each item should be titled. Each appendix should be mentioned at least once in the document. Selecting and using reliable sources, figures, and authors is important to create a credible research paper. The same principles apply to the appendices, which may be placed before or after the list of references depending on the requirements and formatting style. 

General rules for completing appendices

When you create an appendix, it's essential to follow particular guidelines. It's also recommended to consult the citation format requirements for details before starting your research work. 

Let’s see some general rules for creating an appendix:

• A common heading for an appendix is “Appendix 1 or A,” in bold and centered, with a title that describes its content.
• It's recommended to divide it by a set of data or a topic, which should be indicated in the table of contents.
• The appendix should be located before or after the list of references and should start on a new page with a page number.
• Lastly, the appendices should be arranged in sequential order based on the references made in the paper.

If you find it complicated and are thinking, "It's better to pay someone to write my research paper ," seeking professional assistance can be particularly helpful, especially when it comes to creating an appendix.

There are three formats for organizing research papers appendices, which your professor may require you to follow. Although similar, they have distinct features and rules that must be followed. Let’s see them in detail. 

Appendix APA format

This format is the most popular at colleges and universities, and it’s usually required for academic papers on Social Sciences, such as Psychology, Education, Sociology, Criminology, and others. Many professors often ask students to produce their assignments in this style. Following the guidelines is important to ensure the structure and information are correct. These are the key points that professors look for when a paper is required to be written in APA format: 

• Create the heading "Appendix", which should be followed by A, B, C, etc.;
• Write the appendix title centered under the heading;
• Follow the order of information stated in the paper;
• Indicate page numbers;
• Start each appendix from a new page, even if it’s smaller than the page size;
• Use double spacing;
• Write the first paragraph without indentation, while the rest should be indented.
• Add footnotes;
• Place the appendix just after the reference list;
• Include “see Appendix A” after the text to reference an appendix in the body of your thesis. 

You should learn the general guidelines on this format or note them. 

Appendix MLA format

The MLA style is recommended when researching the Humanities, like Philosophy, Languages, and Arts. This format is very similar to the APA format, but a few differences exist. The essential peculiarity is that the MLA appendix should be placed before the list of references. Here are some requirements for MLA format:

• Insert the appendix after the main document body and before the reference list;
• Use A, B, and C when writing headings for several appendices;
• Center the title;
• Create an appendix following the order of information stated in the research work;
• Add page numbers for every appendix;
• Place each appendix on its page, no matter its size;
• Double-space the list;
• Use a “hanging indent” format, where the first line is in the left margin, and every subsequent line is indented;
• Use italics for the titles of Internet sites, complete writings, books, and recordings when you use them in your appendices;
• Do not use italics for reference titles that only refer to a part of a source, such as short papers, poetry, tabloids, scholarly entries, sections of a PDF document, etc.

Appendix Chicago style

Consider this format if you’re assigned academic papers on History. It’s also required for academic journals and books. Creating research papers in Chicago style is not more difficult than in APA format. These two formats are almost identical. Still, there is a slight difference. Look at the guidelines for writing an appendix in a research paper in Chicago style:

• Create the title “Appendices” to describe more than one appendix;
• Use Times New Roman font with a 12-point text size;
• Place page numbers on the top right of every page labeled as "Page 1, 2, 3," etc.;
• Do not indicate the number of the page on the front cover;
• The appendices should be placed before the bibliography, which should come with footnotes and be on a separate page finalizing your research work. 

Feel free to look at samples formatted according to the Chicago style requirements. While completing appendices, you’ll find many useful things to implement in your papers.

How to refer to an appendix?

If you’re looking for an answer to the question, “What is an appendix in a paper?” you’ll definitely find a lot of useful recommendations about how to refer to appendices. It’s necessary to mention every appendix at least once in a document. It can be done by stating the appendix's letter or number within the sentence or in parentheses. You can also refer to a specific component within an appendix. Let’s see an example of an appendix in a research paper.

Example 1. Referring to the whole appendix:

As shown in Appendix A, the participants' demographic information indicates that…

In the table (see Appendix B), you’ll see… 

Example 2. Referring to an appendix component:

These data (see Appendix 3, Table 2) indicate that…

Photo 3 in Appendix 1 presents…

The word "Appendix" should be capitalized when referring to a particular appendix. It’s essential to ensure consistency throughout the paper. You should always use lowercase when you refer to appendices in general. 

Different citation styles have specific formatting requirements and rules for appendices, particularly for APA Style and labeling figures and tables within the appendices. For detailed information, it's important to refer to the guidelines. Understanding what an appendix in a research paper is and how to format it correctly can be challenging, so some students choose to buy thesis paper to ensure all components are professionally compiled.

If you are unsure about the originality of your research paper, it is always a good idea to utilize a " check my paper for plagiarism " tool.

Where to place appendices in a research paper? 

One way to place your appendix for a paper is to insert it after the main text with the citation references. In this case, you can proceed with the next page number. Another approach is to complete a separate document containing the appendices, which can be submitted along with your dissertation. It's important to remember that all appendices should be indicated in the table of contents of your thesis.

Does the appendix mean the same as references? 

The appendix and references are different. An appendix is an extra material that can include tables, diagrams, or graphs that support the main text, while references are a list of sources cited or consulted in the main text. Both can be used to provide further information but serve different purposes and contain different types of information.

Is it possible to cite sources in an appendix?  

Yes, using APA in-text citations in your appendix is acceptable if it's relevant. You should use an author-date citation format, the same way you do it in the main text. Remember to include all the cited sources in your reference list in your appendices. There is no need to complete an individual reference list for your appendices.

Is it appendices or appendixes? 

Both "appendices" and "appendixes" are accepted plural forms of the word “appendix”. Still, "appendices" is the more commonly used plural form in academic writing. It’s also the preferred form in APA style. Using the same spelling throughout the whole document is essential.

Should I number my appendices in APA style?  

In an APA guide about how to write an appendix for a research paper, there is a recommendation to label multiple appendices in sequential order using uppercase letters, such as “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” etc. Still, if you only have one appendix, it should be titled simply as "Appendix" and mentioned as such in the document (for example, “see Appendix”).

What title to give to an appendix?      

The typical title for an appendix is "Appendix A" or "Appendix 1," which should be centered and written in bold. Following the appendix number, a descriptive heading outlining the appendix content should be provided.

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Meredith, a dedicated editor at EduBirdie, specializes in academic writing. Her keen eye for grammar and structure ensures flawless papers, while her insightful feedback helps students improve their writing skills and achieve higher grades.

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• Research Paper Appendix | Example & Templates

Research Paper Appendix | Example & Templates

Published on 15 August 2022 by Kirsten Dingemanse and Tegan George. Revised on 25 October 2022.

An appendix is a supplementary document that facilitates your reader’s understanding of your research but is not essential to your core argument. Appendices are a useful tool for providing additional information or clarification in a research paper , dissertation , or thesis without making your final product too long.

Appendices help you provide more background information and nuance about your topic without disrupting your text with too many tables and figures or other distracting elements.

We’ve prepared some examples and templates for you, for inclusions such as research protocols, survey questions, and interview transcripts. All are worthy additions to an appendix. You can download these in the format of your choice below.

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Table of contents

What is an appendix in a research paper, what to include in an appendix, how to format an appendix, how to refer to an appendix, where to put your appendices, other components to consider, appendix checklist.

In the main body of your research paper, it’s important to provide clear and concise information that supports your argument and conclusions . However, after doing all that research, you’ll often find that you have a lot of other interesting information that you want to share with your reader.

While including it all in the body would make your paper too long and unwieldy, this is exactly what an appendix is for.

As a rule of thumb, any detailed information that is not immediately needed to make your point can go in an appendix. This helps to keep your main text focused but still allows you to include the information you want to include somewhere in your paper.

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An appendix can be used for different types of information, such as:

• Supplementary results : Research findings  are often presented in different ways, but they don’t all need to go in your paper. The results most relevant to your research question should always appear in the main text, while less significant results (such as detailed descriptions of your sample or supplemental analyses that do not help answer your main question), can be put in an appendix.
• Statistical analyses : If you conducted statistical tests using software like Stata or R, you may also want to include the outputs of your analysis in an appendix.
• Further information on surveys or interviews : Written materials or transcripts related to things such as surveys and interviews can also be placed in an appendix.

You can opt to have one long appendix, but separating components (like interview transcripts, supplementary results, or surveys) into different appendices makes the information simpler to navigate.

Here are a few tips to keep in mind:

• Always start each appendix on a new page.
• Assign it both a number (or letter) and a clear title, such as ‘Appendix A. Interview transcripts’. This makes it easier for your reader to find the appendix, as well as for you to refer back to it in your main text.
• Number and title the individual elements within each appendix (e.g., ‘Transcripts’) to make it clear what you are referring to. Restart the numbering in each appendix at 1.

It is important that you refer to each of your appendices at least once in the main body of your paper. This can be done by mentioning the appendix and its number or letter, either in parentheses or within the main part of a sentence. It is also possible to refer to a particular component of an appendix.

Appendix B presents the correspondence exchanged with the fitness boutique. Example 2. Referring to an appendix component These results (see Appendix 2, Table 1) show that …

It is common to capitalise ‘Appendix’ when referring to a specific appendix, but it is not mandatory. The key is just to make sure that you are consistent throughout your entire paper, similarly to consistency in capitalising headings and titles in academic writing.

However, note that lowercase should always be used if you are referring to appendices in general. For instance, ‘The appendices to this paper include additional information about both the survey and the interviews.’

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The simplest option is to add your appendices after the main body of your text, after you finish citing your sources in the citation style of your choice . If this is what you choose to do, simply continue with the next page number. Another option is to put the appendices in a separate document that is delivered with your dissertation.

Remember that any appendices should be listed in your paper’s table of contents .

There are a few other supplementary components related to appendices that you may want to consider. These include:

• List of abbreviations : If you use a lot of abbreviations or field-specific symbols in your dissertation, it can be helpful to create a list of abbreviations .
• Glossary : If you utilise many specialised or technical terms, it can also be helpful to create a glossary .
• Tables, figures and other graphics : You may find you have too many tables, figures, and other graphics (such as charts and illustrations) to include in the main body of your dissertation. If this is the case, consider adding a figure and table list .

Checklist: Appendix

All appendices contain information that is relevant, but not essential, to the main text.

Each appendix starts on a new page.

I have given each appendix a number and clear title.

I have assigned any specific sub-components (e.g., tables and figures) their own numbers and titles.

My appendices are easy to follow and clearly formatted.

I have referred to each appendix at least once in the main text.

Your appendices look great! Use the other checklists to further improve your thesis.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Dingemanse, K. & George, T. (2022, October 25). Research Paper Appendix | Example & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved 16 September 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/appendix/

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What Is an Appendix In Research and How You Create the One?

Table of contents

• 1 What Is Appendix in Research Papers, Reports, and Proposals?
• 2 What Detailed Information Should Refer to in the Appendix Section?
• 3 How to Write an Appendix?
• 4 Format an Appendix: Detailed Explanation
• 5.1 Citing Sources in Your Appendix
• 5.2 Common Mistakes You Better Avoid When Writing an Appendix
• 5.3 Conclusion

The appendix is an important part of the academic writing research process since it provides additional material for research papers, reports, and proposals. Thus, this critical component enhances understanding of your work without cluttering the essential material.

Today, the writing service PapersOwl wants to explore the nuances of appendix writing so that your reader enjoys some detailed information at the end of your paper. We will cover:

• Why should you include an appendix to your research paper?
• What and How: The Essential Structure;
• How to format and where to place it:
• The significance of properly citing your sources (appendix in APA or MLA) and keeping your text consistent throughout.

Let’s not wait and get into the details of how to make an appendix effective right away.

What Is Appendix in Research Papers, Reports, and Proposals?

The first question you may ask is: What is an appendix in writing, and why might your reader need it?

Shortly, it serves as supplementary material in any type of academic writing, including an appendix in research, a report, or a proposal . Accordingly, it provides in-depth details to support the main content, enhancing understanding without cluttering the main text.

Basically, appendices provide a complete picture for the audience interested in further in-depth investigation while keeping the main text’s flow and readability.

What Detailed Information Should Refer to in the Appendix Section?

Looking at the appendix in paper definition, one can swiftly understand its importance. Therefore, you should think about the data you would like to include in your appendix for research paper or appendix in report to make it 10/10.

Appropriate appendix in literature content include:

• Raw data sets used for analysis;
• Detailed descriptions of research methodologies and data collection methods;
• Supplementary figures or charts that provide further context;
• Lengthy quotations or excerpts;
• Additional analyses or calculations that support the conclusions.

Moreover, resources such as questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, survey findings, or any other supplementary materials mentioned but not thoroughly covered in the main body of the work can be included in successful appendices example in research paper.

How to Write an Appendix?

Now, we understand what to include in your future work, but how does one write an appendix in a research paper to achieve the best outcome?

Follow a structured approach to ensure clarity and coherence. Here’s a comprehensive guide on how to create an appendix you should refer to:

• Determine Supplementary Material. The first step is to decide which materials need to be added, as we did before. This might be any comprehensive material supporting your work’s primary points:
• Long tables.
• Extensive methodology.
• Supplemental figures.
• Interview transcripts.
• Other research explanations.
• Organize Your Content. Organize the contents into a logical appendix section. Create separate appendices if you have many elements, such as distinct data sets or analyses. It prevents overloading any of your readers. It is also vital to consider the type of paper you are writing. Dissertation parts may be considerably longer than research appendices, and the word count may change.
• Label and Title Each Appendix. Clearly label and title each appendix sample to make navigating your appendix section easy for the reader.
• Reference Appendices in the Main Part. Throughout the main body of your appendix section of research paper, reference relevant appendices to direct your reader to supplementary information.

This step-by-step plan will help you produce an appendix in scientific paper that will both give readers access to material supporting your conclusions and improve the overall clarity of your research paper , report, or proposal.

Format an Appendix: Detailed Explanation

There is also one more vital step in the research process ─ formatting .

Indeed, you ensure crucial consistency and readability when you structure an appendix. Guidelines for formatting often depend on the style manual format you follow, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago. Generally, appendices in research paper should follow the same formatting rules as the rest of your document. It includes font style and size, margins, and spacing.

Additionally, remember to use precise phrasing. It points readers to the appropriate appendices in research paper. Specific types of appended materials must include:

• Tables, Graphs, and Figures.
• Questionnaires or Surveys.

Any other material included in the appendix in article should be clearly labeled and organized for easy reference.

PapersOwl team promises that adhering to these formatting recommendations will ensure that your research paper appendix:

• Is neatly structured and aesthetically pleasing.
• Improves the overall quality of your work.

Where to Add an Appendix to a Research Paper?

“ Okay, but where should I set up an appendix in my research? ”. PapersOwls hears this question almost every day, but no worries, we found an answer long ago!

The appendix at the end of a paper is the most typical placement on a separate page after your research paper’s reference list or bibliography. Accordingly, this placement ensures that readers can easily access additional material without interrupting the flow of the main text. If you have more than one appendix, you should distinguish them. Use:

→ a multiple pages numbering system (e.g., Appendix 1, Appendix 2);

→ a lettering system (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B).

Citing Sources in Your Appendix

Citing is one of the most important aspects of research and any academic work. Apparently, you should include citations in your research paper appendix!

Therefore, cite credible sources using the same citation style used in the main body of the paper (e.g., APA style, MLA). What is the easiest way to help readers easily locate and verify the sources used in the text citations? Maintain the same citation style as in the main text, whether it is a research proposal appendix or an appendix in a report!

Common Mistakes You Better Avoid When Writing an Appendix

Obviously, we understand that nothing can be perfect, and you are allowed to make mistakes while studying. Nevertheless, we recommend analyzing common errors in writing appendix pieces to avoid doing them! Don’t worry; we did it for you so you could correct everything before submitting your work!

• Overloading With Irrelevant Information. Unneeded material that does not complement the document’s core substance might overwhelm readers.
• Poor Organization. Failing to organize the appendix in a paper can confuse readers. Ensure that materials are grouped and labeled clearly.
• Inconsistent Formatting. Deviating from the formatting guidelines used in the main text can create inconsistency. To avoid this, organize an appendix uniformly in font style, size, margins, and citations.
• Lack of Clarity. Presenting supplementary information in a confusing or unclear manner can hinder understanding. For this reason, be concise and ensure that each item in the appendix of research paper serves a clear purpose.

In a nutshell, the art of an appendix in writing is necessary for creating detailed and organized papers. PapersOwl gave you this small guide so you could:

• Quickly identify relevant extra information.
• Organize content logically.
• Maintain formatting and consistent in-text citations.

In fact, a well-written appendix page improves the primary text’s clarity and adds to the research’s overall credibility. Thus, the appendix for a paper is an important tool for scholars who want to give clear, comprehensive documentation of their work. It may also be proof of your hard work.

With the PapersOwl’s guide, your research paper appendix example will promote deeper comprehension of the study issue!

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How to Write a Research Paper Appendix

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Writing a research paper isn’t just a work of mere writing. Writing the perfect research paper takes a lot of research, analysis, framing, formatting, and much more. Correctly writing one of the most essential and academically popular segments of a research paper, the appendix, is one such effort that goes into a dissertation.  In this blog , we will discuss with you the functions of an appendix in-depth and give you some tried and tested tips to craft the perfect appendix section of a research paper! Let’s dive in! 

What is an Appendix?

The appendix on a research paper is a supplementary segment at the end of a dissertation or the research paper. This section isn’t considered a part of the main body text of the dissertation, but it is an important part of doing research. Appendices often feature raw data in the form of tables, figures, maps, diagrams and statistics and thus contribute to the credibility of the research and make it a perfect research paper . 

Using academic resources, books, and research tools can help frame an appendix better. Appendices are essential since they provide extra support to your research and make the dissertation seem more transparent regarding data. 

However, the appendix section of a research paper should only be supplementary; thus, you cannot depend on it to help the reader understand the main text. Your dissertation text should be detailed enough to be understandable without appendices, and they should only be placed to support your arguments presented in the research report. 

How to Write an Appendix for a Research Paper

Writing the perfect research paper appendix can be overwhelming if it’s your first time doing so. However, drafting the appendix section of a research paper can be quite fun if you know the basics and understand how exactly you should go about it. Here are our 5 tips on how to write the perfect appendix for your dissertation: 

Step 1: Organize the Appendix

With all the raw data, stats, and information, an appendix on a research paper can be difficult to go through and understand if they’re drafted disorganizedly. So, while writing your research paper appendix, make sure you are not just ramming all information into it but organising it well so the reader can utilise it. Structure it well, for it can very well come across as a reflection of your daily choices.

Step 2: Consider Accessibility

A research paper appendix can include non-textual information like tables, diagrams, graphs, images, illustrations, etc. If you’re adding such visual data elements to your appendices, ensure the material is clear and readable so the reader can comprehend the data. You should also ensure you are labelling these elements well and adding brief descriptions to each figure. 

Step 3: Review for Relevance

It is easy to lose track of the relevance of your data while preparing appendices since you have to work with many different types of data simultaneously. However, you have to remember that the goal is not to stuff your appendices with data. Rather, craft a precise, careful research paper appendix that can give your reader relevant and additional data that supports your research.

Step 4: Proofread and Revise

When it comes to dissertation writing, typos, grammatical errors, and spelling mistakes can cost you way more than just miscommunication. These seemingly harmless errors can make your work look casual and unprofessional, bringing in questions about the credibility of your work. It is a similar case when it comes to writing an appendix for a research paper. 

Step 5: Seek Guidance

It is important to remember that seeking guidance when you feel stuck is pretty normal, and there is nothing to be embarrassed about it. You may feel lost while writing an appendix for a research paper, and it is the perfect time to seek guidance from your peers, advisor or even dissertation committee members. 

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How to Format an Appendix

Ensuring proper formatting is crucial for the seamless integration of the research paper appendix into the main body. Follow the guidelines below for a sharp-looking appendix:

Consistency with the Main Body

Formatting elements, fonts, font sizes and margins should have uniformity. Consistent and professional appearance gives your research paper a neat look.

Organisation and Structure

Use headings and subheadings to categorise your data logically. You can also use a well-structured numbering system to facilitate easy navigation.

Descriptive Elements

Introduce each content with short descriptions and paragraphs. Giving additional context makes the information more accessible and interpretable.

Consistent Formatting Style

Use a formatting style that goes well with the rest of your dissertation, along with font styles, sizes, and other formatting guidelines instructed by your academic institution.

Visual Accessibility

Any non-textual elements, such as tables, graphs, or images, should be clear and readable. Label these visual elements and add alternative texts for inclusivity in the digital appendix.

Where does the appendix go in your dissertation? 

Although the appendix section of a research paper is an essential part of your dissertation, it is not to be included in the main body of the dissertation. As a compilation of supplementary material and raw data, your research paper appendix should go at the end of the dissertation, typically inserted after the reference lists. Some even present appendices as separate supplementary documents, mostly done in specially requested cases. 

The format of the research paper appendix should be similar to the rest of your report for consistency. It should thus be drafted and formatted in the same style as the dissertation in terms of fonts, margins, and font sizes.

What to include in your appendix 

While drafting your research paper appendix, remember that it needs to be as precise as possible. Thus, there cannot be unnecessary information in it. Typically, appendices include raw data that supports your research and is referenced in the dissertation you have prepared. Here are some of the elements that you should include in your appendix: 

• Research results 
• Transcribed interviews 
• Survey/questionnaire details 
• Table and figures 
• Co-respondence 
• List of abbreviations used 
• Calculations and formulas 

Referring appendix in-text 

Only adding your appendix to the research paper at the end of the dissertation would not make sense if there are no references to them in the main text. To justify its existence and inclusion in the research report, you should reference the appendix at least once in the whole report. A neatly labelled and properly referred research paper appendix can make your dissertation look more professional and supported. 

How to refer to an appendix

Referring to the research paper appendix within the main text is important in highlighting its relevance. Use these five methods for referencing:

In-text references

Specific references embedded in your sentences contextually shape your information. For example, "In Table 2 of Appendix B, the commonality between subjects A and B is illustrated.

Parenthetical references

You can use parentheses for concise references without disrupting the main text's flow. For instance, "The result [refer to Appendix C, Fig. 2] is not consistent with the previous findings."

Referring to the entire appendix

Refer to the entire research paper appendix in your text when appropriate. For example, "The data supporting this conclusion can be found in Appendix B."

Clarity and labelling

References should be clear and well-labelled. Proper labelling ensures easy identification of referenced material within the appendix, polishing your research paper professionally.

Cross-referencing

Cross-referencing helps you establish connections between the main text and the appendix. Phrases like "As discussed in Appendix A" guide readers to supporting material.

Crafting the perfect appendix section of a research paper involves meticulous attention to detail and adherence to formatting and referencing guidelines. As an integral part of your dissertation, the appendix contributes significantly to the transparency, credibility, and overall professionalism of your research. By following the comprehensive guidelines provided in this guide, you can ensure that your appendix not only complements your main text but also serves as a valuable resource for readers seeking additional insights. 

Frequently Asked Questions

What do i write in a research paper appendix, why is an appendix important for a dissertation, where is the appendix placed in the research paper, is writing a research paper appendix difficult, what are the basic guidelines for writing an appendix.

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Appendices: When appendices might be necessary

Appendices allow you to include detailed information in your paper that would be distracting in the main body of the paper. Examples of items you might have in an appendix include mathematical proofs, lists of words, the questionnaire used in the research, a detailed description of an apparatus used in the research, etc.

Format of appendices

Your paper may have more than one appendix. Usually, each distinct item has its own appendix. If your paper only has one appendix, label it "Appendix" (without quotes.) If there is more than one appendix, label them "Appendix A," "Appendix B," etc. (without quotes) in the order that each item appears in the paper. In the main text, you should refer to the Appendices by their labels.

The actual format of the appendix will vary depending on the content; therefore, there is no single format. In general, the content of an appendix should conform to the appropriate APA style rules for formatting text.

Footnotes and Endnotes: When footnotes/endnotes might be necessary

Because APA style uses parenthetical citations, you do not need to use footnotes or endnotes to cite your sources. The only reasons you need to use footnotes are for explanatory (content) notes or copyright permission. Content footnotes contain information that supplements the text, but would be distracting or inappropriate to include in the body of the paper. In other words, content footnotes provide important information that is a tangent to what you are discussing in your paper.

The footnote should only express one idea. If it is longer than a few sentences, then you should consider putting this information in an appendix. Most authors do not use footnotes because they tend to be distracting to the readers. If the information is important, authors find a way to incorporate it into the text itself or put it in an appendix.

If you are including a quote that is longer than 500 words or a table or figure in your paper that was originally published elsewhere, then you need to include a footnote that acknowledges that you have permission from the owner of the copyright to use the material.

See our APA guidelines on Footnotes and Endnotes for more information.

When to use tables

Tables enable you to show your data in an easy to read format. However, you do not need to present all of your data in tabular form. Tables are only necessary for large amounts of data that would be too complicated in the text. If you only need to present a few numbers, you should do so directly in the text, not in a table.

How to use tables

Each table should be identified by a number, in the order that they appear in the text (e.g., Table 1, Table 2, etc.). When using a table, you need to refer to the table in the text (e.g., "As shown in Table 1,…") and point out to the reader what they should be looking for in the table. Do not discuss every piece of data that is in the table or else there is no point in having the table. Only mention the most important pieces of information from the table.

The table should also make sense on its own. Be sure to explain all abbreviations except standard abbreviations such as M, SD, and df. Don’t forget to identify the unit of measurement.

APA style has a specific format for tables. Tables should appear at the end of your paper, after the reference list and before any appendixes. Every table needs a unique title after its label. The title should be brief but clearly explain what is in the table.

Frequently asked questions

What is an appendix.

An appendix contains information that supplements the reader’s understanding of your research but is not essential to it. For example:

• Interview transcripts
• Questionnaires
• Detailed descriptions of equipment

Something is only worth including as an appendix if you refer to information from it at some point in the text (e.g. quoting from an interview transcript). If you don’t, it should probably be removed.

Frequently asked questions: APA Style

APA footnotes use superscript numbers and should appear in numerical order. You can place footnotes at the bottom of the relevant pages, or on a separate footnotes page at the end:

• For footnotes at the bottom of the page, you can use your word processor to automatically insert footnotes .
• For footnotes at the end of the text in APA, place them on a separate page entitled “Footnotes,” after the r eference page . Indent the first line of each footnote, and double-space them.

For both approaches, place a space between the superscript number and the footnote text.

APA Style requires you to use APA in-text citations , not footnotes, to cite sources .

However, you can use APA footnotes sparingly for two purposes:

• Giving additional information
• Providing copyright attribution

Yes, APA language guidelines state that you should always use the serial comma (aka Oxford comma ) in your writing.

This means including a comma before the word “and” at the end of a list of three or more items: “spelling, grammar, and punctuation.” Doing this consistently tends to make your lists less ambiguous.

Yes, it’s perfectly valid to write sentences in the passive voice . The APA language guidelines do caution against overusing the passive voice, because it can obscure your meaning or be needlessly long-winded. For this reason, default to the active voice in most cases.

The passive voice is most useful when the point of the sentence is just to state what was done, not to emphasize who did it. For example, “The projector was mounted on the wall” is better than “James and I mounted the projector on the wall” if it’s not particularly important who mounted the projector.

Yes, APA language guidelines encourage you to use the first-person pronouns “I” or “we” when referring to yourself or a group including yourself in your writing.

In APA Style, you should not refer to yourself in the third person. For example, do not refer to yourself as “the researcher” or “the author” but simply as “I” or “me.” Referring to yourself in the third person is still common practice in some academic fields, but APA Style rejects this convention.

If you cite several sources by the same author or group of authors, you’ll distinguish between them in your APA in-text citations using the year of publication.

If you cite multiple sources by the same author(s) at the same point , you can just write the author name(s) once and separate the different years with commas, e.g., (Smith, 2020, 2021).

To distinguish between sources with the same author(s) and  the same publication year, add a different lowercase letter after the year for each source, e.g., (Smith, 2020, 2021a, 2021b). Add the same letters to the corresponding reference entries .

According to the APA guidelines, you should report enough detail on inferential statistics so that your readers understand your analyses.

Report the following for each hypothesis test:

• the test statistic value
• the degrees of freedom
• the exact p value (unless it is less than 0.001)
• the magnitude and direction of the effect

You should also present confidence intervals and estimates of effect sizes where relevant.

The number of decimal places to report depends on what you’re reporting. Generally, you should aim to round numbers while retaining precision. It’s best to present fewer decimal digits to aid easy understanding.

Use one decimal place for:

• Standard deviations
• Descriptive statistics based on discrete data

Use two decimal places for:

• Correlation coefficients
• Proportions
• Inferential test statistics such as t values, F values, and chi-squares.

No, including a URL is optional in APA Style reference entries for legal sources (e.g. court cases , laws ). It can be useful to do so to aid the reader in retrieving the source, but it’s not required, since the other information included should be enough to locate it.

Generally, you should identify a law in an APA reference entry by its location in the United States Code (U.S.C.).

But if the law is either spread across various sections of the code or not featured in the code at all, include the public law number in addition to information on the source you accessed the law in, e.g.:

You should report methods using the past tense , even if you haven’t completed your study at the time of writing. That’s because the methods section is intended to describe completed actions or research.

In your APA methods section , you should report detailed information on the participants, materials, and procedures used.

• Describe all relevant participant or subject characteristics, the sampling procedures used and the sample size and power .
• Define all primary and secondary measures and discuss the quality of measurements.
• Specify the data collection methods, the research design and data analysis strategy, including any steps taken to transform the data and statistical analyses.

With APA legal citations, it’s recommended to cite all the reporters (publications reporting cases) in which a court case appears. To cite multiple reporters, just separate them with commas in your reference entry . This is called parallel citation .

Don’t repeat the name of the case, court, or year; just list the volume, reporter, and page number for each citation. For example:

In APA Style , when you’re citing a recent court case that has not yet been reported in print and thus doesn’t have a specific page number, include a series of three underscores (___) where the page number would usually appear:

In APA style, statistics can be presented in the main text or as tables or figures . To decide how to present numbers, you can follow APA guidelines:

• To present three or fewer numbers, try a sentence,
• To present between 4 and 20 numbers, try a table,
• To present more than 20 numbers, try a figure.

Since these are general guidelines, use your own judgment and feedback from others for effective presentation of numbers.

In an APA results section , you should generally report the following:

• Participant flow and recruitment period.
• Missing data and any adverse events.
• Descriptive statistics about your samples.
• Inferential statistics , including confidence intervals and effect sizes.
• Results of any subgroup or exploratory analyses, if applicable.

When citing a podcast episode in APA Style , the podcast’s host is listed as author , accompanied by a label identifying their role, e.g. Glass, I. (Host).

When citing a whole podcast series, if different episodes have different hosts, list the executive producer(s) instead. Again, include a label identifying their role, e.g. Lechtenberg, S. (Producer).

Like most style guides , APA recommends listing the book of the Bible you’re citing in your APA in-text citation , in combination with chapter and verse numbers. For example:

Books of the Bible may be abbreviated to save space; a list of standard abbreviations can be found here . Page numbers are not used in Bible citations.

Yes, in the 7th edition of APA Style , versions of the Bible are treated much like other books ; you should include the edition you used in your reference list .

Previously, in the 6th edition of the APA manual, it was recommended to just use APA 6 in-text citations to refer to the Bible, and omit it from the reference list.

To make it easy for the reader to find the YouTube video , list the person or organization who uploaded the video as the author in your reference entry and APA in-text citation .

If this isn’t the same person responsible for the content of the video, you might want to make this clear in the text. For example:

When you need to highlight a specific moment in a video or audio source, use a timestamp in your APA in-text citation . Just include the timestamp from the start of the part you’re citing. For example:

To include a direct quote in APA , follow these rules:

• Quotes under 40 words are placed in double quotation marks .
• Quotes of 40 words or more are formatted as block quote .
• The author, year, and page number are included in an APA in-text citation .

APA doesn’t require you to include a list of tables or a list of figures . However, it is advisable to do so if your text is long enough to feature a table of contents and it includes a lot of tables and/or figures .

A list of tables and list of figures appear (in that order) after your table of contents, and are presented in a similar way.

Copyright information can usually be found wherever the table or figure was published. For example, for a diagram in a journal article , look on the journal’s website or the database where you found the article. Images found on sites like Flickr are listed with clear copyright information.

If you find that permission is required to reproduce the material, be sure to contact the author or publisher and ask for it.

If you adapt or reproduce a table or figure from another source, you should include that source in your APA reference list . You should also include copyright information in the note for the table or figure, and include an APA in-text citation when you refer to it.

Tables and figures you created yourself, based on your own data, are not included in the reference list.

An APA in-text citation is placed before the final punctuation mark in a sentence.

• The company invested over 40,000 hours in optimizing its algorithm (Davis, 2011) .
• A recent poll suggests that EU membership “would be backed by 55 percent of Danish voters” in a referendum (Levring, 2018) .

In an APA in-text citation , you use the phrase “ as cited in ” if you want to cite a source indirectly (i.e., if you cannot find the original source).

Parenthetical citation: (Brown, 1829, as cited in Mahone, 2018) Narrative citation: Brown (1829, as cited in Mahone, 2018) states that…

On the reference page , you only include the secondary source (Mahone, 2018).

Popular word processors like Microsoft Word and Google Docs can order lists in alphabetical order, but they don’t follow the APA Style alphabetization guidelines .

If you use Scribbr’s APA Citation Generator to create citations, references are ordered automatically based on the APA guidelines, taking into account all the exceptions.

Order numerals as though they were spelled out:

• “20 tips to relax” is ordered on the “T” of “Twenty”.
• “100 cities you should visit” is ordered on the “O” of “One hundred”.

Read more about alphabetizing the APA reference page .

If the author of a work is unknown, order the reference by its title. Disregard the words “A”, “An”, and “The” at the beginning of the title.

• The privacy concerns around social media
• Teens, social media, and privacy

Yes, if relevant you can and should include APA in-text citations in your appendices . Use author-date citations as you do in the main text.

Any sources cited in your appendices should appear in your reference list . Do not create a separate reference list for your appendices.

When you include more than one appendix in an APA Style paper , they should be labeled “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” and so on.

When you only include a single appendix, it is simply called “Appendix” and referred to as such in the main text.

Appendices in an APA Style paper appear right at the end, after the reference list and after your tables and figures if you’ve also included these at the end.

If you adapt or reproduce a table or figure from another source, you should include that source in your APA reference list . You should also acknowledge the original source in the note or caption for the table or figure.

APA doesn’t require you to include a list of tables or a list of figures . However, it is advisable to do so if your text is long enough to feature a table of contents and it includes a lot of tables and/or figures.

A list of tables and list of figures appear (in that order) after your table of contents , and are presented in a similar way.

In an APA Style paper , use a table or figure when it’s a clearer way to present important data than describing it in your main text. This is often the case when you need to communicate a large amount of information.

Before including a table or figure in your text, always reflect on whether it’s useful to your readers’ understanding:

• Could this information be quickly summarized in the text instead?
• Is it important to your arguments?
• Does the table or figure require too much explanation to be efficient?

If the data you need to present only contains a few relevant numbers, try summarizing it in the text (potentially including full data in an appendix ). If describing the data makes your text overly long and difficult to read, a table or figure may be the best option.

In an APA Style paper , the abstract is placed on a separate page after the title page (page 2).

An APA abstract is around 150–250 words long. However, always check your target journal’s guidelines and don’t exceed the specified word count.

In APA Style , all sources that are not retrievable for the reader are cited as personal communications . In other words, if your source is private or inaccessible to the audience of your paper , it’s a personal communication.

Common examples include conversations, emails, messages, letters, and unrecorded interviews or performances.

Interviews you conducted yourself are not included in your reference list , but instead cited in the text as personal communications .

Published or recorded interviews are included in the reference list. Cite them in the usual format of the source type (for example, a newspaper article , website or YouTube video ).

To cite a public post from social media , use the first 20 words of the post as a title, include the date it was posted and a URL, and mention the author’s username if they have one:

Dorsey, J. [@jack]. (2018, March 1). We’re committing Twitter to help increase the collective health, openness, and civility of public conversation, and to hold ourselves publicly [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/jack/status/969234275420655616

To cite content from social media that is not publicly accessible (e.g. direct messages, posts from private groups or user profiles), cite it as a personal communication in the text, but do not include it in the reference list :

When contacted online, the minister stated that the project was proceeding “according to plan” (R. James, Twitter direct message, March 25, 2017).

When you quote or paraphrase a specific passage from a source, you need to indicate the location of the passage in your APA in-text citation . If there are no page numbers (e.g. when citing a website ) but the text is long, you can instead use section headings, paragraph numbers, or a combination of the two:

(Caulfield, 2019, Linking section, para. 1).

Section headings can be shortened if necessary. Kindle location numbers should not be used in ebook citations , as they are unreliable.

If you are referring to the source as a whole, it’s not necessary to include a page number or other marker.

When no individual author name is listed, but the source can clearly be attributed to a specific organization—e.g., a press release by a charity, a report by an agency, or a page from a company’s website—use the organization’s name as the author in the reference entry and APA in-text citations .

When no author at all can be determined—e.g. a collaboratively edited wiki or an online article published anonymously—use the title in place of the author. In the in-text citation, put the title in quotation marks if it appears in plain text in the reference list, and in italics if it appears in italics in the reference list. Shorten it if necessary.

APA Style usually does not require an access date. You never need to include one when citing journal articles , e-books , or other stable online sources.

However, if you are citing a website or online article that’s designed to change over time, it’s a good idea to include an access date. In this case, write it in the following format at the end of the reference: Retrieved October 19, 2020, from https://www.uva.nl/en/about-the-uva/about-the-university/about-the-university.html

The 7th edition APA Manual , published in October 2019, is the most current edition. However, the 6th edition, published in 2009, is still used by many universities and journals.

The APA Manual 7th edition can be purchased at Amazon as a hardcover, paperback or spiral-bound version. You can also buy an ebook version at RedShelf .

The American Psychological Association anticipates that most people will start using the 7th edition in the spring of 2020 or thereafter.

It’s best to ask your supervisor or check the website of the journal you want to publish in to see which APA guidelines you should follow.

If you’re citing from an edition other than the first (e.g. a 2nd edition or revised edition), the edition appears in the reference, abbreviated in parentheses after the book’s title (e.g. 2nd ed. or Rev. ed.).

In the 7th edition of the APA manual, no location information is required for publishers. The 6th edition previously required you to include the city and state where the publisher was located, but this is no longer the case.

In an APA reference list , journal article citations include only the year of publication, not the exact date, month, or season.

The inclusion of volume and issue numbers makes a more specific date unnecessary.

In an APA journal citation , if a DOI (digital object identifier) is available for an article, always include it.

If an article has no DOI, and you accessed it through a database or in print, just omit the DOI.

If an article has no DOI, and you accessed it through a website other than a database (for example, the journal’s own website), include a URL linking to the article.

You may include up to 20 authors in a reference list entry .

When an article has more than 20 authors, replace the names prior to the final listed author with an ellipsis, but do not omit the final author:

Davis, Y., Smith, J., Caulfield, F., Pullman, H., Carlisle, J., Donahue, S. D., James, F., O’Donnell, K., Singh, J., Johnson, L., Streefkerk, R., McCombes, S., Corrieri, L., Valck, X., Baldwin, F. M., Lorde, J., Wardell, K., Lao, W., Yang, P., . . . O’Brien, T. (2012).

Include the DOI at the very end of the APA reference entry . If you’re using the 6th edition APA guidelines, the DOI is preceded by the label “doi:”. In the 7th edition , the DOI is preceded by ‘https://doi.org/’.

• 6th edition: doi: 10.1177/0894439316660340
• 7th edition: https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0894439316660340

APA citation example (7th edition)

Hawi, N. S., & Samaha, M. (2016). The relations among social media addiction, self-esteem, and life satisfaction in university students. Social Science Computer Review , 35 (5), 576–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439316660340

When citing a webpage or online article , the APA in-text citation consists of the author’s last name and year of publication. For example: (Worland & Williams, 2015). Note that the author can also be an organization. For example: (American Psychological Association, 2019).

If you’re quoting you should also include a locator. Since web pages don’t have page numbers, you can use one of the following options:

• Paragraph number: (Smith, 2018, para. 15).
• Heading or section name: ( CDC, 2020, Flu Season section)
• Abbreviated heading:  ( CDC, 2020, “Key Facts” section)

Always include page numbers in the APA in-text citation when quoting a source . Don’t include page numbers when referring to a work as a whole – for example, an entire book or journal article.

If your source does not have page numbers, you can use an alternative locator such as a timestamp, chapter heading or paragraph number.

Instead of the author’s name, include the first few words of the work’s title in the in-text citation. Enclose the title in double quotation marks when citing an article, web page or book chapter. Italicize the title of periodicals, books, and reports.

No publication date

If the publication date is unknown , use “n.d.” (no date) instead. For example: (Johnson, n.d.).

The abbreviation “ et al. ” (meaning “and others”) is used to shorten APA in-text citations with three or more authors . Here’s how it works:

Only include the first author’s last name, followed by “et al.”, a comma and the year of publication, for example (Taylor et al., 2018).

APA Style papers should be written in a font that is legible and widely accessible. For example:

• Times New Roman (12pt.)
• Arial (11pt.)
• Calibri (11pt.)
• Georgia (11pt.)

The same font and font size is used throughout the document, including the running head , page numbers, headings , and the reference page . Text in footnotes and figure images may be smaller and use single line spacing.

The easiest way to set up APA format in Word is to download Scribbr’s free APA format template for student papers or professional papers.

Alternatively, you can watch Scribbr’s 5-minute step-by-step tutorial or check out our APA format guide with examples.

You need an APA in-text citation and reference entry . Each source type has its own format; for example, a webpage citation is different from a book citation .

Use Scribbr’s free APA Citation Generator to generate flawless citations in seconds or take a look at our APA citation examples .

APA format is widely used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including fields like education, psychology, and business.

Be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you want to be published in to double-check which style you should be using.

Yes, page numbers are included on all pages, including the title page , table of contents , and reference page . Page numbers should be right-aligned in the page header.

To insert page numbers in Microsoft Word or Google Docs, click ‘Insert’ and then ‘Page number’.

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Topic Guide - Developing Your Research Study

• Purpose of Guide
• Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• APA 7th Edition
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study

Importance of...

Structure and writing style, writing tip.

• 10. Proofreading Your Paper
• Writing Concisely
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Study
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Bibliography

An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text itself but which may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem or it is information that is too cumbersome to be included in the body of the paper. A separate appendix should be used for each distinct topic or set of data and always have a title descriptive of its contents.

Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Appendices are always supplementary to the research paper. As such, your study must be able to stand alone without the appendices, and the paper must contain all information including tables, diagrams, and results necessary to understand the research problem. The key point to remember when including an appendix is that the information is non-essential; if it were removed, the reader would still be able to  comprehend the significance, validity , and implications of your research.

It is appropriate to include appendices for the following reasons:

• Including this material in the body of the paper that would render it poorly structured or interrupt the narrative flow;
• Information is too lengthy and detailed to be easily summarized in the body of the paper;
• Inclusion of helpful, supporting, or useful material would otherwise distract the reader from the main content of the paper;
• Provides relevant information or data that is more easily understood or analyzed in a self-contained section of the paper;
• Can be used when there are constraints placed on the length of your paper; and,
• Provides a place to further demonstrate your understanding of the research problem by giving additional details about a new or innovative method, technical details, or design protocols.

Appendices . Academic Skills Office, University of New England; Chapter 12, "Use of Appendices." In Guide to Effective Grant Writing: How to Write a Successful NIH Grant . Otto O. Yang. (New York: Kluwer Academic, 2005), pp. 55-57; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

I.  General Points to Consider

When considering whether to include content in an appendix, keep in mind the following:

• It is usually good practice to include your raw data in an appendix, laying it out in a clear format so the reader can re-check your results. Another option if you have a large amount of raw data is to consider placing it online and note that this is the appendix to your research paper.
• Any tables and figures included in the appendix should be numbered as a separate sequence from the main paper . Remember that appendices contain non-essential information that, if removed, would not diminish a reader's ability to understand the research problem being investigated. This is why non-textual elements should not carry over the sequential numbering of non-textual elements in the body of your paper.
• If you have more than three appendices, consider listing them on a separate page at the beginning of your paper . This will help the reader know what information is included in the appendices [always list the appendix or appendices in a table of contents].
• The appendix can be a good place to put maps, photographs, diagrams, and other images , if you feel that it will help the reader to understand the content of your paper, while keeping in mind the study should be understood without them.
• An appendix should be streamlined and not loaded with a lot information . If you have a very long and complex appendix, it is a good idea to break it down into separate appendices, allowing the reader to find relevant information quickly as the information is covered in the body of the paper.

II.  Content

Never include an appendix that isn’t referred to in the text . All appendices should be summarized in your paper where it is relevant to the content. Appendices should also be arranged sequentially by the order they were first referenced in the text [i.e., Appendix 1 should not refer to text on page eight of your paper and Appendix 2 relate to text on page six].

There are very few rules regarding what type of material can be included in an appendix, but here are some common examples:

• Correspondence -- if your research included collaborations with others or outreach to others, then correspondence in the form of letters, memorandums, or copies of emails from those you interacted with could be included.
• Interview Transcripts -- in qualitative research, interviewing respondents is often used to gather information. The full transcript from an interview is important so the reader can read the entire dialog between researcher and respondent. The interview protocol [list of questions] should also be included.
• Non-textual elements -- as noted above, if there are a lot of non-textual items, such as, figures, tables, maps, charts, photographs, drawings, or graphs, think about highlighting examples in the text of the paper but include the remainder in an appendix.
• Questionnaires or surveys -- this is a common form of data gathering. Always include the survey instrument or questionnaires in an appendix so the reader understands not only the questions asked but the sequence in which they were asked. Include all variations of the instruments as well if different items were sent to different groups [e.g., those given to teachers and those given to administrators] .
• Raw statistical data – this can include any numerical data that is too lengthy to include in charts or tables in its entirety within the text. This is important because the entire source of data should be included even if you are referring to only certain parts of a chart or table in the text of your paper.
• Research instruments -- if you used a camera, or a recorder, or some other device to gather information and it is important for the reader to understand how, when, and/or where that device was used.
• Sample calculations – this can include quantitative research formulas or detailed descriptions of how calculations were used to determine relationships and significance.

NOTE:   Appendices should not be a dumping ground for information. Do not include vague or irrelevant information in an appendix; this additional information will not help the reader’s overall understanding and interpretation of your research and may only distract the reader from understanding the significance of your overall study.

ANOTHER NOTE :  Appendices are intended to provide supplementary information that you have gathered or created; it is not intended to replicate or provide a copy of the work of others. For example, if you need to contrast the techniques of analysis used by other authors with your own method of analysis, summarize that information, and cite to the original work. In this case, a citation to the original work is sufficient enough to lead the reader to where you got the information. You do not need to provide a copy of this in an appendix.

III.  Format

Here are some general guideline on how to format appendices . If needed, consult the writing style guide [e.g., APA, MLS, Chicago] your professor wants you to use for more detail:

• Appendices may precede or follow your list of references.
• Each appendix begins on a new page.
• The order they are presented is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of your research paper.
• The heading should be "Appendix," followed by a letter or number [e.g., "Appendix A" or "Appendix 1"], centered and written in bold type.
• If there is a table of contents, the appendices must be listed.
• The page number(s) of the appendix/appendices will continue on with the numbering from the last page of the text.

Appendices . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College;  Appendices . Academic Skills Office, University of New England; Appendices . Writing Center, Walden University; Chapter 12, "Use of Appendices." In Guide to Effective Grant Writing: How to Write a Successful NIH Grant . Otto O. Yang. (New York: Kluwer Academic, 2005), pp. 55-57 ; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; What To Know About The Purpose And Format Of A Research Paper Appendix . LoyolaCollegeCulion.com.

Consider Putting Your Appendices Online

Appendices are useful because they provide the reader with information that supports your study without breaking up the narrative or distracting from the main purpose of your paper. If you have a lot of raw data or information that is difficult to present in textual form, consider uploading it to an online site. This prevents your paper from having a large and unwieldy set of appendices and it supports a growing movement within academe to make data more freely available for re-analysis. If you do create an online portal to your data, note it prominently in your paper with the correct URL and access procedures if it is a secured site.

Piwowar, Heather A., Roger S. Day, and Douglas B. Fridsma. “Sharing Detailed Research Data Is Associated with Increased Citation Rate.” PloS ONE (March 21, 2007); Wicherts, Jelte M., Marjan Bakker, and Dylan Molenaar. “Willingness to Share Research Data Is Related to the Strength of the Evidence and the Quality of Reporting of Statistical Results.” PLoS ONE (November 2, 2011).

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How to Write an Appendix: Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

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While composing your work, you may stumble upon a question on how to write an appendix.

An appendix is a supplemental section of a research paper that provides additional information, data, or materials to support the main content. The appendix is usually placed at the end of the document and is numbered with letters or numbers, such as "Appendix A," "Appendix B," etc. The purpose of an appendix is to provide readers with supplementary details that are not included in the main text but are relevant to the topic.

Once you decide on writing appendices, you should collect additional information and format your text as required. Here, we will talk about how you can work with appendices. We will also show some nuances of their preparation process using a real example. Is the deadline around the corner? Consider using professional research paper help from expert scholars.

What Is an Appendix: Definition

Experienced researchers know what an appendix in a paper is. But aspiring authors often have problems with this section of the work. First of all, you should understand that appendices are an additional section of a dissertation or any other scientific paper that includes additional information. Main points are not placed in an appendix meanwhile at the end of your work it can expand on some context or clarify author’s position on a particular issue. Also, an appendix is ​​often placed after the citation page of a work. It is indicated with the help of references in a main text.

What Is the Purpose of an Appendix

Quite often, authors don’t understand the purpose of an appendix. This usually looks like a table and is not included in a main text. Remember that content of your dissertation should be concise and clear. It is also undesirable if you deviate from your theme so as not to confuse readers. Therefore, you can provide a reference, which will lead a reader to an appendix of a thesis. Typically, the purpose of an appendix is to extra information that is usually not included in the text's body. It expresses author's point of view, and provides additional information. It may not address the immediate topic of your dissertation or expand on current research. As a reminder, your work should be clear even without studying an appendix. So make sure you don't put important details there.

What Can You Include in an Appendix

An appendix in a paper is a supplement to a main text, not a replacement. You can put different elements there. It is better if you separate appendices, highlighting one element in each of them. Don’t forget about separate references in your text. Otherwise it will be difficult for a reader to understand your information better. Thus, the following information can be added:

• diagrams with illustrative figures;
• abbreviations ;
• interviews;
• statistics, and much more.

There are no restrictions on content added to your dissertation's appendices. Theoretically, you can attach absolutely any information that is relevant to your topic. Thus, possibilities for evidence base are almost unlimited. All you need to do is add tables or any other information.

How to Write an Appendix: Full Guide

If you already have experience working on dissertations and other scientific texts, you will not wonder how to make an appendix. However, it is still important that you get some advice on how to properly structure an appendices section. This will help add information that may be redundant in the main part of your paper. We offer 4 simple steps to create an informative and readable appendix block.

Step 1. Make an Appendix: Include Your Data

When creating an appendix, include extra data in their raw form. That is, you might not have used some details in your main paper. But you want a reader to know more information. For example, it can be calculations, some results of which are mentioned in your main text. Or maybe, you can add some statistics that clearly demonstrate your research paper conclusion . You can also include facts from other scientific sources that support your position. One thing is important — information should complement your text but not contradict it.

Step 2. Include Visual Supporting Documents in an Appendix 

When you are writing an appendix, you can’t avoid visual additions that clearly demonstrate an information and save an author from lengthy descriptions in the text. Should you need to support your conclusions drawn in the scientific text, these can be used:

Don’t forget: you should quote and indicate the authorship of graphics used in your work. If you took it from any third-party sources, of course. Thus, a reader will be able to find additional data that explains the content of your text. It is good if you personally put results of your research in a graphic form. To do this, you can use Office programs, graphic editors and other programs available to PC users.

Step 3. Describe the Instruments of Your Research in Your Appendices

It is good if your appendix in the research paper has a section for indicating tools that were used during the preparation of your dissertation writing . This way, your reader will understand how you collected information and do it themselves. For example, it could be a dictaphone or tape recorder on which an interview with your expert was recorded. Or you might have used a video camera for recording facts and interviews. In such case, it is advisable to indicate these instruments in your appendix. Specialized equipment for measuring, calculating and making graphics should also be added at the beginning of the appendix. This way, you will demonstrate your skills and knowledge. Research units don’t require extra tools, so make sure they are listed. You can do it even in a short format.

Step 4. Include an Interview and Transcripts in an Appendix

When conducting interviews and surveys for collecting information, make an appendix with photocopies of handwritten materials or electronic copies of digital surveys. Their order is not important. The main thing is that your research text contains references. This will allow you to quickly study the sources. You should not only show that the source contains important data but also explain it. So, even additional content, including questions and answers, needs to be listed. But if you originally had a readable format, you don’t need to do this. In addition to interviews, also add screenshots or photos of correspondences used for surveys. For example, you can refer to a significant researcher with whom you exchanged letters. Or maybe you studied subject, together with this researcher, and they gave some comments on a particular issue. Do not know how to write a discussion section of a research paper ? Do not worry, we have the whole article dedicated to this topic.

Formatting an Appendix: Main Rules

Formatting of appendices is required in any case. First of all, provide correct citations. APA, MLA, and Chicago are the most commonly used standards. Although, you should clarify what formatting requirements your institution has. Correct formatting includes:

• Appendix title. Write it at the top of the content page, indicate its title, using letters or numbers for ordering.
• Sorted by mention. Don’t add appendices randomly, it is better to do it in chronological order. That is, as information from it is given in main text.
• Location after bibliography. This is a general requirement that cannot always be met. For example, if your professor wants the appendices to be put before the bibliography, this will have to be done.
• Page numbers. All dissertation pages should be numbered, even if they are blank. This will make the appendix block the part of main text.

Also, review your appendix before approval. Make sure that its content is clear, error-free, and correctly quoted.

Appendix Example

To do the job successfully, it is recommended to have an example of an appendix at hand. Without it, there are usually problems with a choice of font and mentions that appear in main text. We will show you what the appendix itself looks like at the end of the dissertation using a short interview as an example.

We have one more blog in case you wonder what is an abstract in a paper  or need some examples and writing tips.

How to Make an Appendix: Final Thoughts

Thus, we talked about how to write an appendix. It allows you to include additional details, while avoiding writing them in the body of your text. To do this, one can use graphics, transcriptions of conversations, tables and statistics — anything that complements your research. Be sure to clarify formatting requirements of your university. Arrange appendices in an order in which they appear in your text. Try to use your own materials and not take other people's work. In case of unique findings, they can be used in your work.

Please contact us if you have any difficulties preparing an academic work! Our professional paper writers guarantee high quality and loyal prices. Just choose a writer to your liking, send your requirements and you're good to go!

Frequently Asked Questions About Appendix Writing

1. how do you add an appendix to an essay.

The inclusion of appendix to an essay is the same as to any other paper. You need to provide references in your text of an essay itself, as well as submit attachments after a bibliography. Don't forget to specify name of an appendix for easy navigation.

2. Do I add references to the appendix?

Yes, this is not only recommended but must be done. In this case the appendix will allow your reader to check the reliability of sources you used. Moreover, if you took any information from third-party sources, this protect you from plagiarism charges.

4. How do you create an appendix in Word?

It is not difficult to prepare an appendix in Word, because this Office program contains all the necessary tools. To get started, choose the same font, font size and indentation that were used in the main text, so as not to visually break away from it. We also recommend that you apply title formatting with built-in Word tools. Place the appendix titles at the top in the center of a page. In this case it will be much easier to navigate the paper.

3. What is an appendix in a report example?

You can include a wide range of information into an appendix in a report. It is better to opt for descriptive formats, though. For example, it can be graphical or mathematical research results, statistics of a certain phenomenon, and questionnaires filled in by other people.

Joe Eckel is an expert on Dissertations writing. He makes sure that each student gets precious insights on composing A-grade academic writing.

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Use an Appendix or Annex in Your Research Paper?

'Appendix' and 'annex' are commonly confused in research papers. While the use of an appendix is more common, the annex can also be a valuable way of supplementing your research. The appendix and the annex add supporting/supplementary information. Both are posted online and can be referred to by researchers with a particular interest in your study. The differences between them are context and length.

Updated on July 26, 2022

The terms “appendix” and “annex” are commonly confused in research papers. While the use of an appendix is more common, the annex can also be a valuable way of supplementing your research.

Both the appendix and the annex add supporting/supplementary information (SI), like tables and graphs, datasets, or transcriptions. Both are posted online and can be referred to by researchers with a particular interest in your study (especially if they're open access).

The main differences between these two forms of data supplement are context and length. Appendixes are common and are part of the study; you likely used them in theses and dissertations. Annexes deal with much longer and more detailed sets of information, and they're additional to the study's content. Let's take a deeper look at the differences so you'll never them confused.

What is an appendix?

An appendix is, according to Merriem-Webster, “supplementary material usually attached at the end of a piece of writing.” The word comes from the Latin appendere, which means “cause to hang (from something).” It's included in the paper at the end, usually after the references or bibliography.

Appendixes/Appendices can be seen as materials that supplement rather than complement the research. Read only by those with a specific interest.

Basics of an appendix

The following are generally true of an appendix.

• Included at the end of the manuscript.
• Written by one more of the paper's researchers. Exceptions are items like letters granting ethical clearance for the research or details of the research tools used (see the example later).
• Ties into the research directly; gives greater detail than the main body of the manuscript.
• Not too long. Of course, that's subjective, but generally speaking, it's a page or two rather than dozens of pages, or more.

What to put in an appendix

Some examples of an appendix are:

• Figures and tables
• Photographs
• Raw data (tables, plots, images)
• Questionnaires and interview questions (especially in qualitative research)
• Ethics approvals such as from the IRB
• Correspondences, such as letters or emails

Most research published as a journal article, and particularly as a thesis, will contain appendices rather than annexes.

This paper (PDF link) includes an appendix that details the instruments used in the research. Each test was used in the study, and the author felt the details were important enough to detail in the appendix, too much information to be presented in the main paper.

This chemistry article also presents supplementary data in the appendix. As it's too lengthy to put in print, a downloadable Word file is available. However, it's only data rather than an article or other full and standalone materials, which is likely why it was made into an appendix rather than an annex.

What is an annex?

Merriam-Webster defines an annex as “an added stipulation or statement.” In the context of research, both academic and commercial, annexes are usually separate additions to the research output and are submitted as separate documents.

Annex comes from the French annexer, which means “to join or attach.” Simply put, an annex comes along with (joining or attached to) a research paper. An example might be a UN report relevant to a manuscript, and that will be added as a supporting document, backing up the research findings. Annexes are used for materials that complement the research.

Basics of an annex

• Attached to the research paper as a separate item.
• Often (but not always) produced by someone outside the research team. If, for example, one of the researchers produced a white paper for the government on the research domain and this might complement the research, this could be an annex.
• Can be many pages long.
• Supports or informs the research that has been done; complements it.
• Is not part of the research output presented in the manuscript's body text.

What to put in an annex

Some examples of an annex are...

• Documents mentioned in the manuscript or that may support the manuscript
• News articles
• Lab reports
• Interviews of people mentioned in the manuscript.
• Data from other studies

Almost always, annexes are added to papers that exceed normal journal article lengths. They're supporting materials to lengthy research output, like those often funded by corporate or government funding.

This World Health Organization guidance paper on HIV/AIDS is itself 21 pages long but comes with separate downloadable annexes. The paper details the findings stemming from the research and describes the processes for the trials. On page 5, the paper notes that the annexes are included to give greater details on the clinical trials mentioned in the paper. In this sense, the annexes are for readers who want greater detail.

The paper reviews the trials done in the annex, but because the trials were not part of the research and was done by others, it was added as an annex.

Should you use an appendix or an annex?

Short answer: you should probably use an appendix. That's because they're much more common. Appendices are placed at the end of a document, while annexes are, technically, separate from it. The former is part of the paper, but the latter is not.

Annexes are often long documents, running even to hundreds of pages. Most often, someone an annex's author is someone who's not part of the research team. Appendices, however, are often by a paper's author(s) and are usually not more than a few pages each (though, in the case of datasets, they technically can be quite long).

Annexes are used to verify the research and provide additional, relevant information. They are documents from credible and relevant sources. They offer further insight into the research topic.

Normally, you'll be using appendices, and that's often because of the journal's word count limits. It may be ideal to include tables or charts in-line in the article, but if there's no room, the appendix can provide extra space.

Handling data: A workflow for dealing with data in your SI

Submission and sharing of data are especially key steps in dealing with your SI in appendixes, annexes, and other formats. When you're submitting your article to a journal, there is a common workflow for this:

• Create additional supplementary files (usually as few as possible, a single file is ideal).
• Upload to the journal site or one of the many ‘approved' online data repositories.
• You'll be given a URL to link back to your data files.
• Add this link to the Acknowledgements section of your paper with some text such as “Additional files in support of this article can be found at https://...”

Some commonly used and ostensibly approved online data repositories:

• Harvard Dataverse
• Open Science Framework (OSF)
• Mendeley Data

But don't get carried away!

Supplementary information, including appendixes and annexes, can also be abused. Additional information may be so long/big/dense that it actually may not undergo full peer review even though the rest of the article does.

A study by Pop and Salzberg asserted that journals' word restrictions may cause authors to move key information outside the main manuscript body. In this way, it can avert proper peer review while also being less accessible to the reader. This hinders further investigation because readers have to wade through huge amounts of supplementary documents to find what they're after.

It also robs authors cited in the supplementary information of the recognition they would receive from citations in the body text.

Nature commendably lays out specifics for SI – check them here .

Final thoughts

If you're unsure of what needs to be in your supplementary information, or if you even need an appendix or annex, as well as the English quality and style, a scientific edit can be a big help. Explore AJE's extensive editing services here .

The AJE Team

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Measuring and Valuing Australia's Ecosystems

First look at how Australia's ecosystems can be measured and valued.

Executive summary

In 2025, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) will release the first comprehensive set of National Ecosystem Accounts for Australia. The release is part of an ongoing ecosystem accounts program between the ABS and the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW). The accounts will cover the entire Australian territory, encompassing terrestrial, freshwater, and marine realms. The inaugural release, developed from existing datasets, will showcase the potential of extensive ecosystem accounts to deliver environmental information for decision-makers, and will provide a platform for feedback on utility and future enhancements.   

Central to the ongoing program of ecosystem accounts are user needs and a comprehensive statistical framework. The comprehensive framework enables the organisation of data about habitats and landscapes, measuring ecosystem services, and linking this information to economic and other human activities. Over time, the program will provide a time series of information on environmental change and how this impacts our economy. Extensions to ecosystem accounts will also be developed exploring thematic areas such as biodiversity and climate change, providing targeted insights for specific policy areas. The first release will be followed by a consultation process to ensure the accounts are fit-for-purpose.  

This paper discusses the benefits and uses of ecosystem accounts, and the ongoing ecosystem accounting program development process. It includes an example of a National Ecosystem Account for a single ecosystem, rivers, focused on the ecosystem service of freshwater provisioning (see Appendix 4). These example accounts demonstrate the format of, and information contained within, ecosystem accounts.    

Development of the National Ecosystem Accounts is a significant step in understanding the health and wealth of our nation's natural capital. Valuing the economic contribution of ecosystems allows for a deeper understanding of how nature supports economies and societies, which can lead to more informed and sustainable decision-making.

The Australian territory covers a huge geographical area, with extensive natural assets. Australia is one of the largest islands in the world with a total land area of 7.7 million km \(^2\) , 60,000 km of coastline, 4.3 million km of rivers, and oceans that cover 10 million km \(^2\) . In 2023, an estimated $2.4 trillion came from our agricultural, mineral and other service industries. Added to that, in 2023 our population was nearly 27 million people. Measuring the extent and value of our natural environment and ecosystems is critical to understanding the relationship between these assets, the economy, and society. Enduring National Ecosystem Accounts will provide an ecologically meaningful measure of Australia’s land, freshwater and marine environment.

The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), in partnership with the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW), is developing an ongoing program of National Ecosystem Accounts to produce a series of annual releases of these accounts. The ABS and DCCEEW have partnered with the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) to develop the first National Ecosystem Accounts, which are due to be published in early 2025. The accounts are being developed in accordance with the United Nations’ System of Environmental-Economic Accounting Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) international framework. Over time they will provide a continuing measure of Australia’s changing ecosystems. The accounts will be improved and expanded to better meet a range of needs as the ecosystem accounting program develops.  

This information paper outlines the background and purpose of the accounts, and the intended approach to developing the ongoing accounting program. While this report does not intend to cover all methodological aspects of account compilation, it includes appendices that provide insight into key aspects of account compilation for monetary, biodiversity and carbon accounts, and on integrating ecosystem accounts into the System of National Accounts (SNA). Feedback on the full set of accounts and compilation methodology will be sought after their publication in 2025.

What are ecosystem accounts?

Ecosystems are areas containing a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities, and their non-living environment, interacting as a functional unit. The primary units for ecosystem accounting are labelled ecosystem assets. Ecosystem accounts are structured to summarise information about these assets, their changing capacity to operate as a functional unit, and their benefits to humanity.  

Ecosystem accounts will help us to understand Australia’s environment and how it changes over time by describing ecosystems and how they contribute to the economy and society in a standardised way. Ecosystem accounts consist of five main components:  

• stocks of ecosystem assets  
• the condition or ‘health’ of the assets  
• the flows of goods and services from the assets  
• the value of the benefits from the goods and services  
• the value of ecosystem assets.   

A key aspect of ecosystem accounting is that it allows the contributions of ecosystems to the economy and society to be expressed in monetary terms. Some of the benefits from this are:  

• An ability to compare ecosystem services to other goods and services and their contribution to society’s wellbeing.   
• The integration of habitats and landscapes data with ecosystem services.   
• The linking of ecosystem services with information on economic and other human activity.   

Figure 1 shows the general ecosystem accounting framework that describes the extent and condition of ecosystem assets and the flow of ecosystem services from these assets to the economy and society (United Nations et al. 2021).

Figure 1. General ecosystem accounting framework

A diagram with circles arranged in an overlapping format, illustrating the relationship between the environment, ecosystem assets, society and the economy within the context of ecosystem services. The largest circle is Environment which encompasses the two major circles, Ecosystem assets and Society. The Ecosystem assets circle contains three elements; Extent and Condition tables, and maps of Characteristics. The Society circle encompasses the Economy circle. Extent, Condition, and Characteristics are pointing towards a circle titled Final ecosystem services, which overlaps Ecosystem assets, Economy and Society. An arrow flows from Final ecosystem services to a circle titled Benefits which sits inside Society, and overlaps the Economy circle. The diagram emphasises that Final ecosystem services connect ecosystem assets  with societal and economic benefits.

The National Ecosystem Accounts  are being designed in accordance with the SEEA EA framework.

The SEEA EA framework

The United Nations' System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) is the conceptual framework adopted by the ABS and the international statistical community for environmental-economic accounts. The SEEA was first recognised by the United Nations Statistical Commission as an international standard in 2012 and endorsed for the purposes of ecosystem accounting in 2021. The structures, concepts and classifications used in the SEEA follow those used in the System of National Accounts (SNA), meaning that accounts produced under the SEEA combine comparative analysis of the contribution of the environment to the economy, the impact of the economy on the environment, and the efficiency of the use of environmental resources within the economy. There are two frameworks associated with the SEEA: the Central Framework (SEEA CF) and Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA). While the SEEA CF covers environmental assets, physical flows and environmental related transactions and activities, the SEEA EA adds a spatial and ecosystem perspective to the environmental-economic accounts.

There are five key elements to ecosystem accounts, which are interlinked (Figure 2, from United Nations et al. 2021):

Ecosystem extent accounts

Ecosystem extent accounts organise data on the extent or area of different ecosystem types. Extent accounts data can support the derivation of indicators relating to composition and change in ecosystem types across a region. They provide a common basis for discussion among stakeholders on different ecosystem types within a country, and the thresholds for measuring conversion from one ecosystem type to another. Compilation of these accounts is also relevant in determining the appropriate set of ecosystem types that will underpin the structure of other accounts.  

Ecosystem condition accounts

A central feature of ecosystem accounting is its organisation of biophysical information on the condition of different ecosystem types. The ecosystem condition account organises the relevant data on selected ecosystem characteristics and the distance from a reference condition to provide insight into the ecological integrity of ecosystems. It may also organise data relevant to measuring the capacity of an ecosystem to supply different ecosystem services.  

Ecosystem services flow accounts – physical terms

The supply of final ecosystem services by ecosystems and the use of those services by economic units (including households, enterprises, and government) constitute one of the central features of ecosystem accounting. The supply and use tables record the flows of final ecosystem services supplied by ecosystems and used by economic units during an accounting period, enabling the recording of intermediate service flows between ecosystems.  

Ecosystem services flow accounts – monetary terms

Commonly, estimates of ecosystem services in monetary terms are based on estimating prices or values for individual ecosystem services and multiplying by the physical quantities recorded in the ecosystem services flow account in physical terms. Monetary valuation of ecosystem services is measured in a context that is coherent with standard measures of products and assets as recorded in the national accounts, which is described in Appendix 2. It is important to note that not all ecosystem services will have a monetary value.   

Ecosystem asset account – monetary terms

The series of ecosystem accounts is completed with the monetary ecosystem asset account. This account records a monetary value of ecosystem assets in terms of the net present value of the ecosystem services supplied by the asset. The estimates provide a measure of the exchange value related to the scope of ecosystem services recorded in the ecosystem services flow account and cannot be interpreted as reflecting a complete or universal measure of the value of nature.   

Figure 2. Diagram of the relationships between ecosystem accounts in the SEEA framework

A diagram illustrating an ecosystem accounting system which are divided into Stock accounts (and change in stocks) as a section on the left and Flow accounts as a section on the right. Accounts are shown within these sections as blue circles for physical accounts and yellow circles for monetary accounts. Ecosystem extent and Ecosystem condition are blue circles in the left section representing physical stock accounts and are connected by a double-sided arrow. Together these feed into  a blue circle in the right section labelled Ecosystem services flow, representing a physical flow account. This is connected with a double-sided arrow to a yellow circle on the right section directly below, also called Ecosystem services flow, representing the associated monetary flow account. An arrow connects the Ecosystem services monetary flow account to a yellow circle in the left section representing the Monetary ecosystem asset stock account. The diagram highlights the relationship between ecosystem stocks (extent and condition) and flows (services), emphasising both physical and monetary aspects.

Ecosystem account uses

Ecosystem accounts can help us understand the extent and condition of our ecosystems, and their contribution to our economic and social wellbeing. They aim to address the following questions:  

• What ecosystem assets do we have and where are they located?  
• What condition are our ecosystem assets in?  
• What ecosystem services do our ecosystem assets provide?  
• What benefits do our ecosystem assets provide, including the value of these benefits?  

The potential uses of ecosystem accounting are diverse, and may include:  

• informing the community about the extent and quality of their environment  
• environmental policy-making – helping to understand which policies create the greatest public benefit  
• natural resource management – helping to understand the optimal balance between productivity and environmental outcomes  
• planning, development and conservation activities – helping to understand the best location for an activity or development  
• providing measurement frameworks for private sector investment – helping to understand (and report) both private and public benefits of an investment.  

How an account can be used is intrinsically linked to how it is developed. Development decisions include, for example: what spatial scale to cover; what ecosystems and ecosystem services to include; and what metrics to use to measure ecosystem condition. However, the underlying purpose is to facilitate the communication and analysis of change in complex systems, including where there is a relationship between the environment and the economy.   

Ecosystem accounts can provide information to help farmers, land-use planners, policymakers, and agricultural investors make decisions on how to balance environmental outcomes with the need for food production. For example, they may assess the extent and quality of remaining habitat for threatened species, or the ecosystem services related to climate regulation (e.g. carbon retention) and water supply. They provide context for private landholders, natural resource managers, Landcare groups, communities and investors to better understand how retaining or restoring biodiversity can help support their goals and, when necessary, make trade-offs between competing goals.  

Business activities often rely on supply chains embedded in ecosystems and can have wide-ranging impacts on natural capital, such as environmental degradation, but they can also have positive impacts. Accounting for natural and social capital provides a better understanding of what the business impacts on nature and society are, what the business risks and opportunities are (e.g. lower cost and improved supply chain resilience) and for creating more economic value through demonstrating corporate social responsibility and good Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) reporting .

Relevance to current Australian policies and environmental indicators

In 2018, the federal and state and territory environment ministers agreed on a A Common National Approach: Strategy and Action Plan for environmental-economic accounting within Australia (Commonwealth of Australia 2018). This strategy was developed as a collaboration between the Australian Department of the Environment and Energy, its state and territory counterparts, and the ABS. The common national approach to the implementation of the SEEA was devised to “provide coherent, comprehensive and integrated accounts to support decision-making by governments, business and the community.” (Commonwealth of Australia 2018).  

In December 2022, the Australian Government released the Nature Positive Plan (NPP) for environmental law reform in response to the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act Independent Review. Reforms include developing a set of National Environmental Standards , establishing an independent national Environment Protection Australia (EPA) agency and a new division, Environment Information Australia (EIA), within DCCEEW, to improve the availability and accessibility of high-quality information about the environment.    

The Australian Government’s draft legislation, Nature Positive (Environment Information Australia) Bill 2024, includes the establishment of the EIA and the head of the EIA having responsibility for maintaining environmental-economic accounts. Environmental-economic accounts, integrated with socio-economic data, allow decision-makers to determine the best use of environmental assets to optimise social, economic and environmental outcomes.   

The Australian government has engaged in a range of international agreements that commit to protecting and restoring the natural environment for future generations. Addressing environmental decline requires international cooperation and these National Ecosystem Accounts will inform reporting on a range of priority areas, such as:  

• The Threatened Species Action Plan   
• Commitment by Australia’s environment ministers to protect 30% of Australia’s landmass and marine areas by 2030  
• Nature Repair Market  
• Sustainable Ocean Plan  
• Australia’s participation in the High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy  
• Measuring what matters   
• Sustainable Finance Roadmap | Treasury.gov.au    
• Updating Australia’s Strategy for Nature 2019–2030 - Climate (dcceew.gov.au)  
• State of the Environment Reporting  
• Global Biodiversity Framework.  

The first release of the National Ecosystem Accounts

The first set of the National Ecosystem Accounts will be published in early 2025. The first release will incorporate various input datasets, including a number prepared by CSIRO. These datasets will provide information on ecosystem extent, some condition measures, agricultural water supply, the provision of wild marine fish and some biodiversity estimates. Additional data from within the ABS and other external providers will also be incorporated into the accounts. Full details of the data sources and compilation methods will be available with the first release publication.  

The accounts will include extent accounts of all ecosystem functional groups relevant to ecosystems in Australia, in terrestrial, freshwater and marine realms. They will also include a range of condition metrics and selected ecosystem service accounts, including agricultural biomass provisioning services, wild fish provisioning services, coastal protection services, water supply services, and carbon sequestration and retention services. In addition, there will be a biodiversity thematic account included; for more information on this account see Appendix 3.2.   

Following the release of these accounts there will be a consultation process to assist with developing the ongoing program of National Ecosystem Accounts.  

Continuous improvement post first release

Continuous improvement is a fundamental component of developing an enduring set of National Ecosystem Accounts. The first release of National Ecosystem Accounts is just the starting point for accounts that will improve over time. Known areas for improvement in subsequent releases include (see Appendix 1 for more detail):  

• Targeted and ongoing engagement with end users to better understand how decisions are made, the information they need, and the role accounts could play in supporting these decisions.
• Improvements in the measures of ecosystem extent and condition to see what is driving change. This includes identifying which changes are the result of natural processes and which are caused by human activity.  
• Incorporating perspectives and sources of knowledge from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples is a critical area for future improvement.  
• A framework to enable the inclusion of sub-national and regional data into the national accounts.
• New methods and data sources to fill data gaps and quantify the ecosystem services provided by the environment, so that impacts on the economy can be fully considered in decision-making.

Conclusion and further information

The development of National Ecosystem Accounts is a significant step in understanding the health and wealth of our nation's natural capital. Valuing the economic contribution of ecosystems allows for a deeper understanding of how nature supports economies and societies, which can lead to more informed and sustainable decision-making.    

The process of developing an enduring set of ecosystem accounts to inform national decision-making is a huge undertaking. The appendices that follow provide some of the technical and methodological detail that form part of the process. An example of an ecosystem account for rivers has also been included to illustrate the format and information in the National Ecosystem Accounts.

You can provide feedback on this information paper to the ABS by emailing [email protected].

Appendix 1. Developing an ongoing ecosystem accounting program

The National Ecosystem Accounts will build on other ecosystem accounting work completed both within Australia and internationally in recent years including:    

• National Ocean Account, Experimental Estimates, November 2022 | Australian Bureau of Statistics   
• Mitchell Catchment accounts  
• Experimental Environmental-Economic Accounts for the Great Barrier Reef, 2017 | Australian Bureau of Statistics     
• Regional Ecosystem Accounting Pilot for Murray-Darling Basin  
• Gunbower-Koondrook-Perricoota accounts  
• Ecosystem Asset Accounts for Rivers in South Africa .  

The first release of the accounts will showcase the potential use of extensive ecosystem accounts and provide a platform for future enhancement feedback to address policy needs, inform environmental and economic planning, and extend usability.   

The ABS and DCCEEW are partnering to develop a long-term Continuous Improvement Plan for the National Ecosystem Accounts. This appendix outlines areas that will be a focus beyond the first publication. Additional improvements will be considered based on feedback from the first release.

1.1 Identification of purpose

It is important that the accounts can be used to inform decisions. Therefore, a priority for developing the ongoing program of work is a thorough investigation of user needs to determine priority accounts and metrics that will be fit-for-purpose. Prioritisation is critical given the large number of ecosystem services across all realms. Environmental-economic accounts can serve many purposes and a broad set of potential uses for these accounts may emerge over time.  

To uncover this potential, user consultation will need to be a fundamental and ongoing part of future development. Clearly ascertaining user needs will then need to be balanced with practical implementation (e.g. data sources and methods).

1.2 Selection of condition metrics

The selection of appropriate metrics, in particular to measure the condition of Australia’s ecosystems, is complex and depends on the aims and uses of the accounts. No single indicator can fully represent ecosystem quality across the range of ecosystems.   

The ecosystem condition accounts are useful for providing insights into the characteristics and quality of ecosystems and how they change over time. Ecosystem condition is the quality of an ecosystem measured in terms of its abiotic and biotic characteristics (United Nations et al. 2021) .

 “Ecosystem condition accounts record data on the state and functioning of (ecosystem assets) ... using a combination of relevant variables and indicators. The selected variables and indicators reflect changes over time in the key characteristics of each (ecosystem asset).”

A three-stage approach is used in the SEEA EA for the compilation of ecosystem condition accounts. Outputs at each stage are relevant for policy and decision-making.   

• Stage 1, key characteristics are selected and data on relevant variables are collated;
• Stage 2, a general reference condition is determined and for each variable a corresponding reference level is established that allows a condition indicator to be derived;
• Stage 3, condition indicators are normalised to support aggregation and the derivation of ecosystem condition indexes ( Accounting for Ecosystem Condition ).  

The SEEA EA also includes the Ecosystem Condition Typology (ECT), which is a hierarchical typology for organising data on ecosystem condition characteristics. It is designed to incorporate ecosystem condition measures that cover ecosystem structure, function and composition. Table 1 shows the SEEA EA ECT (United Nations et al. 2021, p. 90).

While a number of condition metrics will be included in the first release, future releases aim to extend the range of variables included to meet a wider range of uses. It is important, for example, that the metrics used align with jurisdictional approaches to measuring ecosystem condition across various Nature Positive initiatives. Similarly, Australia also needs to respond to international information requests related to the Global Biodiversity Framework and the Sustainability Development Goals. Thus, further work will be undertaken to refine and expand on the condition metrics used on an ongoing basis. Criteria to select condition variables will consider the relevance of the metric to the ecosystem it is measuring, the relevance of the metric for decision-making and the availability of data for ongoing reporting.

1.3 Selection of ecosystem services

Ecosystem services are the contributions of ecosystems to the benefits used in economic and other human activity (United Nations et al. 2021, para. 6.9). Examples of ecosystem services include:  

• provisioning services, such as water provisioning  
• regulation and maintenance services, such as global climate regulation services through the retention and sequestration of carbon in ecosystems  
• cultural services, such as recreation-related services.  

Once identified these ecosystem services can be valued, which also provides a value to the underlying ecosystem asset. Further information on the approaches to valuation of ecosystem services is provided in Appendix 2 - Valuing the economic contributions of ecosystems.  

While there is an extensive list of ecosystem services that are provided by the environment, it is unrealistic to produce accounts that cover all these services. Instead, the accounts will focus on services that have particular relevance to policy and decision-makers. The selection of ecosystem services for inclusion in the first release will include agricultural biomass provisioning, water provisioning, coastal protection, wild fish provisioning and carbon sequestration and retention . The intention is to expand this list of ecosystem services in response to future needs.

1.4 Selection of datasets

Ecosystem accounting presents challenges in collating and harmonising environmental and economic data from a range of sources. Input data could be quantitative, qualitative, modelled, surveyed, time series, or spatial, and may vary in format, processing and scale. A framework to guide selection and harmonisation for the production of accounts is essential. It also provides guidance on when to acknowledge that the available data is not adequate, and therefore data gaps are identified. A framework allows us to:  

• identify the data or other forms of information needed for accounting purposes  
• encourage the development of common metadata standards  
• provide greater transparency in verifying data treatments and assumptions used in compiling accounts.  

The data selection framework will incorporate and expand on the ABS’s data quality framework ( The ABS Data Quality Framework ) and align with DCCEEW’s draft National Data Standards ( National Environmental Standards - DCCEEW ). These standards include the following criteria:  

• Fit-for-purpose: data and information meet the specific needs of the decision being made.  
• Ethical: data and information are demonstrably compliant with relevant legislation protecting sensitive data and information, were obtained and are managed under appropriate ethics approvals, and were obtained and are managed in a transparent and inclusive manner for stakeholders.  
• Reliable: data and information have a demonstrably robust scientific foundation and/or were collected under a recognised and enduring survey protocol or traditional knowledge system.  
• Reusable: data and information have adequate metadata (on the data’s structure, lineage, sources, objectives and intended use) to ensure it is meaningful for decision-making.  
• Accessible: data and information are made available under the least restrictive conditions possible (preferably Creative-Commons-No-Rights-Reserved).  
• Discoverable: data and information are made available on an enduring, searchable and interoperable platform so they can be readily found when needed for a decision.  

Assessing the quality and appropriateness of data for inclusion in the accounts depends on a number of factors. Having a framework to guide input data selection will enhance the ability of the ABS to compile high quality accounts.  

The data selected for the initial release of the accounts is focused on data in a ready-to-use form, with the most important consideration being spatial coverage of the entire extent of the territory. As the accounts develop, there will be a need to look further than immediately usable data sources, so that inputs can be considered best-available and compatible with higher resolution datasets that exist for the various states and territories and other land management bodies around Australia. The development of the ongoing accounts program will include a systematic review of data sources around Australia and the construction of an objective framework, to assess datasets for suitability for the accounts, in order to provide a transparent approach to data selection.   

1.5 Integrating diverse datasets

Acknowledging that a systematic review of data sources around Australia will produce many datasets that may meet many of the data quality criteria, but do not have the full spatial coverage needed - methods to modify and improve the usability of these datasets will greatly increase the ability to incorporate high quality data in the accounts. To incorporate best- possible data into the accounts, and ensure coherence with state environmental reporting, it will be important to integrate sub-national data into the national scale accounts. C onsiderations in developing these methods include:   

• the importance of good quality partial-coverage data that can be extended  
• the importance of acknowledging knowledge gaps where appropriate  
• the importance of on-ground measurements, observations and monitoring  
• the importance of remote-sensing datasets  
• the possibility of establishing national datasets by pursuing equivalence or compatibility between sub-national data  
• the possibility of a multiscale approach in accounts (e.g. using best-quality data where available, even without national coverage, and using coarser data where the high-resolution product is not available).  

Continuous improvement is an inherent element of an ongoing program of ecosystem accounts. The above information provides some detail around where improvements are needed - the assessment of user needs and the refinement of data selection and development will be a continuous process that is part of the account development.  

1.6 Consideration of account development concepts

The development of any statistical product relies on the use of a range of statistical concepts, standards and frameworks. A discussion of these frameworks and classifications as they relate to ecosystem accounts is provided below. The integration of standards (which define the concepts we are working on), classifications (which categorise the observations we are collecting) and methods (how we manipulate data to fit into the classifications and thus into the standard) defines the process of account compilation.  

1.6.1 Standards and classifications overview

Standard classifications and definitions of statistical units and items underlie the compilation and presentation of statistics produced by national statistical offices, such as the ABS. The use of such standards ensure that statistics are harmonised across national and international boundaries, which ensures comparability and aggregation from various collections, for example, for national accounts purposes.  

Where possible established Australian and international standards should be used. Comprehensibility is also a key consideration - this is the ability to be understood, by users and by respondents. It involves clarity of definitions, realism in the sense of modelling the real world, and providing a logical and coherent structure for collecting and organising information.  

The widespread use of standards also provides an integrated statistical picture of Australian society and environment. They facilitate the process of drawing together all the data about a particular topic, variable or population, from the full range of statistical sources, in a meaningful and useful way.  

Classifications are an important part of any standard. They are used to collect and organise information into categories with other similar pieces of information. Classifications should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. The application of classifications can be at any level of data and at any point in the account compilation process. For example, classifications that define the inputs into the accounts, for instance the association of ecosystem types to basic statistical unit, can be different to what is reported at the account level. While it is preferable that all classifications align from collection to indicators, this is rare as most accounts are built from a wide range of data collected for different purposes.

1.6.2 Ecosystem account classifications

Ecosystem classifications must describe the components of ecosystems that are currently available to society and how these components have changed over time.   

Recognised standards for SEEA ecosystem types and ecosystem services are:  

• International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Global Ecosystem Typology (GET) for ecosystem types  
• Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) for ecosystem services (a shorter list is in the SEEA EA).  

Ecosystem extent (IUCN GET)

The IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology ( IUCN GET ) is the international statistical standard for classifying ecosystems and is recommended for use in SEEA ecosystem accounting. It is a comprehensive framework for Earth’s ecosystems that integrates their functional and compositional features.    

The National Ecosystem Accounts first release will use the IUCN GET levels 1 to 3 as its output ecosystem classification – 1. Realms, 2. Biomes and 3. Functional Groups. These are defined as ( Typology - Global Ecosystem Typology (global-ecosystems.org) :

One of five major components of the biosphere that differ fundamentally in ecosystem organisation and function: terrestrial, freshwater, marine, subterranean, atmospheric, and combinations of these (transitional realms). Because variation in nature is continuous, we also include transitional realms, where the realms meet and have their own unique organisation and function.

A component of a realm united by broad features of ecosystem structure and one or a few common major ecological drivers that regulate major ecological functions, derived from the top-down by subdivision of realms (level 1).

Ecosystem Functional Group

A group of related ecosystems within a biome that share common ecological drivers, which in turn promote similar biotic traits that characterise the group. Derived from the top-down by subdivision of biomes.

Ecosystem assets will be reported by level 3 functional group, where possible. The use of the IUCN GET does not preclude the use of different classifications systems if they are hierarchically compatible, or already in use and associated with useful data.  

The accounts will adopt a more detailed ecosystem classification typology for Australia for subsequent releases when a national classification has been developed.

Ecosystem services (CICES)

Standardisation in the way ecosystem services are described is necessary for comparisons over time and between countries. It is especially important where the link to economic accounting is to be made. The CICES framework has been developed in consultation with the United Nations Statistical Division and the European Environment Agency in support of the SEEA Principles. The aim of CICES is to provide clarity on how ecosystem services are measured and analysed. CICES recognises three main categories of ecosystem outputs: provisioning, regulating and cultural services. Supporting, or indirect, ecosystem services are not explicitly expressed and are instead treated as part of the underlying structures, process and functions that characterise ecosystems. Final ecosystem services are described using a five-level hierarchical structure, with each level being progressively more detailed and specific.  

Appendix 2. Valuing the economic contribution of ecosystems

Ecosystems provide a range of benefits that may not be readily captured in market transactions, nor will their contribution always be recognised in economic activities or decision-making processes. Governments, businesses and communities will not be able to make informed decisions on resource use and allocation, including those arising from the natural world, if the benefits of ecosystems are not clearly defined.

In ecosystem accounting, monetary valuation enables comparisons of ecosystem services and assets that are consistent with standard measures of services and assets as recorded in the national accounts. The SEEA EA framework has a tiered approach to valuation that prefers the use of exchange values where possible – consistent with the international approach on national accounts (United Nations et al. 2021).

Valuation of ecosystem and cultural services remains a work in progress as the SEEA EA guidance on monetisation and valuation continues to evolve. The first iteration of the National Ecosystem Accounts will focus on valuing ecosystem services. Future iterations of the accounts will consider valuation of the underlying ecosystem assets.

2.1 A SEEA EA perspective on valuation

The SNA does not attempt to determine the utility of the flows and stocks that are within its scope. Rather, it measures the current exchange values of the entries in the accounts in monetary terms; that is, the values at which goods, services, labour or assets are exchanged or could be exchanged for cash. The exchange values, which focus on transactions between owners of economic units, are captured within the SNA production boundary.

The SEEA EA extends the production boundary of the SNA by recognising that natural capital and ecosystem services contribute to economic activity and community wellbeing. The monetary accounts that accompany the Physical Supply and Use Tables (PSUT) of ecosystem assets and their services require consistency with SNA valuation principles to enable the integration and comparison of these accounts with the SNA. 

Ecosystem accounting is not about putting a value on everything in nature. Consistent with the SNA principles, it excludes the welfare values arising from ecosystem contributions and the intrinsic values of ecosystem assets (Figure 3, from Schenau et al. 2022).

Figure 3. Overview of values provided by ecosystem

A diagram with four rectangles arranged in an embedded sequence. The smallest inner rectangle is Exchange values captured in the SNA production boundary. The second rectangle which is larger, encompasses the first rectangle is Exchange values captured in the SEEA EA extended production boundary. The third rectangle which is larger again, encompasses the previous two rectangles is Welfare values capturing consumer surplus. The fourth and largest rectangle encompasses all previous rectangles is Intrinsic values (not captured in monetary values). The diagram outlines different economic valuation methods that can be used in valuing ecosystem contributions, distinguishing between those captured within System of National Accounts (SNA) and System of Environmental-Economic Accounting Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) boundaries, welfare values, and intrinsic.

The SEEA EA focuses on recording the supply and use of ecosystem services rather than the wellbeing or outcomes that eventuate (United Nations et al. 2021, para. 2.72). The distinction between economic value and exchange value is that economic value refers to the worth derived from the consumption of a product or service, whereas exchange value refers to the monetary price paid in acquiring or exchanging a product or service.    

In the example of climate regulation services, valuation of the ecosystem services should reflect the service – carbon sequestration and carbon retention – not the societal flow-on benefits. The exchange value of carbon retention and carbon sequestration services may be reflected in carbon prices, the marginal cost of abatement, or expenditure in maintaining the carbon stock from re-entering the atmosphere.   

The SEEA EA guidelines suggest using the social cost of carbon to reflect avoided damages to human health and the impact on economic activity and assets such as infrastructure and industries due to climate change. Whilst this is useful in informing climate policy more broadly, it may not be conceptually equivalent to valuing the ecosystem service itself in the context of the SEEA EA.

2.2 Estimating the value of ecosystem services

For most ecosystem services there are no observed transactions, meaning that exchange values must often be estimated. The lack of observable markets in nature is both historical and institutional. Governments worldwide often regulate the use, access to and trade of endangered fauna and flora to ensure their continued existence. The lack of ownership of endangered fauna and flora, and ecosystems more broadly, also limits transactions and market activity. For example, whilst no one owns the air, governments are responsible for maintaining good air quality and use regulation or market tools to manage polluting activities.    

Interest in markets for nature is growing, as witnessed by the worldwide growth in carbon markets and promotion of biodiversity markets. The growth of these markets worldwide provides an avenue to incorporate ‘exchange values’ in line with the SEEA EA. Progress in environmental-economic accounting can play a role in the longevity and uptake of markets for nature.   

Several techniques have been developed for placing a value on ecosystem services in the absence of exchange values, including:   

• observed market prices  
• replacement cost  
• avoided damage estimates  
• abatement cost estimates  
• various stated preference methods.

Following a similar framing to the SNA, the SEEA EA recommends that valuation methods for ecosystem services are applied in the order of preference in Figure 4 ( United Nations et al. 2021, para. 9.23) :   

Figure 4. SEEA EA tiered valuation approach

A flowchart with five numbered boxes arranged vertically, each describing different methods for pricing ecosystem services,  ranging from most preferred (1) to least preferred (5). Box 1: Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is directly observable. Box 2: Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is obtained from markets for similar goods and services. Box 3: Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is embodied in a market transaction. Box 4: Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is based on revealed expenditures (costs) for related goods and services. Box 5: Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is based on expected expenditures or markets. 

2.3 Key challenges

Key challenges in valuing ecosystem services include:   

• Uncertainty related to the complexities of ecosystem functions and processes that inhibit consideration of ecosystem services that are related to human activity.  
• Ecosystem provisioning services such as water supply may be undervalued because it may be difficult to estimate the value to be attributed to the ecosystem and how much can be attributed to subsequent economic activity (such as irrigation and farming, in the case of irrigated water).    
• The potential use of values from literature and databases (such as the Environmental Valuation Reference Inventory ) requires evaluation that they adequately reflect exchange values consistent with the SEEA EA framework.   

Appendix 3. Extensions to ecosystem accounts

According to the SEEA EA (United Nations et al. 2021):

“The framing provided by ecosystem accounting is systematic and comprehensive with respect to ecosystem extent, ecosystem condition and ecosystem services and provides one perspective on monetary values of ecosystem services and ecosystem assets… However, policy and analysis about the environment and human connection to it can be framed in many ways. Often it requires considering specific environmental themes, such as biodiversity, climate change, oceans and urban areas, among many others.”

This appendix explores how environmental-economic accounts and other data can be combined with ecosystem accounts to provide more specific information for decision-makers. It also discusses additional thematic accounts such as biodiversity and carbon and how to address issues in compiling these accounts.  

3.1 Analysing and integrating ecosystem accounts

While ecosystem accounts are designed to tell a story about environmental and economic interactions, a more complete picture can be painted by integrating ecosystems accounts with other environmental and economic data.

3.1.1 Environmental account integration

Over the past thirty years, the ABS has produced a range of individual environmental accounts, including accounts for water, energy, waste, land, fish, oceans, and environmental taxes, as well as national balance sheets estimates for minerals and forests. Integrated comparisons of these accounts across space and over time tells a more comprehensive picture of Australia’s environment, economy and society. It provides greater analytical power, and therefore an increased value for data users and policymakers. Below is a summary of environmental-economic accounts that the ABS produces on a regular basis. In the future, there is the potential to integrate information from these accounts into the National Ecosystem Accounts.

3.1.2 Economic data integration

As with all types of environmental-economic accounts, a key strength of ecosystem accounts is consistency with economic statistics, including GDP. An ecosystem account combined with economic statistics from the ABS can be used to understand the relationship between environmental change and the productivity of Australians, highlighting important interactions that are often hidden from decision-makers. This information may be used to better identify policies which separate or ‘decouple’ productivity from environmental harm. The combination of ecosystem and economic data supports a richer discussion of the connection between ecosystems and people. It underpins the development of indicators concerning this relationship, such as the contribution of ecosystem services to measures of economic production, and allows the derivation of adjusted national accounting aggregates such as degradation-adjusted measures of net domestic product (NDP).

Integrating ecosystems with the SNA

The SEEA EA suggests that one of the clearest means of examining the impact on the economy of consuming the environment is to integrate monetary valuation of degradation of ecosystems into an extended sequence of accounts based on the SNA.  

International interest in combining the economy and the environment is not new. The Convention on Biological Diversity established targets at the Aichi conference in 2011 to set out the first international efforts to integrate ecosystems and national accounting ( Aichi Biodiversity Targets) :   

“Target 2: By 2020, at the latest, biodiversity values have been integrated into national and local development and poverty reduction strategies and planning processes and are being incorporated into national accounting, as appropriate, and reporting systems.”

In 2025, the SNA will be updated to incorporate environmental measures, such as natural capital, to better understand our environmental assets. It will also look to improve the ability of a country to report on the money available to invest in the environment, and change some of the ways in which environmental products and services are measured.    

While developing SNA and ecosystem accounts in parallel is practical, there are also ways of incorporating ecosystem accounting into the SNA for a better understanding of our impact on nature.  Including the cost of ecosystem degradation in economic statistics allows us to account for changes in the ecosystem’s capacity to absorb pollution and the extent of industrial use of ecosystems. This degradation makes it more difficult to rely on ecosystem services, often leading to higher costs. As a result, both the economic resources available to Australians and the benefits provided by these ecosystems are reduced. For example, if a forest that helps clean our water is degraded, communities must pay for water purification machines, or society bears the health costs of drinking contaminated water. This leads to fewer ecosystem services for the water industry to utilise, lower business profits, higher costs and thus less savings for the future.   

An extended sequence of accounts

Table 3 is derived from Table 12.4 from the SEEA EA, and demonstrates an approach where ecosystem services are incorporated into the SNA to form an extended sequence of accounts.

Notes to Table 3

• Table 3 demonstrates a number of indicators that can inform how ecosystems are being consumed or damaged.    
• Degradation adjusted net value added is the amount available based on what is produced in the economy, adjusted by the amount of ecosystem degradation after depreciation.    
• Degradation adjusted net operating surplus is the amount available to be distributed to the economy, after workers are paid, and adjusted for ecosystems degradation.    
• Degradation adjusted disposable income is the amount available to all sectors of the economy to purchase products. A negative value means reliance on savings or on the environment.    
• Degradation adjusted net saving is the amount remaining after purchases for the year, taking into account ecosystem degradation resulting from this activity. A negative value indicates drawing down on future generations’ access to the environment to sustain current activity.    
• Net lending/borrowing is the amount Australia needs to drive the economy. A negative number denotes a need for capital from other countries. A positive number indicates capital available to lend to other countries

Alternatives to integrating national ecosystem and economic accounts

An alternative to integration is that environmental-economic accounting should remain separate from, but in parallel with, the SNA. By producing these environmental-economic accounts on a similar basis to the SNA, analysis can be undertaken to understand the relationship between the two sets of accounts.   

The result would be two sets of data where analysis and tools provide the avenue to integrate the economic and environmental streams. The key is to ensure that the data are conceptually similar notwithstanding differences in scope.   

One advantage of this approach is that it does not require monetisation of all ecosystems, ecosystem services and their attributes, rather monetary and physical indicators can be analysed side-by-side. For instance, economic data from the SNA can be combined with ecological data from iconic ecosystems, such as the Great Barrier Reef, to better understand how employment and economic output are linked to that ecosystem, without monetising ecosystem services.     

Taking this alternative integration approach would build indicators and information to inform progress and raise awareness of our impacts on the environment.   

3.2 Biodiversity accounts

Biodiversity accounts are considered a thematic account as they sit outside the SEEA EA framework of extent, condition and service accounts. Included in the National Ecosystem Accounts first release will be a biodiversity ‘thematic’ account. This section provides an overview of what a biodiversity account is and why it will be included it in the release.  

3.2.1 Biodiversity

Biodiversity, or biological diversity, is defined as   

‘the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems’ ( Convention on Biological Diversity (cbd.int) ) .

Biodiversity plays an essential role in supporting human wellbeing through maintaining functioning ecosystems that, in turn, deliver essential services such as food and the regulation of our climate, as well as other benefits such as the aesthetic enjoyment of natural landscapes. Biodiversity is especially important and valuable for Australia’s agriculture and tourism industries.  

3.2.2 What is biodiversity accounting and how does it fit into the SEEA EA?

Biodiversity accounting is a way of organising biodiversity information to align with ecosystem and other accounts that is useful for a range of users. Under the SEEA EA, biodiversity is expressed as a thematic account, which means it is a standalone account that organises data around a specific policy-relevant environmental theme. However, biodiversity accounting is complex and less advanced than other thematic accounts, such as carbon accounting. As such, while the SEEA EA offers guidance on the conceptual approach and the construction of biodiversity accounts, it remains flexible about interpretation of these guidelines.

3.2.3 Who is the intended audience of biodiversity accounts and what do they use the accounts for?

Biodiversity accounts provide biodiversity information in a way that enables detection of meaningful change across time and space, and to inform conservation management goals. They can also be linked to other relevant SEEA accounts, such as land or ecosystem accounts, to help understand how changes in natural assets correlate with changes in biodiversity. Biodiversity accounts can be used to answer questions such as:  

• How is biodiversity changing over time?  
• Which areas are experiencing the greatest gains or losses?  
• Which biodiversity features are changing the most?  
• What has been the consequence of past actions?  

There are different users for biodiversity accounts depending on the scale of the accounts. Account users at the national level include policymakers, federal government agencies, academics and the SEEA EA global community. Users at this level will find the biodiversity accounts help with Australia’s international reporting obligations and agreements, so the accounts must satisfy technical and non-technical users. At the sub-national level, account users include regional Natural Resource Management (NRM) bodies and local government, who need finer-scale accounts. Users may also include organisations relevant to the species groupings, such as tourism bodies, as well as the Australian community and media.

3.2.4 What is the scope of the biodiversity accounts?

The following aspects of national biodiversity accounts are fixed:   

• spatial scope - the accounts must have national coverage  
• time series - the data requires at least two points in time
• data quality
• geographic boundaries.  

The flexible aspects of the scope of the biodiversity accounts include the representation of biodiversity in terms of number of species or other taxonomic or functional grouping, and the user needs of the accounts.  

3.2.5 What are the challenges in biodiversity accounts?

Biodiversity accounting presents many challenges. It is not as developed as other ecosystem accounts so there is no standard approach for biodiversity accounts. For a country as large and biodiverse as Australia, there are many species with relatively little data; one species may occur in multiple ecosystem types, and species persistence often requires multiple connected areas of suitable habitat.  

3.2.6 What are the approaches to biodiversity account development, and how does this apply to the first release of the National Ecosystem Accounts?

The biodiversity accounts are highly experimental accounts and the guidelines in the SEEA EA are flexible. As a result, there have been varying approaches to the construction of biodiversity accounts so far. The ABS has pioneered Australian efforts in this space, with biodiversity featuring as part of the Experimental Environmental-Economic Accounts for the Great Barrier Reef, 2017 | Australian Bureau of Statistics ) and the discussion paper From Nature to the Table: Environmental-Economic Accounting for Agriculture, 2015–16 , adopting a direct accounting approach. CSIRO has published the Experimental Ecosystem Accounts for the Gunbower-Koondrook-Perricoota Forest Icon site report and the Experimental Ecosystem Accounts for the Murray-Darling Basin, adopting a modelling approach that predicts habitat in hectares for biodiversity, rather than directly measuring and accounting for biodiversity. International efforts have adopted a range of approaches.  

It is proposed to present both direct and modelled biodiversity approaches in the first release. To ensure consistency across all outputs within the National Ecosystem Accounts, the same ecosystem classifications, geographies and reference periods will be adopted.   

Direct accounts will be based on observational data and include counts of species by taxonomic group (e.g. birds, fish, reptiles) in species groupings that are relevant to different users.  

Species groupings may include:  

• species which provide regulating ecosystem services, such as pollinators (links to ecosystem services, agriculture)  
• iconic and tourism species (links to tourism, recreational fishing)  
• species of conservation concern (links to policy, funding projects)  
• indicator species for ecosystem condition (links to ecosystem condition)  
• pest and weed species (links to ecosystem condition, agriculture)  
• migratory species covered by international agreements, such as the Japan Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA).  

Data sources will be selected based on spatial coverage, resolution, time series, quality, availability and relevance.  

Modelled accounts are based on known historical locations of species combined with habitat condition modelling. This approach uses a habitat-based biodiversity assessment, utilising ecosystem condition (derived from remote-sensing), biodiversity patterns (derived from ecological data) and ecosystem accounting areas to derive a set of biodiversity accounts. Species habitat requirements are combined with land cover data to produce habitat condition, while the species potential extent of occurrence is combined with ecological data to produce biodiversity patterns.  

Modelled accounts are likely to include:  

• expected persistence of species by taxonomic group (birds, fish, reptiles, vascular plants, fungi)  
• potential threatened species habitat in species hectares, where ‘species hectares’ is the number of species multiplied by the area of effective habitat.  

Anticipated limitations in the biodiversity accounts include issues around accuracy in modelled data, data gaps in observational data, especially spatial and temporal gaps, and sourcing data from different sources. Proposals to overcome these issues might include identifying where data is not available and ensuring concordance between different data sources, while still allowing for the effective and accurate comparison of data.

3.2.7 Future directions

For the first release, the scope of the biodiversity accounts will be limited by data availability. The spatial coverage of the data will be Australia-wide where possible, and the coverage of species will aim to be as comprehensive as possible.  

Beyond the first release, the scope of the biodiversity accounts has the potential to be expanded, and feedback on the first release can be incorporated to further improve the biodiversity accounts in the Australian context. This might target filling known data gaps, finding new data sources, and identifying where the accounts can be expanded, with the aim of refining biodiversity accounts for improved usability and connection to other accounts.  

3.3 Carbon accounting – sequestration and retention

Carbon accounts are another thematic presentation of the SEEA EA accounting information. A full carbon account will account for stocks of carbon across the geosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, the oceans and the economy, and the flows between them. This type of account is broader in coverage than ecosystem accounts as it includes carbon stocks beyond ecosystems; it is, however, closely linked to the SEEA EA accounts. Carbon accounts can also provide information to support measures of the ecosystem services of carbon sequestration and carbon retention. The SEEA EA defines global climate regulation services as:   

"the ecosystem contributions to reducing concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere through the removal (sequestration) of carbon from the atmosphere and the retention (storage) of carbon in ecosystems. These services support the regulation of the chemical composition of the atmosphere and oceans."

This section focuses on the development of ecosystem service accounts relating to carbon sequestration and retention. The SEEA EA considers two main components of global climate regulation services: carbon sequestration and carbon retention. Carbon sequestration refers to the ability of ecosystems to remove carbon from the atmosphere, while carbon retention is the ability of ecosystems to maintain carbon stocks, thereby avoiding emissions to the atmosphere. The total carbon stock in the environment is substantial and can vary significantly between ecosystems.    

Australia’s National Greenhouse Gas Accounts and National Inventory Reports (DCCEEW) focus on estimating GHG emissions to fulfil international reporting obligations and to track progress toward emission reduction targets. However, ecosystem accounts provide complementary insights by highlighting the role of ecosystems in stabilising the climate and mitigating climate change.  

3.3.1 Carbon in the SEEA EA

The SEEA EA outlines specific measurement boundaries for carbon retention. These include stocks limited to carbon stored in above-ground and below-ground living and dead biomass, as well as soil organic carbon. Inorganic carbon stored in freshwater, marine, and subterranean ecosystems is excluded from this scope. Additionally, carbon stored in fossil fuel deposits are not considered an ecosystem service, as these deposits are not a component of ecosystem assets.   

Carbon sequestration concerns only carbon that is expected to be stored for long periods of time, although this storage may be either within an ecosystem or in the economy. Carbon that is sequestered but not stored for long is excluded.  

Ecosystems store carbon in various forms including biomass (both above and below ground), debris, soil, and sediment. Rates of carbon retention and sequestration vary based on numerous factors, and ecosystems can also release greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. For ecosystem accounting under the SEEA EA, it is essential to account for both the removal of carbon from the atmosphere and the loss of carbon stocks. Accurately estimating carbon retention and sequestration on a national scale is complex, and comprehensive national datasets are currently lacking .

3.3.2 Data for carbon accounting

In the absence of a national dataset, the primary source for carbon retention data in Australia is the Full Carbon Accounting Model (FullCAM) produced by DCCEEW. FullCAM is used to estimate carbon stocks in managed and cultivated land and contributes to Australia’s National Greenhouse Gas Accounts for the land use, land use change and forestry sectors. It is also incorporated into the National Inventory Reports. FullCAM incorporates various models that consider factors such as microbial decomposition of organic matter, climatic conditions and soil data to estimate carbon retention. However, FullCAM is limited to managed ecosystems and does not account for carbon stocks in natural or unmanaged ecosystems. This limitation affects the model's accuracy for such ecosystems.  

For specific ecosystems like mangroves, which are highly relevant for carbon retention, FullCAM’s models are more appropriate due to their forested nature. Conversely, other ecosystems such as seagrass are modelled in FullCAM using different approaches, including a model designed for estimating emissions from seagrass habitat excavation due to capital dredging. This model may not fully align with the needs of carbon accounting. Ecosystems like saltmarsh, which store less carbon, are aggregated into broader categories, which may reduce the precision of carbon estimates but are unlikely to significantly impact overall estimates.  

Additional limitations with using FullCAM include discrepancies between FullCAM outputs and IUCN GET functional group classifications.  

In the experimental National Ocean Account , the Blue Carbon Accounting Model (BlueCAM) (Clean Energy Regulator) was used to estimate carbon sequestration in coastal ecosystems. BlueCAM uses Australian data to estimate abatement from carbon and greenhouse gas sources and sinks associated with coastal wetland restoration (e.g. tidal restoration) and adheres to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. BlueCAM includes carbon sequestered in soils and biomass and excludes emissions from alternative land uses. However, BlueCAM’s scope is limited to blue carbon coastal ecosystems and does not extend to terrestrial ecosystems.  

In the absence of national sequestration data, FullCAM may be used to estimate sequestration for certain ecosystems. Net sequestration can be estimated as the difference in carbon stocks between sequential years, measured in tonnes of CO2-equivalent (CO2e) per year. Since FullCAM only models anthropogenic changes, it does not capture stock changes in natural ecosystems, which is a significant limitation.  

Both BlueCAM and FullCAM offer potential for providing estimates that can be used to produce some of the inputs into National Ecosystem Accounts. Assessments are underway as to the best source of data to use, or how to integrate these different approaches to carbon modelling into a coherent set of accounts. An ongoing program of continuous improvement provides scope to modify the FullCAM model to make outputs more fit-for-purpose, and also to develop methods to integrate new datasets as they become available.  

While existing models like FullCAM and BlueCAM offer data critical for ecosystem accounting, there are inherent limitations and gaps. Further work is required to develop fit-for-purpose carbon estimates to produce ongoing carbon retention and sequestration accounts in Australia.  

Appendix 4. An example of a National Ecosystem Account

To illustrate the format and information in the National Ecosystem Accounts, this appendix illustrates the National Ecosystem Accounts for rivers in Australia for 2010–11 to 2015–16.    

Rivers are one of the most recognised freshwater ecosystems in the Australian landscape. They are often the focus of our cities and towns, and their condition is ultimately entwined with the use of the landscapes that surround them. Rivers provide a number of services, including water filtration, recreation and food provisioning. In this example set of accounts, the focus is on the single ecosystem service of freshwater provisioning.

4.1 Summary of methods

4.1.1 river extent.

These ecosystems conform with the IUCN GET Rivers and Streams biome. River systems have been split into perennial (usually flowing) and non-perennial (sometimes flowing), based on the native source data classifications from Geofabric dataset v3.3. This division reflects current scientific appreciation of non-perennial systems as different from perennial rivers, but important as an area where the riverine ecosystems interact with upstream terrestrial ecosystems (Datry et al. 2023). The extent of the river ecosystem and the distribution of perennial and non-perennial rivers is taken from the Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) Geofabric dataset v3.3 © Commonwealth of Australia 2021. The Australian Hydrological Geospatial Fabric (AHGF) Mapped Stream layer was used and split using the attribute ‘Perennial’.  

The data sources available for this account provide a single set of extent numbers that are static over time, but which can be used to generate the condition accounts below. As a result, opening and closing stocks are the same for rivers - there is no change narrative associated with this account.

4.1.2 River condition

Freshwater ecological condition, especially that of rivers, is known to be influenced strongly by adjacent land use (Allan et al. 2004; Hynes, 1960). With this, the SEEA EA recognises the utility of recording environmental pressures as a surrogate for condition, providing this linkage is well documented:

“The measurement of environmental pressures is often considered as an indirect approach for measuring ecosystem condition (European Commission, 2016, p. 31). An environmental pressure is a human-induced process that alters the condition of ecosystems (Maes et al. 2018). If there are little data available on state, then measures of pressures on ecosystems can be considered a useful surrogate, as long as the relationship between the two is well understood and justified (Bland et al. 2018; United Nations et al. 2021, s 5.105)."

In the recent Australia State of the Environment (SOE) report (DCCEEW, 2021), a ranking of land use was used that combined the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences ( ABARES) Australian Land Use and Management (ALUM) Classification into 4 classes of Land Use Intensity (LUI) - these are described in Table 4.  

These categories allow a simple measure of landscape condition to be mapped nationally. Land use data, collated by ABARES based on the ALUM classification, is supplied at five-year intervals and maps a complex of land uses across Australia. For the river condition account this land use intensity dataset has been mapped onto river ecosystems to generate a spatial layer of river condition for Australia. 

For these accounts the river lines (perennial and non-perennial) were intersected with the LUI maps for 2010–11 to 2015–16 to look at differences in the lengths of each river that fell within each of the four LUI categories between the two time periods. This shows changes in land use along rivers in the five years between the two LUI maps.

4.1.3 Water supply ecosystem service (physical measures)

Water provisioning services involve the use of water abstracted from the environment by economic units (businesses, households and government) for consumption or production processes. The physical supply and use tables (PSUT) show the volume of surface water supply and usage across states, territories, and nationally for the years 2010–11 and 2015–16. The PSUT were compiled using data on surface water from the Water Account, Australia (ABS) and associated input data sources.  

The surface water was extracted from an ecosystem classified under the Rivers and Streams biome level. In the absence of spatial data for water extraction, it was not possible to identify the sub-state location and types of ecosystems from which water was extracted for economic purposes at a resolution below the biome level.  

Water use is allocated to the economic unit where environmental extraction occurred. End use by other users is outside the scope of the ecosystem accounts and is typically covered under economic accounts.   

Three classifications of final water provisioning ecosystem services, according to the CICES, have been compiled. These are: 4.2.1.1 Surface water used for drinking, 4.2.1.2 Surface water used as a material, and 4.2.1.3 Surface water used as an energy source.

Surface water used for drinking

Surface water for drinking is the distribution of the volume of surface water (in megalitres), by water supply companies to households. These data were derived from the Water Account, Australia (ABS), based on data collected via an ABS census of all known water and wastewater suppliers and utilities across Australia.  

Surface water used as a material

Surface water used as a material input into production includes the volume of water that is distributed by water supply companies to other industries including the Agriculture, forestry and fishing industry, the Mining industry and the Manufacturing industry. Water is also self-extracted by these industries and this information is also sourced from the Water Account, Australia (ABS).  

Surface water used as an energy source

Freshwater used for generating hydroelectricity constitutes the majority of the surface water used in energy production. This high volume of water is a non-consumptive use as it is immediately returned to the environment, however, it is recorded as it provides an economic benefit. This data was published in the Water Account, Australia (ABS) as the volume of water used by the Electricity and gas supply industry.

4.1.4 Water supply ecosystem service (monetary measures)

Consistent with paragraph 8.13 in the SEEA EA guidelines (United Nations et al. 2021), water provisioning services are valued through exchange values that are estimated based on median market prices of tradable allocations within Australian surface water markets.  

The extensive use of tradable water allocations within Australia provides an opportunity to value water provisioning services at market prices (United Nations et al. 2021). Water allocations are “the specific volume of water allocated to water access entitlements in a given water accounting period” (Water Act 2007). Water access entitlements and allocations are typically tradable on open markets, separate from the land they adjoin. This allows the valuation of the water resource itself, through water access entitlements, and the allocations allow the market valuation of service flows from the water resource.  

Surface water allocation prices in Australian water markets are driven by a number of supply and demand factors. Annual water allocations affect the supply of water in the market. Annual allocations are dependent upon factors such as rainfall, water storage, and allocation carryover.   

Demand for allocations is driven by factors such as changes in agricultural demand for water due to investment and production changes, institutional arrangements, and climatic influences such as temperature and evaporation (BoM, 2023). Water allocation prices in the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia are similar, reflecting the trading opportunities across the basin. The value of the water provisioning service as a material is based predominantly on trades in the MDB from the BoM (BoM, 2024). These allocation trades reflect prices of water allocations for use in agriculture, manufacturing, and drinking water.   

The number and size of water trades often reflects rainfall seasonality. For instance, in 2015–16, some areas of Victoria recorded the lowest percentile of rain on record, which resulted in lower water allocations and higher allocation prices (ABARES, 2017b). For other areas, southern MDB median prices gradually increased from their low in 2010–11 to reach their highest peak in 2015–16.  

Southern MDB allocation trades make up around 90% of national allocation trades (ABARES, 2017b). Given the prevalence of MDB water allocation trading in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, state level price estimates ($/ML) will align heavily with prices in the southern MDB network. Australian Capital Territory valuation will generally align with New South Wales’ prices.    

The data collected by BoM for surface water allocation trades includes many trades with no price reported. Such trades represent misreporting or sales which are not at “arm’s length” and have been excluded from the estimates (BoM, 2023). Likewise, trades with values in excess of $10,000 per ML have been excluded, as they are assumed to include values beyond the right to abstract the water (BoM, 2023).  

By aggregating median prices, national and state prices reflect catchments with a higher numbers of trades, specifically trades within the MDB, as these represent the most traded allocations. The number of allocation trades collected for Queensland, Western Australia and Tasmania is currently small, representing a “thin” market. At this stage, no monetary values have been produced for these states.

4.1.5 Data sources

Geofabric dataset v3.3 (bom, 2021).

River lengths were sourced from Geofabric V3x All Products - Overview (bom.gov.au) . These data are supplied as GDA94 (EPSG 4283) and were converted to the Australian Albers version (EPSG3577). 

Land Use of Australia (ABARES, 2022)

Land use intensity was determined from Land use of Australia 2010–11 to 2015–16, 250 m - DAFF (agriculture.gov.au) , which is collated by ABARES according to the Australian Land Use and Management Classification version  8 .

Australia State of the Environment 2021 (DCCEEW, 2021)

Groupings of land use intensity published in the Australia state of the environment 2021 (dcceew.gov.au) l an d chapter were applied to generate LUI classifications.

Water Account, Australia (ABS)

Data were collated from the ‘Physical Supply and Use Tables, by Water Type’ for each state and territory and nationally from the Water Account, Australia. The data in the 2016-17 publication of the Water Account, Australia, were used to compile the ecosystem account for 2010–11 ( 4610.0 - Water Account, Australia, 2016-17 (abs.gov.au)). The data for 2015–16 was from the Water Account, Australia, 2021-22 publication Water Account, Australia, 2021-22 financial year | Australian Bureau of Statistics (abs.gov.au) . Where data were aggregated for 2010–11, information from the time series presented in the Water Account, Australia, 2021–22, were used to estimate these values.

Water Information Dashboard (BoM)

Data on surface water allocation trades has been sourced from the BoM ( Water Information Dashboard: Water Information: Bureau of Meteorology ), which constitutes reported data from a range of Commonwealth, state and private sector sources. In the valuation of monetary supply and use of water provisioning services, median surface water allocation trade prices have been aggregated to produce a median price nationally, and for New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and the Australian Capital Territory.

4.2 Summary analysis of river accounts

4.2.1 river extent.

The lengths of the perennial and non-perennial rivers in each state and territory in Australia are shown in Table 5. There are roughly 25 times as much length of non-perennial than perennial rivers in Australia. New South Wales contains almost 60% of Australia’s perennial rivers, while Queensland is home to the greatest length (34%) of non-perennial rivers.

Footnote: this includes linear measures through lakes and estuaries that lie along the river path.

4.2.2 River condition

In the following commentary LUI 1 is the least intense land use (near natural), and LUI 4 is the most intense land use, including urban development and industrial areas. In 2015–16,  

• 29% of perennial rivers were located within relatively natural land use (LUI 1)  
• 25% were associated with extensive (low intensity) production land such as grazing native vegetation and native production forests (LUI 2)   
• Half of non-perennial rivers were located within low intensity production uses LUI 2, and 32% were relatively natural LUI 1.
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Between 2010–11 to 2015–16, there was an observed increase in the intensity of land use adjacent to rivers and streams.

• The length of perennial rivers flowing through intensive production uses (LUI 3) increased 29.5% (5,657 km). This was driven by New South Wales, which increased by 41.9% (5,322 km).
• River length through urban and other intensive land uses increased by 11.7% (637 km).
• Over the same period, river length crossing less intensive land uses LUI 1 and LUI 2 decreased (867 km and 4,978 km respectively).  

At the state level:

• A similar intensification trend of decreasing LUI 1 and LUI 2 and increasing LUI 3 and LUI 4 was present in most states and territories and in both perennial and non-perennial rivers, although LUI 1 increased slightly (2.3%) in non-perennial rivers.
• All states and territories registered an increase in LUI 4, except for the Australian Capital Territory, which lost LUI 4 river length and gained small amounts in LUI 1.

4.2.3 Water supply ecosystem service (physical measures)

The bulk of surface water provisioning services was for use as an energy source (48,490 GL, 82.3% of total water provisioning services in 2015–16). This is dominated by hydroelectricity generation, where the water is not consumed but used to produce energy and is then immediately returned to the environment. 

Consumptive water provisioning services include surface water used as a material in production and for drinking.   In 2015–16, these amounted to 10,461 GL (17.7% of the national total):

• Water used as a material in production accounted for 8,961 GL, or 85.7% of consumptive surface water provisioning services.
• 1,500 GL of freshwater was extracted from rivers and streams for drinking (14.3% of consumptive use) - this was an increase of 7.4%  from 2010–11.

Surface water for drinking

Drinking water is extracted by the Water supply, sewerage, and drainage services industry before being distributed to households. In 2015–16:

• New South Wales used the most surface water, 509 GL, distributed for drinking - this represents 34% of the surface water distributed to households in Australia.
• Victoria and Queensland are the second and third highest users of distributed drinking water, using 394 GL (26%) and 310 GL (21%) respectively.

The Water supply, sewerage and drainage services industry extracts and redistributes water for use as a material in production to other industries including the Agricultural, Mining, and Manufacturing industries. These industries also self-extract water.

• The Water supply, sewerage and drainage services industry extracted 7,202 GL for use as a material in 2015–16, an increase of 1,408 GL (24.3%) from 2010–11.
• The Agriculture, forestry and fishing industry self-extracted the most surface water for use as a material in production (1219 GL in 2015–16, 13.6% of the national total).

Surface water used for energy is dominated by Tasmania as it generates over half of Australia’s hydroelectricity  ( Australian Energy Statistics - Table O Electricity generation by fuel type 2016-17 and 2017 | energy.gov.au ).

• During 2015–16, Tasmania used 30,854 GL, 63.6% of the national total water used for energy.
• Between 2010–11 and 2015–16, water used for energy fell 16.7% nationally due to lower rainfall and levels of water storage. This was evident in most states and territories.

4.2.4 Water supply ecosystem service (monetary measures)

In 2015–16:

• Australia’s rivers and streams provided $2.02b in water provisioning services for use as a material, based on an Australia-wide median water allocation price of $225/ML. 
• This was an increase of $1.77b from $244m in 2010–11, due to lower rainfall and reduced water allocations coupled with higher water demand. 
• New South Wales water provisioning services for use as a material were valued at $612m in 2015–16, a five-fold increase from $114m in 2010–11.
• In South Australia, the value of water used as a material increased to $95m, from $5m in 2010–11.
• Water used as a material in Victoria was valued at $48m in 2010–11. Valuation for 2015–16 in Victoria was not available.

*Total surface water used as a material in Victoria in 2015-16 was not available for publication.

2015–16 total state/territory values for Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory and 2010–11 total state/territory values for the Australian Capital Territory are not available due to data confidentiality. Values of water provisioning services for Queensland, Western Australia, Tasmania, and the Northern Territory have not been included due to data gaps and quality concerns. Values for surface water used for drinking or as an energy source (i.e. hydroelectricity) have not been estimated for this publication.

Data downloads

Example data cubes.

Ecosystem accounts for rivers in Australia have been compiled for 2010–11 to 2015–16 to illustrate the format and information in the National Ecosystem Accounts. For commentary and summary methods used to compile example accounts, refer to Appendix 4.

Ecosystem extent account, River lengths

Ecosystem condition account, rivers and streams, ecosystem services, supply and use, australia, ecosystem services, supply and use, new south wales, ecosystem services, supply and use, victoria, ecosystem services, supply and use, queensland, ecosystem services, supply and use, south australia, ecosystem services, supply and use, western australia, ecosystem services, supply and use, tasmania, ecosystem services, supply and use, northern territory, ecosystem services, supply and use, australian capital territory.

Abbreviations

ABARES (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences) (2017a)  Australian Water Markets Report 2015–16: National overview , ABARES, accessed 22 August 2024. 

ABARES (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences) (2017b)  Australian Water Markets Report 2015-16: Southern Murray–Darling Basin , ABARES, accessed 22 August 2024.  

ABARES (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences) (2022) ‘Land use of Australia 2010–11 to 2015–16, 250 m’, Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences, Canberra, September, CC BY 4.0. doi: 10.25814/7ygw-4d64   

Allan JD (2004) ‘Landscapes and riverscapes: The influence of land use on stream ecosystems’, Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 35: 257-384. 

BoM (Bureau of Meteorology) (2023)  Australian Water Markets Report 2021–22 , Bureau of Meteorology, accessed 22 August 2024. 

BoM (Bureau of Meteorology) (2024)  Water Markets Dashboard  (2024) [dataset], BoM website, accessed 29 July 2024  

CER (Clean Energy Regulator) (n.d.) Blue Carbon Accounting Model (BlueCAM) Guidelines, CER website, accessed 24 July 2024.

Comisari P and Vardon M (2013)  Valuation and treatment of water resource stocks ,[conference presentation], 19th Meeting of the London Group on Environmental Accounting, London, accessed 22 August 2024.  

DCCEEW (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water) (2021)  Australia state of the environment 2021 (dcceew.gov.au) , DCCEEW website, accessed 3 July 2024.

Hynes HBN (1960) ‘The Biology of Polluted Waters’, Liverpool University Press: Liverpool.  

Schenau S, van Berkel J, Bogaart P, Blom C, Driessen C, de Jongh L, de Jong R, Horlings E, Mosterd R, Hein L, Lof M (2022)  Valuing ecosystem services and ecosystem assets for The Netherlands , OneEcosystem, accessed 2 July 2024.

United Nations, European Commission, International Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, World Bank (2009) ‘System of National Accounts 2008’, United Nations.

United Nations (2021) ‘SEEA Experimental Ecosystem Accounting Technical Committee System of Environmental-Economic Accounting, Ecosystem Accounting – Key proposals for refining SEEA EA, Version 2.0’, United Nations.

United Nations et al. (2021)  System of Environmental-Economic Accounting—Ecosystem Accounting  (white cover version), United Nations, accessed 30 June 2024.

Vardon M and Onder S (2023) ‘Water valuation at a global scale: how can we add water to the wealth of the nations using the SNA and SEEA?’, United Nations.  

Water Act (No 137) 2007 (Cth).

Williams K, Hunter B, Schmidt B, Woodward E & Cresswell I (2021) ‘Australia state of the environment 2021: land’, independent report to the Australian Government Minister for the Environment, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, doi:10.26194/6EAM-6G50.

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Appendices

• Purpose of Guide
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• The Research Problem/Question
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Is it Peer-Reviewed?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism [linked guide]
• Annotated Bibliography
• Grading Someone Else's Paper

An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text itself but which may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem or it is information that is too cumbersome to be included in the body of the paper. A separate appendix should be used for each distinct topic or set of data and always have a title descriptive of its contents.

Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of...

Appendices are always supplementary to the research paper. As such, your study must be able to stand alone without the appendices, and the paper must contain all information including tables, diagrams, and results necessary to understand the research problem. The key point to remember when including an appendix is that the information is non-essential; if it were removed, the reader would still be able to  comprehend the significance, validity , and implications of your research.

It is appropriate to include appendices for the following reasons:

• Including this material in the body of the paper that would render it poorly structured or interrupt the narrative flow;
• Information is too lengthy and detailed to be easily summarized in the body of the paper;
• Inclusion of helpful, supporting, or useful material would otherwise distract the reader from the main content of the paper;
• Provides relevant information or data that is more easily understood or analyzed in a self-contained section of the paper;
• Can be used when there are constraints placed on the length of your paper; and,
• Provides a place to further demonstrate your understanding of the research problem by giving additional details about a new or innovative method, technical details, or design protocols.

Appendices . Academic Skills Office, University of New England; Chapter 12, "Use of Appendices." In Guide to Effective Grant Writing: How to Write a Successful NIH Grant . Otto O. Yang. (New York: Kluwer Academic, 2005), pp. 55-57; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Points to Consider

When considering whether to include content in an appendix, keep in mind the following:

• It is usually good practice to include your raw data in an appendix, laying it out in a clear format so the reader can re-check your results. Another option if you have a large amount of raw data is to consider placing it online and note that this is the appendix to your research paper.
• Any tables and figures included in the appendix should be numbered as a separate sequence from the main paper . Remember that appendices contain non-essential information that, if removed, would not diminish a reader's ability to understand the research problem being investigated. This is why non-textual elements should not carry over the sequential numbering of non-textual elements in the body of your paper.
• If you have more than three appendices, consider listing them on a separate page at the beginning of your paper . This will help the reader know what information is included in the appendices [always list the appendix or appendices in a table of contents].
• The appendix can be a good place to put maps, photographs, diagrams, and other images , if you feel that it will help the reader to understand the content of your paper, while keeping in mind the study should be understood without them.
• An appendix should be streamlined and not loaded with a lot information . If you have a very long and complex appendix, it is a good idea to break it down into separate appendices, allowing the reader to find relevant information quickly as the information is covered in the body of the paper.

II.  Content

Never include an appendix that isn’t referred to in the text . All appendices should be summarized in your paper where it is relevant to the content. Appendices should also be arranged sequentially by the order they were first referenced in the text [i.e., Appendix 1 should not refer to text on page eight of your paper and Appendix 2 relate to text on page six].

There are very few rules regarding what type of material can be included in an appendix, but here are some common examples:

• Correspondence -- if your research included collaborations with others or outreach to others, then correspondence in the form of letters, memorandums, or copies of emails from those you interacted with could be included.
• Interview Transcripts -- in qualitative research, interviewing respondents is often used to gather information. The full transcript from an interview is important so the reader can read the entire dialog between researcher and respondent. The interview protocol [list of questions] should also be included.
• Non-textual elements -- as noted above, if there are a lot of non-textual items, such as, figures, tables, maps, charts, photographs, drawings, or graphs, think about highlighting examples in the text of the paper but include the remainder in an appendix.
• Questionnaires or surveys -- this is a common form of data gathering. Always include the survey instrument or questionnaires in an appendix so the reader understands not only the questions asked but the sequence in which they were asked. Include all variations of the instruments as well if different items were sent to different groups [e.g., those given to teachers and those given to administrators] .
• Raw statistical data – this can include any numerical data that is too lengthy to include in charts or tables in its entirety within the text. This is important because the entire source of data should be included even if you are referring to only certain parts of a chart or table in the text of your paper.
• Research instruments -- if you used a camera, or a recorder, or some other device to gather information and it is important for the reader to understand how, when, and/or where that device was used.
• Sample calculations – this can include quantitative research formulas or detailed descriptions of how calculations were used to determine relationships and significance.

NOTE:   Appendices should not be a dumping ground for information. Do not include vague or irrelevant information in an appendix; this additional information will not help the reader’s overall understanding and interpretation of your research and may only distract the reader from understanding the significance of your overall study.

ANOTHER NOTE :  Appendices are intended to provide supplementary information that you have gathered or created; it is not intended to replicate or provide a copy of the work of others. For example, if you need to contrast the techniques of analysis used by other authors with your own method of analysis, summarize that information, and cite to the original work. In this case, a citation to the original work is sufficient enough to lead the reader to where you got the information. You do not need to provide a copy of this in an appendix.

III.  Format

Here are some general guideline on how to format appendices . If needed, consult the writing style guide [e.g., APA, MLS, Chicago] your professor wants you to use for more detail:

• Appendices may precede or follow your list of references.
• Each appendix begins on a new page.
• The order they are presented is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of your research paper.
• The heading should be "Appendix," followed by a letter or number [e.g., "Appendix A" or "Appendix 1"], centered and written in bold type.
• If there is a table of contents, the appendices must be listed.
• The page number(s) of the appendix/appendices will continue on with the numbering from the last page of the text.

Appendices . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College;  Appendices . Academic Skills Office, University of New England; Appendices . Writing Center, Walden University; Chapter 12, "Use of Appendices." In Guide to Effective Grant Writing: How to Write a Successful NIH Grant . Otto O. Yang. (New York: Kluwer Academic, 2005), pp. 55-57 ; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; What To Know About The Purpose And Format Of A Research Paper Appendix . LoyolaCollegeCulion.com.

Writing Tip

Consider Putting Your Appendices Online

Appendices are useful because they provide the reader with information that supports your study without breaking up the narrative or distracting from the main purpose of your paper. If you have a lot of raw data or information that is difficult to present in textual form, consider uploading it to an online site. This prevents your paper from having a large and unwieldy set of appendices and it supports a growing movement within academe to make data more freely available for re-analysis. If you do create an online portal to your data, note it prominently in your paper with the correct URL and access procedures if it is a secured site.

Piwowar, Heather A., Roger S. Day, and Douglas B. Fridsma. “Sharing Detailed Research Data Is Associated with Increased Citation Rate.” PloS ONE (March 21, 2007); Wicherts, Jelte M., Marjan Bakker, and Dylan Molenaar. “Willingness to Share Research Data Is Related to the Strength of the Evidence and the Quality of Reporting of Statistical Results.” PLoS ONE (November 2, 2011).

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