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🏆 best photosynthesis topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on photosynthesis, 📌 simple & easy photosynthesis essay titles, ❓ photosynthesis essay questions.
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Photosynthesis is the biochemical pathway which converts the energy of light into the bonds of glucose molecules. The process of photosynthesis occurs in two steps. In the first step, energy from light is stored in the bonds of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). These two energy-storing cofactors are then used in the second step of photosynthesis to produce organic molecules by combining carbon molecules derived from carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). The second step of photosynthesis is known as the Calvin Cycle. These organic molecules can then be used by mitochondria to produce ATP, or they can be combined to form glucose, sucrose, and other carbohydrates. The chemical equation for the entire process can be seen below.
Above is the overall reaction for photosynthesis. Using the energy from light and the hydrogens and electrons from water, the plant combines the carbons found in carbon dioxide into more complex molecules. While a 3-carbon molecule is the direct result of photosynthesis, glucose is simply two of these molecules combined and is often represented as the direct result of photosynthesis due to glucose being a foundational molecule in many cellular systems. You will also notice that 6 gaseous oxygen molecules are produced, as a by-produce. The plant can use this oxygen in its mitochondria during oxidative phosphorylation . While some of the oxygen is used for this purpose, a large portion is expelled into the atmosphere and allows us to breathe and undergo our own oxidative phosphorylation, on sugar molecules derived from plants. You will also notice that this equation shows water on both sides. That is because 12 water molecules are split during the light reactions, while 6 new molecules are produced during and after the Calvin cycle. While this is the general equation for the entire process, there are many individual reactions which contribute to this pathway.
The light reactions.
The light reactions happen in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts of plant cells. The thylakoids have densely packed protein and enzyme clusters known as photosystems . There are two of these systems, which work in conjunction with each other to remove electrons and hydrogens from water and transfer them to the cofactors ADP and NADP + . These photosystems were named in the order of which they were discovered, which is opposite of how electrons flow through them. As seen in the image below, electrons excited by light energy flow first through photosystem II (PSII), and then through photosystem I (PSI) as they create NADPH. ATP is created by the protein ATP synthase , which uses the build-up of hydrogen atoms to drive the addition of phosphate groups to ADP.
The entire system works as follows. A photosystem is comprised of various proteins that surround and connect a series of pigment molecules . Pigments are molecules that absorb various photons, allowing their electrons to become excited. Chlorophyll a is the main pigment used in these systems, and collects the final energy transfer before releasing an electron. Photosystem II starts this process of electrons by using the light energy to split a water molecule, which releases the hydrogen while siphoning off the electrons. The electrons are then passed through plastoquinone, an enzyme complex that releases more hydrogens into the thylakoid space . The electrons then flow through a cytochrome complex and plastocyanin to reach photosystem I. These three complexes form an electron transport chain , much like the one seen in mitochondria. Photosystem I then uses these electrons to drive the reduction of NADP + to NADPH. The additional ATP made during the light reactions comes from ATP synthase, which uses the large gradient of hydrogen molecules to drive the formation of ATP.
With its electron carriers NADPH and ATP all loaded up with electrons, the plant is now ready to create storable energy. This happens during the Calvin Cycle , which is very similar to the citric acid cycle seen in mitochondria. However, the citric acid cycle creates ATP other electron carriers from 3-carbon molecules, while the Calvin cycle produces these products with the use of NADPH and ATP. The cycle has 3 phases, as seen in the graphic below.
During the first phase, a carbon is added to a 5-carbon sugar, creating an unstable 6-carbon sugar. In phase two, this sugar is reduced into two stable 3-carbon sugar molecules. Some of these molecules can be used in other metabolic pathways, and are exported. The rest remain to continue cycling through the Calvin cycle. During the third phase, the five-carbon sugar is regenerated to start the process over again. The Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma of a chloroplast. While not considered part of the Calvin cycle, these products can be used to create a variety of sugars and structural molecules.
The direct products of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle are 3-phosphoglycerate and G3P, two different forms of a 3-carbon sugar molecule. Two of these molecules combined equals one glucose molecule, the product seen in the photosynthesis equation. While this is the main food source for plants and animals, these 3-carbon skeletons can be combined into many different forms. A structural form worth note is cellulose , and extremely strong fibrous material made essentially of strings of glucose. Besides sugars and sugar-based molecules, oxygen is the other main product of photosynthesis. Oxygen created from photosynthesis fuels every respiring organism on the planet.
Lodish, H., Berk, A., Kaiser, C. A., Krieger, M., Scott, M. P., Bretscher, A., . . . Matsudaira, P. (2008). Molecular Cell Biology 6th. ed . New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. Nelson, D. L., & Cox, M. M. (2008). Principles of Biochemistry . New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
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When you get hungry, you grab a snack from your fridge or pantry. But what can plants do when they get hungry? You are probably aware that plants need sunlight, water, and a home (like soil) to grow, but where do they get their food? They make it themselves!
Plants are called autotrophs because they can use energy from light to synthesize, or make, their own food source. Many people believe they are “feeding” a plant when they put it in soil, water it, or place it outside in the Sun, but none of these things are considered food. Rather, plants use sunlight, water, and the gases in the air to make glucose, which is a form of sugar that plants need to survive. This process is called photosynthesis and is performed by all plants, algae, and even some microorganisms. To perform photosynthesis, plants need three things: carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight.
Just like you, plants need to take in gases in order to live. Animals take in gases through a process called respiration. During the respiration process, animals inhale all of the gases in the atmosphere, but the only gas that is retained and not immediately exhaled is oxygen. Plants, however, take in and use carbon dioxide gas for photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide enters through tiny holes in a plant’s leaves, flowers, branches, stems, and roots. Plants also require water to make their food. Depending on the environment, a plant’s access to water will vary. For example, desert plants, like a cactus, have less available water than a lilypad in a pond, but every photosynthetic organism has some sort of adaptation, or special structure, designed to collect water. For most plants, roots are responsible for absorbing water.
The last requirement for photosynthesis is an important one because it provides the energy to make sugar. How does a plant take carbon dioxide and water molecules and make a food molecule? The Sun! The energy from light causes a chemical reaction that breaks down the molecules of carbon dioxide and water and reorganizes them to make the sugar (glucose) and oxygen gas. After the sugar is produced, it is then broken down by the mitochondria into energy that can be used for growth and repair. The oxygen that is produced is released from the same tiny holes through which the carbon dioxide entered. Even the oxygen that is released serves another purpose. Other organisms, such as animals, use oxygen to aid in their survival.
If we were to write a formula for photosynthesis, it would look like this:
6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + Light energy → C 6 H 12 O 6 (sugar) + 6O 2
The whole process of photosynthesis is a transfer of energy from the Sun to a plant. In each sugar molecule created, there is a little bit of the energy from the Sun, which the plant can either use or store for later.
Imagine a pea plant. If that pea plant is forming new pods, it requires a large amount of sugar energy to grow larger. This is similar to how you eat food to grow taller and stronger. But rather than going to the store and buying groceries, the pea plant will use sunlight to obtain the energy to build sugar. When the pea pods are fully grown, the plant may no longer need as much sugar and will store it in its cells. A hungry rabbit comes along and decides to eat some of the plant, which provides the energy that allows the rabbit to hop back to its home. Where did the rabbit’s energy come from? Consider the process of photosynthesis. With the help of carbon dioxide and water, the pea pod used the energy from sunlight to construct the sugar molecules. When the rabbit ate the pea pod, it indirectly received energy from sunlight, which was stored in the sugar molecules in the plant.
Humans, other animals, fungi, and some microorganisms cannot make food in their own bodies like autotrophs, but they still rely on photosynthesis. Through the transfer of energy from the Sun to plants, plants build sugars that humans consume to drive our daily activities. Even when we eat things like chicken or fish, we are transferring energy from the Sun into our bodies because, at some point, one organism consumed a photosynthetic organism (e.g., the fish ate algae). So the next time you grab a snack to replenish your energy, thank the Sun for it!
This is an excerpt from the Structure and Function unit of our curriculum product line, Science and Technology Concepts TM (STC). Please visit our publisher, Carolina Biological , to learn more.
[BONUS FOR TEACHERS] Watch "Photosynthesis: Blinded by the Light" to explore student misconceptions about matter and energy in photosynthesis and strategies for eliciting student ideas to address or build on them.
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In this essay we will discuss about Photosynthesis in Plants. After reading this essay you will learn about: 1. Meaning of Photosynthesis 2. Significance of Photosynthesis to Mankind 3. History 4. Photosynthetic Apparatus 5. Pigments 6. Quantum Requirement and Quantum Yield 7. Mechanism 8. Evidences for Existence of Light and Dark Reactions 9. Source of Oxygen 10. Factors Affecting.
Although literary meaning of photosynthesis is ‘synthesis with the help of light’ but this term is usually applied to a very important vital process by which the green plants synthesize organic matter in presence of light. Photosynthesis is sometimes called as carbon assimilation and is represented by the following traditional equation.
i. It maintains equilibrium of O 2 in the atmosphere.
ii. It provides food either directly as vegetables, or indirectly as meat or milk of animals which in turn are fed on plants.
iii. Besides providing energy in the form of food, photosynthesis has also provided vast reserves of energy to man as fuel such as coal, oil, peat and also wood and dung.
The history of photosynthesis dates back to about 1648 when a Dutchman Van Helmont planted a 5 pounds willow shoot in 200 pounds of dried soil. After 5 years of watering with rain water the willow tree weighed 169 pounds. When the soil was dried and again re- weighed, it was found to have lost only 2 ounces. He suggested that the increase in the plant substances of the willow tree must have come from water alone. Prior to this and from the time of Aristotle the idea was prevalent that the plants feed on humus.
Stephan Hales (1727) pointed out that the plants obtained a part of their nutrition from the air and also suggested that sunlight may play a role in it.
Priestley (1772) showed that the plants might restore the air which has been “injured” (i.e., laden with CO 2 ) by the burning of candles.
Ingenhousz (1779) noticed that only the green parts of the plants were able to purify the air and that too in the presence of sunlight.
Jean Senebier (1783) noted that the air-purifying activity of plants depends on the presence of fixed air (i.e., CO 2 ) and suggested that the air (O 2 ) liberated by plants which are exposed to sunlight is the product of the transformation of fixed air (CO 2 ) by sunlight.
Nicolas Theodore de Saussure (1804) showed that the total weight of the organic matter produced and oxygen evolved by the green plants in presence of sunlight was greater than the weight of fixed air (CO 2 ) consumed by them during this process. He concluded that besides fixed air (CO 2 ) water must constitute the raw material for this process.
In 1845 Meyer recognised the role of light as a source of energy and thus it became possible to formulate the overall process of photosynthesis as conversion of water, CO 2 and light energy into O 2 and organic matter containing chemical energy by the green plants and which could be represented by the following equation.
Chlorophylls and other photosynthetic pigments are found in the form of protein pigment complexes mainly in thylakoid membranes of grana. The latter are sites of primary photochemical reaction. Some of the protein-pigment complexes are also found in stroma lamellae.
Dark reaction of photosynthesis occurs in stroma. Besides necessary enzymes, some ribosomes and DNA have also been found in chloroplasts which give them (chloroplasts) a partial genetic autonomy.
Photosynthetic pigments are of three types:
(2) Carotenoids, and
(3) Phycobillins.
i. Chlorophylls and carotenoids are insoluble in water and can be extracted only with organic solvents.
ii. Phycobillins are soluble in water.
iii. Carotenoids include carotenes and xanthophylls. The latter are also called as carotenols.
iv. Different pigments absorb light of different wavelengths and characteristic absorption peak in vivo and in vitro.
v. They show property of fluoresces.
The distribution of the different types of photosynthetic pigments in plant kingdom is shown in table 11.1.
A new form of chlorophyll has been discovered recently by Chen et al (2010) from stromatolites of Shark Bay in Western Australia which they have called as chlorophyll f. This pigment is believed to absorb light upto 706 nm in vitro, with a fluorescence of 722 nm. (stromatolites are structures formed from layers of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), and other microorganisms, calcium carbonate and sediments).
(1) Chlorophylls:
They are magnesium porphyrin compounds. The porphyrin ring consists of four pyrrol rings joined together by CH bridges. A long chain of C atoms called as phytol chain is attached to porphyrin ring at iv pyrrol ring.
I. Chemical structures of chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-b are well established.
v. (In modern scientific literature, some plant physiologists equate PAR with visible part of spectrum of radiant energy which is erroneous. This is because such scientists working on photobiology use commercially available instruments that are limited to that portion of spectrum between 400-700 nm only, thus excluding visible light in the 700-760 and 390-400 nm range.)
vi. Only about 1% of the total solar energy received by the earth is absorbed by the pigments and is utilised in photosynthesis.
vii. There is very weak absorption by pigments in green part of the spectrum and hence, the chloroplasts appear green in green plants.
They chiefly absorb in the violet-blue and red parts of the spectrum. The absorption band shown by the chlorophylls in violet-blue region is also called as soret band. Characteristic absorption peaks shown by different chlorophylls both in vivo (i.e., intact cell) and in vitro (i.e., in solvents) are given in Table 11.2.
Absorption Spectra of Carotenoids:
These pigments absorb light energy in blue, blue- green and green parts of the spectrum.
Absorption Spectra of Phycobillins:
This can be explained further by a schematic model for the photo-oxidation of water given by Bessel Kok et al (1970) which is widely accepted and is called as S state mechanism or sometimes as water oxidizing clock. It consists of a series of 5 states called as S 0 , S 1 , S 2 , S 3 and S 4 which represent successively more oxidised forms of the water oxidizing system or oxygen evolving complex (OEC) S 0 is uncharged state.
Each short flash of light (photon or hv) converts S 0 to S 1 , S 1 to S 2 , S 2 to S 3 and S 3 to S 4 . After the S 4 state has acquired four positive charges, it gets four electrons back in one step oxidation of two molecules of H 2 O and returns back to S 0 with four fewer charges than S 4 (fig. 11.14).
However, the chemical nature of S state in this ‘clock’ is yet unknown. Once it was believed that P680 becomes oxidised by loss of one electron after a brief flash of light to P680 + but P680 cannot be S because it can lose only one electron and can accumulate only one positive charge.
Later studies have shown that various S states probably represent oxidation states of manganese including Mn 2+ , Mn 3+ and Mn 4+ . This hypothesis has received strong support from a variety of experiments, especially X-ray absorption and ESR studies which detect the manganese directly (Yano at al, 2006).
It is now known that the immediate electron donor to PSII is a tyrosine (an amino acid) residue which is often designated as Z or Y z in subunit D 1 of PSII reaction centre. (Y is code letter for tyrosine; hence Z is now called as Y z ). It is believed that tyrosine radical regains its electron by oxidizing a cluster of 4 Mn ions in OEC.
With each single electron transfer, the Mn cluster becomes more oxidized. Four single electron transfers (each corresponding with one photon (hv) of light) produce four positive charges on Mn cluster. In this state, Mn complex can take four electrons (4e-) from a pair of water molecules. The exact mechanism of photo-oxidation of H 2 O 2 however, remains elusive.
(The OEC is a 33kD complex situated on lumenal side of thylakoid. The 4H + released by photolysis of 2H 2 O molecules are released into lumen of thylakoid where they add to the proton gradient necessary for photophosphorylation. Apart from Mn 2+ and Cr ions, Ca 2+ ions are also believed to be essential for photolysis of water.)
(v) Electron Transport and the Production of Assimilatory Power (i.e., NADPH + H + + ATP):
It has already been said that when chlorophyll-a molecule receives a photon of light it becomes excited and expels the extra energy along with an electron in both the pigment systems. This electron after travelling through a number of electron carriers is either cycled back or is consumed in reducing NADP + (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate) to NADPH + H + .
The extra light energy carried by the electron is utilised in the formation of ATP molecules at certain places during its transport. This process of the formation of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) in photosynthesis is called as photosynthetic phosphorylation or photophosphorylation. Arnon has contributed a lot in our understanding of the electron transport and photophosphorylation in chloroplasts.
These are of two types:
(a) Non-cyclic Electron Transport and Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation (Z-Scheme):
This process of electron transport involves both PSI and PSII which act in tandem or series and is initiated by the absorption of a photon (quantum) of light by P700 form of chlorophyll- a molecule in pigment system I which gets excited. An electron is ejected from it so that an electron deficiency or a ‘hole’ is left in the P700 molecule (or in other words a positive charge comes on chlorophyll-a-molecule).
This ejected electron is trapped by FRS (Ferredoxin reducing substance) which is an unknown oxidation-reduction system with a redox potential (E 0 ‘) of -0.6 volts and may be a pteridene. The electron is now transferred to a non-heme iron protein called ferredoxin (Fd) with E’ 0 of-0.432 V. From ferredoxin the electron is transferred to NADP (E 0 ‘ = -0.32 V) via intermediate protein electron carrier ferredoxin-NADP reductase (FNR) so that NADP is reduced to NADPH + H + .
Most recent researches have shown that FRS is in-fact a series of electron carriers which in their reduced form are very unstable and difficult to be identified and are designated as A 0 A 1 Fe-S 1 ,Fe-S A & Fe-S B . A 0 is probably a chlorophyll molecule that receives electron from P700.
A 1 is believed to be phylloquinone (vit. K 1 ). Fe-S x , Fe-S A and Fe-S B are iron-sulphur centres situated on proteins in core complex I (CCI) and act as additional electron carriers. From Fe-S centres, the electron is transferred to ferredoxin (Fd) which is a small, water soluble iron-sulphur protein situated on stroma side of thylakoid membrane (Fig. 11.16).
Now, when a photon (quantum) of light is absorbed by P680 form of chlorophyll-a molecule in pigment system II, it gets excited and an electron is ejected from it so that an electron deficiency or a ‘hole’ is left behind in the P680 molecule. The ejected electron is trapped by a compound of unknown identity usually designated Y (Compound Y is sometimes called as Q because it also causes quenching of the characteristic fluorescence of chlorophyll-a in pigment system II).
This unknown compound forms oxidation-reduction system with a redox-potential (E 0 ‘) value more negative than 0.0 V. From Q the electron passes downhill along a series of compounds or intermediate electron carriers and is ultimately received by pigment system I where it ‘fills the hole.’ Redox potential of P700 in pigment system is + 0.43 V.
The series of compounds consists of (i) cytochrome b-559 (E 0 ‘ = + 0. 055 V), (ii) plastoquinone (PQ) whose chemical structure shows similarity with vitamins of K Series. It has a redox potential (E 0 ‘) of + 0.113 V, (iii) cytochrome ƒ (E 0 ‘ = + 0.36 V) and (iv) plastocyanin (PC) which is copper containing protein (E 0 ‘ = + 0.39 V).
At one place during the electron transport i.e., between plastoquinone and cytochrome ƒ there is enough change in free energy which allows phosphorylation of one molecule of ADP to form one ATP molecule (photophosphorylation).
Most recent researches have shown that from p680, the electron is transferred to unknown compound ‘Q’ via pheophytin. The latter is special form of chlorophyll-a which lacks magnesium atom (Fig. 11.2B). The unknown compound Q exists in two forms Q A & Q B .
It is now known that Q A and Q B are infact specialized plastoquinones (PQ) which receive electron from pheophytin and transfer it to Cyt. b 6 f complex. Q A is attached strongly to D 2 protein, while Q B is attached loosely to D 1 protein in core complex II (CC II). After the Q B has received two electrons from Q A (one by one in two turns), it also takes two protons (2H + ) from stroma and is fully reduced to uncharged plastoquinol or plastohydroquinone (PQH 2 or PQ B H 2 ).
The PQH 2 is now released from the reaction centre and is replaced by another molecule of PQ which now occupies the Q B site (11.16). From PQH 2 , electrons are transferred to cytochrome b 6 f complex and its two protons (2H + ) are expelled into the lumen of thylakoid. Finally, the electrons from Cyt b 6 f complex reach to PSI via plastocyanin (PC).
(It is important to note that Q A is one electron acceptor, while Q B is two electrons acceptor).
i. Cytochrome ƒ is a typical c type of cytochrome, ‘ ƒ ’ is abbreviated from ‘frons’ which in Latin means leaf).
The ‘hole’ in pigment system I has been filled by the electron coming from pigment system II. But the ‘hole’ or an electron deficiency is still there in pigment system II. This is fulfilled by the electron coming from photolysis of water. Water here acts as electron donor. It has redox-potential (E’ 0 ) of +0.82 V. This transfer of electron from water probably involves a strong oxidant which is yet unknown and is designated as Z or Yz.
In the above scheme of electron transport the electron ejected from pigment system II did not return to its place of origin, instead it was taken by pigment system I. Similarly, the electron ejected from pigment system I did not cycle back and was consumed in reducing NADP + . Therefore, this electron transport has been called as non-cycle electron transport and the accompanying photophosphorylation as non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
ii. Arrangement of PSI and PSII and various components of non-cyclic electron transport chain when depicted on paper according to their redox-potential values, takes a zig-zag shape like the letter ‘Z’ (Fig. 11.15) hence, non-cyclic electron transport is also called by the name Z-scheme.
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Matthew p. johnson.
Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, U.K.
Photosynthesis sustains virtually all life on planet Earth providing the oxygen we breathe and the food we eat; it forms the basis of global food chains and meets the majority of humankind's current energy needs through fossilized photosynthetic fuels. The process of photosynthesis in plants is based on two reactions that are carried out by separate parts of the chloroplast. The light reactions occur in the chloroplast thylakoid membrane and involve the splitting of water into oxygen, protons and electrons. The protons and electrons are then transferred through the thylakoid membrane to create the energy storage molecules adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinomide–adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). The ATP and NADPH are then utilized by the enzymes of the Calvin–Benson cycle (the dark reactions), which converts CO 2 into carbohydrate in the chloroplast stroma. The basic principles of solar energy capture, energy, electron and proton transfer and the biochemical basis of carbon fixation are explained and their significance is discussed.
Introduction.
Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of all of humankind's food and oxygen, whereas fossilized photosynthetic fuels provide ∼87% of the world's energy. It is the biochemical process that sustains the biosphere as the basis for the food chain. The oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis allowed the formation of the ozone layer, the evolution of aerobic respiration and thus complex multicellular life.
Oxygenic photosynthesis involves the conversion of water and CO 2 into complex organic molecules such as carbohydrates and oxygen. Photosynthesis may be split into the ‘light’ and ‘dark’ reactions. In the light reactions, water is split using light into oxygen, protons and electrons, and in the dark reactions, the protons and electrons are used to reduce CO 2 to carbohydrate (given here by the general formula CH 2 O). The two processes can be summarized thus:
Light reactions:
Dark reactions:
The positive sign of the standard free energy change of the reaction (Δ G °) given above means that the reaction requires energy ( an endergonic reaction ). The energy required is provided by absorbed solar energy, which is converted into the chemical bond energy of the products ( Box 1 ).
Photosynthesis converts ∼200 billion tonnes of CO 2 into complex organic compounds annually and produces ∼140 billion tonnes of oxygen into the atmosphere. By facilitating conversion of solar energy into chemical energy, photosynthesis acts as the primary energy input into the global food chain. Nearly all living organisms use the complex organic compounds derived from photosynthesis as a source of energy. The breakdown of these organic compounds occurs via the process of aerobic respiration, which of course also requires the oxygen produced by photosynthesis.
Unlike photosynthesis, aerobic respiration is an exergonic process (negative Δ G °) with the energy released being used by the organism to power biosynthetic processes that allow growth and renewal, mechanical work (such as muscle contraction or flagella rotation) and facilitating changes in chemical concentrations within the cell (e.g. accumulation of nutrients and expulsion of waste). The use of exergonic reactions to power endergonic ones associated with biosynthesis and housekeeping in biological organisms such that the overall free energy change is negative is known as ‘ coupling’.
Photosynthesis and respiration are thus seemingly the reverse of one another, with the important caveat that both oxygen formation during photosynthesis and its utilization during respiration result in its liberation or incorporation respectively into water rather than CO 2 . In addition, glucose is one of several possible products of photosynthesis with amino acids and lipids also being synthesized rapidly from the primary photosynthetic products.
The consideration of photosynthesis and respiration as opposing processes helps us to appreciate their role in shaping our environment. The fixation of CO 2 by photosynthesis and its release during breakdown of organic molecules during respiration, decay and combustion of organic matter and fossil fuels can be visualized as the global carbon cycle ( Figure 1 ).
The relationship between respiration, photosynthesis and global CO 2 and O 2 levels.
At present, this cycle may be considered to be in a state of imbalance due to the burning of fossil fuels (fossilized photosynthesis), which is increasing the proportion of CO 2 entering the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the so-called ‘greenhouse effect’ and human-made climate change.
Oxygenic photosynthesis is thought to have evolved only once during Earth's history in the cyanobacteria. All other organisms, such as plants, algae and diatoms, which perform oxygenic photosynthesis actually do so via cyanobacterial endosymbionts or ‘chloroplasts’. An endosymbiotoic event between an ancestral eukaryotic cell and a cyanobacterium that gave rise to plants is estimated to have occurred ∼1.5 billion years ago. Free-living cyanobacteria still exist today and are responsible for ∼50% of the world's photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria themselves are thought to have evolved from simpler photosynthetic bacteria that use either organic or inorganic compounds such a hydrogen sulfide as a source of electrons rather than water and thus do not produce oxygen.
In land plants, the principal organs of photosynthesis are the leaves ( Figure 2 A). Leaves have evolved to expose the largest possible area of green tissue to light and entry of CO 2 to the leaf is controlled by small holes in the lower epidermis called stomata ( Figure 2 B). The size of the stomatal openings is variable and regulated by a pair of guard cells, which respond to the turgor pressure (water content) of the leaf, thus when the leaf is hydrated, the stomata can open to allow CO 2 in. In contrast, when water is scarce, the guard cells lose turgor pressure and close, preventing the escape of water from the leaf via transpiration.
( A ) The model plant Arabidopsis thaliana . ( B ) Basic structure of a leaf shown in cross-section. Chloroplasts are shown as green dots within the cells. ( C ) An electron micrograph of an Arabidopsis chloroplast within the leaf. ( D ) Close-up region of the chloroplast showing the stacked structure of the thylakoid membrane.
Within the green tissue of the leaf (mainly the mesophyll) each cell (∼100 μm in length) contains ∼100 chloroplasts (2–3 μm in length), the tiny organelles where photosynthesis takes place. The chloroplast has a complex structure ( Figure 2 C, D) with two outer membranes (the envelope), which are colourless and do not participate in photosynthesis, enclosing an aqueous space (the stroma) wherein sits a third membrane known as the thylakoid, which in turn encloses a single continuous aqueous space called the lumen.
The light reactions of photosynthesis involve light-driven electron and proton transfers, which occur in the thylakoid membrane, whereas the dark reactions involve the fixation of CO 2 into carbohydrate, via the Calvin–Benson cycle, which occurs in the stroma ( Figure 3 ). The light reactions involve electron transfer from water to NADP + to form NADPH and these reactions are coupled to proton transfers that lead to the phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) into ATP. The Calvin–Benson cycle uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO 2 into carbohydrates ( Figure 3 ), regenerating ADP and NADP + . The light and dark reactions are therefore mutually dependent on one another.
The light reactions of photosynthesis take place in the thylakoid membrane, whereas the dark reactions are located in the chloroplast stroma.
The light-driven electron transfer reactions of photosynthesis begin with the splitting of water by Photosystem II (PSII). PSII is a chlorophyll–protein complex embedded in the thylakoid membrane that uses light to oxidize water to oxygen and reduce the electron acceptor plastoquinone to plastoquinol. Plastoquinol in turn carries the electrons derived from water to another thylakoid-embedded protein complex called cytochrome b 6 f (cyt b 6 f ). cyt b 6 f oxidizes plastoquinol to plastoquinone and reduces a small water-soluble electron carrier protein plastocyanin, which resides in the lumen. A second light-driven reaction is then carried out by another chlorophyll protein complex called Photosystem I (PSI). PSI oxidizes plastocyanin and reduces another soluble electron carrier protein ferredoxin that resides in the stroma. Ferredoxin can then be used by the ferredoxin–NADP + reductase (FNR) enzyme to reduce NADP + to NADPH. This scheme is known as the linear electron transfer pathway or Z-scheme ( Figure 4 ).
The linear electron transfer pathway from water to NADP + to form NADPH results in the formation of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane that is used by the ATP synthase enzyme to make ATP.
The Z-scheme, so-called since it resembles the letter ‘Z’ when turned on its side ( Figure 5 ), thus shows how the electrons move from the water–oxygen couple (+820 mV) via a chain of redox carriers to NADP + /NADPH (−320 mV) during photosynthetic electron transfer. Generally, electrons are transferred from redox couples with low potentials (good reductants) to those with higher potentials (good oxidants) (e.g. during respiratory electron transfer in mitochondria) since this process is exergonic (see Box 2 ). However, photosynthetic electron transfer also involves two endergonic steps, which occur at PSII and at PSI and require an energy input in the form of light. The light energy is used to excite an electron within a chlorophyll molecule residing in PSII or PSI to a higher energy level; this excited chlorophyll is then able to reduce the subsequent acceptors in the chain. The oxidized chlorophyll is then reduced by water in the case of PSII and plastocyanin in the case of PSI.
The main components of the linear electron transfer pathway are shown on a scale of redox potential to illustrate how two separate inputs of light energy at PSI and PSII result in the endergonic transfer of electrons from water to NADP + .
The water-splitting reaction at PSII and plastoquinol oxidation at cyt b 6 f result in the release of protons into the lumen, resulting in a build-up of protons in this compartment relative to the stroma. The difference in the proton concentration between the two sides of the membrane is called a proton gradient. The proton gradient is a store of free energy (similar to a gradient of ions in a battery) that is utilized by a molecular mechanical motor ATP synthase, which resides in the thylakoid membrane ( Figure 4 ). The ATP synthase allows the protons to move down their concentration gradient from the lumen (high H + concentration) to the stroma (low H + concentration). This exergonic reaction is used to power the endergonic synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (P i ). This process of photophosphorylation is thus essentially similar to oxidative phosphorylation, which occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane during respiration.
An alternative electron transfer pathway exists in plants and algae, known as cyclic electron flow. Cyclic electron flow involves the recycling of electrons from ferredoxin to plastoquinone, with the result that there is no net production of NADPH; however, since protons are still transferred into the lumen by oxidation of plastoquinol by cyt b 6 f , ATP can still be formed. Thus photosynthetic organisms can control the ratio of NADPH/ATP to meet metabolic need by controlling the relative amounts of cyclic and linear electron transfer.
Light absorption by pigments.
Photosynthesis begins with the absorption of light by pigments molecules located in the thylakoid membrane. The most well-known of these is chlorophyll, but there are also carotenoids and, in cyanobacteria and some algae, bilins. These pigments all have in common within their chemical structures an alternating series of carbon single and double bonds, which form a conjugated system π–electron system ( Figure 6 ).
The chemical structures of the chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments present in the thylakoid membrane. Note the presence in each of a conjugated system of carbon–carbon double bonds that is responsible for light absorption.
The variety of pigments present within each type of photosynthetic organism reflects the light environment in which it lives; plants on land contain chlorophylls a and b and carotenoids such as β-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, violaxanthin, antheraxanthin and neoxanthin ( Figure 6 ). The chlorophylls absorb blue and red light and so appear green in colour, whereas carotenoids absorb light only in the blue and so appear yellow/red ( Figure 7 ), colours more obvious in the autumn as chlorophyll is the first pigment to be broken down in decaying leaves.
Chlorophylls absorb light energy in the red and blue part of the visible spectrum, whereas carotenoids only absorb light in the blue/green.
Light, or electromagnetic radiation, has the properties of both a wave and a stream of particles (light quanta). Each quantum of light contains a discrete amount of energy that can be calculated by multiplying Planck's constant, h (6.626×10 −34 J·s) by ν, the frequency of the radiation in cycles per second (s −1 ):
The frequency (ν) of the light and so its energy varies with its colour, thus blue photons (∼450 nm) are more energetic than red photons (∼650 nm). The frequency (ν) and wavelength (λ) of light are related by:
where c is the velocity of light (3.0×10 8 m·s −1 ), and the energy of a particular wavelength (λ) of light is given by:
Thus 1 mol of 680 nm photons of red light has an energy of 176 kJ·mol −1 .
The electrons within the delocalized π system of the pigment have the ability to jump up from the lowest occupied molecular orbital (ground state) to higher unoccupied molecular electron orbitals (excited states) via the absorption of specific wavelengths of light in the visible range (400–725 nm). Chlorophyll has two excited states known as S 1 and S 2 and, upon interaction of the molecule with a photon of light, one of its π electrons is promoted from the ground state (S 0 ) to an excited state, a process taking just 10 −15 s ( Figure 8 ). The energy gap between the S 0 and S 1 states is spanned by the energy provided by a red photon (∼600–700 nm), whereas the energy gap between the S 0 and S 2 states is larger and therefore requires a more energetic (shorter wavelength, higher frequency) blue photon (∼400–500 nm) to span the energy gap.
Photons with slightly different energies (colours) excite each of the vibrational substates of each excited state (as shown by variation in the size and colour of the arrows).
Upon excitation, the electron in the S 2 state quickly undergoes losses of energy as heat through molecular vibration and undergoes conversion into the energy of the S 1 state by a process called internal conversion. Internal conversion occurs on a timescale of 10 −12 s. The energy of a blue photon is thus rapidly degraded to that of a red photon. Excitation of the molecule with a red photon would lead to promotion of an electron to the S 1 state directly. Once the electron resides in the S 1 state, it is lower in energy and thus stable on a somewhat longer timescale (10 −9 s). The energy of the excited electron in the S 1 state can have one of several fates: it could return to the ground state (S 0 ) by emission of the energy as a photon of light (fluorescence), or it could be lost as heat due to internal conversion between S 1 and S 0 . Alternatively, if another chlorophyll is nearby, a process known as excitation energy transfer (EET) can result in the non-radiative exchange of energy between the two molecules ( Figure 9 ). For this to occur, the two chlorophylls must be close by (<7 nm), have a specific orientation with respect to one another, and excited state energies that overlap (are resonant) with one another. If these conditions are met, the energy is exchanged, resulting in a mirror S 0 →S 1 transition in the acceptor molecule and a S 1 →S 0 transition in the other.
Two chlorophyll molecules with resonant S 1 states undergo a mirror transition resulting in the non-radiative transfer of excitation energy between them.
In photosynthetic systems, chlorophylls and carotenoids are found attached to membrane-embedded proteins known as light-harvesting complexes (LHCs). Through careful binding and orientation of the pigment molecules, absorbed energy can be transferred among them by EET. Each pigment is bound to the protein by a series of non-covalent bonding interactions (such as, hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, hydrophobic interaction and co-ordination bonds between lone pair electrons of residues such as histidine in the protein and the Mg 2+ ion in chlorophyll); the protein structure is such that each bound pigment experiences a slightly different environment in terms of the surrounding amino acid side chains, lipids, etc., meaning that the S 1 and S 2 energy levels are shifted in energy with respect to that of other neighbouring pigment molecules. The effect is to create a range of pigment energies that act to ‘funnel’ the energy on to the lowest-energy pigments in the LHC by EET.
A photosystem consists of numerous LHCs that form an antenna of hundreds of pigment molecules. The antenna pigments act to collect and concentrate excitation energy and transfer it towards a ‘special pair’ of chlorophyll molecules that reside in the reaction centre (RC) ( Figure 10 ). Unlike the antenna pigments, the special pair of chlorophylls are ‘redox-active’ in the sense that they can return to the ground state (S 0 ) by the transfer of the electron residing in the S 1 excited state (Chl*) to another species. This process is known as charge separation and result in formation of an oxidized special pair (Chl + ) and a reduced acceptor (A − ). The acceptor in PSII is plastoquinone and in PSI it is ferredoxin. If the RC is to go on functioning, the electron deficiency on the special pair must be made good, in PSII the electron donor is water and in PSI it is plastocyanin.
Light energy is captured by the antenna pigments and transferred to the special pair of RC chlorophylls which undergo a redox reaction leading to reduction of an acceptor molecule. The oxidized special pair is regenerated by an electron donor.
It is worth asking why photosynthetic organisms bother to have a large antenna of pigments serving an RC rather than more numerous RCs. The answer lies in the fact that the special pair of chlorophylls alone have a rather small spatial and spectral cross-section, meaning that there is a limit to the amount of light they can efficiently absorb. The amount of light they can practically absorb is around two orders of magnitude smaller than their maximum possible turnover rate, Thus LHCs act to increase the spatial (hundreds of pigments) and spectral (several types of pigments with different light absorption characteristics) cross-section of the RC special pair ensuring that its turnover rate runs much closer to capacity.
PSII is a light-driven water–plastoquinone oxidoreductase and is the only enzyme in Nature that is capable of performing the difficult chemistry of splitting water into protons, electrons and oxygen ( Figure 11 ). In principle, water is an extremely poor electron donor since the redox potential of the water–oxygen couple is +820 mV. PSII uses light energy to excite a special pair of chlorophylls, known as P680 due to their 680 nm absorption peak in the red part of the spectrum. P680* undergoes charge separation that results in the formation of an extremely oxidizing species P680 + which has a redox potential of +1200 mV, sufficient to oxidize water. Nonetheless, since water splitting involves four electron chemistry and charge separation only involves transfer of one electron, four separate charge separations (turnovers of PSII) are required to drive formation of one molecule of O 2 from two molecules of water. The initial electron donation to generate the P680 from P680 + is therefore provided by a cluster of manganese ions within the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC), which is attached to the lumen side of PSII ( Figure 12 ). Manganese is a transition metal that can exist in a range of oxidation states from +1 to +5 and thus accumulates the positive charges derived from each light-driven turnover of P680. Progressive extraction of electrons from the manganese cluster is driven by the oxidation of P680 within PSII by light and is known as the S-state cycle ( Figure 12 ). After the fourth turnover of P680, sufficient positive charge is built up in the manganese cluster to permit the splitting of water into electrons, which regenerate the original state of the manganese cluster, protons, which are released into the lumen and contribute to the proton gradient used for ATP synthesis, and the by-product O 2 . Thus charge separation at P680 provides the thermodynamic driving force, whereas the manganese cluster acts as a catalyst for the water-splitting reaction.
The organization of PSII and its light-harvesting antenna. Protein is shown in grey, with chlorophylls in green and carotenoids in orange. Drawn from PDB code 3JCU
Progressive extraction of electrons from the manganese cluster is driven by the oxidation of P680 within PSII by light. Each of the electrons given up by the cluster is eventually repaid at the S 4 to S 0 transition when molecular oxygen (O 2 ) is formed. The protons extracted from water during the process are deposited into the lumen and contribute to the protonmotive force.
The electrons yielded by P680* following charge separation are not passed directly to plastoquinone, but rather via another acceptor called pheophytin, a porphyrin molecule lacking the central magnesium ion as in chlorophyll. Plastoquinone reduction to plastoquinol requires two electrons and thus two molecules of plastoquinol are formed per O 2 molecule evolved by PSII. Two protons are also taken up upon formation of plastoquinol and these are derived from the stroma. PSII is found within the thylakoid membrane of plants as a dimeric RC complex surrounded by a peripheral antenna of six minor monomeric antenna LHC complexes and two to eight trimeric LHC complexes, which together form a PSII–LHCII supercomplex ( Figure 11 ).
PSI is a light-driven plastocyanin–ferredoxin oxidoreductase ( Figure 13 ). In PSI, the special pair of chlorophylls are known as P700 due to their 700 nm absorption peak in the red part of the spectrum. P700* is an extremely strong reductant that is able to reduce ferredoxin which has a redox potential of −450 mV (and is thus is, in principle, a poor electron acceptor). Reduced ferredoxin is then used to generate NADPH for the Calvin–Benson cycle at a separate complex known as FNR. The electron from P700* is donated via another chlorophyll molecule and a bound quinone to a series of iron–sulfur clusters at the stromal side of the complex, whereupon the electron is donated to ferredoxin. The P700 species is regenerated form P700 + via donation of an electron from the soluble electron carrier protein plastocyanin.
The organization of PSI and its light-harvesting antenna. Protein is shown in grey, with chlorophylls in green and carotenoids in orange. Drawn from PDB code 4XK8.
PSI is found within the thylakoid membrane as a monomeric RC surrounded on one side by four LHC complexes known as LHCI. The PSI–LHCI supercomplex is found mainly in the unstacked regions of the thylakoid membrane ( Figure 13 ).
Plastoquinone/plastoquinol.
Plastoquinone is a small lipophilic electron carrier molecule that resides within the thylakoid membrane and carries two electrons and two protons from PSII to the cyt b 6 f complex. It has a very similar structure to that of the molecule ubiquinone (coenzyme Q 10 ) in the mitochondrial inner membrane.
The cyt b 6 f complex is a plastoquinol–plastocyanin oxidoreductase and possess a similar structure to that of the cytochrome bc 1 complex (complex III) in mitochondria ( Figure 14 A). As with Complex III, cyt b 6 f exists as a dimer in the membrane and carries out both the oxidation and reduction of quinones via the so-called Q-cycle. The Q-cycle ( Figure 14 B) involves oxidation of one plastoquinol molecule at the Qp site of the complex, both protons from this molecule are deposited in the lumen and contribute to the proton gradient for ATP synthesis. The two electrons, however, have different fates. The first is transferred via an iron–sulfur cluster and a haem cofactor to the soluble electron carrier plastocyanin (see below). The second electron derived from plastoquinol is passed via two separate haem cofactors to another molecule of plastoquinone bound to a separate site (Qn) on the complex, thus reducing it to a semiquinone. When a second plastoquinol molecule is oxidized at Qp, a second molecule of plastocyanin is reduced and two further protons are deposited in the lumen. The second electron reduces the semiquinone at the Qn site which, concomitant with uptake of two protons from the stroma, causes its reduction to plastoquinol. Thus for each pair of plastoquinol molecules oxidized by the complex, one is regenerated, yet all four protons are deposited into the lumen. The Q-cycle thus doubles the number of protons transferred from the stroma to the lumen per plastoquinol molecule oxidized.
( A ) Structure drawn from PDB code 1Q90. ( B ) The protonmotive Q-cycle showing how electrons from plastoquinol are passed to both plastocyanin and plastoquinone, doubling the protons deposited in the lumen for every plastoquinol molecule oxidized by the complex.
Plastocyanin is a small soluble electron carrier protein that resides in the thylakoid lumen. The active site of the plastocyanin protein binds a copper ion, which cycles between the Cu 2+ and Cu + oxidation states following its oxidation by PSI and reduction by cyt b 6 f respectively.
Ferredoxin is a small soluble electron carrier protein that resides in the chloroplast stroma. The active site of the ferredoxin protein binds an iron–sulfur cluster, which cycles between the Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ oxidation states following its reduction by PSI and oxidation by the FNR complex respectively.
The FNR complex is found in both soluble and thylakoid membrane-bound forms. The complex binds a flavin–adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor at its active site, which accepts two electrons from two molecules of ferredoxin before using them reduce NADP + to NADPH.
The ATP synthase enzyme is responsible for making ATP from ADP and P i ; this endergonic reaction is powered by the energy contained within the protonmotive force. According to the structure, 4.67 H + are required for every ATP molecule synthesized by the chloroplast ATP synthase. The enzyme is a rotary motor which contains two domains: the membrane-spanning F O portion which conducts protons from the lumen to the stroma, and the F 1 catalytic domain that couples this exergonic proton movement to ATP synthesis.
Within the thylakoid membrane, PSII–LHCII supercomplexes are packed together into domains known as the grana, which associate with one another to form grana stacks. PSI and ATP synthase are excluded from these stacked PSII–LHCII regions by steric constraints and thus PSII and PSI are segregated in the thylakoid membrane between the stacked and unstacked regions ( Figure 15 ). The cyt b 6 f complex, in contrast, is evenly distributed throughout the grana and stromal lamellae. The evolutionary advantage of membrane stacking is believed to be a higher efficiency of electron transport by preventing the fast energy trap PSI from ‘stealing’ excitation energy from the slower trap PSII, a phenomenon known as spillover. Another possible advantage of membrane stacking in thylakoids may be the segregation of the linear and cyclic electron transfer pathways, which might otherwise compete to reduce plastoquinone. In this view, PSII, cyt b 6 f and a sub-fraction of PSI closest to the grana is involved in linear flow, whereas PSI and cyt b 6 f in the stromal lamellae participates in cyclic flow. The cyclic electron transfer pathway recycles electrons from ferredoxin back to plastoquinone and thus allows protonmotive force generation (and ATP synthesis) without net NADPH production. Cyclic electron transfer thereby provides the additional ATP required for the Calvin–Benson cycle (see below).
( A ) Electron micrograph of the thylakoid membrane showing stacked grana and unstacked stromal lamellae regions. ( B ) Model showing the distribution of the major complexes of photosynthetic electron and proton transfer between the stacked grana and unstacked stromal lamellae regions.
CO 2 is fixed into carbohydrate via the Calvin–Benson cycle in plants, which consumes the ATP and NADPH produced during the light reactions and thus in turn regenerates ADP, P i and NADP + . In the first step of the Calvin–Benson cycle ( Figure 16 ), CO 2 is combined with a 5-carbon (5C) sugar, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate in a reaction catalysed by the enzyme ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco). The reaction forms an unstable 6C intermediate that immediately splits into two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate. 3-Phosphoglycerate is first phosphorylated by 3-phosphoglycerate kinase using ATP to form 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate is then reduced by glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase using NADPH to form glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP, a triose or 3C sugar) in reactions, which are the reverse of glycolysis. For every three CO 2 molecules initially combined with ribulose 1,5-bisphopshate, six molecules of GAP are produced by the subsequent steps. However only one of these six molecules can be considered as a product of the Calvin–Benson cycle since the remaining five are required to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate in a complex series of reactions that also require ATP. The one molecule of GAP that is produced for each turn of the cycle can be quickly converted by a range of metabolic pathways into amino acids, lipids or sugars such as glucose. Glucose in turn may be stored as the polymer starch as large granules within chloroplasts.
Overview of the biochemical pathway for the fixation of CO 2 into carbohydrate in plants.
A complex biochemical ‘dance’ ( Figure 16 ) is then involved in the regeneration of three ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (5C) from the remaining five GAP (3C) molecules. The regeneration begins with the conversion of two molecules of GAP into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) by triose phosphate isomerase; one of the DHAP molecules is the combined with another GAP molecule to make fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (6C) by aldolase. The fructose 1,6-bisphosphate is then dephosphorylated by fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase to yield fructose 6-phosphate (6C) and releasing P i . Two carbons are then removed from fructose 6-phosphate by transketolase, generating erythrose 4-phosphate (4C); the two carbons are transferred to another molecule of GAP generating xylulose 5-phosphate (5C). Another DHAP molecule, formed from GAP by triose phosphate isomerase is then combined with the erythrose 4-phosphate by aldolase to form sedoheptulose 1,7-bisphosphate (7C). Sedoheptulose 1,7-bisphosphate is then dephosphorylated to sedoheptulose 7-phosphate (7C) by sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase releasing P i . Sedoheptulose 7-phosphate has two carbons removed by transketolase to produce ribose 5-phosphate (5C) and the two carbons are transferred to another GAP molecule producing another xylulose 5-phosphate (5C). Ribose 5-phosphate and the two molecules of xylulose 5-phosphate (5C) are then converted by phosphopentose isomerase to three molecules of ribulose 5-phosphate (5C). The three ribulose 5-phosphate molecules are then phosphorylated using three ATP by phosphoribulokinase to regenerate three ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (5C).
Overall the synthesis of 1 mol of GAP requires 9 mol of ATP and 6 mol of NADPH, a required ratio of 1.5 ATP/NADPH. Linear electron transfer is generally thought to supply ATP/NADPH in a ratio of 1.28 (assuming an H + /ATP ratio of 4.67) with the shortfall of ATP believed to be provided by cyclic electron transfer reactions. Since the product of the Calvin cycle is GAP (a 3C sugar) the pathway is often referred to as C 3 photosynthesis and plants that utilize it are called C 3 plants and include many of the world's major crops such as rice, wheat and potato.
Many of the enzymes involved in the Calvin–Benson cycle (e.g. transketolase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and aldolase) are also involved in the glycolysis pathway of carbohydrate degradation and their activity must therefore be carefully regulated to avoid futile cycling when light is present, i.e. the unwanted degradation of carbohydrate. The regulation of the Calvin–Benson cycle enzymes is achieved by the activity of the light reactions, which modify the environment of the dark reactions (i.e. the stroma). Proton gradient formation across the thylakoid membrane during the light reactions increases the pH and also increases the Mg 2+ concentration in the stroma (as Mg 2+ flows out of the lumen as H + flows in to compensate for the influx of positive charges). In addition, by reducing ferredoxin and NADP + , PSI changes the redox state of the stroma, which is sensed by the regulatory protein thioredoxin. Thioredoxin, pH and Mg 2+ concentration play a key role in regulating the activity of the Calvin–Benson cycle enzymes, ensuring the activity of the light and dark reactions is closely co-ordinated.
It is noteworthy that, despite the complexity of the dark reactions outlined above, the carbon fixation step itself (i.e. the incorporation of CO 2 into carbohydrate) is carried out by a single enzyme, Rubisco. Rubisco is a large multisubunit soluble protein complex found in the chloroplast stroma. The complex consists of eight large (56 kDa) subunits, which contain both catalytic and regulatory domains, and eight small subunits (14 kDa), which enhance the catalytic function of the L subunits ( Figure 17 A). The carboxylation reaction carried out by Rubisco is highly exergonic (Δ G °=−51.9 kJ·mol- 1 ), yet kinetically very slow (just 3 s −1 ) and begins with the protonation of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate to form an enediolate intermediate which can be combined with CO 2 to form an unstable 6C intermediate that is quickly hydrolysed to yield two 3C 3-phosphoglycerate molecules. The active site in the Rubisco enzyme contains a key lysine residue, which reacts with another (non-substrate) molecule of CO 2 to form a carbamate anion that is then able to bind Mg 2+ . The Mg 2+ in the active site is essential for the catalytic function of Rubisco, playing a key role in binding ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate and activating it such that it readily reacts with CO 2.. Rubisco activity is co-ordinated with that of the light reactions since carbamate formation requires both high Mg 2+ concentration and alkaline conditions, which are provided by the light-driven changes in the stromal environment discussed above ( Figure 17 B).
( A ) Structure of the Rubisco enzyme (the large subunits are shown in blue and the small subunits in green); four of each type of subunit are visible in the image. Drawn from PDB code 1RXO. ( B ) Activation of the lysine residue within the active site of Rubisco occurs via elevated stromal pH and Mg 2+ concentration as a result of the activity of the light reactions.
In addition to carboxylation, Rubisco also catalyses a competitive oxygenation reaction, known as photorespiration, that results in the combination of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate with O 2 rather than CO 2 . In the oxygenation reaction, one rather than two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate and one molecule of a 2C sugar known as phosphoglycolate are produced by Rubisco. The phosphoglycolate must be converted in a series of reactions that regenerate one molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate and one molecule of CO 2 . These reactions consume additional ATP and thus result in an energy loss to the plant. Although the oxygenation reaction of Rubisco is much less favourable than the carboxylation reaction, the relatively high concentration of O 2 in the leaf (250 μM) compared with CO 2 (10 μM) means that a significant amount of photorespiration is always occurring. Under normal conditions, the ratio of carboxylation to oxygenation is between 3:1 and 4:1. However, this ratio can be decreased with increasing temperature due to decreased CO 2 concentration in the leaf, a decrease in the affinity of Rubisco for CO 2 compared with O 2 and an increase in the maximum rate of the oxygenation reaction compared with the carboxylation reaction. The inefficiencies of the Rubisco enzyme mean that plants must produce it in very large amounts (∼30–50% of total soluble protein in a spinach leaf) to achieve the maximal photosynthetic rate.
To counter photorespiration, plants, algae and cyanobacteria have evolved different CO 2 -concentrating mechanisms CCMs that aim to increase the concentration of CO 2 relative to O 2 in the vicinity of Rubisco. One such CCM is C 4 photosynthesis that is found in plants such as maize, sugar cane and savanna grasses. C 4 plants show a specialized leaf anatomy: Kranz anatomy ( Figure 18 ). Kranz, German for wreath, refers to a bundle sheath of cells that surrounds the central vein within the leaf, which in turn are surrounded by the mesophyll cells. The mesophyll cells in such leaves are rich in the enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylase, which fixes CO 2 into a 4C carboxylic acid: oxaloaceatate. The oxaloacetate formed by the mesophyll cells is reduced using NADPH to malate, another 4C acid: malate. The malate is then exported from the mesophyll cells to the bundle sheath cells, where it is decarboxylated to pyruvate thus regenerating NADPH and CO 2 . The CO 2 is then utilized by Rubisco in the Calvin cycle. The pyruvate is in turn returned to the mesophyll cells where it is phosphorylated using ATP to reform PEP ( Figure 19 ). The advantage of C 4 photosynthesis is that CO 2 accumulates at a very high concentration in the bundle sheath cells that is then sufficient to allow Rubisco to operate efficiently.
Plants growing in hot, bright and dry conditions inevitably have to have their stomata closed for large parts of the day to avoid excessive water loss and wilting. The net result is that the internal CO 2 concentration in the leaf is very low, meaning that C 3 photosynthesis is not possible. To counter this limitation, another CCM is found in succulent plants such as cacti. The Crassulaceae fix CO 2 into malate during the day via PEP carboxylase, store it within the vacuole of the plant cell at night and then release it within their tissues by day to be fixed via normal C 3 photosynthesis. This is termed crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM).
I thank Professor Colin Osborne (University of Sheffield, Sheffield, U.K.) for useful discussions on the article, Dr Dan Canniffe (Penn State University, Pennsylvania, PA, U.S.A.) for providing pure pigment spectra and Dr P.J. Weaire (Kingston University, Kingston-upon-Thames, U.K.) for his original Photosynthesis BASC article (1994) on which this essay is partly based.
ADP | adenosine diphosphate |
ATP | adenosine triphosphate |
CH O | carbohydrate |
cyt | cytochrome |
DHAP | dihydroxyacetone phosphate |
EET | excitation energy transfer |
FNR | ferredoxin–NADP reductase |
GAP | glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate |
LHC | light-harvesting complex |
NADPH | nicotinomide–adenine dinucleotide phosphate |
PEP | phosphoenolpyruvate |
P | inorganic phosphate |
PSI | Photosystem I |
PSII | Photosystem II |
RC | reaction centre |
Rubisco | ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase |
This article is a reviewed, revised and updated version of the following ‘Biochemistry Across the School Curriculum’ (BASC) booklet: Weaire, P.J. (1994) Photosynthesis . For further information and to provide feedback on this or any other Biochemical Society education resource, please contact [email protected]. For further information on other Biochemical Society publications, please visit www.biochemistry.org/publications .
The Author declares that there are no competing interests associated with this article.
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Photosynthesis is a process by which phototrophs convert light energy into chemical energy, which is later used to fuel cellular activities. The chemical energy is stored in the form of sugars, which are created from water and carbon dioxide.
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The word “ photosynthesis ” is derived from the Greek words phōs (pronounced: “fos”) and σύνθεσις (pronounced: “synthesis “) Phōs means “light” and σύνθεσις means, “combining together.” This means “ combining together with the help of light .”
Photosynthesis also applies to other organisms besides green plants. These include several prokaryotes such as cyanobacteria, purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria. These organisms exhibit photosynthesis just like green plants.The glucose produced during photosynthesis is then used to fuel various cellular activities. The by-product of this physio-chemical process is oxygen.
A visual representation of the photosynthesis reaction
Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in plants and blue-green algae. All green parts of a plant, including the green stems, green leaves, and sepals – floral parts comprise of chloroplasts – green colour plastids. These cell organelles are present only in plant cells and are located within the mesophyll cells of leaves.
Photosynthesis process requires several factors such as: Increased light intensity results in a higher rate of photosynthesis. On the other hand, low light intensity results in a lower rate of photosynthesis. Higher concentration of carbon dioxide helps in increasing the rate of photosynthesis. Usually, carbon dioxide in the range of 300 – 400 PPM is adequate for photosynthesis. For efficient execution of photosynthesis, it is important to have a temperature range between 25° to 35° C. As water is an important factor in photosynthesis, its deficiency can lead to problems in the intake of carbon dioxide. The scarcity of water leads to the refusal of stomatal opening to retain the amount of water they have stored inside. : Industrial pollutants and other particulates may settle on the leaf surface. This can block the pores of stomata which makes it difficult to take in carbon dioxide. |
Also Read: Photosynthesis Early Experiments
Photosynthesis reaction involves two reactants, carbon dioxide and water. These two reactants yield two products, namely, oxygen and glucose. Hence, the photosynthesis reaction is considered to be an endothermic reaction. Following is the photosynthesis formula:
+ 6H O —> C H O + 6O |
Unlike plants, certain bacteria that perform photosynthesis do not produce oxygen as the by-product of photosynthesis. Such bacteria are called anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria. The bacteria that do produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis are called oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria.
There are four different types of pigments present in leaves: |
The structure of Chlorophyll consists of 4 nitrogen atoms that surround a magnesium atom. A hydrocarbon tail is also present. Pictured above is chlorophyll- f, which is more effective in near-infrared light than chlorophyll- a
Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in the chloroplasts of the plant cell and in the mesosomes of cyanobacteria. This green colour pigment plays a vital role in the process of photosynthesis by permitting plants to absorb energy from sunlight. Chlorophyll is a mixture of chlorophyll- a and chlorophyll- b .Besides green plants, other organisms that perform photosynthesis contain various other forms of chlorophyll such as chlorophyll- c1 , chlorophyll- c2 , chlorophyll- d and chlorophyll- f .
Also Read: Biological Pigments
At the cellular level, the photosynthesis process takes place in cell organelles called chloroplasts. These organelles contain a green-coloured pigment called chlorophyll, which is responsible for the characteristic green colouration of the leaves.
As already stated, photosynthesis occurs in the leaves and the specialized cell organelles responsible for this process is called the chloroplast. Structurally, a leaf comprises a petiole, epidermis and a lamina. The lamina is used for absorption of sunlight and carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.
Structure of Chloroplast. Note the presence of the thylakoid
“Photosynthesis Steps:”
The process of photosynthesis occurs in two stages:
Stages of Photosynthesis in Plants depicting the two phases – Light reaction and Dark reaction
The chemical equation in the light reaction of photosynthesis can be reduced to:
2H 2 O + 2NADP+ + 3ADP + 3Pi → O 2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP
The chemical equation for the dark reaction can be reduced to:
3CO 2 + 6 NADPH + 5H 2 O + 9ATP → G3P + 2H+ + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 8 Pi
* G3P – glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
Calvin photosynthesis Cycle (Dark Reaction)
Also Read: Cyclic And Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
1. what is photosynthesis explain the process of photosynthesis., 2. what is the significance of photosynthesis, 3. list out the factors influencing photosynthesis., 4. what are the different stages of photosynthesis, 5. what is the calvin cycle, 6. write down the photosynthesis equation..
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Please What Is Meant By 300-400 PPM
PPM stands for Parts-Per-Million. It corresponds to saying that 300 PPM of carbon dioxide indicates that if one million gas molecules are counted, 300 out of them would be carbon dioxide. The remaining nine hundred ninety-nine thousand seven hundred are other gas molecules.
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Photosynthesis is important to living organisms because it is the number one source of oxygen in the atmosphere. Without photosynthesis, the carbon cycle could not occur, oxygen-requiring life would not survive and plants would die. Green plants and trees use photosynthesis to make food from sunlight, carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere: It is their primary source of energy. The importance of photosynthesis in our life is the oxygen it produces. Without photosynthesis there would be little to no oxygen on the planet.
Photosynthesis is important for all living organisms because it provides the oxygen needed by most living creatures for survival on the planet.
Photosynthesis uses light energy from the sun and carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere to make food for plants, trees, algae and even some bacteria. It releases oxygen as a byproduct. The chlorophyll in these living organisms, which also contributes to their green hues, absorbs the sunlight and combines it with carbon dioxide to convert these compounds into an organic chemical called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is crucial in the relationship between energy and living things, and is known as the "energy currency for all life."
Cellular respiration allows all living cells to extract energy in the form of ATP from food and offer that energy for the vital processes of life. All living cells in plants, animals and humans take part in cellular respiration in one form or another. Cellular respiration is a three-step process. In step one, the cytoplasm of the cell breaks down glucose in a process called glycolysis, producing two pyruvate molecules from one glucose molecule and releasing a bit of ATP. In the second step, the cell transports the pyruvate molecules into the mitochondria, the energy center of the cells, without using oxygen, This is known as anaerobic respiration. The third step of cellular respiration involves oxygen and is called aerobic respiration, in which the food energy enters an electron transport chain where it produces ATP.
Cellular respiration in plants is essentially the opposite of photosynthesis. Living creatures breathe in oxygen and release carbon dioxide as a byproduct. A plant uses the carbon dioxide exhaled by animals and humans in combination with the sun's energy during cellular respiration to produce the food that it requires. Plants eventually release oxygen back into the atmosphere, resulting in a symbiotic relationship between plants, animals and humans.
While most plants use photosynthesis to produce energy, there are some that are non-photosynthetic. Plants that do not use photosynthesis to produce food are usually parasitic, which means they rely on a host for nutrient generation. Examples include Indian pipe ( Monotropa uniflora ) – also known as the ghost or corpse plant – and beechdrops ( Epifagus americana ), which steals nutrients found in beech tree roots. The Indian pipe plant is a ghostly white color because it contains no chlorophyll. Plants in the fungi kingdom – mushrooms, molds and yeasts – rely on their environment for food instead of photosynthesis.
What is the sun's role in photosynthesis, what provides electrons for the light reactions, how do plants store energy during photosynthesis, organelles involved in photosynthesis, is the krebs cycle aerobic or anaerobic, structural characteristics of blue-green algae, what are the functions of photosynthesis, key differences between c3, c4 and cam photosynthesis, how do plants make their own food, what is produced as a result of photosynthesis, what is the photosynthesis equation, the structure of a eukaryotic cell, what is the role of pigments in photosynthesis, how are photosynthesis & cellular respiration related, difference between heterotrophs & autotrophs, what are the reactants of photosynthesis, why are cells important for living organisms, what are the five subdivisions of kingdoms.
About the Author
As a journalist and editor for several years, Laurie Brenner has covered many topics in her writings, but science is one of her first loves. Her stint as Manager of the California State Mining and Mineral Museum in California's gold country served to deepen her interest in science which she now fulfills by writing for online science websites. Brenner is also a published sci-fi author. She graduated from San Diego's Coleman College in 1972.
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In chemical terms, photosynthesis is a light-energized oxidation-reduction process. (Oxidation refers to the removal of electrons from a molecule; reduction refers to the gain of electrons by a molecule.) In plant photosynthesis, the energy of light is used to drive the oxidation of water (H 2 O), producing oxygen gas (O 2), hydrogen ions (H ...
250 Words Essay on Photosynthesis What is Photosynthesis? Photosynthesis is a process used by plants, algae, and some bacteria to turn sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into food and oxygen. Think of it like a recipe that plants use to make their own food. This happens in the leaves of plants, which have a green substance called chlorophyll.
The process. During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water (H 2 O) from the air and soil. Within the plant cell, the water is oxidized, meaning it loses electrons, while the carbon dioxide is reduced, meaning it gains electrons. This transforms the water into oxygen and the carbon dioxide into glucose.
Essays Biochem (2016) 60 (3): 255-273. Photosynthesis sustains virtually all life on planet Earth providing the oxygen we breathe and the food we eat; it forms the basis of global food chains and meets the majority of humankind's current energy needs through fossilized photosynthetic fuels.
Both processes are required to support the being of plants and animals. Photosynthesis as a Biological Process. During the process water from the soil is taken up by the roots all the way to the leaves via the xylem. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts. 186 writers online.
Photosynthesis (/ ˌfoʊtəˈsɪnθəsɪs / FOH-tə-SINTH-ə-sis) [ 1 ] is a system of biological processes by which photosynthetic organisms, such as most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, convert light energy, typically from sunlight, into the chemical energy necessary to fuel their metabolism.
Photosynthesis Equation. 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + Light -> C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 + 6 H 2 O. Above is the overall reaction for photosynthesis. Using the energy from light and the hydrogens and electrons from water, the plant combines the carbons found in carbon dioxide into more complex molecules. While a 3-carbon molecule is the direct result of ...
The process of. photosynthesis in plants is based on two reactions that are carried out by separate parts. of the chloroplast. The light reactions occur in the chloroplast thylakoid membrane and ...
Course: AP®︎/College Biology > Unit 3. Lesson 4: Photosynthesis. Photosynthesis. Intro to photosynthesis. Breaking down photosynthesis stages. Conceptual overview of light dependent reactions. The light-dependent reactions. The Calvin cycle. Photosynthesis evolution.
It is the main event in light reactions of photosynthesis. The function of light reactions is two fold —. (1) The photochemical splitting of water provides hydrogen atoms for the reduction of CO 2, and. (2) Producing of ATP which provides energy for the subsequent synthesis of carbohydrates.
Introduction. Photosynthesis is the chemical reaction that sustains most life on Earth. Since the description of the Hill reaction and the Calvin-Benson cycle 1-3, knowledge about their components, regulation, and limitations experienced a vertiginous increase.It is widely known that plants have important handicaps related to photosynthesis.
The whole process of photosynthesis is a transfer of energy from the Sun to a plant. In each sugar molecule created, there is a little bit of the energy from the Sun, which the plant can either use or store for later. Imagine a pea plant. If that pea plant is forming new pods, it requires a large amount of sugar energy to grow larger.
Note that the above global equation of photosynthesis emphasizes that the oxygen molecules released into the atmosphere originate from water oxidation, not from carbon dioxide, as established using 18 O-labelled water (Ruben et al., 1941).. This process starts in the thylakoid membrane (TM) with two light reactions taking place simultaneously at photosystem (PS) II and PSI reaction centres ...
Course: Middle school biology > Unit 5. Lesson 1: Photosynthesis in ecosystems. Photosynthesis in ecosystems. Photosynthesis in ecosystems. Understand: photosynthesis in ecosystems.
Essay on Photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a biochemical process in which plant, algae, and some bacteria harness the energy of light to produce food. Nearly all living things depend on energy produced from photosynthesis for their nourishment, making it vital to life on Earth. It is also responsible for producing the oxygen that makes up a ...
704 Words. 3 Pages. Open Document. Photosynthesis. Photosynthesis produces energy in the form of glucose it uses water from the soil, carbon dioxide from the air, and energy from the suns light. Photosynthesis takes place in all plants that contain chlorophyll. Photosynthesis mainly takes place in the palisade mesophyll cell in the leaves of ...
ADVERTISEMENTS: In this essay we will discuss about Photosynthesis in Plants. After reading this essay you will learn about: 1. Meaning of Photosynthesis 2. Significance of Photosynthesis to Mankind 3. History 4. Photosynthetic Apparatus 5. Pigments 6. Quantum Requirement and Quantum Yield 7. Mechanism 8. Evidences for Existence of Light and Dark Reactions 9. Source […]
Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of all of humankind's food and oxygen, whereas fossilized photosynthetic fuels provide ∼87% of the world's energy. It is the biochemical process that sustains the biosphere as the basis for the food chain. The oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis allowed the formation of the ozone layer, the ...
Photosynthesis Essay Example. Plants use two processes to make food for themselves. They are photosynthesis and cellular respiration. One is used during day and one is used during night. Calvin's explanation of when plants use these processes is that photosynthesis occurs when it is light, and cellular respiration occurs when it is dark.
During photosynthesis, a chemical change occurs in chloroplasts, and plants turn carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) into glucose and oxygen (O2). Cellular respiration occurs in EVERY LIVING CELL. Without it, plants would not have access to the energy in the sugar (glucose). Without energy, life cannot be maintained.
Photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process by which phototrophs convert light energy into chemical energy, which is later used to fuel cellular activities. The chemical energy is stored in the form of sugars, which are created from water and carbon dioxide. 3,12,343.
By Laurie Brenner. Photosynthesis is important to living organisms because it is the number one source of oxygen in the atmosphere. Without photosynthesis, the carbon cycle could not occur, oxygen-requiring life would not survive and plants would die. Green plants and trees use photosynthesis to make food from sunlight, carbon dioxide and water ...