mississippi river case study gcse

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• IGCSE Geography Revision Notes >
• Theme 2: Natural Environment

River Case Study: The Mississippi

• –  Length – 3,800 km
• –  Width – Flood Plain is 200 km wide at its widest point
• –  Releases 600 million tonnes of sediment of load each year (into the sea and along its course)
• –  Flows through 10 states
• –  Carries 13% of all freight traffic in the USA

1. What Economic Opportunities are Offered by The River Mississippi?

–  11 million tourists each year in the upper reaches of river

–  tourism contributes $1.2 Billion to the economy each year

–  Sports Fishing – $100 milling, Waterfowl hunting – $58 million

–  29 power plants provide energy to vast array of factories and homes

–  Water from river used for cooling in 80% of Energy Production Facilities

–  Silt deposits formed on huge flood plains made area around the river among the most fertile

regions of the USA (sugar canes, rice, tobacco, and cotton plantations)

–  River provides main transport routes for exports around the world

–  Today over 100 million of commodities transported down the river every year (including 56%

of the nation’s corn, and 41% of soybean exports)

2. What problems/hazards are Presented by the Mississippi?

–  Despite efforts there has been major floods over the last 50 years

–  Particularly severe flood in 1993 (see below)

–  Many people live along the river’s flood plains

–  Many scientists have argued that overflowing in a natural part of the river, and should be left to

happen (prevention measures should be abandoned)

–  One of the worst areas of flooding is the point when the rivers enters its delta at the Gulf of

Mexico and spreads through distributaries e.g.  Hurricane Katrina storm surge at the mouth of the Mississippi in New Orleans

–  Careful management is needed to stop the build-up of sediments causing even more floods

–  The river’s length of 3,800 km means that it’s very difficult to prevent flooding

– needs constant dredging to allow for ship traffic

Great flood of 1993”

• Between April and October 1993
• 30,000 square miles flooded
• Affected both the Missouri river (tributary of Mississippi) and Mississippi basins
• Caused by a series of storms with heavy rainfall (less time to absorb into the soil or  infiltrate) throughout period, in some places 750% more rainfall than usual with  rainfall amounts of (125 to 175 mm) in 24 hours
• Lower than average temperatures (less evaporation)
• By the beginning of June the ground was already saturated meaning that continued rainfall went straight into river systems
• St. Louis, river levels were nearly 20 feet (6 m) above flood stage.
• 700 privately built agricultural levees were overtopped or destroyed along the Missouri River.
• Navigation on the Mississippi and Missouri River had been closed since early July resulting in a loss of $2 million (1993) per day in commerce.
• Approximately 100,000 homes were destroyed as a result of the flooding, 15 million acres (60,000 km²) of farmland inundated
• 32 people died
• Approximately $15–20 billion in damages
• River levels breached levees and floodwalls (levees)

3. What Managements/Solutions Have Been Tried/Planned for The River?

https://www.bbc.co.uk/education/clips/z3bqxnb

Dams, spillways, artificially strengthened levees, river straightening, flood warning systems, afforestation

– 6 dams along the Missouri, 1600 km chain of 105 reservoirs: these hold back water until river levels have lowered and can manage more water

–  9 dams have been built along the Tennessee river (also a tributary)  

– Afforestation in the upper Mississippi drainage basin system: planting of trees increases interception and increases lag time

– The Bonnet Carré floodway (9 km long spillway) diverts excess water from the Mississippi, 50km north of New Orleans

– River straightening e.g. one  530 km stretch of river has been shortened by almost 300 km by cutting through meanders. This increases the gradient and speed with which flood waters can be carried away.

– Reinforced levees using concrete blocks: success in St Louis in 1993 as river levels almost reached the full height of levee but it just managed to hold them back.

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Rivers: Case study of the Mississippi Floods, 1993

Use our dedicated case study to learn in-depth about the Mississippi Floods, April to October 1993.

• KEY CONCEPTS
• FLOOD MANAGEMENT

Introduction

The Mississippi river drains an area of nearly 3 million square kilometres and is the fifth largest river basin in the world. It provides a good case study as there are a range of human and physical causes, huge impacts of flooding and some good examples of effective action taken as a result. The river floodplain is up to 200km wide in the middle stages of the river’s course and as you would expect, there has been a lot of development of the area with much urbanisation taking place. The river has been managed for many years by hard and soft engineering techniques, channel straightening has been used extensively and has reduce the length of the river by 150 miles for example. 

The flood was one of the worst in American history with dams bursting, levees being breached and the river remaining at a height above flood level for nearly 150 days. In total, nearly 78,000 square kilometres of land were flooded. 

Background essays

Mississippi Flood 1993: Case Study

The Mississippi River, located in North America, begins in Lake Itasca, Minnesota and flows south...

Physical causes:

High rainfall  towards the back end of 1992 meant that the soil in the basin was holding more water than usual and in many parts the  ground  was completely  saturated . The soil’s capacity to hold water was therefore very low. There was more  snow  that usual in the winter from later 1992 to 1993, this built up stores of water that potentially would enter the river during the  snowmelt  season. From the late spring there were a large number of  storms  and the area suffered  persistent   rainfall . As much of the ground was  saturated  and the  water table was high , water entered the river channels very quickly as surface run-off or overland flow. There were huge amounts of rainfall in 24 hour periods across the basin, up to 180mm was not uncommon. Many areas of the basin experienced up to 6 times the usual amount of precipitation. Heavy rainfall in the highest reaches of the snow covered areas of the basin accelerated snowmelt and this had a huge impact on the volume of water entering the channel. 

Human Causes:

Shortening  of the river’s channel by  150 miles  over many years had a cumulative effect of pushing water downstream more quickly, especially during times of peak flow. Extensive  dredging  had taken place to keep the channel sediment free to improve navigation, the river is a significant part of the transport infrastructure of the USA. 75% of the wetland areas of the river basin had been urbanised impacting on the time taken for water to enter the river system. The wetlands ability to act as a store and release the water slowly into streams and rivers was virtually destroyed. Once flood warning were issued and areas were advised to be evacuated, many people thought that they were not at risk because there were so many protection measures in place. Once the river did flood then there was more damage and danger to people who had stayed in their homes and businesses. 

Essays on the causes 

'The 1993 Mississippi floods were caused by hard river engineering'. Discuss this statement.

The 1993 Mississippi Flood Report.

Socio-economic

The flood cost an estimated US $15 billion dollars in damages and over 800,000km2 were affected. 30,000 people had no clean water supply until it could be restored by engineers, 72,000 homes were flooded and close to 48,000 were evacuated from their homes. 45 people died as a direct result of the flood. 

Flood defences were destroyed completely or damaged. Farmers lost an estimated US $2.5 billion of crops. Much of the flooded farmland was rendered useless for years after the event as it was so badly affected. Infrastructure was seriously affected with roads, bridges, railway and of course river traffic affected. This had a knock on effect to the economy as close to 10,000 were made jobless as a result of their place of work being destroyed. 

Environmental

There was a huge loss of natural habitat and wetland areas which were important breeding grounds for bird and animal life having a long term effect on the ecosystem and biodiversity. The habitat for fauna that lives in the water improved due to increased areas of protection and shelter (much like a shipwreck in the sea provides a haven for marine life). Wildlife did have to contend with contaminated water though as chemicals from farms, stores and industry were dissolved into the floodwater. This also affected human drinking water supply. 

After the initial flooding there was a lot of standing and stagnant water which attracted insects including mosquitoes, and rats were a problem in some areas. 

Flood management since 1993

Since the flooding subsided the US government prioritised the management of the area affected and much engineering has taken place to try and reduce the risk of future flooding. The 6 very large dams built along the Mississippi’s main channel have been added to by building more on the tributaries. There are 9 dams on the Tennessee (a major tributary of the Mississippi) and a further ten on its own tributaries. 

A series of 105 reservoirs have been linked to control the risk of flooding by controlling the flow of water through them. 

Afforestation has been prominent in some areas to slow down the rate at which precipitation or snowmelt enters the channel system. 

Although straightening and shortening of the river added to the problems of the 1993 flooding, more of this has been done and engineers have learned from previous experience. Levees have been reinforced with concrete rather than more natural and weaker methods (soil for example) and raised to more than the level of the 1993 flood waters. These levees provide protection for 1000’s of settlements along the Mississippi’s course. 

Essays on the impact

Flooding on the Mississippi

River Management Case Study on The Mississippi.

Rivers Case Study: The Mississippi

The mississippi river.

The Mississippi River is one of the world’s largest drainage systems but is only half the length of the Nile.

• The Mississippi flows through the centre of the USA for 3,734 km.
• It is the second longest river in North America.

Source and mouth

• The source (start of the river) is found at Lake Itasca in Minnesota, America.
• The river flows through Mexico where its mouth reaches the Gulf of Mexico.

• The Mississippi River was famously known for moving slaves across the USA during the slave trade.

1 Geography Skills

1.1 Mapping

1.1.1 Map Making

1.1.2 OS Maps

1.1.3 Grid References

1.1.4 Contour Lines

1.1.5 Symbols, Scale and Distance

1.1.6 Directions on Maps

1.1.7 Describing Routes

1.1.8 Map Projections

1.1.9 Aerial & Satellite Images

1.1.10 Using Maps to Make Decisions

1.2 Geographical Information Systems

1.2.1 Geographical Information Systems

1.2.2 How do Geographical Information Systems Work?

1.2.3 Using Geographical Information Systems

1.2.4 End of Topic Test - Geography Skills

2 Geology of the UK

2.1 The UK's Rocks

2.1.1 The UK's Main Rock Types

2.1.2 The UK's Landscape

2.1.3 Using Rocks

2.1.4 Weathering

2.2 Case Study: The Peak District

2.2.1 The Peak District

2.2.2 Limestone Landforms

2.2.3 Quarrying

3 Geography of the World

3.1 Geography of America & Europe

3.1.1 North America

3.1.2 South America

3.1.3 Europe

3.1.4 The European Union

3.1.5 The Continents

3.1.6 The Oceans

3.1.7 Longitude

3.1.8 Latitude

3.1.9 End of Topic Test - Geography of the World

4 Development

4.1 Development

4.1.1 Classifying Development

4.1.3 Evaluation of GDP

4.1.4 The Human Development Index

4.1.5 Population Structure

4.1.6 Developing Countries

4.1.7 Emerging Countries

4.1.8 Developed Countries

4.1.9 Comparing Development

4.2 Uneven Development

4.2.1 Consequences of Uneven Development

4.2.2 Physical Factors Affecting Development

4.2.3 Historic Factors Affecting Development

4.2.4 Human & Social Factors Affecting Development

4.2.5 Breaking Out of the Poverty Cycle

4.3 Case Study: Democratic Republic of Congo

4.3.1 The DRC: An Overview

4.3.2 Political & Social Factors Affecting Development

4.3.3 Environmental Factors Affecting the DRC

4.3.4 The DRC: Aid

4.3.5 The Pros & Cons of Aid in DRC

4.3.6 Top-Down vs Bottom-Up in DRC

4.3.7 The DRC: Comparison with the UK

4.3.8 The DRC: Against Malaria Foundation

4.4 Case Study: Nigeria

4.4.1 The Importance & Development of Nigeria

4.4.2 Nigeria's Relationships with the Rest of the World

4.4.3 Urban Growth in Lagos

4.4.4 Population Growth in Lagos

4.4.5 Factors influencing Nigeria's Growth

4.4.6 Nigeria: Comparison with the UK

5 Weather & Climate

5.1 Weather

5.1.1 Weather & Climate

5.1.2 Components of Weather

5.1.3 Temperature

5.1.4 Sunshine, Humidity & Air Pressure

5.1.5 Cloud Cover

5.1.6 Precipitation

5.1.7 Convectional Precipitation

5.1.8 Frontal Precipitation

5.1.9 Relief or Orographic Precipitation

5.1.10 Wind

5.1.11 Extreme Wind

5.1.12 Recording the Weather

5.1.13 Extreme Weather

5.2 Climate

5.2.1 Climate of the British Isles

5.2.2 Comparing Weather & Climate London

5.2.3 Climate of the Tropical Rainforest

5.2.4 End of Topic Test - Weather & Climate

5.3 Tropical Storms

5.3.1 Formation of Tropical Storms

5.3.2 Features of Tropical Storms

5.3.3 The Structure of Tropical Storms

5.3.4 Tropical Storms Case Study: Katrina Effects

5.3.5 Tropical Storms Case Study: Katrina Responses

6 The World of Work

6.1 Tourism

6.1.1 Landscapes

6.1.2 The Growth of Tourism

6.1.3 Benefits of Tourism

6.1.4 Economic Costs of Tourism

6.1.5 Social, Cultural & Environmental Costs of Tourism

6.1.6 Tourism Case Study: Blackpool

6.1.7 Ecotourism

6.1.8 Tourism Case Study: Kenya

7 Natural Resources

7.1.1 What are Rocks?

7.1.2 Types of Rock

7.1.4 The Rock Cycle - Weathering

7.1.5 The Rock Cycle - Erosion

7.1.6 What is Soil?

7.1.7 Soil Profiles

7.1.8 Water

7.1.9 Global Water Demand

7.2 Fossil Fuels

7.2.1 Introduction to Fossil Fuels

7.2.2 Fossil Fuels

7.2.3 The Global Energy Supply

7.2.5 What is Peak Oil?

7.2.6 End of Topic Test - Natural Resources

8.1 River Processes & Landforms

8.1.1 Overview of Rivers

8.1.2 The Bradshaw Model

8.1.3 Erosion

8.1.4 Sediment Transport

8.1.5 River Deposition

8.1.6 River Profiles: Long Profiles

8.1.7 River Profiles: Cross Profiles

8.1.8 Waterfalls & Gorges

8.1.9 Interlocking Spurs

8.1.10 Meanders

8.1.11 Floodplains

8.1.12 Levees

8.1.13 Case Study: River Tees

8.2 Rivers & Flooding

8.2.1 Flood Risk Factors

8.2.2 Flood Management: Hard Engineering

8.2.3 Flood Management: Soft Engineering

8.2.4 Flooding Case Study: Boscastle

8.2.5 Flooding Case Study: Consequences of Boscastle

8.2.6 Flooding Case Study: Responses to Boscastle

8.2.7 Flooding Case Study: Bangladesh

8.2.8 End of Topic Test - Rivers

8.2.9 Rivers Case Study: The Nile

8.2.10 Rivers Case Study: The Mississippi

9.1 Formation of Coastal Landforms

9.1.1 Weathering

9.1.2 Erosion

9.1.3 Headlands & Bays

9.1.4 Caves, Arches & Stacks

9.1.5 Wave-Cut Platforms & Cliffs

9.1.6 Waves

9.1.7 Longshore Drift

9.1.8 Coastal Deposition

9.1.9 Spits, Bars & Sand Dunes

9.2 Coast Management

9.2.1 Management Strategies for Coastal Erosion

9.2.2 Case Study: The Holderness Coast

9.2.3 Case Study: Lyme Regis

9.2.4 End of Topic Test - Coasts

10 Glaciers

10.1 Overview of Glaciers & How They Work

10.1.1 Distribution of Glaciers

10.1.2 Types of Glaciers

10.1.3 The Last Ice Age

10.1.4 Formation & Movement of Glaciers

10.1.5 Shaping of Landscapes by Glaciers

10.1.6 Glacial Landforms Created by Erosion

10.1.7 Glacial Till & Outwash Plain

10.1.8 Moraines

10.1.9 Drumlins & Erratics

10.1.10 End of Topic Tests - Glaciers

10.1.11 Tourism in Glacial Landscapes

10.1.12 Strategies for Coping with Tourists

10.1.13 Case Study - Lake District: Tourism

10.1.14 Case Study - Lake District: Management

11 Tectonics

11.1 Continental Drift & Plate Tectonics

11.1.1 The Theory of Plate Tectonics

11.1.2 The Structure of the Earth

11.1.3 Tectonic Plates

11.1.4 Plate Margins

11.2 Volcanoes

11.2.1 Volcanoes & Their Products

11.2.2 The Development of Volcanoes

11.2.3 Living Near Volcanoes

11.3 Earthquakes

11.3.1 Overview of Earthquakes

11.3.2 Consequences of Earthquakes

11.3.3 Case Study: Christchurch, New Zealand Earthquake

11.4 Tsunamis

11.4.1 Formation of Tsunamis

11.4.2 Case Study: Japan 2010 Tsunami

11.5 Managing the Risk of Volcanoes & Earthquakes

11.5.1 Coping With Earthquakes & Volcanoes

11.5.2 End of Topic Test - Tectonics

12 Climate Change

12.1 The Causes & Consequences of Climate Change

12.1.1 Evidence for Climate Change

12.1.2 Natural Causes of Climate Change

12.1.3 Human Causes of Climate Change

12.1.4 The Greenhouse Effect

12.1.5 Effects of Climate Change on the Environment

12.1.6 Effects of Climate Change on People

12.1.7 Climate Change Predictions

12.1.8 Uncertainty About Future Climate Change

12.1.9 Mitigating Against Climate Change

12.1.10 Adapting to Climate Change

12.1.11 Case Study: Bangladesh

13 Global Population & Inequality

13.1 Global Populations

13.1.1 World Population

13.1.2 Population Structure

13.1.3 Ageing Populations

13.1.4 Youthful Populations

13.1.5 Population Control

13.1.6 Mexico to USA Migration

13.1.7 End of Topic Test - Development & Population

14 Urbanisation

14.1 Urbanisation

14.1.1 Rural Characterisitcs

14.1.2 Urban Characteristics

14.1.3 Urbanisation Growth

14.1.4 The Land Use Model

14.1.5 Rural-Urban Pull Factors

14.1.6 Rural-Urban Push Factors

14.1.7 The Impacts of Migration

14.1.8 Challenges of Urban Areas in Developed Countries

14.1.9 Challenges of Urban Areas in Developing Countries

14.1.10 Urban Sustainability

14.1.11 Case Study: China's Urbanisation

14.1.12 Major UK Cities

14.1.13 Urbanisation in the UK

14.1.14 End of Topic Test- Urbanisation

14.1.15 End of Topic Test - Urban Issues

15 Ecosystems

15.1 The Major Biomes

15.1.1 Distribution of Major Biomes

15.1.2 What Affects the Distribution of Biomes?

15.1.3 Biome Features: Tropical Forests

15.1.4 Biome Features: Temperate Forests

15.1.5 Biome Features: Tundra

15.1.6 Biome Features: Deserts

15.1.7 Biome Features: Tropical Grasslands

15.1.8 Biome Features: Temperate Grasslands

15.2 Case Study: The Amazon Rainforest

15.2.1 Interdependence of Rainforest Ecosystems

15.2.2 Nutrient Cycling in Tropical Rainforests

15.2.3 Deforestation in the Amazon

15.2.4 Impacts of Deforestation in the Amazon

15.2.5 Protecting the Amazon

15.2.6 Adaptations of Plants to Rainforests

15.2.7 Adaptations of Animals to Rainforests

16 Life in an Emerging Country

16.1 Case Studies

16.1.1 Mumbai: Opportunities

16.1.2 Mumbai: Challenges

17 Analysis of Africa

17.1 Africa

17.1.1 Desert Biomes in Africa

17.1.2 The Semi-Desert Biome

17.1.3 The Savanna Biome

17.1.4 Overview of Tropical Rainforests

17.1.5 Colonisation History

17.1.6 Population Distribution in Africa

17.1.7 Economic Resources in Africa

17.1.8 Urbanisation in Africa

17.1.9 Africa's Location

17.1.10 Physical Geography of Africa

17.1.11 Desertification in Africa

17.1.12 Reducing the Risk of Desertification

17.1.13 Case Study: The Sahara Desert - Opportunities

17.1.14 Case Study: The Sahara Desert - Development

18 Analysis of India

18.1 India - Physical Geography

18.1.1 Geographical Location of India

18.1.2 Physical Geography of India

18.1.3 India's Climate

18.1.4 Natural Disasters in India

18.1.5 Case Study: The Thar Desert

18.1.6 Case Study: The Thar Desert - Challenges

18.2 India - Human Geography

18.2.1 Population Distribution in India

18.2.2 Urabinsation in India

18.2.3 The History of India

18.2.4 Economic Resources in India

19 Analysis of the Middle East

19.1 The Middle East

19.1.1 Physical Geography of the Middle East

19.1.2 Human Geography of the Middle East

19.1.3 Climate Zones in the Middle East

19.1.4 Climate Comparison with the UK

19.1.5 Oil & Natural Gas in the Middle East

19.1.6 Water in the Middle East

19.1.7 Population of the Middle East

19.1.8 Development Case Studies: The UAE

19.1.9 Development Case Studies: Yemen

19.1.10 Supporting Development in Yemen

19.1.11 Connection to the UK

19.1.12 Importance of Oil

19.1.13 Oil & Tourism in the UAE

20 Analysis of Bangladesh

20.1 Bangladesh Physical Geography

20.1.1 Location of Bangladesh

20.1.2 Climate of Bangladesh

20.1.3 Rivers in Bangladesh

20.1.4 Flooding in Bangladesh

20.2 Bangladesh Human Geography

20.2.1 Population Structure in Bangladesh

20.2.2 Urbanisation in Bangladesh

20.2.3 Bangladesh's Economy

20.2.4 Energy & Sustainability in Bangladesh

21 Analysis of Russia

21.1 Russia's Physical Geography

21.1.1 Russia's Climate

21.1.2 Russia's Landscape

21.2 Russia's Human Geography

21.2.1 Population of Russia

21.2.2 Russia's Economy

21.2.3 Energy & Sustainability in Russia

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Rivers Case Study: The Nile

The Mississippi River

• The Mississippi has a high flood risk because:
• It has over 100 tributaries.
• Its drainage basin covers 1/3 of the USA and some of Canada.
• Heavy rain in April 1993 saturated the upper basin so storms through June and July caused a large amount of surface run-off.
• An area of land the size of Britain was flooded.
• Road bridges had to be closed.
• 43 lives were lost and a lot of property was destroyed there were 50,000 evacuees.
• Long term effects included the fact that the water didn't go away quickly and it was still draining off the land months later.
• Sewage had been washed with the water so their was a great risk of disease.
• It took moths to clean out houses and offices.
• Stagnant water attracted mosquitoes and rats.
• Human activity: dams, no water could penetrate through the soil because of buildings and concrete.

Reducing the risk of flooding:

• Dams have been added to make large lakes.
• Strengthen the levees.
• Afforestation - trees are planted to slow down surface run-off.

Agricultural pollution

Disease: cholera, hydrographs, levees and flood plains, managing water supplies.

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Mississippi flood Case Study

• Created by: OrlaghMarie
• Created on: 06-05-14 17:55

Mississippi - the Facts

The river basin is the fifth largest in the world

It is the third longest river in the world behind the Nile & the Amazon

The river discharges 584 million tonnes of sediment a year

The flood plain is 200km wide at its widest point

The Mississippi flows through 10 states

The river carries 13% of all freight traffic in the USA

Its main tributaries are the R. Ohio,  R. Kansas, R. Missouri & the Red River

The Causes of the 1993 Flood

Floods are normal in the mid-west - usually arriving in the spring when rain and snowmelt fill the streams & rivers that drain the upper Mississippi Basin

In 1993 as normal this happened - the soil was still saturated from spring rains. Normally this is followed by dry weather &has done so for the last 20 years

In 1993 Atmospheric conditions conspired to bring further torrential rains to the Mississippi Basin

a. A Jet stream swung South bringing Cool dry air b. Warm air moved North causing …

• Water and rivers

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